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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_efforts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Early efforts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_efforts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_Works_Administration_(PWA)_Housing_Division" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_Works_Administration_(PWA)_Housing_Division"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Public Works Administration (PWA) Housing Division</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_Works_Administration_(PWA)_Housing_Division-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Housing_Act_of_1937" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Housing_Act_of_1937"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Housing Act of 1937</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Housing_Act_of_1937-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_II_Era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_II_Era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>World War II Era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_II_Era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Housing_Act_of_1949" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Housing_Act_of_1949"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Housing Act of 1949</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Housing_Act_of_1949-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Housing_in_the_1960s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Housing_in_the_1960s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Housing in the 1960s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Housing_in_the_1960s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Housing_and_Urban_Development_Act_of_1965" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Housing_and_Urban_Development_Act_of_1965"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6.1</span> <span>Housing and Urban Development Act of 1965</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Housing_and_Urban_Development_Act_of_1965-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Housing_and_Urban_Development_Act_of_1968" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Housing_and_Urban_Development_Act_of_1968"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6.2</span> <span>Housing and Urban Development Act of 1968</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Housing_and_Urban_Development_Act_of_1968-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Housing_in_the_1970s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Housing_in_the_1970s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>Housing in the 1970s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Housing_in_the_1970s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Experimental_Housing_Allowance_Program" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Experimental_Housing_Allowance_Program"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7.1</span> <span>Experimental Housing Allowance Program</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Experimental_Housing_Allowance_Program-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Housing_moratorium" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Housing_moratorium"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7.2</span> <span>Housing moratorium</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Housing_moratorium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Housing_and_Community_Development_Act_of_1974" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Housing_and_Community_Development_Act_of_1974"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7.3</span> <span>Housing and Community Development Act of 1974</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Housing_and_Community_Development_Act_of_1974-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Housing_in_the_1980s-1990s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Housing_in_the_1980s-1990s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.8</span> <span>Housing in the 1980s-1990s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Housing_in_the_1980s-1990s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Social issues</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Social_issues-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Social issues subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Social_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Concentrated_poverty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Concentrated_poverty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Concentrated poverty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Concentrated_poverty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Racial_segregation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Racial_segregation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Racial segregation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Racial_segregation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Health_and_safety" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health_and_safety"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Health and safety</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Health_and_safety-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_perception" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_perception"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Public perception</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_perception-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alternative_models" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alternative_models"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Alternative models</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Alternative_models-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Alternative models subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Alternative_models-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Scattered-site_housing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scattered-site_housing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Scattered-site housing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scattered-site_housing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Background" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Background"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Background</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_policy_and_implications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_policy_and_implications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Public policy and implications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_policy_and_implications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vouchers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vouchers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Vouchers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vouchers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hope_VI" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hope_VI"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Hope VI</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hope_VI-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-City_programs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#City_programs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>City programs</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-City_programs-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle City programs subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-City_programs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Chicago" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chicago"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Chicago</span> </div> </a> <ul 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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Subsidized housing in the United States</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Housing" title="Category:Housing">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:175%;padding:0 0.2em 0.4em;"><a href="/wiki/Housing" title="Housing">Living spaces</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding:0 0 1.0em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Noto_Emoji_v2.034_1f3e0.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Noto_Emoji_v2.034_1f3e0.svg/50px-Noto_Emoji_v2.034_1f3e0.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Noto_Emoji_v2.034_1f3e0.svg/75px-Noto_Emoji_v2.034_1f3e0.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Noto_Emoji_v2.034_1f3e0.svg/100px-Noto_Emoji_v2.034_1f3e0.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Main</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/House" title="House">House</a>: <a href="/wiki/Single-family_detached_home" title="Single-family detached home">detached</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Semi-detached" title="Semi-detached">semi-detached</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Terraced_house" title="Terraced house">terraced</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Apartment" title="Apartment">Apartment</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Bungalow" title="Bungalow">Bungalow</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Cottage" title="Cottage">Cottage</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ecohouse" title="Ecohouse">Ecohouse</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Green_home" title="Green home">Green home</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Public_housing" title="Public housing">Housing project</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Human_outpost" title="Human outpost">Human outpost</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/I-house" title="I-house">I-house</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ranch" title="Ranch">Ranch</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Tenement" title="Tenement">Tenement</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Condominium" title="Condominium">Condominium</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Mixed-use_development" title="Mixed-use development">Mixed-use development</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Hotel" title="Hotel">Hotel</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Hostel" title="Hostel">Hostel</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Castle" title="Castle">Castle</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Public_housing" title="Public housing">Public housing</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Squatting" title="Squatting">Squat</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Flophouse" title="Flophouse">Flophouse</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Shack" title="Shack">Shack</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Slum" title="Slum">Slum</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Shanty_town" title="Shanty town">Shanty town</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Villa" title="Villa">Villa</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Issues</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affordable_housing" title="Affordable housing">Affordability</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Affordable_housing_in_the_United_States" title="Affordable housing in the United States">Affordability in the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Executive_home" title="Executive home">Executive housing</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Environmentally_friendly" title="Environmentally friendly">Environmental:</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_design" title="Environmental design">design</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_planning" title="Environmental planning">planning</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_racism" title="Environmental racism">racism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_security" title="Environmental security">Environmental security</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Eviction" title="Eviction">Eviction</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Housing_discrimination_in_the_United_States" title="Housing discrimination in the United States">Fair housing</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Healthy_building" title="Healthy building">Healthiness</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness" title="Homelessness">Homelessness</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Housing_crisis" title="Housing crisis">Housing crisis</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Housing_discrimination" title="Housing discrimination">Housing discrimination</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Housing_stress" title="Housing stress">Housing stress</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Human_overpopulation" title="Human overpopulation">Overpopulation</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Housing_inequality" title="Housing inequality">Housing inequality</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Owner-occupancy" title="Owner-occupancy">Home ownership</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Luxury_apartment" title="Luxury apartment">Luxury apartments</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Equity_(finance)" title="Equity (finance)">Ownership equity</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Planning_permission" title="Planning permission">Permit</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Renting" title="Renting">Rent</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Subprime_lending" title="Subprime lending">Subprime lending</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Subsidized_housing" title="Subsidized housing">Subsidized housing</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">Sustainable:</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_architecture" title="Sustainable architecture">architecture</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_development" title="Sustainable development">development</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_living" title="Sustainable living">living</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_city" title="Sustainable city">Sustainable city</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_hotspot" title="Toxic hotspot">Toxic hotspot</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Vagrancy" title="Vagrancy">Vagrancy</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Society and politics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Housing_First" title="Housing First">Housing First</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Subsidized_housing" title="Subsidized housing">Housing subsidy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/NIMBY" title="NIMBY">NIMBY</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Rapid_Re-Housing" title="Rapid Re-Housing">Rapid Re-Housing</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Real_estate_appraisal" title="Real estate appraisal">Real estate appraisal</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Real_estate_bubble" class="mw-redirect" title="Real estate bubble">Real estate bubble</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Real_estate_economics" title="Real estate economics">Real estate economics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Real_estate_investing" title="Real estate investing">Real estate investing</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">Redlining</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Rent_regulation" title="Rent regulation">Rent regulation</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_housing" title="Right to housing">Right to housing</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Rent_regulation" title="Rent regulation">Rent control</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Rent_strike" title="Rent strike">Rent strike</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Tenants_union" title="Tenants union">Tenants union</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/YIMBY_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="YIMBY movement">YIMBY</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Other</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_lifestyle" title="Alternative lifestyle">Alternative lifestyle</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Assisted_living" title="Assisted living">Assisted living</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Boomtown" title="Boomtown">Boomtown</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Cottage_homes" title="Cottage homes">Cottage homes</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Eco-cities" title="Eco-cities">Eco-cities</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ecovillage" title="Ecovillage">Ecovillage</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Foster_care" title="Foster care">Foster care</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Green_building" title="Green building">Green building</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Group_home" title="Group home">Group home</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Halfway_house" title="Halfway house">Halfway house</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Healthy_community_design" title="Healthy community design">Healthy community design</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Homeless_shelter" title="Homeless shelter">Homeless shelter</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Hospital" title="Hospital">Hospital</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Local_community" title="Local community">Local community</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Log_house" title="Log house">Log house</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_building" title="Natural building">Natural building</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Nursing_home" title="Nursing home">Nursing home</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Orphanage" title="Orphanage">Orphanage</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Prison" title="Prison">Prison</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Psychiatric_hospital" title="Psychiatric hospital">Psychiatric hospital</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Residential_care" title="Residential care">Residential care</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Residential_treatment_center" title="Residential treatment center">Residential treatment center</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Retirement_community" title="Retirement community">Retirement community</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Retirement_home" title="Retirement home">Retirement home</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Supportive_housing" title="Supportive housing">Supportive housing</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Supported_living" 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Living_spaces" title="Template:Living spaces"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Living_spaces" title="Template talk:Living spaces"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Living_spaces" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Living spaces"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2015%E2%80%932019_ACS_Median_gross_rents.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/2015%E2%80%932019_ACS_Median_gross_rents.png/300px-2015%E2%80%932019_ACS_Median_gross_rents.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/2015%E2%80%932019_ACS_Median_gross_rents.png/450px-2015%E2%80%932019_ACS_Median_gross_rents.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/2015%E2%80%932019_ACS_Median_gross_rents.png/600px-2015%E2%80%932019_ACS_Median_gross_rents.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1237" /></a><figcaption>Median gross rent by state from 2015 to 2019 <a href="/wiki/American_Community_Survey" title="American Community Survey">American Community Survey</a> estimates published by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau" title="United States Census Bureau">U.S. Census Bureau</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> States with median gross rents higher than the United States average are in dark green.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HylanHousesBushwickBK.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/HylanHousesBushwickBK.JPG/250px-HylanHousesBushwickBK.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/HylanHousesBushwickBK.JPG/375px-HylanHousesBushwickBK.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/HylanHousesBushwickBK.JPG/500px-HylanHousesBushwickBK.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>The 20-story <a href="/wiki/John_Francis_Hylan" title="John Francis Hylan">John F. Hylan</a> Houses in the <a href="/wiki/Bushwick,_Brooklyn" title="Bushwick, Brooklyn">Bushwick</a> neighborhood of <a href="/wiki/Brooklyn" title="Brooklyn">Brooklyn</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the United States, <a href="/wiki/Subsidized_housing" title="Subsidized housing">subsidized housing</a> is administered by federal, state and local agencies to provide <a href="/wiki/Subsidy" title="Subsidy">subsidized</a> rental assistance for <a href="/wiki/Low-income" class="mw-redirect" title="Low-income">low-income</a> households. <a href="/wiki/Public_housing" title="Public housing">Public housing</a> is priced much below the market rate, allowing people to live in more convenient locations rather than move away from the city in search of lower rents. In most federally-funded rental assistance programs, the tenants' monthly rent is set at 30% of their household income.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Now increasingly provided in a variety of settings and formats, originally public housing in the U.S. consisted primarily of one or more concentrated blocks of low-rise and/or high-rise apartment buildings. These complexes are operated by state and local housing authorities which are authorized and funded by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Housing_and_Urban_Development" title="United States Department of Housing and Urban Development">United States Department of Housing and Urban Development</a> (HUD). In 2020, there were one million public housing units.<sup id="cite_ref-Curbed_1_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Curbed_1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2022, about 5.2 million American households received some form of federal rental assistance.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Subsidized apartment buildings, often referred to as <i>housing projects</i> (or simply "the projects"),<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have a complicated and often notorious history in the United States. While the first decades of projects were built with higher construction standards and a broader range of incomes and same applicants, over time, public housing increasingly became the housing of last resort in many cities. Several reasons have been cited for this negative trend including the failure of Congress to provide sufficient funding, a lowering of standards for occupancy, and mismanagement at the local level. In the United States, the federal government provides funding for public housing from two different sources: the Capital Fund and the Operating Fund. According to the HUD, the Capital Fund subsidizes housing authorities to renovate and refurbish public housing developments; meanwhile, the Operating Fund provides funds to housing authorities in order to assist in maintenance and operating costs of public housing.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, housing projects have also been seen to greatly increase <a href="/wiki/Concentrated_poverty" title="Concentrated poverty">concentrated poverty</a> in a community, leading to several negative <a href="/wiki/Externality" title="Externality">externalities</a>. Crime, drug usage, and educational under-performance are all widely associated with housing projects, particularly in urban areas.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a result of their various problems and diminished political support, many of the traditional low-income public housing properties constructed in the earlier years of the program have been demolished. Beginning primarily in the 1970s the federal government turned to other approaches including the Project-Based <a href="/wiki/Section_8_(housing)" title="Section 8 (housing)">Section 8</a> program, Section 8 certificates, and the Housing Choice Voucher Program. In the 1990s the federal government accelerated the transformation of traditional public housing through HUD's <a href="/wiki/HOPE_VI" title="HOPE VI">HOPE VI</a> Program. Hope VI funds are used to tear down distressed public housing projects and replace them with mixed communities constructed in cooperation with private partners.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2012, Congress and HUD initiated a new program called the <a href="/wiki/Rental_Assistance_Demonstration" title="Rental Assistance Demonstration">Rental Assistance Demonstration</a> (RAD) program.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under the demonstration program, eligible public housing properties are redeveloped in conjunction with private developers and investors. </p><p>The federal government, through its <a href="/wiki/Low-Income_Housing_Tax_Credit" title="Low-Income Housing Tax Credit">Low-Income Housing Tax Credit</a> program (which in 2012 paid for construction of 90% of all subsidized rental housing in the US), spends $6 billion per year to finance 50,000 low-income rental units annually, with median costs per unit for new construction (2011–2015) ranging from $126,000 in <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a> to $326,000 in <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-GAO_2018_1_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GAO_2018_1-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CL_1_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CL_1-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PERAB_report_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PERAB_report-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Subsidized_housing_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_efforts">Early efforts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Subsidized_housing_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early efforts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jacob_Riis,_Lodgers_in_a_Crowded_Bayard_Street_Tenement.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Jacob_Riis%2C_Lodgers_in_a_Crowded_Bayard_Street_Tenement.jpg/250px-Jacob_Riis%2C_Lodgers_in_a_Crowded_Bayard_Street_Tenement.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Jacob_Riis%2C_Lodgers_in_a_Crowded_Bayard_Street_Tenement.jpg/375px-Jacob_Riis%2C_Lodgers_in_a_Crowded_Bayard_Street_Tenement.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Jacob_Riis%2C_Lodgers_in_a_Crowded_Bayard_Street_Tenement.jpg/500px-Jacob_Riis%2C_Lodgers_in_a_Crowded_Bayard_Street_Tenement.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3936" data-file-height="3018" /></a><figcaption>Photograph of New York City tenement lodgings by Jacob Riis for <a href="/wiki/How_the_Other_Half_Lives" title="How the Other Half Lives">How the Other Half Lives</a>, first published in 1890.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the 19th and early 20th centuries, government involvement in housing for the poor was chiefly in the area of building code enforcement, requiring new buildings to meet certain standards for decent <a href="/wiki/Livability" title="Livability">livability</a> (e.g. proper ventilation), and forcing landlords to make some modifications to existing building stock. Photojournalist Jacob Riis' <i><a href="/wiki/How_the_Other_Half_Lives" title="How the Other Half Lives">How the Other Half Lives</a></i> (1890) brought considerable attention the conditions of the slums in New York City, sparking new attention to housing conditions around the country. </p><p>Early tenement reform was primarily a philanthropic venture, with Model Tenements built as early as the 1870s which attempted to use new architectural and management models to address the physical and social problems of the slums.<sup id="cite_ref-Tenements_to_Taylor_Homes_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tenements_to_Taylor_Homes-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These attempts were limited by available resources, and early efforts were soon redirected towards building code reform. The New York Tenement Act of 1895 and Tenement Law of 1901 were early attempts to address building codes in New York City, which were then copied in Chicago, Philadelphia, and other American cities. </p><p>In 1910, the National Housing Association (NHA) was created to improve housing conditions in urban and suburban neighborhoods through the enactment of better regulation and increased awareness. The NHA was founded by <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Veiller" title="Lawrence Veiller">Lawrence Veiller</a>, author of <i>Model Tenement House Law</i> (1910), and consisted of delegates from dozens of cities.<sup id="cite_ref-Tenements_to_Taylor_Homes_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tenements_to_Taylor_Homes-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over time, the focus of the housing movement shifted from a focus on proper building typology to community development on a broader scale, and the NHA dissolved in 1936. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Milwaukee,_Wisconsin" class="mw-redirect" title="Milwaukee, Wisconsin">City of Milwaukee</a>, under mayor <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Hoan" title="Daniel Hoan">Daniel Hoan</a>, implemented the country's first public housing project, known as <a href="/wiki/Garden_Homes_Historic_District_(Milwaukee,_Wisconsin)" title="Garden Homes Historic District (Milwaukee, Wisconsin)">Garden Homes</a>, in 1923. This experiment with a municipally-sponsored housing cooperative saw initial success, but was plagued by development and land acquisition problems, and the board overseeing the project dissolved the Gardens Home Corporation just two years after construction on the homes was completed.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_Works_Administration_(PWA)_Housing_Division"><span id="Public_Works_Administration_.28PWA.29_Housing_Division"></span>Public Works Administration (PWA) Housing Division</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Subsidized_housing_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Public Works Administration (PWA) Housing Division"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Permanent, federally funded housing came into being in the United States as a part of Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal. Title II, Section 202 of the <a href="/wiki/National_Industrial_Recovery_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="National Industrial Recovery Act">National Industrial Recovery Act</a>, passed June 16, 1933, directed the Public Works Administration (PWA) to develop a program for the "construction, reconstruction, alteration, or repair under public regulation or control of low-cost housing and <a href="/wiki/Slum_clearance_in_the_United_States" title="Slum clearance in the United States">slum clearance</a> projects ...". Led by the Housing Division of the PWA and headed by architect <a href="/wiki/Robert_D._Kohn" title="Robert D. Kohn">Robert Kohn</a>, the initial, Limited-Dividend Program aimed to provide low-interest loans to public or private groups to fund the construction of low-income housing. </p><p>Too few qualified applicants stepped forward, and the Limited-Dividend Program funded only seven housing projects nationally. In the spring of 1934, PWA Administrator <a href="/wiki/Harold_L._Ickes" title="Harold L. Ickes">Harold Ickes</a> directed the Housing Division to undertake the direct construction of public housing, a decisive step that would serve as a precedent for the <a href="/wiki/Housing_Act_of_1937" title="Housing Act of 1937">1937 Wagner-Steagall Housing Act</a>, and the permanent public housing program in the United States. Kohn stepped down during the reorganization, and between 1934 and 1937 the Housing Division, now headed by Colonel Horatio B. Hackett, constructed fifty-two housing projects across the United States, as well as Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Atlanta's <a href="/wiki/Techwood_Homes" title="Techwood Homes">Techwood Homes</a> opened on 1 September 1936 and was the first of the fifty-two opened. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Techwood1.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Techwood1.jpeg/250px-Techwood1.jpeg" decoding="async" width="250" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Techwood1.jpeg/375px-Techwood1.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Techwood1.jpeg/500px-Techwood1.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="882" data-file-height="497" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Techwood_Homes" title="Techwood Homes">Techwood Homes</a> in <a href="/wiki/Atlanta" title="Atlanta">Atlanta</a>, first U.S. public housing project opened in 1936.</figcaption></figure> <p>Based on the residential planning concepts of Clarence Stein and Henry Wright, these fifty-two projects are architecturally cohesive, with composed on one to four story row house and apartment buildings, arranged around open spaces, creating traffic-free play spaces that defined community life. Many of these projects were built on slum land, but land acquisition proved difficult, so abandoned industrial sites and vacant land were also purchased. Lexington's two early projects were constructed on an abandoned horse racing track. At Ickes' direction, many of these projects were also segregated, designed and built for either whites or African-Americans. Race was largely determined by the neighborhood surrounding the site, as American residential patterns, in both the North and South, were highly segregated. </p><p>Coming out of the housing movement at the turn of the century, the 1930s also saw the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Home_Owners%27_Loan_Corporation" title="Home Owners' Loan Corporation">Home Owners' Loan Corporation</a> (HOLC), which refinanced loans in order to keep the housing market afloat. The National Housing Act of 1934 created the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Housing_Administration" title="Federal Housing Administration">Federal Housing Administration</a> (FHA), which used only a small capital investment from the federal government to insure mortgages. Construction of public housing projects were therefore only one portion of the federal housing efforts during the Great Depression.<sup id="cite_ref-Keith_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Keith-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Housing_Act_of_1937">Housing Act of 1937</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Subsidized_housing_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Housing Act of 1937"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1937, the <a href="/wiki/Housing_Act_of_1937" title="Housing Act of 1937">Wagner-Steagall Housing Act</a> replaced the temporary PWA Housing Division with a permanent, quasi-autonomous agency to administer housing. The new United States Housing Authority <a href="/wiki/Housing_Act_of_1937" title="Housing Act of 1937">Housing Act of 1937</a> would operate with a strong bent towards local efforts in locating and constructing housing and would place caps on how much could be spent per housing unit. The cap of $5,000 was a hotly contested feature of the bill as it would be a considerable reduction of the money spent on PWA housing and was far less than advocates of the bill had lobbied to get.<sup id="cite_ref-Tenements_to_Taylor_Homes_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tenements_to_Taylor_Homes-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Construction of housing projects dramatically accelerated under the new structure. In 1939 alone, 50,000 housing units were constructed—more than twice as many as were built during the entire tenure of the PWA Housing Division.<sup id="cite_ref-Keith_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Keith-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Building on the Housing Division's organizational and architectural precedent, the USHA built housing in the build-up to World War II, supported war-production efforts and battled the housing shortage that occurred after the end of the war. In the 1960s, across the nation, housing authorities became key partners in urban renewal efforts, constructing new homes for those displaced by highway, hospital and other public efforts. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_II_Era">World War II Era</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Subsidized_housing_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: World War II Era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When US entry to World War II ended the era of New Deal reforms, the call for public housing from the <a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a>, women's groups and labor unions was quieted.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As part of the war mobilization, entire communities sprang up around factories manufacturing military goods. In 1940, Congress therefore authorized the US Housing Authority to build twenty public housing developments around these private companies to sustain the war effort. There was considerable debate over whether these should be permanent dwellings, furthering reformer goals of establishing a broader public housing effort, or temporary dwellings in keeping with the timeliness of the need. The Defense Housing Division was founded in 1941 and would ultimately construct eight developments of temporary housing, though many ended up as long-term housing after the war.<sup id="cite_ref-Tenements_to_Taylor_Homes_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tenements_to_Taylor_Homes-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the most unusual US public housing initiatives was the development of subsidized middle-class housing during the late <a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a> (1940–42) under the auspices of the <a href="/wiki/Mutual_Ownership_Defense_Housing_Division" title="Mutual Ownership Defense Housing Division">Mutual Ownership Defense Housing Division</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Works_Agency" title="Federal Works Agency">Federal Works Agency</a> under the direction of <a href="/wiki/Colonel_Lawrence_Westbrook" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonel Lawrence Westbrook">Colonel Lawrence Westbrook</a>. These eight projects were purchased by the residents after the Second World War and as of 2009 seven of the projects continue to operate as mutual housing corporations owned by their residents. These projects are among the very few definitive success stories in the history of the US public housing effort. </p><p>During World War II, construction of homes dramatically decreased as all efforts were directed towards the War. When the veterans returned from overseas, they came ready to start a new life, often with families, and did so with the funding resources of the <a href="/wiki/G.I._Bill" title="G.I. Bill">G.I. Bill</a> to start a new mortgage. However, there was not enough housing stock to accommodate the demand.<sup id="cite_ref-Keith_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Keith-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, President Truman created the office of Housing Expediter by executive order on January 26, 1946, to be headed by Wilson Wyatt. Through this office, government intervened in the housing market largely through price controls and supply chain restrictions, despite political pressure from some factions to directly construct housing. Efforts moved to focus exclusively on veterans housing, specifically a materials subsidy for housing construction. However, in the wake of the 1946 elections, President Truman believed there was insufficient public support to continue such materials restrictions and subsidies. The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Veterans%27_Emergency_Housing_Program&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Veterans' Emergency Housing Program (page does not exist)">Veterans' Emergency Housing Program</a> ended in January 1947 by an executive order from President Truman.<sup id="cite_ref-Keith_15-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Keith-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Housing_Act_of_1949">Housing Act of 1949</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Subsidized_housing_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Housing Act of 1949"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>With the Office of Housing Expediter ended, housing efforts moved to look at new, comprehensive approaches to address housing issues. The result was the <a href="/wiki/Housing_Act_of_1949" title="Housing Act of 1949">Housing Act of 1949</a>, which dramatically expanded the role of the federal government in both public and private housing. Part of Truman's <a href="/wiki/Fair_Deal" title="Fair Deal">Fair Deal</a>, the Act covered three primary areas: (1) It expanded the Federal Housing Administration and federal involvement in mortgage insurance, (2) under Title I, it provided authority and funds for slum clearance and <a href="/wiki/Urban_renewal" title="Urban renewal">urban renewal</a>, and (3) initiated construction of a significant public housing program. Title II of the legislation stated the goal of a "decent home in a decent environment for every American," and the legislation authorized $13 billion mortgage guarantees, $1.5 billion for slum redevelopment, and set a construction goal of 810,000 units of public housing.<sup id="cite_ref-Tenements_to_Taylor_Homes_13-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tenements_to_Taylor_Homes-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Upon its passage, Truman told the press: </p> <blockquote><p>"[This legislation] opens up the prospect of decent homes in wholesome surroundings for low-income families now living in the squalor of the slums. It equips the Federal Government, for the first time, with effective means for aiding cities in the vital task of clearing slums and rebuilding blighted areas. This legislation permits us to take a long step toward increasing the well-being and happiness of millions of our fellow citizens. Let us not delay in fulfilling that high purpose.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Housing_in_the_1960s">Housing in the 1960s</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Subsidized_housing_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Housing in the 1960s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Housing_and_Urban_Development_Act_of_1965">Housing and Urban Development Act of 1965</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Subsidized_housing_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Housing and Urban Development Act of 1965"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Discontent with Urban Renewal came fairly swiftly on the heels of the passage of Title I and the Housing Act of 1949. Urban renewal had become, for many cities, a way to eliminate blight, but not a solid vehicle for constructing new housing. For example, in the ten years after the bill was passed, 425,000 units of housing were razed under its auspices, but only 125,000 units were constructed.<sup id="cite_ref-Tenements_to_Taylor_Homes_13-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tenements_to_Taylor_Homes-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between Title I and the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Aid_Highway_Act_of_1956" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956">Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956</a>, entire communities in poorer, urban neighborhoods were demolished to make way for modern developments and transportation needs, often in the '<a href="/wiki/Towers_in_the_park" title="Towers in the park">towers in the park</a>' style of <a href="/wiki/Le_Corbusier" title="Le Corbusier">Le Corbusier</a>. <a href="/wiki/Jane_Jacobs" title="Jane Jacobs">Jane Jacobs</a> would famously describe the new products as, "Low-income projects that become worse centers of delinquency, vandalism, and general social hopelessness than the slums they were supposed to replace. Middle-income housing projects which are truly marvels of dullness and regimentation, sealed against any buoyancy or vitality of city life. Luxury housing projects that mitigate their inanity, or try to, with vapid vulgarity ... This is not the rebuilding of cities. This is the sacking of cities."<sup id="cite_ref-Jacobs_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jacobs-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Several additional housing acts were passed after 1949, altering the program in small ways, such as shifting ratios for elderly housing, but no major legislation changed the mechanisms of public housing until the <a href="/wiki/Housing_and_Urban_Development_Act_of_1965" title="Housing and Urban Development Act of 1965">Housing and Urban Development Act of 1965</a>. This act created the <a href="/wiki/Department_of_Housing_and_Urban_Development" class="mw-redirect" title="Department of Housing and Urban Development">Department of Housing and Urban Development</a> (HUD), a cabinet-level agency to lead with housing. This act also introduced rent subsidies for the first time, the beginning of a shift towards encouraging privately constructed low-income housing. With this legislation, the FHA would insure mortgages for non-profits which would then construct homes for low-income families. HUD could then provide subsidies to bridge the gap between the cost of these units and a set percentage of a household's income.<sup id="cite_ref-Tenements_to_Taylor_Homes_13-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tenements_to_Taylor_Homes-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 1961 Housing Act quietly introduced a program under Section 23 which allowed local housing authorities to house individuals on their waiting lists in privately leased units through the mechanism of a <a href="/wiki/Voucher" title="Voucher">voucher</a> which covered the gap between household ability to pay and the market rent. This mechanism was repeatedly expanded in later legislation.<sup id="cite_ref-Urban_Housing_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Urban_Housing-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Housing_and_Urban_Development_Act_of_1968">Housing and Urban Development Act of 1968</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Subsidized_housing_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Housing and Urban Development Act of 1968"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pruitt-igoeUSGS02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Pruitt-igoeUSGS02.jpg/250px-Pruitt-igoeUSGS02.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Pruitt-igoeUSGS02.jpg/375px-Pruitt-igoeUSGS02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Pruitt-igoeUSGS02.jpg/500px-Pruitt-igoeUSGS02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2105" data-file-height="1290" /></a><figcaption>Designed by <a href="/wiki/Minoru_Yamasaki" title="Minoru Yamasaki">Minoru Yamasaki</a>, Pruitt and Igoe consisted of the thirty-three buildings pictured. Dramatic images of its demolition made newspapers across the country.</figcaption></figure> <p>In response to many of the emerging concerns regarding new public housing developments, the <a href="/wiki/Housing_and_Urban_Development_Act_of_1968" title="Housing and Urban Development Act of 1968">Housing and Urban Development Act of 1968</a> attempt to shift the style of housing developments, looking to the Garden Cities model of <a href="/wiki/Ebenezer_Howard" title="Ebenezer Howard">Ebenezer Howard</a>. The act prohibited the construction of high-rise developments for families with children. The role of high-rises had always been contentious, but with rising rates of vandalism and vacancy and considerable concerns about the concentration of poverty, some contended these developments were declared unsuitable for families.<sup id="cite_ref-Tenements_to_Taylor_Homes_13-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tenements_to_Taylor_Homes-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the most notorious of these developments was the <a href="/wiki/Pruitt-Igoe" class="mw-redirect" title="Pruitt-Igoe">Pruitt-Igoe</a> development in <a href="/wiki/St._Louis,_Missouri" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Louis, Missouri">St. Louis, Missouri</a>, constructed in 1955 and 1956. This development posted 2,870 units in thirty-three high rises buildings.<sup id="cite_ref-Tenements_to_Taylor_Homes_13-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tenements_to_Taylor_Homes-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the late 1960s, vacancy rates reached as high as 65%, and the project was demolished between 1972 and 1975. More recent scholarship about the story of Pruitt-Igoe, which has often been used as a parable for the failures of large-scale public housing in the United States, has elucidated that the unraveling of the complex had more to do with structural racism, disinvestment in the urban core, white flight, and the diminishing post-industrial incomes of the buildings' residents than with high rise architecture or the nature of publicly owned and -operated housing.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Act also impacted the home ownership market through the expansion of the FHA. <a href="/wiki/Ginnie_Mae" class="mw-redirect" title="Ginnie Mae">Ginnie Mae</a> was initially established to purchase risky public housing projects and resell them at market rates. In addition, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Section_235&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Section 235 (page does not exist)">Section 235</a> originated mortgage subsidies by reducing the interest rate on mortgages for low-income families to a rate more comparable to that of the FHA mortgages. The program suffered from high foreclosure rates and administrative scandal, and was dramatically scaled down in 1974. The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Section_236&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Section 236 (page does not exist)">Section 236</a> program subsidized the debt service on private developments which would then be offered at a reduced rates to households below a certain income ceiling.<sup id="cite_ref-Urban_Housing_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Urban_Housing-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Housing_in_the_1970s">Housing in the 1970s</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Subsidized_housing_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Housing in the 1970s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Experimental_Housing_Allowance_Program">Experimental Housing Allowance Program</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Subsidized_housing_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Experimental Housing Allowance Program"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Housing Act of 1970 established the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Experimental_Housing_Allowance_Program&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Experimental Housing Allowance Program (page does not exist)">Experimental Housing Allowance Program</a> (EHAP), a lengthy investigation in the potential market effects of housing vouchers. Vouchers, initially introduced in 1965, were an attempt to subsidize the demand side of the housing market rather than the supply side by supplementing a household's rent allowance until they were able to afford market rates. EHAP was designed to test three aspects of the impact of vouchers: </p> <ul><li>Demand: Investigated user dynamics, including mobility, participation rates, rent rates, and housing standards.</li> <li>Supply: Monitored the market response to the subsidy, namely whether it changed the construction or rent rates for the community, writ large.</li> <li>Administration: Examined several different approaches to structuring and managing the programs.</li></ul> <p>Ultimately, new legislation on housing vouchers did not wait for the conclusion of the experiment. When the program concluded over a decade later, it was discovered that the program had minimal impact on surrounding rents, but did have the potential to tighten the market for low-income housing, and communities were in need of an infusion of additional units. Some therefore argued that public housing was the appropriate model for cost and supply-chain reasons, though vouchers did not appear to overly distort local housing markets.<sup id="cite_ref-Urban_Housing_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Urban_Housing-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Housing_moratorium">Housing moratorium</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Subsidized_housing_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Housing moratorium"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1973, President <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> halted funding for numerous housing projects in the wake of concerns regarding the housing projects constructed in the prior two decades. HUD Secretary <a href="/wiki/George_W._Romney" title="George W. Romney">George Romney</a> declared that the moratorium would encompass all money for Urban Renewal and <a href="/wiki/Model_Cities" class="mw-redirect" title="Model Cities">Model Cities</a> programs, all subsidized housing, and Section 235 and 236 funding.<sup id="cite_ref-Urban_Housing_19-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Urban_Housing-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An intensive report was commissioned from the National Housing Policy Review to analyze and assess the federal government's role in housing. This report, entitled <i>Housing in the Seventies</i> was instrumental in crafting new housing legislation the following year. In keeping with Nixon's market-based approach, as demonstrated by EHAP, Nixon also lifted the moratorium on the Section 23 voucher program late in September, allowing for 200,000 new households to be funded. The full moratorium was lifted in the summer of 1974, as Nixon faced <a href="/wiki/Federal_impeachment_in_the_United_States" title="Federal impeachment in the United States">impeachment</a> in the wake of <a href="/wiki/Watergate" class="mw-redirect" title="Watergate">Watergate</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Housing_and_Community_Development_Act_of_1974">Housing and Community Development Act of 1974</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Subsidized_housing_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Housing and Community Development Act of 1974"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Housing_and_Community_Development_Act_of_1974" title="Housing and Community Development Act of 1974">Housing and Community Development Act of 1974</a> created the <a href="/wiki/Section_8_(housing)" title="Section 8 (housing)">Section 8</a> Housing Program to encourage the private sector to construct affordable homes. This kind of housing assistance assists poor tenants by giving a monthly subsidy to their landlords. This assistance can be 'project based,' which applies to specific properties, or 'tenant based,' which provides tenants with a voucher they can use anywhere vouchers are accepted. Tenant based housing vouchers covered the gap between 25% of a household's income and established <a href="/wiki/Fair_market_rent" class="mw-redirect" title="Fair market rent">fair market rent</a>. Virtually no new project based Section 8 housing has been produced since 1983, but tenant based vouchers are now the primary mechanism of assisted housing. </p><p>The other main feature of the Act was the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Community_Development_Block_Grant" title="Community Development Block Grant">Community Development Block Grant</a> (CDBG). While not directly tied to public housing, CDBGs were lump sums of money, the amount of which was determined by a formula focusing on population, given to state and local governments for housing and community development work.<sup id="cite_ref-CBDG_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CBDG-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The sum could be used as determined by the community, though the legislation also required the development of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Housing_Assistance_Plan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Housing Assistance Plan (page does not exist)">Housing Assistance Plans</a> (HAP) which required local communities to survey and catalog their available housing stock as well as determine the populations most in need of assistance. These were submitted as part of the CDBG application. </p><p>Again in response to the growing discontent with public housing, urban developers began looking for alternate forms of affordable, low-income housing. From this concern sprang the creation of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Scattered-site_housing&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Scattered-site housing (page does not exist)">scattered-site housing</a> programs designed to place smaller-scale, better-integrated public housing units in diverse neighborhoods. Scattered-site housing programs became popularized in the late 1970s and 1980s. Since that time, cities across the country have implemented such programs with varying levels of success. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Housing_in_the_1980s-1990s">Housing in the 1980s-1990s</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Subsidized_housing_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Housing in the 1980s-1990s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Changes to public housing programs were minor during the 1980s. Under the <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Reagan</a> administration, household contribution towards Section 8 rents was increased to 30% of household income and fair market rents were lowered. Public assistance for housing efforts was reduced as part of a package of across the board cuts. Additionally, emergency shelters for the homeless were expanded, and home ownership by low-income families was promoted to a greater degree.<sup id="cite_ref-Urban_Housing_19-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Urban_Housing-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1990, President <a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a> signed the Cranston-Gonzalez National Affordable Housing Act (NAHA), which furthered the use of HOME funds for rental assistance. In his address upon its passage, Bush said, "Although the Federal Government currently serves about 4.3 million low-income families, there are about 4 million additional families, most of them very low income, whose housing needs have not been met. We should not divert assistance from those who need it most."<sup id="cite_ref-NAHA_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NAHA-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The next new era in public housing began in 1992 with the launch of the <a href="/wiki/HOPE_VI" title="HOPE VI">HOPE VI</a> program by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Housing_and_Urban_Development" title="United States Department of Housing and Urban Development">United States Department of Housing and Urban Development</a>. HOPE VI funds were devoted to demolishing poor-quality public housing projects and replacing them with lower-density developments, often of mixed-income. Funds included construction and demolition costs, tenant relocation costs, and subsidies for newly constructed units.<sup id="cite_ref-Revolution_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Revolution-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> HOPE VI has become the primary vehicle for the construction of new federally subsidized units, but it suffered considerable funding cuts in 2004 under President <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> who called for the abolition of the program.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1998, the Quality Housing and Work Responsibility Act (QHWRA) was passed and signed by President <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the frame of <a href="/wiki/Welfare_reform" title="Welfare reform">welfare reform</a>, QHWRA developed new programs to transition families out of public housing, developed a home ownership model for Section 8, and expanded the HOPE VI program to replace traditional public housing units. The act also effectively capped the number of public housing units by creating the <a href="/wiki/Quality_Housing_and_Work_Responsibility_Act#Faircloth_Limit" class="mw-redirect" title="Quality Housing and Work Responsibility Act">Faircloth Limit</a> as an amendment to the Housing Act of 1937, which limited funding for the construction or operation of all units to the total number of units as of October 1, 1999 and repealed a rule that required one for one replacement of demolished housing units.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Curbed_1_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Curbed_1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Social_issues">Social issues</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Subsidized_housing_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Social issues"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Concentrated_poverty">Concentrated poverty</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Subsidized_housing_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Concentrated poverty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to HUD's Residential Characteristic Report, the average annual income in 2013 for a resident of a public housing unit is $13,730.<sup id="cite_ref-HUDRCR_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HUDRCR-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The same report classifies 68% of residents as Extremely Low Income, with the largest annual income bracket being $5,000 to $10,000, containing 32% of public housing residents.<sup id="cite_ref-HUDRCR_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HUDRCR-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SLUMS_BREED_CRIME._UNITED_STATES_HOUSING_AUTHORITY_-_NARA_-_515429.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/SLUMS_BREED_CRIME._UNITED_STATES_HOUSING_AUTHORITY_-_NARA_-_515429.jpg/250px-SLUMS_BREED_CRIME._UNITED_STATES_HOUSING_AUTHORITY_-_NARA_-_515429.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="329" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/SLUMS_BREED_CRIME._UNITED_STATES_HOUSING_AUTHORITY_-_NARA_-_515429.jpg/375px-SLUMS_BREED_CRIME._UNITED_STATES_HOUSING_AUTHORITY_-_NARA_-_515429.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/SLUMS_BREED_CRIME._UNITED_STATES_HOUSING_AUTHORITY_-_NARA_-_515429.jpg/500px-SLUMS_BREED_CRIME._UNITED_STATES_HOUSING_AUTHORITY_-_NARA_-_515429.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2280" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>An advertisement from the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Housing_Authority" title="United States Housing Authority">United States Housing Authority</a> advocating for slum clearance as a solution for crime.</figcaption></figure> <p>Trends showing an increase in geographic concentration of poverty became evident by the 1970s as upper and middle-class residents vacated property in U.S. cities.<sup id="cite_ref-MasseyKanaiaupuni_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MasseyKanaiaupuni-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Urban_renewal" title="Urban renewal">Urban renewal</a> programs led to widespread slum clearance, creating a need to house those displaced by the clearance (Massey and Kanaiaupuni 1993).<sup id="cite_ref-MasseyKanaiaupuni_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MasseyKanaiaupuni-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, those in city governments, political organizations, and suburban communities resisted the creation of public housing units in middle and working-class neighborhoods, leading to the construction of such units around <a href="/wiki/Ghetto" title="Ghetto">ghetto</a> neighborhoods which already exhibited signs of poverty.<sup id="cite_ref-MasseyKanaiaupuni_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MasseyKanaiaupuni-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Massey and Kanaiaupuni (1993) describe three sources of concentrated poverty in relation to public housing: income-requirements structurally creating areas of poverty, the reinforcement of patterns of poverty via the location of the public housing units, and the migration of impoverished individuals towards the public housing, although this effect is relatively small in comparison to the other sources.<sup id="cite_ref-MasseyKanaiaupuni_29-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MasseyKanaiaupuni-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A study of public housing in <a href="/wiki/Columbus,_Ohio" title="Columbus, Ohio">Columbus, Ohio</a>, found that public housing has differing effects on the concentration of black poverty versus white poverty.<sup id="cite_ref-Hollowayetal_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hollowayetal-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Public housing's effect on concentrated poverty is doubled for blacks compared to whites.<sup id="cite_ref-Hollowayetal_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hollowayetal-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The study further found that public housing tends to concentrate those who struggle the most economically into a specific area, further raising poverty levels.<sup id="cite_ref-Hollowayetal_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hollowayetal-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A different study, conducted by Freeman (2003) on a national level, cast doubt onto the theory that public housing units have an independent effect on the concentration of poverty.<sup id="cite_ref-Freeman_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Freeman-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The study found that while out-migration of the non-poor and in-migration of the poor were associated with the creation of public housing, such associations disappeared with the introduction of statistical controls, suggesting that migration levels were caused by characteristics of the neighborhood itself rather than the public housing unit.<sup id="cite_ref-Freeman_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Freeman-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Concentrated poverty from public housing units has effects on the economy of the surrounding area, competing for space with middle class housing.<sup id="cite_ref-Husock_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Husock-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of <a href="/wiki/Social_pathology" class="mw-redirect" title="Social pathology">social pathologies</a> incubated by public housing, Husock (2003) states that unit prices in surrounding buildings fall, reducing city revenue from <a href="/wiki/Property_tax" title="Property tax">property taxes</a> and giving a disincentive to high-paying businesses to locate themselves in the area.<sup id="cite_ref-Husock_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Husock-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He further argues that the pathologies caused by a concentration of poverty are likely to spread to surrounding neighborhoods, forcing local residents and businesses to relocate.<sup id="cite_ref-Husock_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Husock-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Freeman and Botein (2002) are more skeptical of a reduction of property values following the building of public housing units.<sup id="cite_ref-FreemanBotein_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FreemanBotein-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a <a href="/wiki/Meta-analysis" title="Meta-analysis">meta-analysis</a> of empirical studies, they expected to find that when public housing lacks obtrusive architecture and its residents are similar to those already in the neighborhood, <a href="/wiki/Property_value" class="mw-redirect" title="Property value">property values</a> are not likely to fluctuate.<sup id="cite_ref-FreemanBotein_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FreemanBotein-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, a review of the literature yielded no definitive conclusions on the impact of public housing on property values, with only two studies lacking methodological flaws that had either mixed results or showed no impact.<sup id="cite_ref-FreemanBotein_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FreemanBotein-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Others are skeptical of concentrated poverty from public housing being the cause of social pathologies, arguing that such a characterization is a simplification of a much more complex set of social phenomena.<sup id="cite_ref-Crump_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crump-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Crump (2002), the term "concentrated poverty" was originally a spatial concept that was part of a much broader and complex sociological description of poverty, but the spatial component then became the overarching <a href="/wiki/Metaphor" title="Metaphor">metaphor</a> for concentrated poverty and the cause of social pathologies surrounding it.<sup id="cite_ref-Crump_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crump-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead of spatial concentration simply being a part of the broad description of social pathologies, Crump (2002) argues that the concept replaced the broad description, mistakenly narrowing the focus to the physical concentration of poverty.<sup id="cite_ref-Crump_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crump-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Racial_segregation">Racial segregation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Subsidized_housing_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Racial segregation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The HUD's 2013 <i>The Location and Racial Composition of Public Housing in the United States</i> report found that the racial distribution of residents within individual public housing units tends to be rather homogeneous, with African Americans and white residents stratified to separate neighborhoods. One trend that is observed is that black neighborhoods tend to reflect a lower socioeconomic status and that white neighborhoods represent a more affluent demographic.<sup id="cite_ref-HUDRRR_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HUDRRR-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More than 40% of public housing occupants live in predominantly black neighborhoods, according to the HUD report.<sup id="cite_ref-HUDRRR_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HUDRRR-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even though changes have been made to address unconstitutional <a href="/wiki/Housing_segregation" class="mw-redirect" title="Housing segregation">housing segregation</a>, stigma and prejudice around public housing projects are still prevalent.<sup id="cite_ref-HUDRRR_35-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HUDRRR-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:We_want_white_tenants.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/We_want_white_tenants.jpg/250px-We_want_white_tenants.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/We_want_white_tenants.jpg/375px-We_want_white_tenants.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/We_want_white_tenants.jpg/500px-We_want_white_tenants.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5974" data-file-height="4753" /></a><figcaption>Many white residents in Detroit in the 1940s strongly protested the creation of new public housing units. When their protests did not help, they left for the suburbs, also known as <a href="/wiki/White_flight" title="White flight">white flight</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Segregation in public housing has roots in the early developments and activities of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Housing_Administration" title="Federal Housing Administration">Federal Housing Administration</a> (FHA), created by the <a href="/wiki/National_Housing_Act_of_1934" title="National Housing Act of 1934">Housing Act of 1934</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gotham_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gotham-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The FHA institutionalized a practice by which it would seek to maintain racially homogenous neighborhoods through racially restrictive covenants - an explicitly discriminatory policy written into the deed of a house. This practice was struck down by the Supreme Court in 1948 in <i><a href="/wiki/Shelley_v._Kraemer" title="Shelley v. Kraemer">Shelley v. Kraemer</a></i> because it violates the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment.<sup id="cite_ref-Gotham_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gotham-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, according to Gotham (2000), Section 235 of the Housing Act of 1968 encouraged <a href="/wiki/White_flight" title="White flight">white flight</a> from the inner city, selling suburban properties to whites and inner-city properties to blacks, creating neighborhoods that were racially isolated from others.<sup id="cite_ref-Gotham_36-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gotham-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>White flight - white people moving out of neighborhoods that have become more racially or ethnoculturally heterogeneous - is an example of how stigma and judgement around public housing and <a href="/wiki/Affordable_housing_in_the_U.S." class="mw-redirect" title="Affordable housing in the U.S.">affordable housing</a> resulted in a significant change in the racial demographics of urban housing. White flight is a sociological response to perceptions that racially diverse neighborhoods will decrease their home value and increase crime rates. </p><p>McNulty and Holloway (2000) studied the intersection of public housing geography, race, and crime in order to determine if racial differences existed in crime rates when controlled for the proximity of public housing units.<sup id="cite_ref-McNulty_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McNulty-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The study found that "the race-crime relationship is geographically contingent, varying as a function of the distribution of public housing".<sup id="cite_ref-McNulty_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McNulty-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This suggests that a focus on institutional causes of crime in relation to race is more appropriate than a focus on cultural differences between races being the cause of differing <a href="/wiki/Crime_statistics" title="Crime statistics">crime rates</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-McNulty_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McNulty-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Public housing units were often built in predominantly poor and black areas, reinforcing racial and economic differences between neighborhoods.<sup id="cite_ref-MasseyKanaiaupuni_29-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MasseyKanaiaupuni-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These social patterns are influenced by policies that constructed the narrative of racially segregated housing in the 20th Century. The rebellion in Detroit in 1967 was a symptom of racial tension that was in part due to unfair housing policies. In July 1967, President <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a> issued a commission, led by Illinois Governor <a href="/wiki/Otto_Kerner,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Otto Kerner, Jr.">Otto Kerner</a> to determine the causes of the riots. The <a href="/wiki/Kerner_Commission" title="Kerner Commission">Kerner Commission</a> clearly articulated that housing inequality was solely determined by explicitly discriminatory policies. It stated that "<i>White institutions created it, white institutions maintain it, and white society condones it</i>".<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Kerner Commission blatantly condemned white institutions for creating unequal housing opportunities, specifically highlighting restrictive covenants as a cause of the American apartheid residential pattern in the city.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a> made housing integration a key part of his civil rights campaign and one month after the publication of the Kerner Commission was published, King was assassinated. His murder instigated another wave of riots and in response, and no later than a week after the <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.">assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.</a>, Congress passed the <a href="/wiki/Fair_Housing_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Fair Housing Act">Fair Housing Act</a> which prohibited discrimination in housing.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, since the Fair Housing Act was passed, housing policies restricting minority housing to segregated neighborhoods are still heavily debated because of the vague language used in the Fair Housing Act. In the 2015 Supreme Court case <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Texas_Department_of_Housing_and_Community_Affairs_v._The_Inclusive_Communities_Project&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Texas Department of Housing and Community Affairs v. The Inclusive Communities Project (page does not exist)">Texas Department of Housing and Community Affairs v. The Inclusive Communities Project</a></i>, Justice Kennedy clarified that the Fair Housing Act was intended to promote equity, not just eliminate explicit acts of discrimination. Changes in both public policy and social narrative are equally necessary for establishing equitable housing opportunities for all Americans. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Health_and_safety">Health and safety</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Subsidized_housing_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Health and safety"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Public housing units themselves offer very few amenities to occupants, providing the minimum necessary accommodations for living.<sup id="cite_ref-Schill_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schill-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The original wording of the 1937 Housing Act meant that units were built with minimal effort in order to give amenities only slightly better than <a href="/wiki/Slum" title="Slum">slums</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Schill_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schill-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The units had poor insulation, roofing, electricity, and plumbing, were generally very small, and built to use as few resources as possible.<sup id="cite_ref-Schill_41-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schill-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Turner et al. (2005) documents more physical deterioration, with backlogged repairs, vandalism, cockroaches, mold, and other problems creating a generally unsafe environment for occupants.<sup id="cite_ref-Turner_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Turner-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A Boston study showed that dampness and heating issues in public housing create concentrations of dust mites, mold, and fungi, which causes <a href="/wiki/Asthma" title="Asthma">asthma</a> at a rate much higher than the national average.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other studies have been less negative in their assessments of living conditions in public housing units, showing only marginal differences caused by public housing units.<sup id="cite_ref-FertigReingold_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FertigReingold-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The study by Fertig and Reingold (2007) concluded that of a large list of possible health effects, public housing units only seemed to affect <a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence" title="Domestic violence">domestic violence</a> levels, with only a mixed effect, a mother's overall health status, and the probability of mothers becoming overweight.<sup id="cite_ref-FertigReingold_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FertigReingold-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Crime is also a major issue in public housing, with surveys showing high amounts of <a href="/wiki/Drug-related_crime" title="Drug-related crime">drug-related crime</a> and shootings.<sup id="cite_ref-Turner_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Turner-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Potential causes include inefficient management, which leads to problematic residents being able to stay in the unit, and inadequate policing and security.<sup id="cite_ref-Turner_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Turner-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Public housing units are far more susceptible to homicides than comparable neighborhoods, which Griffiths and Tita (2009) argue is an effect of social isolation within the units. These <a href="/wiki/Homicide" title="Homicide">homicides</a> tend to be localized within the public housing unit rather than around it.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Satisfaction with one's living environment is another variable affected by public housing.<sup id="cite_ref-Ross_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ross-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Residents of public housing units and voucher holders are more likely to express higher satisfaction with their current residency than low-income renters who are not receiving government assistance.<sup id="cite_ref-Ross_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ross-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the study also concluded that residents of public housings units and voucher holders are more likely to express lower satisfaction with the neighborhood in which they live compared to low-income renters.<sup id="cite_ref-Ross_46-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ross-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This suggests that while the accommodations of public housing are better than comparable options, the surrounding neighborhoods are less desirable and have not been improved by government assistance.<sup id="cite_ref-Ross_46-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ross-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education">Education</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Subsidized_housing_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another concern about public housing is the availability of quality education for children living in public housing units in areas of concentrated poverty.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwartz_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwartz-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a study of student achievement in New York City, Schwartz et al. (2010) found that those children living in public housing units did worse on <a href="/wiki/Standardized_test" title="Standardized test">standardized tests</a> than others who go to the same or comparable schools.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwartz_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwartz-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, the study found that the resources of the schools serving different populations of the city were roughly the same.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwartz_47-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwartz-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other studies refute this result, stating that public housing does not have a unique effect on student achievement.<sup id="cite_ref-Jacob_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jacob-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a study for the <a href="/wiki/National_Bureau_of_Economic_Research" title="National Bureau of Economic Research">National Bureau of Economic Research</a>, Jacob (2003) found that children who had moved out of public housing due to demolition in Chicago fared no better and no worse in school and often continued to attend the same school as before demolition.<sup id="cite_ref-Jacob_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jacob-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, among High Schoolers (14 years or older), dropout rates increased by 4.4% after demolition, though this effect was not seen in younger children.<sup id="cite_ref-Jacob_48-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jacob-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A separate study conducted by Newman and Harkness (2000) produced findings similar to Jacob (2003).<sup id="cite_ref-Newman_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newman-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It concluded that public housing did not have an independent effect on educational attainment levels.<sup id="cite_ref-Newman_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newman-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead, variation in educational attainment was associated with poor economic standing and characteristics of the family.<sup id="cite_ref-Newman_49-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newman-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, the study found very little difference between educational attainment in public versus subsidized private housing developments.<sup id="cite_ref-Newman_49-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newman-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>More positive educational outcomes have been recorded in other analyses. A study by Currie and Yelowitz (1999) found that families living in public housing were less likely to experience overcrowding in their units.<sup id="cite_ref-CurrieYelowitz_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CurrieYelowitz-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Children living in public housing were 11% less likely to be held back a grade, suggesting that public housing may help low-income students.<sup id="cite_ref-CurrieYelowitz_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CurrieYelowitz-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2011 report from the Center for Housing Policy argued for the benefits of stable and <a href="/wiki/Affordable_housing_in_the_U.S." class="mw-redirect" title="Affordable housing in the U.S.">affordable housing</a> in regard to education.<sup id="cite_ref-Brennan_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brennan-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Reasons for such educational benefits included less sporadic moving, community support, reduction in stress from overcrowding, less health hazards, provision of <a href="/wiki/After-school_program" class="mw-redirect" title="After-school program">after-school programs</a>, and reduction of <a href="/wiki/Homelessness" title="Homelessness">homelessness</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Brennan_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brennan-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_perception">Public perception</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Subsidized_housing_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Public perception"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Opinions on subsidized housing in the United States are varied. A survey conducted by the <a href="/wiki/Pew_Research_Center" title="Pew Research Center">Pew Research Center</a> in October 2021 showed 49% of American adults viewed the availability, or lack thereof, of <a href="/wiki/Affordable_housing_in_the_U.S." class="mw-redirect" title="Affordable housing in the U.S.">affordable housing</a> as a significant problem within their local communities.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, based on separate findings from the <a href="/wiki/Cato_Institute" title="Cato Institute">Cato Institute</a> 2019 Welfare, Work, and Wealth National Survey, Ekins (2019) reported that 59% of Americans favor construction of more housing in their neighborhoods.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While nearly half of U.S. adults consider this to be a major issue, public perception also varies based on the types of communities that people live in. Americans living in urban areas have greater concerns regarding public housing compared to their suburban and rural counterparts. Schaeffer (2022) found that 63% of urban residents viewed <a href="/wiki/Affordable_housing_in_the_U.S." class="mw-redirect" title="Affordable housing in the U.S.">affordable housing</a> as a significant problem, where as only 46% of suburban residents and 40% of rural residents held the same opinion.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Several negative stereotypes associated with public housing create difficulties in developing new units.<sup id="cite_ref-Tighe_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tighe-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tighe (2010) reviewed a breadth of literature on perceptions of public housing and found five major public concerns: a lack of maintenance, expectation of crime, disapproval of housing as a handout, reduction of property values, and physical unattractiveness.<sup id="cite_ref-Tighe_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tighe-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the reality of certain aspects may differ from the perceptions, such perceptions are strong enough to mount formidable opposition to public housing programs.<sup id="cite_ref-Tighe_55-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tighe-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a separate study, Freeman and Botein (2002) found four major areas of public concern related to public housing: reduction in property values, racial transition, concentrated poverty, and increased crime.<sup id="cite_ref-FreemanBotein_33-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FreemanBotein-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The study concludes that such concerns are only warranted in certain circumstances, and in varying degrees. While negative consequences have potential to occur with the building of public housing, there is an almost equal chance of the public housing having the opposite effect of creating positive impacts within the neighborhood.<sup id="cite_ref-FreemanBotein_33-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FreemanBotein-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Alternative_models">Alternative models</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Subsidized_housing_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Alternative models"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scattered-site_housing">Scattered-site housing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Subsidized_housing_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Scattered-site housing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>"Scattered-site" or "scatter site" refers to a form of housing in which publicly funded, affordable, low-density units are scattered throughout diverse, middle-class neighborhoods. It can take the form of single units spread throughout the city or clusters of family units.<sup id="cite_ref-evans.washington.edu_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-evans.washington.edu-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Scattered-site housing can also be managed by private not-for-profit organizations using a permanent, supportive housing model, where specific barriers to the housing of the low-income individual or family are addressed in regular visits with a case manager. In New York City, The Scatter Site Apartment Program provides city contracts to not-for-profits from the HIV/AIDS Services Administration under the New York City Human Resources Administration. Also, Scattered Site is one of two models, the other being Congregate, which are utilized in the New York/New York housing agreements between New York City and New York State. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Background">Background</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Subsidized_housing_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Scattered-site housing units were originally constructed as an alternative form of public housing designed to prevent the concentration of poverty associated with more traditional high-density units. The benchmark class-action case that led to the popularization of scattered-site models was Gautreaux v. Chicago Housing Authority in 1969. Much of motivation for this trial and lawsuit stemmed from concerns about <a href="/wiki/Residential_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Residential segregation in the United States">residential segregation</a>. It was believed that the placement of public housing facilities in primarily black neighborhoods perpetuated residential segregation. The lawsuit was finally resolved with a verdict mandating that the <a href="/wiki/Chicago_Housing_Authority" title="Chicago Housing Authority">Chicago Housing Authority</a> redistribute public housing into non-black neighborhoods.<sup id="cite_ref-Oldweiler_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oldweiler-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> U.S. District Court Judge Richard B. Austin mandated that three public housing units be built in white areas (less than 30% black) for every one unit built in black areas (more than 30% black). </p><p>These percentages have decreased since then and a wide array of programs have developed across the United States. While some programs have seen great successes, others have had difficulties in acquiring the land needed for construction and in maintaining new units.<sup id="cite_ref-Bass_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bass-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eligibility requirements, generally based on household income and size, are common in these programs. In Dakota County, Minnesota, for example, eligibility ranges from a maximum of $51,550 for two people to $85,050 for 8-10 people.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Eligibility requirements are designed to ensure that those most in need receive relief first and that concerns regarding <a href="/wiki/Housing_discrimination" title="Housing discrimination">housing discrimination</a> do not extend into the public housing sector. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Public_policy_and_implications">Public policy and implications</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Subsidized_housing_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Public policy and implications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Scattered-site housing programs are generally run by the city housing authorities or local governments. They are intended to increase the availability of <a href="/wiki/Affordable_housing_in_the_U.S." class="mw-redirect" title="Affordable housing in the U.S.">affordable housing</a> and improve the quality of low-income housing, while avoiding problems associated with concentrated subsidized housing. Many scattered-site units are built to be similar in appearance to other homes in the neighborhood to somewhat mask the financial stature of tenants and reduce the stigma associated with public housing. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>An issue of great concern with regards to the implementation of scattered-site programs is where to construct these housing units and how to gain the support of the community. Frequent concerns of community members include potential decreases in the retail price of their home, a decline in neighborhood safety due to elevated levels of crime.<sup id="cite_ref-Bass_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bass-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, one of the major concerns with the relocation of scattered-site tenants into white, middle-class neighborhoods is that residents will move elsewhere – a phenomenon known as <a href="/wiki/White_flight" title="White flight">white flight</a>. To counter this phenomenon, some programs place tenants in private apartments that do not appear outwardly different. Despite these efforts, many members of middle-class, predominantly white neighborhoods have fought hard to keep public housing out of their communities.<sup id="cite_ref-Oldweiler_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oldweiler-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>American sociologist <a href="/wiki/William_Julius_Wilson" title="William Julius Wilson">William Julius Wilson</a> has proposed that concentrating low-income housing in impoverished areas can limit tenants' access to social opportunity.<sup id="cite_ref-evans.washington.edu_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-evans.washington.edu-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, some scattered-site programs now relocate tenants in middle-class suburban neighborhoods, hoping that immersion within social networks of greater financial stability will increase their social opportunities.<sup id="cite_ref-evans.washington.edu_56-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-evans.washington.edu-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, this strategy has not necessarily proved effective, especially with regards to boosting employment. When placed in neighborhoods of similar economic means, studies indicate that low-income residents use neighbors as social resources less often when living scattered throughout a neighborhood than when living in small clusters within a neighborhood.<sup id="cite_ref-evans.washington.edu_56-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-evans.washington.edu-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are also concerns associated with the financial burden that these programs have on the state. Scattered-site housing provides no better living conditions for its tenants than traditional concentrated housing if the units are not properly maintained. There are questions as to whether or not scattered-site public facilities are more expensive to manage because dispersal throughout the city makes maintenance more difficult.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Inclusionary_zoning" title="Inclusionary zoning">Inclusionary zoning</a> ordinances require housing developers to reserve a percentage between 10 and 30% of housing units from new or rehabilitated projects to be rented or sold at a below market rate for low and moderate-income households. According to <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Housing_and_Urban_Development" title="United States Department of Housing and Urban Development">United States Department of Housing and Urban Development</a> (HUD),market-rate projects help to develop diverse communities, and ensure access to similar community services and amenities regardless of socioeconomic status.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most <a href="/wiki/Inclusionary_zoning" title="Inclusionary zoning">inclusionary zoning</a> is enacted at the municipal or county level. For example, San Francisco's Planning Code Section 415 (set forth the requirements and procedures for the Inclusionary Affordable Housing Program) "requires residential projects of 10 or more units to pay an Affordable Housing Fee, or to provide a percentage of units as affordable "on-site" within the project or "off-site" at another location in the city (Planning Code § 415, 419)."<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, market-rate housing construction has been shown to lower prices of individual houses, leading to a trend of lower income inhabitants moving into vacant homes after higher income inhabitants.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vouchers">Vouchers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Subsidized_housing_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Vouchers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Section_8_(housing)" title="Section 8 (housing)">Section 8 (housing)</a></div> <p>Housing vouchers, now one of the primary methods of subsidized housing delivery in the United States, became a robust program in the United States with passage of the 1974 Housing and Community Development Act.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Housing_Policy_Revolution:_Networks_and_Neighbors_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Housing_Policy_Revolution:_Networks_and_Neighbors-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The program, colloquially known as Section 8, currently assists more than 1.4 million households.<sup id="cite_ref-Section_8_Rental_Certificate_Program_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Section_8_Rental_Certificate_Program-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Through the voucher system, direct-to-landlord payments assist eligible households in covering the gap between market rents and 30% of the household's income.<sup id="cite_ref-Housing_Choice_Vouchers_Fact_Sheet_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Housing_Choice_Vouchers_Fact_Sheet-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hope_VI">Hope VI</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Subsidized_housing_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Hope VI"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/HOPE_VI" title="HOPE VI">HOPE VI</a></div> <p>The Hope VI program, created in 1992, was initiated in response to the physical deterioration of public housing units. The program rebuilds housing projects with an emphasis on mixed-income developments rather than projects which concentrate poorer households in one area.<sup id="cite_ref-About_Hope_VI_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-About_Hope_VI-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="City_programs">City programs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Subsidized_housing_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: City programs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_public_housing_developments_in_the_United_States" title="List of public housing developments in the United States">List of public housing developments in the United States</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chicago">Chicago</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Subsidized_housing_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Chicago"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The class-action lawsuit of Gautreaux v. CHA (1966) made Chicago the first city to mandate scattered-site housing as a way to desegregate neighborhoods. Dorothy Gautreaux argued that the <a href="/wiki/Chicago_Housing_Authority" title="Chicago Housing Authority">Chicago Housing Authority</a> discriminated based on race in its public housing policy. The case went to Supreme Court as <a href="/wiki/Hills_v._Gautreaux" title="Hills v. Gautreaux">Hills v. Gautreaux</a> and the 1976 verdict mandated scattered-site housing for residents currently living in public housing in impoverished neighborhoods.<sup id="cite_ref-Oldweiler_57-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oldweiler-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since that time, scattered-site housing has become a major part of public housing in Chicago. In 2000, the Chicago Housing Authority created the Plan for Transformation designed to not only improve the structural aspects of public housing but to also "build and strengthen communities by integrating public housing and its leaseholders into the larger social, economic, and physical fabric of Chicago".<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The goal is to have 25,000 new or remodeled units, and to have these units indistinguishable from surrounding housing. While properly run scattered-site public housing units greatly improve the quality of life of the tenants, abandoned and decrepit units foster crime and perpetuate poverty. The Chicago Housing Authority began demolishing units deemed unsafe, but the Plan for Transformation set aside $77 million to clean up sites not demolished in this process.<sup id="cite_ref-Oldweiler_57-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oldweiler-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Houston">Houston</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Subsidized_housing_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Houston"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AllenParkwayVillage.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/AllenParkwayVillage.jpg/250px-AllenParkwayVillage.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/AllenParkwayVillage.jpg/375px-AllenParkwayVillage.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/AllenParkwayVillage.jpg/500px-AllenParkwayVillage.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Historic_Oaks_of_Allen_Parkway_Village" title="Historic Oaks of Allen Parkway Village">Historic Oaks of Allen Parkway Village</a> in <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Ward,_Houston" title="Fourth Ward, Houston">Fourth Ward</a>, <a href="/wiki/Houston" title="Houston">Houston</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Houston_Housing_Authority" title="Houston Housing Authority">Houston Housing Authority</a> has created the Scattered Sites Homeownership Program to promote home ownership amongst those who would otherwise not be able to afford it. The program delineates strict requirements based on 80% of the Houston area's median income.<sup id="cite_ref-dig.abclocal.go.com_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dig.abclocal.go.com-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1987, the HHA received 336 properties throughout the city and it has worked to clean up these properties or sell them as low cost housing. As of 2009, the HHA had helped 172 families achieve home ownership through the scattered-site program and with the properties received in 1988.<sup id="cite_ref-dig.abclocal.go.com_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dig.abclocal.go.com-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Seattle">Seattle</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Subsidized_housing_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Seattle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Seattle_Housing_Authority" title="Seattle Housing Authority">Seattle Housing Authority</a> created its Scattered Site program in 1978. The program to date has a total of 800 units that range from duplex to multi-family. The program is currently in the process of "portfolio realignment," which entails successive upgrading of over 200 units and a continued effort to distribute public housing in various neighborhoods throughout the city. In choosing site locations, proximity to public facilities such as schools, parks, and transportation, is considered.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="San_Francisco">San Francisco</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Subsidized_housing_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: San Francisco"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1938, the San Francisco Board of Supervisors established the <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco_Housing_Authority" title="San Francisco Housing Authority">San Francisco Housing Authority</a> (SFHA), making it today one of the oldest housing authorities in California. The <a href="/wiki/Section_8_(housing)" title="Section 8 (housing)">Housing Choice Voucher Program</a> (formerly Section 8) was adopted in 1974 by the SFHA, and today it serves over 20,000 residents of San Francisco. Primary funding for the <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco_Housing_Authority" title="San Francisco Housing Authority">SFHA</a> program comes from the <a href="/wiki/U.S_Department_of_Housing_and_Urban_Development" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S Department of Housing and Urban Development">U.S Department of Housing and Urban Development</a> (HUD) and the rents paid by the housing choice voucher participants. Participants pay approximately 30 percent of their earned income for rent.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Subsidized_housing_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Subsidized_housing" title="Subsidized housing">Subsidized housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affordable_housing_in_the_United_States" title="Affordable housing in the United States">Affordable housing in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_housing" title="Public housing">Public housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_8_(housing)" title="Section 8 (housing)">Section 8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_estate" title="Housing estate">Housing estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_public_housing_developments_in_the_United_States" title="List of public housing developments in the United States">List of public housing developments in the United States</a></li></ul> <p><b>People:</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Harby#Public_housing" title="Harold Harby">Harold Harby</a> (1894–1978), Los Angeles, California, City Council member whose vote switch killed public housing in that city</li></ul> <p><b>General:</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eviction_in_the_United_States" title="Eviction in the United States">Eviction in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_crisis" title="Housing crisis">Housing crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_housing" title="Right to housing">Right to housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_programs_in_the_United_States" title="Social programs in the United States">Social programs in the United States</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Subsidized_housing_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Footnotes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output 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.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/US/PST045219">Median gross rent – American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates</a> (Report). <a href="/wiki/American_Community_Survey" title="American 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Is public housing the solution?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Curbed" title="Curbed">Curbed</a></i>. <q>As a result, the number of public housing units operating in the United States peaked in 1994 at 1.41 million. By the time the HOPE VI program ended in 2008, only 1.14 million public housing units remained. Today the number sits at 1,002,114 according to HUD.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Curbed&rft.atitle=Affordable+housing+is+in+crisis.+Is+public+housing+the+solution%3F&rft.date=2020-01-13&rft.aulast=Andrews&rft.aufirst=Jeff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.curbed.com%2F2020%2F1%2F13%2F21026108%2Fpublic-housing-faircloth-amendment-election-2020&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubsidized+housing+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cbpp.org/research/housing/federal-rental-assistance-fact-sheets">"Federal Rental Assistance Fact Sheets"</a>. <i>Center on Budget and Policy Priorities</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-06-06</span></span>. <q>GAO identified wide variation in development costs and several cost drivers for Low-Income Housing Tax Credit (LIHTC) projects completed in 2011–2015. Across 12 selected allocating agencies, median per-unit costs for new construction projects ranged from about $126,000 (Texas) to about $326,000 (California). ... LIHTCs encourage private investment in low-income rental housing and have financed about 50,000 housing units annually since 2010.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Low-Income+Housing+Tax+Credit%3A+Improved+Data+and+Oversight+Would+Strengthen+Cost+Assessment+and+Fraud+Risk+Management&rft.pub=GAO&rft.date=2018-09-18&rft.aulast=Garcia-Diaz&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gao.gov%2Fproducts%2FGAO-18-637&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubsidized+housing+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CL_1-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CL_1_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCapps2018" class="citation news cs1">Capps, Kriston (2018-09-21). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.citylab.com/equity/2018/09/why-affordable-housing-isnt-more-affordable/569650/">"Why Affordable Housing Isn't More Affordable - Local regulations—and the NIMBY sentiments behind them—are a big driver of costs of low-income housing developers. Why don't we know exactly how much?"</a>. <i>Citylab</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180922012830/https://www.citylab.com/equity/2018/09/why-affordable-housing-isnt-more-affordable/569650/">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-09-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-06-06</span></span>. <q>These are a few of the not-exactly-earth-shattering conclusions of a long-awaited report on the Low Income Housing Tax Credit program, the country's main engine for generating new affordable housing. Released this week by the Government Accountability Office, the report finds that these housing tax credits, or LIHTCs, have financed some 50,000 affordable units every year since 2010. 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Pennsylvania State University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-271-02012-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-271-02012-1"><bdi>0-271-02012-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Tenements+to+the+Taylor+Homes%3A+In+Search+of+an+Urban+Housing+Policy+in+Twentieth+Century+America&rft.pub=Pennsylvania+State+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-271-02012-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubsidized+housing+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://city.milwaukee.gov/ImageLibrary/Groups/cityHPC/DesignatedReports/vticnf/GardenHomesDistrict_HPCStudyRe.pdf">"Archived copy"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170201141102/http://city.milwaukee.gov/ImageLibrary/Groups/cityHPC/DesignatedReports/vticnf/GardenHomesDistrict_HPCStudyRe.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2017-02-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-08-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcity.milwaukee.gov%2FImageLibrary%2FGroups%2FcityHPC%2FDesignatedReports%2Fvticnf%2FGardenHomesDistrict_HPCStudyRe.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubsidized+housing+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Keith-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Keith_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Keith_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Keith_15-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Keith_15-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeith,_Nathaniel_S1973" class="citation book cs1">Keith, Nathaniel S (1973). <i>Politics and the Housing Crisis since 1930</i>. Universe Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87663-912-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-87663-912-0"><bdi>0-87663-912-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Politics+and+the+Housing+Crisis+since+1930&rft.pub=Universe+Books&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=0-87663-912-0&rft.au=Keith%2C+Nathaniel+S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubsidized+housing+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAvila2004" class="citation book cs1">Avila, Eric (2004). <i>Popular Culture in the Age of White Flight</i>. Los Angeles: University of California Press. p. 15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Popular+Culture+in+the+Age+of+White+Flight&rft.place=Los+Angeles&rft.pages=15&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Avila&rft.aufirst=Eric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubsidized+housing+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=13246">"157 - Statement by the President Upon Signing the Housing Act of 1949"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303225210/http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=13246">Archived</a> from the original on 2016-03-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-01-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=157+-+Statement+by+the+President+Upon+Signing+the+Housing+Act+of+1949&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.presidency.ucsb.edu%2Fws%2Findex.php%3Fpid%3D13246&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubsidized+housing+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jacobs-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Jacobs_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacobs,_Jane1961" class="citation book cs1">Jacobs, Jane (1961). <i>The Death and Life of Great American Cities</i>. 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Allen (1995). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/federalgovernmen00hays"><i>The Federal Government and Urban Housing: Ideology and Change in Public Policy</i></a></span>. State University of New York Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7914-2326-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7914-2326-3"><bdi>0-7914-2326-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Federal+Government+and+Urban+Housing%3A+Ideology+and+Change+in+Public+Policy&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-7914-2326-3&rft.au=Hays%2C+R.+Allen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffederalgovernmen00hays&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubsidized+housing+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFS.2011" class="citation news cs1">S., J. (15 October 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.economist.com/prospero/2011/10/15/why-the-pruitt-igoe-housing-project-failed">"Why the Pruitt-Igoe housing project failed"</a>. The Economist<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Why+the+Pruitt-Igoe+housing+project+failed&rft.date=2011-10-15&rft.aulast=S.&rft.aufirst=J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fprospero%2F2011%2F10%2F15%2Fwhy-the-pruitt-igoe-housing-project-failed&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubsidized+housing+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBristol" class="citation web cs1">Bristol, Katharine. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rasmusbroennum.files.wordpress.com/2011/11/1991-bristol-pruitt-igoemyth.pdf">"The Pruitt-Igoe Myth"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>RASMUS BRØNNUM – en Arkitektur Blog</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=RASMUS+BR%C3%98NNUM+%E2%80%93+en+Arkitektur+Blog&rft.atitle=The+Pruitt-Igoe+Myth&rft.aulast=Bristol&rft.aufirst=Katharine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frasmusbroennum.files.wordpress.com%2F2011%2F11%2F1991-bristol-pruitt-igoemyth.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubsidized+housing+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CBDG-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CBDG_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130116000725/http://portal.hud.gov/hudportal/HUD?src=%2Fprogram_offices%2Fcomm_planning%2Fcommunitydevelopment%2Fprograms">"Community Development Block Grant Program - CDBG"</a>. HUD. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://portal.hud.gov/hudportal/HUD?src=/program_offices/comm_planning/communitydevelopment/programs">the original</a> on 2013-01-16<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-01-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Community+Development+Block+Grant+Program+-+CDBG&rft.pub=HUD&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fportal.hud.gov%2Fhudportal%2FHUD%3Fsrc%3D%2Fprogram_offices%2Fcomm_planning%2Fcommunitydevelopment%2Fprograms&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubsidized+housing+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NAHA-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NAHA_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=19102">"Statement on Signing the Cranston-Gonzalez National Affordable Housing Act"</a>. 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(2009), <i>The Housing Policy Revolution: Networks and Neighbors</i>, Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87766-760-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87766-760-5"><bdi>978-0-87766-760-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Housing+Policy+Revolution%3A+Networks+and+Neighbors&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.pub=Urban+Institute+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-87766-760-5&rft.aulast=Erickson&rft.aufirst=David+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubsidized+housing+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnight2006" class="citation news cs1">Knight, Heather (20 November 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2006/11/20/BAGI9MGDJH1.DTL">"SAN FRANCISCO / Infamous projects are rebuilt and reborn"</a>. <i>Sfgate</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sfgate&rft.atitle=SAN+FRANCISCO+%2F+Infamous+projects+are+rebuilt+and+reborn&rft.date=2006-11-20&rft.aulast=Knight&rft.aufirst=Heather&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsfgate.com%2Fcgi-bin%2Farticle.cgi%3Ff%3D%2Fc%2Fa%2F2006%2F11%2F20%2FBAGI9MGDJH1.DTL&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubsidized+housing+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hud.gov/program_offices/public_indian_housing/phr/about">"Public Housing Reform Overview"</a>. 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February 5, 1989</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120905164931/http://www.dakotacda.org/ssph_program.htm">"Dakota County Community Development Agency - Scattered Site Public Housing Program"</a>. Dakotacda.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dakotacda.org/ssph_program.htm">the original</a> on 2012-09-05<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-11-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dakota+County+Community+Development+Agency+-+Scattered+Site+Public+Housing+Program&rft.pub=Dakotacda.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dakotacda.org%2Fssph_program.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubsidized+housing+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100202222030/http://www.huduser.org/portal/publications/pubasst/scatter.html">"Scattered-Site Housing: Characteristics and Consequences | HUD USER"</a>. <i>www.huduser.gov</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.huduser.gov/portal/publications/pubasst/scatter.html">the original</a> on February 2, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.huduser.gov&rft.atitle=Scattered-Site+Housing%3A+Characteristics+and+Consequences+%26%23124%3B+HUD+USER&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.huduser.gov%2Fportal%2Fpublications%2Fpubasst%2Fscatter.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubsidized+housing+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">=== Inclusionary Affordable Housing Program ===</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeep_Barnes2017" class="citation journal cs1">Keep Barnes, Jai (Winter 2017). "Inclusionary Zoning as a Taking: A Critical Look at its Ability to Provide Affordable Housing". <i>49 Urb. Law. 67 (2017)</i>. <b>49</b> (1): 42 pages, 67 to 108 – via Academic Search Complete.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=49+Urb.+Law.+67+%282017%29&rft.atitle=Inclusionary+Zoning+as+a+Taking%3A+A+Critical+Look+at+its+Ability+to+Provide+Affordable+Housing&rft.ssn=winter&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=42+pages%2C+67+to+108&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Keep+Barnes&rft.aufirst=Jai&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubsidized+housing+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sf-planning.org/housing">"San Francisco Planning Department"</a>. <i>sf-planning.org/housing</i>. December 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=sf-planning.org%2Fhousing&rft.atitle=San+Francisco+Planning+Department&rft.date=2018-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsf-planning.org%2Fhousing&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubsidized+housing+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMast2022" class="citation journal cs1">Mast, Evan (February 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0094119021000656">"The Effect of New Market-Rate Housing Construction on the Low-Income Housing Market"</a>. <i>Journal of Urban Economics</i>. Special Issue: JUE Insight Shorter Papers. <b>133</b>: 103383. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jue.2021.103383">10.1016/j.jue.2021.103383</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Urban+Economics&rft.atitle=The+Effect+of+New+Market-Rate+Housing+Construction+on+the+Low-Income+Housing+Market&rft.volume=133&rft.pages=103383&rft.date=2022-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jue.2021.103383&rft.aulast=Mast&rft.aufirst=Evan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS0094119021000656&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubsidized+housing+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Housing_Policy_Revolution:_Networks_and_Neighbors-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-The_Housing_Policy_Revolution:_Networks_and_Neighbors_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_Erickson2009" class="citation book cs1">David Erickson (2009). <i>The Housing Policy Revolution: Networks and Neighborhoods</i>. Urban Institute Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87766-760-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87766-760-5"><bdi>978-0-87766-760-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Housing+Policy+Revolution%3A+Networks+and+Neighborhoods&rft.pub=Urban+Institute+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-87766-760-5&rft.au=David+Erickson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubsidized+housing+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Section_8_Rental_Certificate_Program-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Section_8_Rental_Certificate_Program_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121018130901/http://portal.hud.gov/hudportal/HUD?src=%2Fprogramdescription%2Fcert8">"Section 8 Rental Certificate Program"</a>. HUD. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://portal.hud.gov/hudportal/HUD?src=/programdescription/cert8">the original</a> on 2012-10-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Section+8+Rental+Certificate+Program&rft.pub=HUD&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fportal.hud.gov%2Fhudportal%2FHUD%3Fsrc%3D%2Fprogramdescription%2Fcert8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubsidized+housing+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Housing_Choice_Vouchers_Fact_Sheet-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Housing_Choice_Vouchers_Fact_Sheet_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121025004538/http://portal.hud.gov/hudportal/HUD?src=%2Fprogram_offices%2Fpublic_indian_housing%2Fprograms%2Fhcv%2Fabout%2Ffact_sheet">"Housing Choice Vouchers Fact Sheet"</a>. HUD. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://portal.hud.gov/hudportal/HUD?src=/program_offices/public_indian_housing/programs/hcv/about/fact_sheet">the original</a> on 2012-10-25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Housing+Choice+Vouchers+Fact+Sheet&rft.pub=HUD&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fportal.hud.gov%2Fhudportal%2FHUD%3Fsrc%3D%2Fprogram_offices%2Fpublic_indian_housing%2Fprograms%2Fhcv%2Fabout%2Ffact_sheet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubsidized+housing+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-About_Hope_VI-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-About_Hope_VI_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120414211403/http://portal.hud.gov/hudportal/HUD?src=%2Fprogram_offices%2Fpublic_indian_housing%2Fprograms%2Fph%2Fhope6%2Fabout">"About Hope VI"</a>. HUD. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://portal.hud.gov/hudportal/HUD?src=/program_offices/public_indian_housing/programs/ph/hope6/about">the original</a> on 2012-04-14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=About+Hope+VI&rft.pub=HUD&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fportal.hud.gov%2Fhudportal%2FHUD%3Fsrc%3D%2Fprogram_offices%2Fpublic_indian_housing%2Fprograms%2Fph%2Fhope6%2Fabout&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubsidized+housing+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121028024459/http://www.thecha.org/pages/scattered_site_properties/28.php">"Scattered Site Properties | Chicago Housing Authority"</a>. Thecha.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thecha.org/pages/scattered_site_properties/28.php">the original</a> on 2012-10-28<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-11-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Scattered+Site+Properties+%26%23124%3B+Chicago+Housing+Authority&rft.pub=Thecha.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thecha.org%2Fpages%2Fscattered_site_properties%2F28.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubsidized+housing+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dig.abclocal.go.com-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dig.abclocal.go.com_70-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dig.abclocal.go.com_70-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dig.abclocal.go.com/ktrk/DolcefinoMessage072309rescattered%20sites.pdf">"Houston Housing Authority Letter to Mr. Dolcefino"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Dig.abclocal.go.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120309134249/http://dig.abclocal.go.com/ktrk/DolcefinoMessage072309rescattered%20sites.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2012-03-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-11-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Houston+Housing+Authority+Letter+to+Mr.+Dolcefino&rft.pub=Dig.abclocal.go.com&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdig.abclocal.go.com%2Fktrk%2FDolcefinoMessage072309rescattered%2520sites.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubsidized+housing+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120722215214/http://www.seattlehousing.org/redevelopment/scattered/">"Scattered Sites - Seattle Housing Authority"</a>. Seattlehousing.org. 2009-05-31. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.seattlehousing.org/redevelopment/scattered">the original</a> on 2012-07-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-11-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Scattered+Sites+-+Seattle+Housing+Authority&rft.pub=Seattlehousing.org&rft.date=2009-05-31&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.seattlehousing.org%2Fredevelopment%2Fscattered&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubsidized+housing+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sfha.org//Pages/History.aspx">"Pages -"</a>. <i>sfha.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=sfha.org&rft.atitle=Pages+-&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsfha.org%2F%2FPages%2FHistory.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubsidized+housing+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Subsidized_housing_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hud.gov/sites/documents/DOC_9836.PDF">"The Final Report of the National Commission on Severely Distressed Public Housing: A Report to Congress and the Secretary of Housing and Urban Development"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/Department_of_Housing_and_Urban_Development" class="mw-redirect" title="Department of Housing and Urban Development">Department of Housing and Urban Development</a>. August 1992.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Final+Report+of+the+National+Commission+on+Severely+Distressed+Public+Housing%3A+A+Report+to+Congress+and+the+Secretary+of+Housing+and+Urban+Development&rft.pub=Department+of+Housing+and+Urban+Development&rft.date=1992-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hud.gov%2Fsites%2Fdocuments%2FDOC_9836.PDF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubsidized+housing+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Dizikes, Peter, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2011/chicago-public-housing-0303.html">"Chicago hope: Ambitious attempt to help the city’s poor by moving them out of troubled housing projects is having mixed results, MIT study finds"</a>, <i>MIT News</i>, MIT News Office, March 3, 2011.</li> <li>Howard, Amy L. <i>More Than Shelter: Activism and Community in San Francisco Public Housing.</i> Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 2014.</li> <li>HUD, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121231010927/http://portal.hud.gov/hudportal/HUD?src=%2Fabout%2Fhud_history">"HUD History"</a> (U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development website, 10 January 2012)</li> <li>Hunt, Bradford D., <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jph.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/4/3/195">“Was the 1937 U.S. Housing Act a Pyrrhic Victory?”</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Planning_History" title="Journal of Planning History">Journal of Planning History</a>,</i> vol. 4, no. 3 (2005): 195–221.</li> <li>Radford, Gail, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=n4M8tMsM8UoC">"Modern Housing for America: Policy Struggles in the New Deal Era</a>." Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996.</li> <li>Shester, Katharine L. "The Local Economic Effects of Public Housing in the United States, 1940–1970," <i>Journal of Economic History</i> vol. 73 (Dec. 2013), 978–1016.</li> <li>Vale, Lawrence J., "From the Puritans to the Projects: Public Housing and Public Neighbors." Cambridge, MA Harvard University Press, 2000.</li> <li>Vale, Lawrence J., "Reclaiming Public Housing: A Half Century of Struggle in Three Public Neighborhoods." Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002.</li> <li>Wurster, Catherine Bauer, "Modern Housing." Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1934.</li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output 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aria-labelledby="Housing_in_the_United_States_by_state_or_territory" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="white-space:nowrap;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:US_housing_by_state" title="Template:US housing by state"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:US_housing_by_state" title="Template talk:US housing by state"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:US_housing_by_state" title="Special:EditPage/Template:US housing by state"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Housing_in_the_United_States_by_state_or_territory" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Housing_in_the_United_States" title="Housing in the United States">Housing in the United States</a> by state or territory</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Housing_in_Alabama" title="Category:Housing in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Housing_in_Alaska" title="Category:Housing in Alaska">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Housing_in_Arizona" title="Category:Housing in Arizona">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Housing_in_Arkansas" title="Category:Housing in Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_in_California" class="mw-redirect" title="Housing in California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Housing_in_Colorado" title="Category:Housing in Colorado">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Housing_in_Connecticut&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Housing in Connecticut (page does not exist)">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Housing_in_Delaware&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Housing in Delaware (page does not exist)">Delaware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_in_Florida" title="Housing in Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Housing_in_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Category:Housing in Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Housing_in_Hawaii" title="Category:Housing in Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Housing_in_Idaho&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Housing in Idaho (page does not exist)">Idaho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Housing_in_Illinois" title="Category:Housing in Illinois">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Housing_in_Indiana" title="Category:Housing in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Housing_in_Iowa" title="Category:Housing in Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Housing_in_Kansas" title="Category:Housing in Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Housing_in_Kentucky" title="Category:Housing in Kentucky">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Housing_in_Louisiana" title="Category:Housing in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Housing_in_Maine" title="Category:Housing in Maine">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Housing_in_Maryland" title="Category:Housing in Maryland">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Housing_in_Massachusetts" title="Category:Housing in Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Housing_in_Michigan" title="Category:Housing in Michigan">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Housing_in_Minnesota" title="Category:Housing in Minnesota">Minnesota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Housing_in_Mississippi" title="Category:Housing in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Housing_in_Missouri" title="Category:Housing in Missouri">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Housing_in_Montana" title="Category:Housing in Montana">Montana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Housing_in_Nebraska" title="Category:Housing in Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_in_Nevada" class="mw-redirect" title="Housing in Nevada">Nevada</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Housing_in_New_Hampshire&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Housing in New Hampshire (page does not exist)">New Hampshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Housing_in_New_Jersey" title="Category:Housing in New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Housing_in_New_Mexico" title="Category:Housing in New Mexico">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Housing_in_New_York_(state)" title="Category:Housing in New York (state)">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Housing_in_North_Carolina" title="Category:Housing in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Housing_in_North_Dakota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Housing in North Dakota (page does not exist)">North Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Housing_in_Ohio" title="Category:Housing in Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_in_Oklahoma" class="mw-redirect" title="Housing in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Housing_in_Oregon" title="Category:Housing in Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Housing_in_Pennsylvania" title="Category:Housing in Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Housing_in_Rhode_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Housing in Rhode Island (page does not exist)">Rhode Island</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Housing_in_South_Carolina&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Housing in South Carolina (page does not exist)">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Housing_in_South_Dakota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Housing in South Dakota (page does not exist)">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Housing_in_Tennessee" title="Category:Housing in Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Housing_in_Texas" title="Category:Housing in Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Housing_in_Utah" title="Category:Housing in Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Housing_in_Vermont&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Housing in Vermont (page does not exist)">Vermont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_in_Virginia" title="Housing in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Housing_in_Washington_(state)" title="Category:Housing in Washington (state)">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Housing_in_West_Virginia" title="Category:Housing in West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_in_Wisconsin" title="Housing in Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Housing_in_Wyoming&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Housing in Wyoming (page does not exist)">Wyoming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Housing_in_American_Samoa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Housing in American Samoa (page does not exist)">American Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Housing_in_Guam&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Housing in Guam (page does not exist)">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Housing_in_Northern_Mariana_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Housing in Northern Mariana Islands (page does not exist)">Northern Mariana Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_in_Puerto_Rico" class="mw-redirect" title="Housing in Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Housing_in_U.S._Virgin_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Housing in U.S. Virgin Islands (page does not exist)">U.S. Virgin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_in_Washington,_D.C." title="Housing in Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Architecture of the United States">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Economy_of_the_United_States_by_state_or_territory" title="Category:Economy of the United States by state or territory">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eviction_in_the_United_States" title="Eviction in the United States">Eviction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home-ownership_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Home-ownership in the United States">Home ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_the_United_States" title="Homelessness in the United States">Homelessness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_California" title="Homelessness in California">California</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_the_San_Francisco_Bay_Area" title="Homelessness in the San Francisco Bay Area">San Francisco Bay Area</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_Colorado" title="Homelessness in Colorado">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_Florida" title="Homelessness in Florida">Florida</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_discrimination_in_the_United_States" title="Housing discrimination in the United States">Housing discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_insecurity_in_the_United_States" title="Housing insecurity in the United States">Housing insecurity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/California_housing_shortage" title="California housing shortage">California</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/San_Francisco_housing_shortage" title="San Francisco housing shortage">San Francisco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affordable_housing_in_Silicon_Valley" title="Affordable housing in Silicon Valley">Silicon Valley</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortgage_industry_of_the_United_States" title="Mortgage industry of the United States">Mortgage industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Housing_organizations_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Housing organizations in the United States">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Housing_legislation_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Housing legislation in the United States">Policy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Homestead_Acts" title="Homestead Acts">Homestead Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_housing#United_States" title="Right to housing">Right to housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slum_clearance_in_the_United_States" title="Slum clearance in the United States">Slum clearance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Subsidized housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_States#Housing_and_land" title="Racism in the United States">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Housing segregation in the United States">Segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squatting_in_the_United_States" title="Squatting in the United States">Squatting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoning_in_the_United_States" title="Zoning in the United States">Zoning</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Missing_middle_housing" title="Missing middle housing">Missing middle housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NIMBY" title="NIMBY">NIMBY</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parking_mandates" title="Parking mandates">Parking mandates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-family_zoning" title="Single-family zoning">Single-family zoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/YIMBY" title="YIMBY">YIMBY</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Contemporary_social_welfare_programs_in_the_United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Contemporary_social_welfare_programs_in_the_United_States" title="Template:Contemporary social welfare programs in the United States"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Contemporary_social_welfare_programs_in_the_United_States" title="Template talk:Contemporary social welfare programs in the United States"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Contemporary_social_welfare_programs_in_the_United_States" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Contemporary social welfare programs in the United States"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Contemporary_social_welfare_programs_in_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Contemporary <a href="/wiki/Social_programs_in_the_United_States" title="Social programs in the United States">social welfare programs in the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Transfer payments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Temporary_Assistance_for_Needy_Families" title="Temporary Assistance for Needy Families">Temporary Assistance for Needy Families</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Security_(United_States)" title="Social Security (United States)">Social Security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supplemental_Security_Income" title="Supplemental Security Income">Supplemental Security Income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Security_Disability_Insurance" title="Social Security Disability Insurance">Social Security Disability Insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unemployment_insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Unemployment insurance in the United States">Unemployment insurance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Public_housing_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Public housing in the United States">Public housing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Section_8_(housing)" title="Section 8 (housing)">Section 8 (housing)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_Public_and_Indian_Housing" title="Office of Public and Indian Housing">Office of Public and Indian Housing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Food</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commodity_Supplemental_Food_Program" title="Commodity Supplemental Food Program">Commodity Supplemental Food Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supplemental_Nutrition_Assistance_Program" title="Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program">Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WIC_program" title="WIC program">WIC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_and_Adult_Care_Food_Program" title="Child and Adult Care Food Program">Child and Adult Care Food Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrition_Assistance_for_Puerto_Rico" title="Nutrition Assistance for Puerto Rico">Nutrition Assistance for Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_meal_programs_in_the_United_States" title="School meal programs in the United States">School meal programs in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_Breakfast_Program" title="School Breakfast Program">School Breakfast Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farmers%27_Market_Nutrition_Program_/_Senior_Farmers%27_Market_Nutrition_Program" title="Farmers' Market Nutrition Program / Senior Farmers' Market Nutrition Program">Farmers' Market Nutrition Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Summer_Food_Service_Program" title="Summer Food Service Program">Summer Food Service Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Milk_Program" title="Special Milk Program">Special Milk Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrition_Assistance_Grants" title="Nutrition Assistance Grants">Nutrition Assistance Grants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reduced-price_meal" title="Reduced-price meal">Reduced-price meal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_Distribution_Program_on_Indian_Reservations" title="Food Distribution Program on Indian Reservations">Food Distribution Program on Indian Reservations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Education</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Head_Start_Program" class="mw-redirect" title="Head Start Program">Head Start Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Supplemental_Educational_Opportunity_Grant" title="Federal Supplemental Educational Opportunity Grant">Federal Supplemental Educational Opportunity Grant</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Health Insurance</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medicare_(United_States)" title="Medicare (United States)">Medicare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicaid" title="Medicaid">Medicaid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_Health_Insurance_Program" title="Children's Health Insurance Program">Children's Health Insurance Program</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Grants & subsidies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Community_Development_Block_Grant" title="Community Development Block Grant">Community Development Block Grant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_Services_Block_Grant" title="Community Services Block Grant">Community Services Block Grant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_care_and_development_block_grant" class="mw-redirect" title="Child care and development block grant">Child care and development block grant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HOME_Investment_Partnerships_Program" title="HOME Investment Partnerships Program">HOME Investment Partnerships Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_trust_fund" title="Housing trust fund">Housing trust fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutual_self-help_housing" title="Mutual self-help housing">Mutual self-help housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_502_loans" title="Section 502 loans">Single Family Housing Direct Home Loans (Section 502)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NeighborWorks_America" title="NeighborWorks America">NeighborWorks America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_Partnership_Bank" title="Urban Partnership Bank">Urban Partnership Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HOPE_VI" title="HOPE VI">HOPE VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_National_Mortgage_Association" title="Government National Mortgage Association">Government National Mortgage Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FHA_insured_loan" title="FHA insured loan">FHA insured loan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HUD_Neighborhood_Networks" title="HUD Neighborhood Networks">HUD Neighborhood Networks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewal_community" title="Renewal community">Renewal community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empowerment_zone" title="Empowerment zone">Empowerment zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outreach_and_Assistance_for_Socially_Disadvantaged_Farmers_and_Ranchers" title="Outreach and Assistance for Socially Disadvantaged Farmers and Ranchers">Outreach and Assistance for Socially Disadvantaged Farmers and Ranchers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-Income_Home_Energy_Assistance_Program" title="Low-Income Home Energy Assistance Program">Low-Income Home Energy Assistance Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Service_Fund" title="Universal Service Fund">Lifeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">State & territory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_in_California" title="Welfare in California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_in_New_York" title="Welfare in New York">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_in_Puerto_Rico" title="Welfare in Puerto Rico">Puerto 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