Mari - World History Encyclopedia

<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en"> <head prefix="og: http://ogp.me/ns# fb: http://ogp.me/ns/fb# article: http://ogp.me/ns/article#"> <title>Mari - World History Encyclopedia</title>   <link rel="preload" fetchpriority="high" href="/template/images/bg_timeline.png" as="image"> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://fonts.gstatic.com" crossorigin> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://cdn.consentmanager.net"> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://b.delivery.consentmanager.net">  <link rel="preconnect" href="https://btloader.com"> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://securepubads.g.doubleclick.net"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="https://static.cloudflareinsights.com"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="https://tpc.googlesyndication.com"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="https://pagead2.googlesyndication.com"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="https://adservice.google.com"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="https://www.googleadservices.com"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="https://sb.scorecardresearch.co">  <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0, shrink-to-fit=no"> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" /> <meta name="theme-color" content="#082865" /> <meta name="msapplication-navbutton-color" content="#082865"> <meta name="apple-mobile-web-app-status-bar-style" content="#082865"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:large"> <meta name="description" content="Mari was a city-state located near the west bank of the Euphrates River in Northern Mesopotamia (now eastern Syria) during the Early Bronze Age and the Middle..."> <meta name="keywords" content="Mari,Bronze Age,Mesopotamia,Mesopotamian Culture,Syro-Mesopotamia,Tell Hariri"> <meta name="author" content="Henry Curtis Pelgrift"> <meta name="subjects" content="StatesCultures,Places,ArtArchitecture"> <meta name="regions" content="MiddleEast"> <meta name="periods" content="Ancient"> <link rel="alternate" hreflang="ar" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/trans/ar/1-153/" /> <link rel="alternate" hreflang="az" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/trans/az/1-153/mari/" /> <link rel="alternate" hreflang="fr" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/trans/fr/1-153/mari-ville/" /> <link rel="alternate" hreflang="fa" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/trans/fa/1-153/" /> <link rel="alternate" hreflang="en" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/mari/" /> <link rel="alternate" hreflang="x-default" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/mari/" /> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/" /> <meta property="push:bimage" content="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/750x750/4416.jpg"/> <meta http-equiv="Content-Security-Policy" content="upgrade-insecure-requests"> <meta name="impact-site-verification" value="-720600813" /> <meta name="p:domain_verify" content="b24695bfa00137b2e95cb4ca94c3f5dd"/> <meta property="twitter:account_id" content="4503599627388175" /> <meta name="flattr:id" content="62l7dn">  <meta property="og:type" content="article"> <meta property="og:url" content="https://www.worldhistory.org/mari/"> <meta property="og:site_name" content="World History Encyclopedia"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/1200x627/4416.jpg"> <meta property="og:title" content="Mari"> <meta property="og:description" content="Mari was a city-state located near the west bank of the Euphrates River in Northern Mesopotamia (now eastern Syria) during the Early Bronze Age and the Middle Bronze Age. One of the earliest known planned..."> <meta property="article:publisher" content="https://link.worldhistory.org/facebook"> <meta property="article:author" content="https://www.facebook.com/10153238128496461">  <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary_large_image"> <meta name="twitter:site" content="@whencyclopedia"> <meta name="twitter:title" content="Mari"> <meta name="twitter:description" content="Mari was a city-state located near the west bank of the Euphrates River in Northern Mesopotamia (now eastern Syria) during the Early Bronze Age and the Middle Bronze Age. One of the earliest known planned..."> <meta name="twitter:creator" content="@whencyclopedia"> <meta name="twitter:image:src" content="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/1200x627/4416.jpg"> <meta name="twitter:domain" content="https://www.worldhistory.org">  <link rel="canonical" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/mari/" />  <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"Organization","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","brand":"World History Encyclopedia","legalName":"World History Publishing Ltd","name":"World History Encyclopedia","url":"https://www.worldhistory.org","sameAs":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_History_Encyclopedia","image":"https://www.worldhistory.org/template/images/header/whe-logo-954x231px.png","duns":"218445829","address":{"@type":"PostalAddress","addressCountry":"United Kingdom","addressLocality":"Godalming","addressRegion":"Surrey","postalCode":"GU7 1HE","streetAddress":"Brook House, Mint Street"},"logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/template/images/header/whe-logo-318x77px.png","width":318,"height":77}} </script> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"WebSite","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","url":"https://www.worldhistory.org","potentialAction":{"@type":"SearchAction","target":"https://www.worldhistory.org/search/?q={search_term_string}","query-input":"required name=search_term_string"},"publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","name":"World History Encyclopedia"} </script> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/mari/","@type":"ScholarlyArticle","about":{"@type":"Thing","name":"Mari","description":"ancient Sumerian and Amorite city","sameAs":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q244762"},"author":{"@type":"Person","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/hpelgrift/#person","name":"Henry Curtis Pelgrift","url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/hpelgrift/","sameAs":["https://www.linkedin.com/in/henrypelgrift/"],"image":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/profile_photos/150-hpelgrift.jpg","description":"Henry Curtis Pelgrift is an archaeologist with 13 excavations over seven seasons under his belt and has worked at the British Museum and Met. He is currently doing a PhD in Archaeology and has an MA in Mediterranean Archaeology and a BA in Archaeology."},"citation":[{"@type":"Book","name":"Atlas of Mesopotamia","author":{"@type":"Person","name":"Beek, M.A."},"isbn":"B0000CLF3Q","datePublished":"1962","publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd. Publishers"}},{"@type":"Book","name":"Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia","author":{"@type":"Person","name":"Bertman, S."},"isbn":"0195183649","datePublished":"2005","publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Oxford University Press"}},{"@type":"Book","name":"Civilizations of the Ancient Near East","author":{"@type":"Person","name":"Sasson, J.M."},"isbn":"0684192799","datePublished":"1995","publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Charles Scribner's Sons"}},{"@type":"Book","name":"Babylon: Mesopotamia and the Birth of Civilization","author":{"@type":"Person","name":"Kriwaczek, P."},"isbn":"1250054168","datePublished":"2012","publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"New York: St. Martin's Press"}},{"@type":"Book","name":"Civilizations of the Ancient Near East","author":{"@type":"Person","name":"Sasson, J.M."},"isbn":"0684192799","datePublished":"1995","publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Charles Scribner's Sons"}},{"@type":"Book","name":"Mari: Capital of Northern Mesopotamia in the Third Millenium - The archaeology of Tell Hariri on the Euphrates","author":{"@type":"Person","name":"Margueron, J."},"isbn":"1782977317","datePublished":"2014","publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Oxford & Philadelphia: Oxbow Books"}},{"@type":"Book","name":"Civilizations of the Ancient Near East","author":{"@type":"Person","name":"Sasson, J.M."},"isbn":"0684192799","datePublished":"1995","publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Charles Scribner's Sons"}},{"@type":"Book","name":"Civilizations of the Ancient Near East","author":{"@type":"Person","name":"Sasson, J.M."},"isbn":"0684192799","datePublished":"1995","publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Charles Scribner's Sons"}},{"@type":"Book","name":"Everyday Life in Babylonia and Assyria","author":{"@type":"Person","name":"Saggs, H.W.F."},"isbn":"0880291273","datePublished":"1987","publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Hippocrene Books"}},{"@type":"Book","name":"Civilizations of the Ancient Near East","author":{"@type":"Person","name":"Sasson, J.M."},"isbn":"0684192799","datePublished":"1995","publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Charles Scribner's Sons"}},{"@type":"Book","name":"Civilizations of the Ancient Near East","author":{"@type":"Person","name":"Sasson, J.M."},"isbn":"0684192799","datePublished":"1995","publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Charles Scribner's Sons"}},{"@type":"Book","name":"Ur 'of the Chaldees","author":{"@type":"Person","name":"Woolley, L."},"isbn":"0801415187","datePublished":"1982","publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Cornell University Press"}}],"copyrightNotice":"By: Henry Curtis Pelgrift - CC BY-NC-SA - This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included.","creditText":"Henry Curtis Pelgrift (World History Encyclopedia, https://www.worldhistory.org, CC BY-NC-SA)","dateModified":"2025-04-04T12:13:18+0000","datePublished":"2016-01-19T09:37:30+0000","description":"Mari was a city-state located near the west bank of the Euphrates River in Northern Mesopotamia (now eastern Syria) during the Early Bronze Age and the Middle Bronze Age. One of the earliest known planned...","headline":"Mari","image":["https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/4416.jpg","https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/1600x900/4416.jpg","https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/1200x900/4416.jpg","https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1500x1500/4416.jpg"],"inLanguage":{"@type":"Language","name":"English","alternateName":"en"},"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","keywords":"Bronze Age,Mari,Mesopotamia,Mesopotamian Culture,Syro-Mesopotamia,Tell Hariri","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/mari/","mentions":[{"@type":"Thing","name":"Mesopotamia","description":"area of the Tigris\u2013Euphrates river system","sameAs":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11767"}],"publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","publishingPrinciples":"https://www.worldhistory.org/static/editorial-policy/","speakable":{"@type":"SpeakableSpecification","cssSelector":["h1","article"]},"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/mari/"} </script>  <script type="text/javascript"> window.AHE = {}; AHE.domain = 'worldhistory.org'; AHE.lastDeploy = '1743674526'; AHE.ayEntityID = 'rBndncCqbjkzwhcPC'; window.idleQueue = []; const coreScriptsLoadedEvent = new Event('coreScriptsReady'); </script>  <script>function async_load_js(script_url,cbfunc,defer){if(defer==undefined)defer=true;var s=document.createElement('script');s.src=script_url;if(defer){s.defer=true}else s.async=true;s.importance='low';s.fetchpriority='low';var x=document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0];x.parentNode.append(s);if(cbfunc)s.addEventListener('load',function(e){cbfunc(e)},{once:true});if(cbfunc)s.addEventListener('error',function(e){cbfunc(e)},{once:true})} function scheduleIdleQueue(){if(window.idleQueue.length>0)if(window.isRequestIdleCallbackScheduled){return}else{window.isRequestIdleCallbackScheduled=true;if('requestIdleCallback'in window){requestIdleCallback(processIdleQueue,{timeout:2e3})}else processIdleQueue()}} function processIdleQueue(deadline){window.isRequestIdleCallbackScheduled=false;if(typeof deadline==='undefined')deadline={timeRemaining:function(){return Number.MAX_VALUE}};while((deadline.timeRemaining()>0||deadline.didTimeout)&&window.idleQueue.length>0){var queueFunc=window.idleQueue.shift();queueFunc()};scheduleIdleQueue()} function jsQueue(func){window.idleQueue.push(func);if(window.pageIsReady)if(document.readyState=='complete'||document.readyState=='loaded'||document.readyState=='interactive')scheduleIdleQueue()} function getUrlParameter(url,name){name=name.replace(/[\[]/,'\\[').replace(/[\]]/,'\\]');var regex=new RegExp('[\\?&]'+name+'=([^&#]*)'),results=regex.exec(url);return results===null?'':decodeURIComponent(results[1].replace(/\+/g,' '))} function get_media_layout(){var width=document.documentElement.clientWidth;if(width<768){return"mobile"}else if(width<992){return"tablet"}else if(width<1200){return"desktop-narrow"}else return"desktop-wide"} function getCookie(c_name){var i,x,y,ARRcookies=document.cookie.split(";");for(i=0;i<ARRcookies.length;i++){x=ARRcookies[i].substr(0,ARRcookies[i].indexOf("="));y=ARRcookies[i].substr(ARRcookies[i].indexOf("=")+1);x=x.replace(/^\s+|\s+$/g,"");if(x==c_name)return unescape(y)}} function jsonStore(key,value){if(value){return localStorage.setItem(key,JSON.stringify(value))}else return JSON.parse(localStorage.getItem(key))}</script>  <script defer class="requiredJS ipJS" type="text/javascript" fetchpriority="high" importance="high" src="/ajax/visitor-info.js.php?v=1743674526"></script> <script defer class="requiredJS" type="text/javascript" fetchpriority="high" importance="high" src="https://cdn.jsdelivr.net/npm/jquery@3.6.1/dist/jquery.min.js"></script> <script defer class="requiredJS" type="text/javascript" fetchpriority="high" importance="high" src="/js/ahe-min.js?v=1743674526"></script> <script defer class="requiredJS" type="text/javascript" fetchpriority="high" importance="high" src="/analytics/pageview.js?v=1743674526"></script>  <script> var url_parts = window.location.href.split("/"); var is_member = 0; var subdomain = url_parts[2].split(".")[0]; var currentURL = window.location.href; </script>  <script> var requiredScripts = document.querySelectorAll('.requiredJS'); var loadedScripts = 0; const scriptsReady = new Promise((resolve,reject) => { requiredScripts.forEach(function(elem) { elem.addEventListener('load',function(elem) { loadedScripts++; if (loadedScripts == requiredScripts.length) { console.log('scriptsReady'); dispatchEvent(coreScriptsLoadedEvent); document.coreScriptsReady = true; resolve('scriptsLoaded'); } },false); }); }); const ipScriptReady = new Promise((resolve,reject) => { let ipScriptTimeout = setTimeout(()=>{ console.warn('IP Script Timeout'); resolve('ipScriptReady'); },10000); document.querySelector('.ipJS').addEventListener('load',function(elem) { console.log('ipScriptReady'); document.ipReady = true; resolve('ipScriptReady'); clearTimeout(ipScriptTimeout); },false); }); const pageReady = new Promise((resolve,reject) => { document.addEventListener("DOMContentLoaded", function() { scriptsReady.then(function() { setTimeout(function() { window.pageIsReady = true; resolve('pageReady'); },50); }) }); }); const privacyReady = new Promise((resolve,reject) => { pageReady.then(()=>{ if (AHE.isEU) { AHE.tcfConsentResolved = false; // CMP Listener Loop let cmpListenerInvterval = setInterval(()=>{ if (typeof window.__cmp == 'function') { AHE.consentStatus = __cmp('consentStatus'); AHE.consentData = __cmp('getCMPData'); if (typeof AHE.consentStatus == 'object' && AHE.consentStatus.userChoiceExists == true) { /* Purpose 1 - Store and/or access information on a device Purpose 2 - Select basic ads Purpose 3 - Create a personalized ads profile Purpose 4 - Select personalized ads Purpose 5 - Create a personalized content profile Purpose 6 - Select personalized content Purpose 7 - Measure ad performance Purpose 8 - Measure content performance Purpose 9 - Apply market research to generate audience insights Purpose 10 - Develop and improve products */ if (AHE.consentData.gdprApplies === true) { // EU Privacy Rules AHE.usPrivacyString = '1---'; if (typeof AHE.consentData.purposeConsents == 'object' && typeof AHE.consentData.purposeConsents[1] == 'boolean') { let purposes = AHE.consentData.purposeConsents; AHE.privacyAdConsent = (purposes[2] && purposes[3] && purposes[4] && purposes[7]) || false; AHE.privacyContentConsent = (purposes[5] && purposes[6] && purposes[8]) || false; AHE.privacyAnalyticsConsent = (purposes[8]) || false; AHE.tcfConsentResolved = true; } else if (AHE.consentStatus.userChoiceExists) { AHE.privacyAdConsent = false; AHE.privacyContentConsent = false; AHE.privacyAnalyticsConsent = false; AHE.tcfConsentResolved = true; } } else if (AHE.consentData.gdprApplies === false) { AHE.privacyAdConsent = true; AHE.privacyContentConsent = true; AHE.privacyAnalyticsConsent = true; AHE.tcfConsentResolved = true; } } } if (AHE.tcfConsentResolved) { clearInterval(cmpListenerInvterval); console.log('Privacy consent (region | advertising | content | analytics):','EU (' + ipCountry + ')',AHE.privacyAdConsent,AHE.privacyContentConsent,AHE.privacyAnalyticsConsent); resolve('privacyReady'); } },100); // Fallback timeout setTimeout(()=>{ if (!AHE.tcfConsentResolved) { AHE.privacyAdConsent = false; AHE.privacyContentConsent = false; AHE.privacyAnalyticsConsent = false; AHE.tcfConsentResolved = true; clearInterval(cmpListenerInvterval); console.warn('Privacy consent TIMEOUT (region | advertising | content | analytics):','EU (' + ipCountry + ')',AHE.privacyAdConsent,AHE.privacyContentConsent,AHE.privacyAnalyticsConsent); resolve('privacyReady'); } },10000); } else { // No Privacy Rules AHE.privacyAdConsent = true; AHE.privacyContentConsent = true; AHE.privacyAnalyticsConsent = true; console.log('Privacy consent (region | advertising | content | analytics):','non-EU (' + ipCountry + ')',AHE.privacyAdConsent,AHE.privacyContentConsent,AHE.privacyAnalyticsConsent); resolve('privacyReady'); } }); }); const deferredLoadedEvent = new Event('deferredLoaded'); const deferredReady = new Promise((resolve,reject) => { document.addEventListener('deferredLoaded',function(elem) { resolve('deferredReady'); }) }); </script>  <script type="text/javascript"> var tag = "mari"; var tags_json = ["Bronze_Age","mari","Mesopotamia","Mesopotamian_Culture","Syro-Mesopotamia","Tell_Hariri"]; var media_layout = get_media_layout(); var euCountries = ["at", "be", "bg", "cy", "cz", "de", "dk", "ee", "es", "fi", "fr", "gb", "gr", "hr", "hu", "ie", "it", "is", "lt", "lu", "lv", "mt", "nl", "pl", "pt", "ro", "se", "si", "sk"]; var USDGBP = 0.76877; var EURGBP = 0.84582; var is_admin = 0; var ci_title = "Mari"; var forced_country = getUrlParameter(window.location.href,"country"); // A/B Testing let abParameter = getUrlParameter(window.location.href,"ab"); if (['a','b','c'].includes(abParameter)) { console.log('Set A/B test to ' + abParameter) AHE.ab = abParameter; } else if (getCookie('ahe_ab_group') == 'a' || getCookie('ahe_ab_group') == 'b') { AHE.ab = getCookie('ahe_ab_group'); } else if (Math.random() >= 0.5) { AHE.ab = 'a'; } else { AHE.ab = 'b'; } console.log('A/B group: ',AHE.ab); // Core Definitions AHE.contentLang = 'en'; AHE.siteName = 'World History Encyclopedia'; AHE.ci_id = "1-153"; AHE.ci_type_id = 1; AHE.ci_type = 'Definition'; AHE.ci_author = 'hpelgrift'; AHE.ci_author_id = '4430'; AHE.ci_translator_id = ''; AHE.lang_rtl = 0; AHE.ci_trans = 0; AHE.ci_translator = ''; AHE.siteKeywords = 'history,ancient,antiquity,medieval,education,k12,university,travel,culture,heritage'; AHE.contentKeywords = ["Bronze Age","Mari","Mesopotamia","Mesopotamian Culture","Syro-Mesopotamia","Tell Hariri"]; AHE.contentKeywords.push('History'); AHE.cattaxIAB = 6; AHE.siteIAB = [ '132', // Education '133', // Adult Education '135', // Secondary Education '137', // College Education '141', // Undergraduate Education '145', // Homeschooling '146', // Homework & Study '148', // Online Education '1001', // Editorial / Professional '1011', // Academic Research Content '1013', // Educational Content '1216', // Professionally Produced ]; AHE.contentTitle = ci_title; AHE.contentUrl = 'https://www.worldhistory.org/mari/'; AHE.canonicalPath = '/mari/'; AHE.contentIAB = Array.from(AHE.siteIAB); AHE.userLoggedin = '0'; AHE.digiTrustMemberID = 'Rk7R77ItMJ'; AHE.digiTrustSiteID = 'blvtF3tRZY'; AHE.userActivityTimeout = 120; AHE.categories = {"ci_subject_ids":[2,8,10],"ci_region_ids":[4],"ci_period_ids":[2],"ci_categories":[]}; AHE.categoriesHuman = {"ci_subject_ids":["StatesCultures","Places","ArtArchitecture"],"ci_region_ids":["MiddleEast"],"ci_period_ids":["Ancient"]}; AHE.media_layout = media_layout; AHE.username = false; AHE.is_admin = is_admin; AHE.is_member = AHE.is_member || 0; AHE.is_editor = 0; AHE.prebidAuctionRun = false; AHE.adLoadMethod = null; AHE.deferredLoaded = false; AHE.deferredTimeout = 5000; // milliseconds AHE.search_term = null; AHE.usPrivacyString = getCookie('usprivacy') || false; AHE.usPrivacyOptOut = false; AHE.pubcidOptout = getCookie('_pubcid_optout') || false; AHE.cmpLinkMoved = false; AHE.isEU = false; AHE.isUS = false; AHE.deviceType = (AHE.media_layout == 'mobile' || AHE.media_layout == 'tablet') ? 'mobile' : 'desktop'; AHE.idHashSha1 = null || getCookie('esh1') || getUrlParameter(window.location.href, 'es1') || null; AHE.idHashSha256 = null || getCookie('esh') || getUrlParameter(window.location.href, 'esh') || null; AHE.idHashSha256Clean = null || getCookie('esh-clean') || null; AHE.idHashMd5 = null || getCookie('emd') || getUrlParameter(window.location.href, 'emd') || null; AHE.imageErrors = []; AHE.visitCount = Math.max(1, (getCookie("visitCount") || 0) * 1); AHE.pageViewCount = Math.max(1, (getCookie("pageViewCount") || 0) * 1); AHE.articleReadCount = (getCookie('articleReadCount') || 0) * 1; AHE.interestEmailOptIn = getCookie('interest_email_opt_in'); AHE.interestGroup = getCookie('interestGroup') || null; AHE.mcLists = getCookie('mcLists'); AHE.feedbackThanks = 'Thank you for your feedback!'; AHE.membershipPrices = {"co":{"price":12000,"cursymb":"COP","curticker":"COP","curname":"Colombian Pesos","monthly":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkpUk1JnvM","annual":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkPcVXm37P"},"ph":{"price":140,"cursymb":"PHP","curticker":"PHP","curname":"Philippine Pisos","monthly":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkEoLUtx27","annual":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkOYQa1lvS"},"in":{"price":150,"cursymb":"\u20b9","curticker":"INR","curname":"Indian Rupees","monthly":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkDIggQ5Kk","annual":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkdFQe2TOl"},"ca":{"price":6,"cursymb":"CA$","curticker":"CAD","curname":"Canadian Dollars","monthly":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtk3h0ZzsHk","annual":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtk8R6BfmDY"},"ar":{"price":300,"cursymb":"ARS","curticker":"ARS","curname":"Argentine Pesos","monthly":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkSgP1i7ry","annual":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkmn9cSOWz"},"mx":{"price":60,"cursymb":"MX$","curticker":"MXN","curname":"Mexican Pesos","monthly":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkJuSy5Bu9","annual":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkWWocq1D9"},"au":{"price":6.5,"cursymb":"A$","curticker":"AUD","curname":"Australian Dollars","monthly":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkdjUrjeVm","annual":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkdDShq92X"},"eu":{"price":4,"cursymb":"\u20ac","curticker":"EUR","curname":"Euros","monthly":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkE9eS0s1w","annual":"price_1Lbl7u2UunIs5vtkaWNWJlaJ"},"gb":{"price":3.5,"cursymb":"\u00a3","curticker":"GBP","curname":"British Pounds","monthly":"price_1Lbl7u2UunIs5vtkJP6XWDj7","annual":"price_1Lbl7u2UunIs5vtkWMIAjA35"},"us":{"price":5,"cursymb":"$","curticker":"USD","curname":"US Dollars","monthly":"price_1Lbl7u2UunIs5vtkNDtNDiIi","annual":"price_1Lbl7u2UunIs5vtkYAGjycku"}}; AHE.userEngagement = 'none'; AHE.userEngagementLevel = 0; AHE.userDevice = {}; AHE.userID = ''; AHE.appNexusUser = { language: navigator.language.substr(0,2) }; AHE.appNexusSupplyType = media_layout.includes('desktop') ? 'web' : 'mobile_web'; AHE.isHumanVerified = getCookie('whe_hv') || 0; AHE.isBot = navigator.webdriver || /bot|crawl|spider|googleother|google-extended|apis-google|mediapartners|baidu|bing|msn|teoma|slurp|yandex|anthropic|claude|chatgpt|cohere/i.test(navigator.userAgent); AHE.isIVT = false; AHE.IPv4 = null; AHE.IPv6 = null; AHE.cfTurnstileKey = '0x4AAAAAAAAwX90u0VMXFYiR'; AHE.gamTags = [].concat(tags_json); AHE.popupShown = null; AHE.cachebuster = Math.round(Math.random()*10000000); AHE.acq_referrer = getCookie('acq_referrer') || (document.referrer ? URL.parse(document.referrer).hostname : '(direct)') || '(direct)'; AHE.acq_source = getCookie('acq_source') || getUrlParameter(window.location.href,'utm_source') || '(none)'; AHE.acq_medium = getCookie('acq_medium') || getUrlParameter(window.location.href,'utm_medium') || '(none)'; AHE.acq_campaign = getCookie('acq_campaign') || getUrlParameter(window.location.href,'utm_campaign') || '(none)'; AHE.flagLanguages = {"af":{"ci_lang":"af","ci_count":81,"lang_name":"Afrikaans","lang_flag":"za.svg"},"sq":{"ci_lang":"sq","ci_count":7,"lang_name":"Albanian","lang_flag":"al.svg"},"be":{"ci_lang":"be","ci_count":2,"lang_name":"Belarusian","lang_flag":"by.svg"},"bg":{"ci_lang":"bg","ci_count":9,"lang_name":"Bulgarian","lang_flag":"bg.svg"},"zh":{"ci_lang":"zh","ci_count":248,"lang_name":"Chinese","lang_flag":"cn.svg"},"hr":{"ci_lang":"hr","ci_count":5,"lang_name":"Croatian","lang_flag":"hr.svg"},"cs":{"ci_lang":"cs","ci_count":7,"lang_name":"Czech","lang_flag":"cz.svg"},"nl":{"ci_lang":"nl","ci_count":154,"lang_name":"Dutch","lang_flag":"nl.svg"},"fr":{"ci_lang":"fr","ci_count":3776,"lang_name":"French","lang_flag":"fr.svg"},"de":{"ci_lang":"de","ci_count":183,"lang_name":"German","lang_flag":"de.svg"},"el":{"ci_lang":"el","ci_count":203,"lang_name":"Greek","lang_flag":"gr.svg"},"hi":{"ci_lang":"hi","ci_count":10,"lang_name":"Hindi","lang_flag":"in.svg"},"hu":{"ci_lang":"hu","ci_count":10,"lang_name":"Hungarian","lang_flag":"hu.svg"},"id":{"ci_lang":"id","ci_count":110,"lang_name":"Indonesian","lang_flag":"id.svg"},"it":{"ci_lang":"it","ci_count":553,"lang_name":"Italian","lang_flag":"it.svg"},"ja":{"ci_lang":"ja","ci_count":4,"lang_name":"Japanese","lang_flag":"jp.svg"},"ko":{"ci_lang":"ko","ci_count":9,"lang_name":"Korean","lang_flag":"kr.svg"},"ms":{"ci_lang":"ms","ci_count":60,"lang_name":"Malay","lang_flag":"my.svg"},"ml":{"ci_lang":"ml","ci_count":2,"lang_name":"Malayalam","lang_flag":"in.svg"},"nb":{"ci_lang":"nb","ci_count":1,"lang_name":"Norwegian Bokm\u00e5l","lang_flag":"no.svg"},"fa":{"ci_lang":"fa","ci_count":205,"lang_name":"Persian","lang_flag":"ir.svg"},"pl":{"ci_lang":"pl","ci_count":70,"lang_name":"Polish","lang_flag":"pl.svg"},"pt":{"ci_lang":"pt","ci_count":1012,"lang_name":"Portuguese","lang_flag":"pt.svg"},"ro":{"ci_lang":"ro","ci_count":14,"lang_name":"Romanian","lang_flag":"ro.svg"},"ru":{"ci_lang":"ru","ci_count":65,"lang_name":"Russian","lang_flag":"ru.svg"},"sr":{"ci_lang":"sr","ci_count":59,"lang_name":"Serbian","lang_flag":"rs.svg"},"es":{"ci_lang":"es","ci_count":2350,"lang_name":"Spanish","lang_flag":"es.svg"},"sv":{"ci_lang":"sv","ci_count":15,"lang_name":"Swedish","lang_flag":"se.svg"},"tl":{"ci_lang":"tl","ci_count":1,"lang_name":"Tagalog","lang_flag":"ph.svg"},"tr":{"ci_lang":"tr","ci_count":790,"lang_name":"Turkish","lang_flag":"tr.svg"},"uk":{"ci_lang":"uk","ci_count":50,"lang_name":"Ukrainian","lang_flag":"ua.svg"}}; AHE.minLangHomeForward = 300; // Minimum number of published translated articles to forward the homepage AHE.knownUser = +(AHE.idHashMd5 != null && AHE.idHashMd5.length > 0); // Referrer Cleanup try { if (typeof AHE.acq_referrer == 'string') { if (AHE.acq_referrer.includes(window.location.hostname)) AHE.acq_referrer = '(direct)'; AHE.acq_referrer = AHE.acq_referrer.replace('www.',''); } else { AHE.acq_referrer = '(direct)'; } } catch (e) { console.error('Error cleaning up acq_referrer!'); } // JS-dependent definitions scriptsReady.then(function() { // Acquisition Cookies if (AHE.acq_referrer) setCookie('acq_referrer',AHE.acq_referrer,365); if (AHE.acq_source) setCookie('acq_source',AHE.acq_source,365); if (AHE.acq_medium) setCookie('acq_medium',AHE.acq_medium,365); if (AHE.acq_campaign) setCookie('acq_campaign',AHE.acq_campaign,365); window.userLastActivity = Math.floor(Date.now() / 1000); AHE.privacyAdConsent = AHE.privacyAdConsent || getCookie('privacyAdConsent') || false; AHE.privacyContentConsent = AHE.privacyContentConsent || getCookie('privacyContentConsent') || false; AHE.privacyAnalyticsConsent = AHE.privacyAnalyticsConsent || getCookie('privacyAnalyticsConsent') || false; // Store A/B Test Cookie setCookie('ahe_ab_group',AHE.ab); // IP Information if (typeof clientIP == 'string') { if (clientIP.includes(':')) { AHE.IPv6 = clientIP; } else if (clientIP.includes('.')) { AHE.IPv4 = clientIP; } } // Engagement Categories if (AHE.pageViewCount >= 15 && AHE.articleReadCount >= 3 && AHE.visitCount >= 4) { AHE.userEngagement = 'veryhigh'; AHE.userEngagementLevel = 4; } else if (AHE.pageViewCount >= 7 && AHE.articleReadCount >= 2 && AHE.visitCount >= 3) { AHE.userEngagement = 'high'; AHE.userEngagementLevel = 3; } else if (AHE.pageViewCount >= 3 && AHE.visitCount >= 2) { AHE.userEngagement = 'medium'; AHE.userEngagementLevel = 2; } else if (AHE.pageViewCount >= 2) { AHE.userEngagement = 'low'; AHE.userEngagementLevel = 1; } else { AHE.userEngagement = 'none'; AHE.userEngagementLevel = 0; } if (typeof AHE.mcLists == 'string') { AHE.mcLists = AHE.mcLists.split(','); } else { AHE.mcLists = []; } // Country-Specific JS adminLog("IP Country: " + ipCountry); if (forced_country) { console.log("ipCountry override: " + forced_country); ipCountry = forced_country; } AHE.ipCountry = ipCountry; if (euCountries.includes(ipCountry)) { // EU User AHE.isEU = true; } else if (ipCountry == 'us') { // US User AHE.isUS = true; } else { // Other Country } // Inline JS (if any) }); </script>   <script data-no-optimize="1" data-cfasync="false"> ipScriptReady.then(()=>{ if (AHE.is_member) { // Has Membership, Remove Ads console.log('Membership detected!'); pageReady.then(()=>{ handleMemberLayout(); }); } else { // No Membership, Show Ads (function(w, d) { w.adthrive = w.adthrive || {}; w.adthrive.cmd = w. adthrive.cmd || []; w.adthrive.plugin = 'adthrive-ads-manual'; w.adthrive.host = 'ads.adthrive.com';var s = d.createElement('script'); s.async = true; s.fetchPriority = 'high'; s.importance = 'high'; s.referrerpolicy='no-referrer-when-downgrade'; s.src = 'https://' + w.adthrive.host + '/sites/65a6e420255ef424515e267b/ads.min.js?referrer=' + w.encodeURIComponent(w.location.href) + '&cb=' + (Math.floor(Math.random() * 100) + 1); var n = d.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; n.parentNode.insertBefore(s, n); })(window, document); try { window.adthrive.cmd.push(function() { window.adthrive.siteAds.targeting.push( {key: 'at_custom_1', value: (AHE.interestGroup || 'unknown')} ); }); window.adthrive.cmd.push(function() { window.adthrive.siteAds.targeting.push( {key: 'at_custom_2', value: (AHE.contentLang || 'en')} ); }); console.log('Raptive interest group & language set:',(AHE.interestGroup || 'unknown'),(AHE.contentLang || 'en')); } catch (e) { console.warn('Error setting Raptive user group!',e); } } }); </script>   <script> !function(){"use strict";function e(e){const t=e.match(/((?=([a-z0-9._!#$%+^&*()[\]<>-]+))\2@[a-z0-9._-]+\.[a-z0-9._-]+)/gi);return t?t[0]:""}function t(t){return e(a(t.toLowerCase()))}function a(e){return e.replace(/\s/g,"")}async function n(e){const t={sha256Hash:"",sha1Hash:""};if(!("msCrypto"in window)&&"https:"===location.protocol&&"crypto"in window&&"TextEncoder"in window){const a=(new TextEncoder).encode(e),[n,c]=await Promise.all([s("SHA-256",a),s("SHA-1",a)]);t.sha256Hash=n,t.sha1Hash=c}return t}async function s(e,t){const a=await crypto.subtle.digest(e,t);return Array.from(new Uint8Array(a)).map(e=>("00"+e.toString(16)).slice(-2)).join("")}function c(e){let t=!0;return Object.keys(e).forEach(a=>{0===e[a].length&&(t=!1)}),t}function i(e,t,a){e.splice(t,1);const n="?"+e.join("&")+a.hash;history.replaceState(null,"",n)}var o={checkEmail:e,validateEmail:t,trimInput:a,hashEmail:n,hasHashes:c,removeEmailAndReplaceHistory:i,detectEmails:async function(){const e=new URL(window.location.href),a=Array.from(e.searchParams.entries()).map(e=>`${e[0]}=${e[1]}`);let s,o;const r=["adt_eih","sh_kit"];if(a.forEach((e,t)=>{const a=decodeURIComponent(e),[n,c]=a.split("=");if("adt_ei"===n&&(s={value:c,index:t,emsrc:"url"}),r.includes(n)){o={value:c,index:t,emsrc:"sh_kit"===n?"urlhck":"urlh"}}}),s)t(s.value)&&n(s.value).then(e=>{if(c(e)){const t={value:e,created:Date.now()};localStorage.setItem("adt_ei",JSON.stringify(t)),localStorage.setItem("adt_emsrc",s.emsrc)}});else if(o){const e={value:{sha256Hash:o.value,sha1Hash:""},created:Date.now()};localStorage.setItem("adt_ei",JSON.stringify(e)),localStorage.setItem("adt_emsrc",o.emsrc)}s&&i(a,s.index,e),o&&i(a,o.index,e)},cb:"adthrive"};const{detectEmails:r,cb:l}=o;r()}(); </script>   <script> pageReady.then(()=>{ window.adthrive = window.adthrive || {}; window.adthrive.cmd = window.adthrive.cmd || []; if (AHE.idHashSha256 && AHE.domain) { window.adthrive.cmd.push(function () { let idHash = AHE.idHashSha256; if (AHE.idHashSha256Clean) { idHash = AHE.idHashSha256Clean; } window.adthrive.identityApi({ source: AHE.domain, sha256: idHash }, ({ success, data }) => { if (success) { // Identity API success! console.log(`Raptive Identity API success: ${data.message}`) } else { // Identity API error, check message console.error(`Error calling Raptive identity API: ${data.message}`) } }) }); } }); </script>   <link rel="stylesheet" fetchpriority="high" importance="high" type="text/css" href="https://fonts.googleapis.com/css?family=Karla:400,700|Libre+Baskerville:400,400i,700&subset=latin-ext&display=swap"> <style>aside .adthrive-ad.adthrive-sticky-sidebar{margin-top:40px !important}aside .adthrive-ad.adthrive-sticky-sidebar>div{top:20px !important}#primis_intext .adthrive-collapse-player{padding:0 !important}.adthrive-collapse-bottom-right{margin-right:10px !important}#footer .adthrive-footer-message{padding-bottom:40px}#footer .adthrive-footer-message>span{border-top:0;padding-top:5px;text-transform:none;color:#e0e0e0}.adthrive-device-phone #footer .adthrive-footer-message{margin-bottom:40px}footer .adthrive-ccpa-link{color:#e0e0e0 !important}footer .adthrive-ccpa-link a{color:#fff;text-decoration:none;border:1px solid #fff;border-radius:5px;padding:4px 8px;margin:10px;display:inline-block;font-weight:normal}footer .adthrive-ccpa-link a:hover{color:#293744;background-color:#fff}.ad_Mobile_Intext .adcontainer{min-height:250px}a.book_list_item:hover{text-decoration:none}a.book_list_item:hover .book_title{text-decoration:none;color:#b52600;transition:.25s}a.book_list_item{display:block;clear:both;min-height:115px;border-bottom:1px solid #e3e3e3;padding:20px 0}a.book_list_item:first-of-type{border-top:1px solid #e3e3e3}.book_list_item .book_image{float:left;max-width:70px;height:auto;box-shadow:0 7px 10px -9px #222}.book_data{vertical-align:top;margin-left:120px}.book_list_item .book_title{font-size:18px;color:#000}.book_list_item .book_details{font-size:16px;font-family:Karla;line-height:130%;font-weight:normal;color:#666}.book_list_item .book_pricing{margin:.33em 0}.book_pricing .amazon_icon,.book_pricing .bookdepository_icon{background-image:url("/images/amazon_icon.svg");width:16px;height:16px;display:inline-block;background-position:0 0;position:relative;top:4px;margin-right:2px;background-size:contain}.book_pricing .bookdepository_icon{background-position:10px 0;width:10px;margin-right:4px;top:3px}.book_list_item .book_price{color:#000;margin-right:1em}a.book_purchase_button{color:#000;display:inline-block;border:1px solid #222;border-radius:5px;padding:50px 15px 10px 15px;font-family:Karla;line-height:130%;margin-right:20px;margin-bottom:10px;font-weight:normal;min-width:160px;background-repeat:no-repeat;background-position:center 10px;text-align:center}a.book_purchase_button:hover{text-decoration:none;cursor:pointer;border:1px solid #000;background-color:#f3f3f3;transition:.25s}a.book_purchase_button.amazon{background-image:url('/images/amazon-logo.svg');background-size:100px;background-position:center 15px}a.book_purchase_button.bookshoporg{background-image:url('/images/bookshoporg-logo.svg');background-size:160px;background-position:center center}a.book_purchase_button.bookdepository{background-image:url('/images/book-depository-logo.svg');background-size:100px;background-position:center 7px}a.book_purchase_button.waterstones{background-image:url('/images/waterstones-logo.svg');background-size:60px;background-position:center 11px}a.book_purchase_button.betterworldbooks{background-image:url('/images/betterworldbooks-logo-150px.png');background-size:150px;background-position:center 10px}a.book_purchase_button .shipping{font-size:14px;color:#999}.book_purchase_buttons{margin:25px 0;background-color:#f3f3f3;padding:15px 20px;border-radius:5px;display:block}.book_purchase_buttons .purchase{text-transform:uppercase;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-weight:bold;margin-right:20px}.book_purchase_buttons .sym{color:#b52600;font-size:20px;position:relative;top:2px;margin-right:5px}.book_purchase_buttons .lp_download_wrapper{padding-left:28px;margin-top:5px}.book_purchase_affiliate_explainer{color:#999;font-family:Karla;font-size:14px;line-height:130%;margin-top:1em}.btn_book_blacklist{float:right}.headline_button,.content_button_tiny,.grey_button,.ci_rel_type{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;color:#b52600;padding:0 10px;text-transform:uppercase;border-radius:5px;background-color:#f3f3f3;cursor:pointer}.content_button_tiny{top:0;float:right;margin-right:4px;padding:0 5px;line-height:160%;font-size:12px}a.ci_rel_type{font-weight:normal}.headline_button:hover,.content_button_tiny:hover,.grey_button:hover,.ci_rel_type:hover{background-color:#b52600;color:white;text-decoration:none;transition-duration:.25s}.outline_button{border:1px solid #222;padding:3px 10px;border-radius:3px;color:#222;font-family:Karla;font-size:14px;text-transform:uppercase;cursor:pointer;font-weight:normal !important;white-space:nowrap}.outline_button:hover,.outline_button.selector:hover{color:#FFF !important;background-color:#222;transition-duration:.25s;text-decoration:none;border:1px solid #222 !important}.outline_button.red{border:1px solid #b52600;color:#b52600}.outline_button.red:hover{border:1px solid #222;color:#FFF}.outline_button.selector{margin:5px 5px 0 0;display:inline-block;line-height:15px;text-transform:none;border:1px solid #999;color:#999}.outline_button.selected{border:1px solid #b52600;background-color:#b52600;color:white}.outline_button input{display:none}.ci_rel_type{display:inline-block;text-transform:none;cursor:pointer;margin:0 2px;top:auto}.ci_rel_type.selected,.grey_button.selected{background-color:#b52600;color:#FFF}.ci_rel_type.selected .ci_rel_type_count{color:#BBB}.ci_rel_type_count{display:none;margin-top:-11px;font-size:8pt;color:#666}.grey_button{float:none;line-height:15px;font-size:14px;white-space:pre;padding:7px 10px;margin:3px 7px 7px 0;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap}.grey_button.green{background-color:#c9e693;color:#6d9d14}.grey_button.green:hover{background-color:#6d9d14;color:white}.content_button,.link_button,input[type=submit],input[type=button],.link_button.external_link,.content_button.external_link{display:block;width:160px;overflow:hidden;color:#b52600;font-weight:bold;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:16px;line-height:100%;text-align:center;text-transform:uppercase;padding:6px 6px !important;cursor:pointer;margin:5px 0 5px 0;border-radius:5px;border:2px solid #b52600;background-color:white;position:relative;top:0;white-space:nowrap}input[type=submit].content_button,input[type=button].content_button{height:33px}.green_button{display:inline-block;color:#FFF;background-color:#1bb77d;font-weight:bold;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:16px;line-height:17px;text-align:center;text-transform:uppercase;padding:6px 12px !important;cursor:pointer;margin:5px 0 5px 0;border-radius:5px;border:2px solid #1bb77d;position:relative;top:-1px;white-space:nowrap}.green_button:hover{text-decoration:none;background:#1bca90;border-color:#1bca90;transition-duration:.25s}input[type=submit],input[type=button]{padding:8px inherit !important}.content_button:hover,.link_button:hover,input[type=submit]:hover,input[type=button]:hover{color:#FFF;text-decoration:none;background:#b52600;transition-duration:.25s}.content_button_narrow.inline,.content_button.inline{display:inline-block;vertical-align:middle}.content_button_narrow,.content_button.narrow{width:auto !important}.content_button.inline{display:inline-block;width:inherit;padding-left:20px !important;padding-right:20px !important}.content_button.red,.content_button.dark{display:inline-block;border:0;background-color:#b52600;color:#fff;line-height:125%;width:auto;padding:6px 14px !important}.content_button.red:hover{background-color:#222;transition-duration:.25s}.content_button.dark{background-color:#222}.content_button.dark:hover{background-color:#b52600;transition-duration:.25s}input[disabled],.content_button.disabled,.content_button_tiny.disabled,.content_button_narrow.disabled{color:silver !important;cursor:default !important}input[disabled].content_button,input[disabled].content_button_tiny,input[disabled].content_button_narrow,.content_button.disabled,.content_button_tiny.disabled,.content_button_narrow.disabled{border:2px solid silver !important}input[disabled]:hover,.content_button.disabled:hover,.content_button_tiny.disabled:hover,.content_button_narrow.disabled:hover{color:silver !important;background-color:white !important}.social_login_button{display:block;width:174px;height:35px;background-image:url('/images/social_signin_buttons.png');background-color:silver}.social_login_button:hover{opacity:.9;transition-duration:.25s}.social_login_button.google{background-position:0 0}.social_login_button.twitter{background-position:0 -36px}.social_login_button.facebook{background-position:0 71px}.social_login_button.patreon{background-position:0 35px}.big_red_button:hover{text-decoration:none;opacity:.9;transition-duration:.25s}.big_red_button{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:20px;background-color:#b52600;background-image:url("/template/images/big_red_button_bg.jpg");border-radius:5px;color:white;display:block;font-weight:bold;margin:20px auto 0;padding:5px 16px;text-align:center;text-transform:uppercase;width:250px;cursor:pointer;white-space:nowrap}button.big_red_button{padding:6px 16px 7px;outline:0;border-style:none;font-size:13pt;font-family:hypatia-sans-pro;cursor:pointer}.simple_button{border:1px solid #222;color:#222;font-weight:normal;width:auto;padding:6px 14px !important;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:16px;line-height:33px;text-align:center;text-transform:uppercase;cursor:pointer;margin:5px 5px 5px 0;border-radius:5px;text-decoration:none;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap}.simple_button:hover{text-decoration:none;background:#444;border:1px solid #444;color:#EEE;transition-duration:.25s}.simple_button.red:hover{border:1px solid #222;background-color:#222;transition-duration:.25s}.simple_button.red{border:1px solid #b52600;background-color:#b52600;color:#fff;font-weight:bold}.simple_button.disabled{border:1px solid silver;color:silver}.simple_button.disabled:hover{border:1px solid silver;color:silver;background:#fff;cursor:default}.ad_membership_notice{text-transform:uppercase;font-weight:bold;position:relative;padding:0 10px;display:inline-block;border-radius:5px;float:right;background-color:#f3f3f3}.ad_membership_notice:hover{background-color:#b52600;color:white;text-decoration:none;transition-duration:.25s}.publish_link span{display:none}.publish_link.publish span.label_publish,.publish_link.unpublish span.label_unpublish,.publish_link.schedule span.label_schedule{display:inline}.content_button.schedule{background-color:#8cb2d6;color:#293744;border-color:#293744}.content_button.schedule:hover{background-color:#293744;color:white}.content_button.schedule.inactive:hover{background-color:#8cb2d6;color:#293744}.content_button.scheduled_label{background-color:#8cb2d6;border-color:#8cb2d6;color:#293744;cursor:default}.content_button.unpublish{background-color:#ebbaa5;color:#983e18;border-color:#983e18}.content_button.publish{background-color:#c9e693;color:#6d9d14;border-color:#6d9d14}.content_button.publish:hover{background-color:#6d9d14;color:white}.content_button.unpublish:hover{background-color:#983e18;color:white}#qc-cmp2-ui button,#qc-cmp2-ui button *{cursor:pointer}.qc-cmp2-summary-buttons button:nth-child(2){background-color:#293744;color:#FFF}.qc-cmp2-summary-buttons button:nth-child(2):hover{background-color:#222;border-color:#222}.content_item{display:inline-block;margin:20px 0;padding:0;max-width:350px;vertical-align:top;position:relative}.content_item:hover h3{text-decoration:underline}.content_item:hover .ci_preview,.content_item:hover h3{color:#b52600 !important;transition:.5s}.content_item:hover{text-decoration:none;padding:0;transition:.5s;color:#b52600 !important}.content_item .ci_type_name{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-weight:normal;font-size:14px;margin-bottom:-10px;color:#999;position:relative;top:-2px}.content_item .ci_image{margin:0;box-shadow:0 7px 10px -9px #222;max-width:100%;width:360px;height:auto}.content_item .ci_header h3{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:18px;font-weight:bold !important;text-transform:none;color:#b52600;margin-bottom:4px;line-height:120%;margin-top:6px}.content_item .ci_preview{color:#444;font-weight:normal;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:130%;padding-left:30px;margin-top:-1px}.content_item .featured_ci_marker{float:left;background-color:#b52600;color:#fff;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-weight:normal;font-size:14px;text-transform:uppercase;padding:1px 15px}.ci_info{display:flex;align-items:center;justify-content:flex-start;color:#999;font-size:14px;line-height:18px;margin:0 0 5px 0;width:100%}.ci_info .block{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;padding:6px}.ci_info .ci_author_image{width:50px;height:50px}.ci_author_image img{border-radius:50%}.ci_header .ci_info.wide{width:100%}.ci_header .rating_stars{margin-left:.5em}.ci_info.wide table{width:100%}.ci_author_and_copyright p{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:140%;color:#666}#ci_related_type_list{margin-bottom:30px;margin-top:10px}.filter_label{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-weight:bold;text-transform:uppercase;font-size:14px;display:block;margin:2px;margin-top:1em}.ci_type_icon{width:30px;height:30px;background-size:20px;background-color:white;background-repeat:no-repeat;background-position:center;border-radius:15px;position:absolute;top:7px;left:7px;opacity:.8}.content_item .ci_header{background:no-repeat left 1px;background-size:20px;padding-left:30px;min-height:21px}.ci_related_content_wrapper .ci_preview{font-size:14px}#ci_status_list_items{padding:0}#ci_status_list_items li{list-style-type:none;padding:.1em 0}*{-webkit-font-smoothing:antialiased;text-rendering:optimizeLegibility;-moz-osx-font-smoothing:grayscale;font-display:swap !important}body{font-family:"Libre Baskerville","Palatino Linotype","Book Antiqua",Palatino,serif;font-display:auto;color:#333}h1#page_title_text{font-style:normal;font-weight:400;font-size:60px;line-height:120%;color:#000;margin-bottom:-12px;border-bottom:1px solid #e3e3e3;margin:0;padding-bottom:10px;break-after:avoid-page}#content h2{font-style:normal;font-weight:400;font-size:35px;line-height:120%;color:#000;padding-bottom:10px;border-bottom:0;margin-bottom:10px;margin-top:60px;min-height:36px;break-after:avoid-page}h3{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:28px;line-height:130%;font-weight:bold;margin:1em 0 0 0;padding:0;color:#000;break-after:avoid-page}article h3{margin-bottom:-.33em}.link_nobold a{font-weight:normal}h4{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:18px;color:#000;font-weight:bold;margin:20px 0 0 0}#content article{font-size:18px}article th{text-align:left;background-color:#f3f3f3}article td,article th{border:1px solid #dadada}strong h3,b h3,h3 strong,h3 b{font-weight:normal !important}dfn{font-weight:bold}cite{font-style:normal}.ci_header h3{margin:4px 0 0 0}#content{font-size:16px;line-height:180%}a{color:#b52600;font-weight:bold;text-decoration:none}a:hover{text-decoration:underline}.messages{display:block;margin:0 auto;width:75%;padding:1em 1em 1em 1em;margin-top:50px}#result_error_messages,.registration_errors,#float_message.msg_error,.errors_in_doc{border:1px solid #b52600;background-color:#f1d1c9;color:#b52600}.errors_in_doc{border:0;border-radius:5px;font-size:18px}#result_messages_in_doc,.info_in_doc{background-color:#ffc600;color:#000;font-size:18px;border-radius:5px}p.err{border-left:5px solid orangered;padding-left:10px;margin-left:-10px}.info_in_doc{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;padding:.5em 1em;line-height:130%;margin:1em 0}#result_messages,#float_message{border:1px solid #999;background-color:#f8ecdd}.error_box{border:2px solid #b52600;background-color:#f1d1c9;padding:10px;margin:0 -12px}blockquote{font-size:16px;line-height:130%;color:grey;padding-left:5px;margin-bottom:0;padding:1px 1em 1px 80px;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;margin-left:0;background-repeat:no-repeat;background-position:15px 15px}blockquote p{margin:.5em 0}.light{color:#999}.light.normal{font-weight:normal}textarea{border:1px solid #dadada;padding:.5em}input[type=text],input[type=url],input[type=number],select,input[type=password],input[type=email],#ahe_dialogue_popup input[type=text],#ahe_dialogue_popup select,#ahe_dialogue_popup input[type=password],#ahe_dialogue_popup input[type=email],#TB_window input[type=text],#TB_window select,#TB_window input[type=password],#TB_window input[type=email]{font-size:16px;line-height:16px;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;color:#222;border:1px solid #dadada;border-radius:5px;box-shadow:inset 0 0 5px rgba(0,0,0,.1);padding:6px 10px;position:relative;top:1px}input[type=text]:focus,input[type=email]:focus,input[type=url]:focus,input[type=number]:focus,select:focus,input[type=password]:focus,#ahe_dialogue_popup input[type=text]:focus,#ahe_dialogue_popup input[type=email]:focus,#ahe_dialogue_popup select:focus,#ahe_dialogue_popup input[type=password]:focus,#TB_window input[type=text]:focus,#TB_window select:focus,#TB_window input[type=password]:focus{border:1px solid #b52600;box-shadow:inset 0 0 5px rgba(181,38,0,.1);color:#222;outline:0}#content textarea,#TB_window textarea,#ahe_dialogue_popup textarea{font-size:16px;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;color:#222;border:1px solid #dadada;border-radius:5px;box-shadow:inset 0 0 5px rgba(0,0,0,.1);padding:6px 10px;max-width:95%}#content textarea:focus,#TB_window textarea:focus,#ahe_dialogue_popup textarea:focus{border:1px solid #b52600;box-shadow:inset 0 0 5px rgba(181,38,0,.1);color:#222;outline:0}.link_style{color:#b52600;font-weight:bold;cursor:pointer}.link_style:hover{text-decoration:underline}.teamprofiles tr{margin-bottom:2em}.teamprofiles td{font-size:10px;vertical-align:top;padding:17px 7px 30px 7px}.teamprofiles p{margin:0 0 1em 0}.team_member_details li{list-style-type:circle}.big_quote{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;float:right;background:url(/template/images/bg_quote.png) center 20px no-repeat;padding:76px 20px 30px;text-transform:uppercase;font-weight:bold;font-size:26px;text-align:center;color:#b52600;margin:10px;display:block;width:300px}.big_quote .quote_author{font-size:16px;color:#e4ded7}.ahe-ad,.sovrn-onetag-ad,.ahe-ad h4,.ahe-promo h4{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:13px}.ahe-ad h4,.sovrn-onetag-ad{font-weight:normal;text-transform:uppercase;color:#999;margin-bottom:20px;margin-top:40px}.filter_count{color:#999}.partners_list p{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:13px;line-height:21px}.statistics_table td{padding-left:.5em;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif}label,.banner-caption{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:130%}#search_filters li{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif}.breadcrumb_navigation{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;padding-top:5px;padding-bottom:5px;font-size:14px}.search_filters{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:130%}input::placeholder{color:#999}.form_field_label{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:14px;line-height:14px;color:#666;font-weight:bold;margin-bottom:2px;margin-top:1em}.errors_in_doc{font-family:Karla;padding:10px 20px;display:inline-block;line-height:130%}.errors_in_doc p{margin:.5em 0}input[type=text]:read-only{opacity:.6}select{background-color:#fff}.error{background-color:orangered;color:white;border-radius:3px;padding:3px 6px}.error a{color:white !important;text-decoration:underline !important;font-weight:bold}.editorial_review_notice{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:14px;color:#666;line-height:18px;border-top:1px dotted #dadada;border-bottom:1px dotted #dadada;padding:1em 0}.editorial_review_header.translations{margin-top:.5em}.editorial_review_header{text-transform:uppercase;font-weight:bold;color:#222;padding-right:.8em;display:block}.yellow_highlight{background-color:#ffc600;padding:2px 5px;border-radius:3px}.yellow_highlight_box{background-color:#ffc600;padding:5px 10px;border-radius:5px;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif}.success{background-color:#c9e693;color:#6d9d14;border-radius:5px;padding:2px 4px;margin:-2px 0}.failure{background-color:#ebbaa5;color:#983e18;border-radius:5px;padding:2px 4px;margin:-2px 0}.affiliate_notice{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:130%;font-size:14px;color:#999;margin:1em 0}.sans{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:130%}.ahe-ad .ad_header{font-weight:normal;text-transform:uppercase;color:#999;margin-bottom:20px;margin-top:40px}li .count,li a.count{font-weight:normal;color:#999}#header{position:relative}#header_ahe_logo{margin:40px;width:318px;height:77px}#header_donate_button{position:relative;float:right}.donate_button{display:inline-block;width:90px;height:32px;color:#FFF;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;font-size:12px;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:17px;text-transform:uppercase;background:#b52600;border-radius:5px}.donate_button span{position:relative;top:8px}.donate_button span.hover{display:none}.donate_button:hover{text-decoration:none;background:#222;transition-duration:.25s}.donate_button:hover span.base{display:none}.donate_button:hover span.hover{display:initial}#header_tools .patreon_button{color:white;background-color:#b52600;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;border-radius:5px;padding:6px 10px;float:right;margin-left:0;text-transform:uppercase}#header_tools .patreon_button:hover{background-color:#222;text-decoration:none;transition-duration:.25s}#header_wrapper{box-shadow:0 2px 6px silver}.header_sm_link{width:32px;height:32px;display:none;opacity:.25}.header_sm_link svg{width:32px;height:32px}.header_sm_link:hover{opacity:1}.header_sm_link.twitter{background-position:-32px 0;background-position-x:-32px}.header_sm_link.instagram{background-position:-96px 0;background-position-x:-96px}.header_sm_link.youtube{background-position:-128px 0;background-position-x:-128px}#mobile_sm_buttons{display:none}.sf-menu ul li:last-child a{border-bottom:0}a img{border:0}.body img,body.mceContentBody img,.image-wrapper .image img,.tag_definition_image,.tm-grid-item img,.avatar_image,.shadow_image,.in_text_image{margin:1em auto;display:block;box-shadow:0 7px 10px -9px #222}.image_page .copyright{font-size:75%}.image_page .description{margin-top:2em}.image-wrapper .description{margin-top:1em}.image-wrapper figure{margin:0;padding:0;width:100%}figure .image{text-align:center}figure.image_intext_wrapper{margin:1em 0}figure.image_intext_wrapper figcaption,figure.definition_image figcaption{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:130%;text-align:center;margin-top:-7px}figure.image_intext_wrapper figcaption .figtitle,figure.definition_image figcaption .figtitle{color:#222;font-weight:normal}figure.image_intext_wrapper a:hover,figure.definition_image a:hover{text-decoration:none}figure.image_intext_wrapper a:hover figcaption .figtitle,figure.definition_image a:hover figcaption .figtitle{color:#b52600;transition:.5s}figure.image_intext_wrapper figcaption .figauthor,figure.definition_image figcaption .figauthor{font-size:14px;font-weight:normal;color:#999;display:block}img.tag_definition_image{max-width:300px;height:auto;box-shadow:0 7px 10px -9px #222}figure.definition_image{float:right;margin:0 0 10px 10px;display:table;max-width:300px}.image_large{max-width:100%;height:auto}.round_image{box-shadow:0 7px 10px -9px #222;border-radius:50%;padding:3px;border:1px solid #e7e7e7}body{padding:0;margin:0;overflow-x:hidden}body.iframe{background-color:#FFF}a img{border:0}#page{background-color:#FFF;width:1101px;border-left:1px solid white;border-right:1px solid white;margin:0 auto}#content_wrapper{padding:40px;padding-top:22px}.left_3_column{float:left;width:681px}.right_1_column{float:left;width:300px;margin-left:40px}.left_1_column{float:left;width:300px}.right_3_column{float:left;width:681px;margin-left:40px}.left_2_column{float:left;width:490px}.right_2_column{float:left;width:490px;margin-left:40px}.right_narrow_column{float:left;width:250px;margin-left:40px}.left_narrow_column{float:left;width:160px}.middle_wide_column{float:left;width:531px;margin-left:40px}.middle_2_column{float:left;width:427px;margin-left:21px}.full_4_column{width:1021px}.clear{clear:both}.pagination{margin:10px auto;display:block;text-align:center;font-size:10px;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif}.pagination a{border:1px solid #dadada;padding:5px 7px;margin:2px}.pagination a:hover{color:#FFF;background-color:#b52600;text-decoration:none}.pagination strong{border:1px solid #b52600;padding:5px 7px;margin:2px;background-color:#b52600;color:#FFF}.float_right{float:right}.hidden{display:none}.searchform input[type=text]{height:21px;margin-right:5px;border:1px solid #dadada}.left_1_column .searchform input[type=text]{width:145px;margin-left:-4px}.about_links,.left_menu{margin:0;padding:0;border-bottom:1px solid #e3e3e3}.left_menu a,.about_link a{display:block;border-top:1px solid #e3e3e3;padding:.3em .3em;margin:0;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif}.left_menu a:hover,.about_link a:hover{background-color:#f3f3f3;text-decoration:none}.index_alphabet{display:block;margin:0;width:682px;padding-left:20px;background-image:url('/template/images/index_alphabet_fadout_bg.png');clear:both;max-width:728px}#index_tags_container{display:block;min-height:700px;vertical-align:middle;max-width:400px}input.button_height{font-size:12px;padding:4px}input[type=radio],input[type=checkbox]{position:relative;margin-right:.5em}#content select{height:33px;padding:0 10px;top:0}.uvOverlay1{z-index:2000000001 !important}#delete_reason_wrapper{display:none}table{border-collapse:collapse;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:140%}table th{text-align:left;background-color:#f3f3f3;color:#000}table td,table th{border-color:#f3f3f3}.team_member_details b{font-size:14px;line-height:20px}.team_member_details{padding-left:2.5em !important}.teamprofiles td img{border:1px solid silver;padding:2px;border-radius:75px}#mce-EMAIL{width:200px;margin-right:5px}.right_narrow_column #mce-EMAIL{width:122px}.right_1_column #mce-EMAIL{width:165px}#mc_embed_signup{background-color:#f3f3f3;margin-top:30px;min-height:436px;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:140%}#mc_embed_signup .mc-field-group{line-height:150%}#mc_embed_signup form{padding:1px 15px 12px 15px}#mc_embed_signup h3{background-color:#222;display:inline-block;font-size:14px;color:white;border-radius:3px;padding:3px 10px;margin:10px 0 0 0;font-weight:bold}img.newsletter_banner{border-bottom:1px solid #e4ded7}.bottom_float_bar{position:fixed;bottom:0;width:100%;background-color:#353535;left:0;border-top:3px solid #b52600;z-index:10}.youtube-embed-wrapper{max-width:100%;margin:0 auto;box-shadow:0 7px 10px -9px #222}#content.video_page .youtube-embed-wrapper,#content.image3d_page .youtube-embed-wrapper{max-width:100% !important}.youtube-embed-container{position:relative;padding-bottom:56.25%;height:0;overflow:hidden;max-width:100%;width:100%}.youtube-embed-container iframe,.youtube-embed-container object,.youtube-embed-container embed{position:absolute;top:0;left:0;width:100%;height:100%}.ad_Flexi_TopRight{margin-bottom:100px;min-height:600px}.ad_Flexi_MiddleRight{margin:100px 0;min-height:250px}.ad_Flexi_LowerRight{margin:100px 0;min-height:600px}.ad_Flexi_BottomLeft{max-width:728px;margin:auto}.ad_Mobile_Intext{margin:2em 0;clear:both;display:block}@media(max-width:991px){.ad_Mobile_Intext .innerwrapper{text-align:center}}@media(min-width:992px){.ad_Mobile_Intext.intext-ad-1,.ad_Mobile_Intext.intext-ad-2{display:none}}.sticky,.ahe-ad iframe.hstryFrame,.ahe-ad institutional_sub_promo{position:sticky;top:20px;display:block}#ad_sidebar_whitespace_sticky{position:sticky;top:20px;margin-top:100px}.right_1_column .shop_promo{margin:100px 0}.image3d_embed{position:relative;padding-bottom:56.25%;height:0;overflow:hidden;max-width:100%}.image3d_embed iframe{position:absolute;top:0;left:0;width:100%;height:100%}.contribute_page #tag_add_button{float:none}body.iframe{padding:2em}.map_section{margin-top:1em}.pre_article_section{margin:14px 0}.ci_audio_link,.translations_header{clear:both;margin:10px 0;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;color:#999;font-size:14px;line-height:18px}.ci_audio_link img.headphones_icon{width:32px;height:32px;vertical-align:middle;padding-right:13px;position:relative;top:-1px}.translations_header{margin-bottom:6px}.translations_header img{width:32px;height:32px;vertical-align:top;padding-right:9px;position:relative;top:-7px}.translations_title{display:inline-block;vertical-align:top;margin-right:.5em}.translations_links{display:inline-block;vertical-align:top}.inline{display:inline}.collection_contents .ci_listing{margin:2em 0}.collection_contents .ci_listing h3{margin-bottom:.5em}.timeline_outer_wrapper{margin:100px 0}.mosaicflow__column{float:left}.image-list img{float:left;display:block;height:auto;max-width:150px;border-radius:50%;box-shadow:0 7px 10px -9px #222}.image-list .label{margin-left:170px}.image-list .preheader{font-family:Karla;color:#999;font-size:14px;margin-bottom:-8px}.image-list h3.header{margin:0}.image-list .image-list-item{margin:60px 0;min-height:150px;clear:both}.image-list-item .label-content p{margin:.6em 0}.image-list-cards img{display:block;height:auto;max-width:150px;border-radius:50%;box-shadow:0 7px 10px -9px #222;margin:0 auto}.image-list-cards .label{margin-top:15px}.image-list-cards .preheader{color:#999;font-size:14px}.image-list-cards h4{margin:0}.image-list-cards .image-list-item{margin:40px 40px 40px 0;min-height:150px;clear:both;max-width:300px;display:inline-block;vertical-align:top;text-align:center;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:130%;position:relative}.image-list-cards .coming_soon{background-color:#ea5b3a;display:inline-block;padding:2px 0;color:#FFF;font-size:14px;text-transform:uppercase;line-height:15px;border-radius:3px;position:absolute;top:137px;width:110px;left:95px;left:calc(50% - 55px);font-weight:bold}.image-list-cards .image-list-item .label-content p{margin:.3em 0;color:#999}.image-list-cards.small .image-list-item{max-width:200px;margin:20px 40px 20px 0}.image-list-cards.small img{max-width:100px}.image-list-cards.small .coming_soon{top:90px}.checkbox_wrapper input[type=checkbox]{margin-right:-20px;position:relative;top:-2px}.checkbox_wrapper label{margin-bottom:.5em !important;display:inline-block;vertical-align:top;line-height:130%;margin-left:25px;float:right}.checkbox_wrapper{margin:.5em 0}.adcontainer>div{position:sticky;top:40px}.right_1_column .adcontainer{min-height:280px}.right_1_column .adcontainer>div{position:sticky;top:40px}#div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_TopRight,#div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_LowerRight{height:600px}#div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_MiddleRight{height:280px}#div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_BottomLeft{min-height:90px}#div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_MobileSticky{max-height:90px;overflow:hidden}.publication_status{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;margin:10px}.publication_status.is_published .published{display:block}.publication_status.is_published .suggested{display:none}.publication_status .published{display:none}.publication_status .suggested{display:block}.publication_status .suggested{color:#983e18}.publication_status .published{color:#6d9d14}.publication_status .sym{font-weight:bold}#footer_spacer{clear:both;height:1px}#footer .social svg{width:30px;height:30px;opacity:70%;filter:invert(1);margin-right:5px}#footer .social a:hover svg{opacity:100%}.clear{clear:both}.inline_block_section{display:inline-block;margin:1em 1em 1em 0}.inline_block_section .form_field_label{margin-top:0}#loadingOverlay{display:none;position:fixed;width:100%;height:100%;background-color:#222;z-index:29999999;opacity:.85}#loadingOverlayMessage{color:white;font-size:60px;font-family:Libre Baskerville;position:fixed;top:50%;left:50%;transform:translate(-50%,-50%)}.membership-below-block-wrapper{min-height:301px}#audio-frame-wrapper{display:none}.highlight_box{display:block;padding:15px;background-color:#f3f3f3;border-radius:5px;font-family:Karla;line-height:130%}#float_message{display:none;position:fixed;top:0;left:50%;margin-right:-50%;transform:translate(-50%,0%);width:700px;padding:10px;border-top:0;font-size:16px;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;z-index:19999999}#float_message_close_wrapper{border-top:1px solid silver;display:block;font-size:10px;text-align:center;padding-top:8px;margin-top:12px}.msg_error #float_message_close_wrapper{border-top:1px solid rgba(181,38,0,.3)}#float_message .content_button{margin-right:10px !important}.membership_below_notice{background-color:#b52600;padding:7px;background-size:cover;background-position:right;margin:40px 0}.membership_below_notice_inner{padding:10px 310px 12px 20px;color:#FFF}#content .membership_below_notice h2{margin:10px 0;padding:0;color:#fff !important}.membership_below_notice p{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:130%}#content .membership_below_notice .content_button{display:inline-block;border:2px solid white;background-color:white;color:black;width:auto;padding:6px 17px !important}#content .membership_below_notice .content_button:hover{background-color:#ffc600;border-color:#ffc600}@media(max-width:1199px){.membership_below_notice_inner{padding:10px 10px 12px 20px}}main>.grey_box:first-child,aside>.institutional_sub_promo:first-child,#content aside>#mc_embed_signup:first-child{margin-top:60px}.grey_box p{margin:.5em 0 1em 0;font-family:Karla;line-height:140%;font-size:16px !important}.grey_box.about-sidebar p strong,.donate_message p strong,.institutional_sub_promo p strong{background-color:#ffc600;padding:1px 3px;border-radius:3px}.grey_box{background-color:#f3f3f3;padding:20px;position:relative}h4.grey_box_title{position:absolute;top:0;margin-top:0;background-color:#222;color:#fff;padding:0 20px;left:0}h4.grey_box_title.red{background-color:#b52600}.editors_only{border-left:5px solid #dadada;padding-left:15px;margin-left:-20px;position:relative}.editors_only::before{content:"Editors Only";position:absolute;left:-108px;background-color:#dadada;color:#222;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;padding:0 10px}.editors_only .editors_only:before{display:none}.right_1_column .grey_box{margin:40px 0 80px 0}.left_3_column .grey_box{margin:40px 0}.grey_box h2{padding:0;margin:0 !important;line-height:120% !important}#mobilenewsletter{display:none;margin:20px -30px;padding:20px 30px}#mobilenewsletter .headline{font-size:24px;font-weight:bold}#mobilenewsletter form{margin-top:-10px}#mobilenewsletter input[type="submit"]{display:inline-block;width:auto;color:#FFF;background-color:#222;border:0;line-height:21px;position:relative}.membership-intext-promo{background:#f3f3f3;padding:20px;position:relative;margin:1em 0;clear:both}.membership-intext-promo h5{font-size:20px;margin:0}.membership-intext-promo p{margin:.75em 0;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:140%}.metricoolPixel{position:absolute;top:0;left:-1000px}footer{background-color:#f3f3f3}#membership_sidebar{position:fixed;left:-30px;bottom:100px;width:29px;height:133px;z-index:20}#membership_sidebar:hover{filter:grayscale(1)}.greystripe{background-color:#f3f3f3;box-shadow:0 0 0 100vmax #f3f3f3;clip-path:inset(0 -100vmax)}.right_1_column section{margin:60px 0}.pinterest_button{min-height:28px;position:relative;top:4px;float:right}#primis_intext{min-height:320px;margin-bottom:2em;clear:both;max-width:100%;overflow:hidden}#primis_intext .youtube_notice{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-weight:normal;color:#fff;font-size:14px;background-color:#222;padding:3px 7px;position:relative;display:inline-block;margin-top:15px}#primis_intext .youtube_notice:hover{background-color:#b52600;text-decoration:none;color:#fff;transition-duration:.2s}#primis_intext .youtube_notice svg{height:30px;width:30px;display:inline-block;vertical-align:middle;margin-top:-2px;margin-right:3px;filter:invert(1)}#primis_intext .youtube_notice:hover svg{display:inline-block}.tooltip.help{cursor:help}.grid{display:grid;gap:20px}.grid.four_col{grid-template-columns:1fr 1fr 1fr 1fr}.grid.three_col{grid-template-columns:1fr 1fr 1fr}hr.red_bar{width:15%;background-color:#b52600;height:3px;margin:0 auto;border:0}.ad_Flexi_MobileSticky{position:fixed;bottom:0;left:0;padding:0;width:100%;text-align:center;z-index:100;bottom:env(safe-area-inset-bottom)}.pre_article_buttons{margin:1em 0}.left_bar_highlight{border-left:5px solid #b52600;background-color:#B526000a;margin-left:-15px !important;padding-left:10px !important;padding-right:10px;padding-top:.5em;padding-bottom:.5em}.left_bar_highlight.yellow{border-left:5px solid #ffc600;background-color:#ffc6000f}.print_only{display:none}@media print{.print_only{display:unset}}aside .donate_message:first-child{margin-top:60px}.ai_notice{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;display:flex;margin-top:1em;align-items:flex-start;font-size:14px;line-height:130%}.ai_notice a{color:inherit;text-decoration:underline;font-weight:normal}.ai_notice a:hover{color:#000}.ai_notice img.perplexity-logo{margin-right:10px;position:relative;top:6px;max-width:25px}.pre_article_buttons .pdf_button{display:none}body.chrome .pre_article_buttons .pdf_button,body.firefox .pre_article_buttons .pdf_button,body.edge .pre_article_buttons .pdf_button{display:initial}.aws_book_item_short a{display:block;text-decoration:none;border-bottom:1px solid silver;font-size:.8em;color:#000 !important;padding:2px}.aws_book_item_short .title{font-weight:bold}.aws_book_item_short a:hover{text-decoration:none !important;background-color:#b52600;color:#FFF !important}#title_search_response{display:block;float:right;width:350px}#references{margin-top:0;font-size:14px;line-height:130%}body.contribute #references{border-top:0}.ref_list.tag_definition{margin:1.5em 0}.lang_rtl #page,.lang_rtl .trans,.lang_rtl .original_article_link{direction:rtl}lang_rtl blockquote{background-position:right 15px;padding:1px 80px 1em 1px;margin-right:0}.lang_rtl .big_quote{float:left}.lang_rtl .ci_info .ci_author_image{float:right;margin-left:8px;top:7px}.lang_rtl .ci_info .ci_author{direction:rtl;float:right}.lang_rtl h2.trans_headline{text-align:right}.lang_rtl h1,.lang_rtl h2.trans_headline{text-align:right}.lang_rtl .left_3_column{float:right;padding-right:0}@media(max-width:1199px) and (min-width:992px){.right_1_column{margin-left:0;margin-right:40px}}.lang_rtl .headphones_icon{padding-left:13px;padding-right:0}.lang_rtl>#ahe_dialogue_popup{direction:rtl}#tag_index_wrapper{margin-top:0}#tag_edit_form p{margin:0}#tag_update_response{position:relative;top:2em}.related_pages ul{list-style-type:none;margin:0;padding:0}#tag_definition_image_selector_wrapper{width:430px;border:1px solid #DDD;padding:2px}#tag_definition_image_selector_wrapper img{padding:2px;cursor:pointer}#tag_definition_image_selector_wrapper .selected_tag_image{border:2px solid #b52600 !important;padding:0}#image_selector_ajax_loader{margin:34px}.tag_definition_image{margin-left:.5em}#tag_to_add{position:relative;top:1px;width:170px;margin-right:5px;margin-top:10px;margin-bottom:10px}#tag_to_add:focus{color:#222}.ci_tag_item,.item_box{padding:5px 10px;border-collapse:collapse;background-color:#f3f3f3;border-radius:5px;margin:5px;display:inline-block;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-weight:normal;line-height:16px;position:relative;padding-right:30px}.ci_tag_item a,.item_box a{font-weight:normal}.ci_tag_item .remove_tag_link,.item_box .remove{margin-left:5px;background-color:#e0e0e0;position:absolute;top:0;right:0;line-height:26px;padding:0 7px;border-radius:5px}.ci_tag_item .remove_tag_link:hover,.item_box .remove:hover{color:#fff;background-color:#b52600;transition:.5s;text-decoration:none}#content aside>.timeline_outer_wrapper:first-child{margin-top:65px}#tag_index_wrapper{padding-top:.2em}#time_list{list-style-type:none;margin:0 0 -20px 0 !important;padding:0;width:100%;padding-right:20px;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:140%}.timeline_entry{margin:1.9em 0}.timeline_entry:last-child{border-bottom:0}.timeline_entry .date{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:20px;margin:1em 0 .2em 0}#content .timeline_wrapper h2{margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0}#timeline_search_form select{padding:3px;border:1px solid #dadada}table.timeline_search_form_wrapper td{vertical-align:top;padding-right:4em;width:300px;padding-left:1px}table.timeline_search_form_wrapper td table{margin:0;padding:0;border-spacing:0}table.timeline_search_form_wrapper td table td{width:auto;padding:0;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.tt_category_wrapper{white-space:nowrap;font-size:14px;display:block;width:150px;margin-bottom:2px}.tt_legend_wrapper{white-space:nowrap;font-size:14px;padding-right:4px;margin-right:4px}.tt_legend_wrapper input{display:none}.tt_legend_wrapper label{padding-left:2px}.visual_timeline_button{margin:0 auto !important}#form_timeline_search #txt_book_search_submit{position:relative;top:-5px}.timeline_search_section{width:300px;float:left}.timeline_page .right_1_column #timeline_search_form{min-height:1000px}.timeline_types_wrapper{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif}#user_management_form small{line-height:12px;font-size:10px}#user_management_form input[type=text]{margin-bottom:.75em;width:200px}#user_management_form label{margin-bottom:.1em}#contact_user_message{width:95%;margin:1em 0}#user_navigation .link_button{float:none !important;display:block;clear:left !important;margin:6px 0}#image_result{margin-bottom:20px;position:relative}#image_result img{display:inline-block;border-radius:100%;width:50px;height:50px}#image_result span{position:absolute;display:inline-block;width:300px;bottom:35%;padding-left:10px}.user_short_bio{padding:15px 15px 15px 125px;min-height:100px;margin:10px 0}.user_short_bio img.avatar_image{float:left;margin-left:-125px;max-width:100px}.user_short_bio .user_name{font-size:20px;margin-bottom:5px}.sm_links{margin-top:10px}.user_biography{position:relative;margin-left:200px}.user_biography .bio_image{float:left;margin-left:-200px;border-radius:50%}#lead_image_preview{max-width:300px;max-height:300px;width:auto;height:auto}.xres_headline{font-weight:bold}.xres_domain{color:#999;font-size:14px;line-height:18px}.xres_preview{color:#444;font-size:14px;line-height:18px;margin-top:3px}.card .xres picture,.card .xres img{width:100%;height:auto}.card .xres{position:relative;max-width:100%;break-inside:avoid;margin-bottom:0;overflow:hidden;border-bottom:1px solid #dadada;padding-bottom:10px;padding-top:10px}.card .xres a{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:140%;font-weight:normal;text-decoration:none;display:inline-block}.card .xres .outline_button{position:absolute;right:10px;top:20px;z-index:2;background:white}.card .xres .xres_text{padding:10px 0}.card .xres .xres_domain{display:inline}.card .xres:hover{background-color:#f3f3f3}.card .xres picture{display:block;margin-bottom:-6px}.card .xres .editor_view_link.grey_button{display:none}.xres_categories .simple_button{clear:both}.xres_wrapper.card{margin-top:-20px}.xres_card_default_container .xres{border:1px solid #dadada;padding:10px 15px}.list .xres{margin:0;position:relative;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:140%}.list .xres:first-of-type{margin-top:1em}.list .xres .editor_view_link{position:absolute;top:11px;right:0;z-index:2;font-weight:normal}.list .xres .editor_view_link.outline_button{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:140%;font-weight:normal;text-decoration:none;display:inline-block}.list .xres .editor_view_link.outline_button:not(:hover){background-color:white}.list .xres .xres_domain.external_link{display:inline;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-weight:normal;position:relative;top:-5px}.list .xres .grey_button,.xres.listitem .grey_button{float:right}.list .xres picture,.list .xres img{display:none}.list .xres .xres_preview{display:none}.list .xres .editor_view_link.outline_button{display:none}.list .xres.listitem{margin:.3em 0}.xres .xres_domain{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif}#moderate_ajax_container .xres.listitem .xres_domain{display:inline-block;position:relative;top:-8px}.xres.listitem .xres_headline,.xres.listitem a{font-weight:normal}.xres.listitem{margin:.2em 0}.xres_categories_dropdown_wrapper .selected_categories_wrapper_outside{border:1px solid #999;padding:10px;border-radius:5px;display:block;max-width:600px}.xres_categories_dropdown_wrapper .selected_categories_header{margin-bottom:5px;display:block}body{background-color:#fff}.img-responsive{height:auto;max-width:100%}.img-responsive-full{height:auto;width:100%}#header_wrapper{background:url('/template/images/header/subject_headers/mesopotamia_shadow.jpg') center bottom repeat-x;padding-bottom:163px}#header{width:930px;margin:0 auto;padding-left:30px;padding-right:30px;position:relative}#header_ahe_logo{margin:40px 40px 36px 0;float:left}#header_tools{float:right;padding-top:50px}#header_tools .header_row_bottom{text-align:right}#header_tools .follow_us{display:inline-block;float:left;padding-top:6px;color:#999;font-size:17px}#header_search_field,.common_search_field{width:220px !important}#header_follow_buttons .addthis_32x32_style span{border-radius:100% !important}#header_ahe_logo{margin-top:25px;margin-bottom:25px}.header_row_bottom{float:left;margin-right:40px}#header_tools .header_row_top{float:right}#header_tools .follow_us{display:none}#title_bar{width:100%;padding-top:20px;min-height:108px}#title_bar .box_wrapper{padding-bottom:5px;margin-bottom:10px}#nav_bar{border-top:1px solid #e3e3e3;width:100%;text-align:center}.box_wrapper{width:930px;margin:0 auto}.v_spacing{padding:20px 0}#footer_wrapper #sponsors_box,#footer_wrapper #partners_list,#footer_wrapper #footer{margin-left:0;margin-right:0}#sponsors_box{padding:25px 20px;margin:0}.sponsors_logos_wrapper a>img{display:inline-block;margin:15px}#page{width:990px;border:0 solid #FFF}#content_wrapper{padding:0 15px}#content{width:960px}.left_narrow_column{width:150px;padding:15px;margin:0}.right_narrow_column{width:250px;padding:15px;margin:0}.middle_wide_column{width:470px;padding:15px;margin:0}.left_3_column,.right_3_column{width:600px;padding:15px;margin:0}.right_1_column,.left_1_column{width:300px;padding:15px;margin:0}.left_2_column{width:435px;padding-right:15px;padding-left:15px;margin-left:0;margin-right:0}.right_2_column{width:435px;padding-left:15px;padding-right:15px;margin-left:0;margin-right:0}#map_container{width:100% !important}#grid_submissions{width:100%}#grid_submissions .item_1_col{min-height:335px}.item_1_col{width:21%;margin:0 1% 15px;float:left}.item_1_col img{width:100%;height:auto}.teamprofiles p{font-size:15px}.team_member{padding-top:20px;padding-bottom:20px}.team_member_details b{font-size:19px;line-height:27px}.team_pic{float:left;width:20%;margin:0;padding:0}.team_pic img{border:1px solid silver;padding:2px;border-radius:75px}.team_member_details{float:right;width:73%;margin-left:5%;margin:0;padding:0}.timeline_wrapper{background-color:#f3f3f3;padding:20px}.timeline_entry{margin:12px 0;border-bottom:1px dashed #e3e3e3;padding:0 0 12px}.content_button_alphabet{display:inline-block;width:35px;height:35px;color:#b52600;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;padding:0;margin:0;margin-bottom:8px;cursor:pointer;border-radius:2px;border:1px solid #e3e3e3;line-height:35px;background:none;transition:all .25s;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif}.content_button_alphabet.selected{background-color:#222;color:#fff}.content_button_alphabet:hover{text-decoration:none !important;background-color:#b52600;border-color:#b52600;color:#FFF}.index_alphabet{width:100%;padding-left:0;background-color:white;clear:both;z-index:1000 !important}.related_pages{margin-top:40px}.related_pages h2{margin-bottom:30px !important}.ci_author_image{float:left;width:32px;margin-right:10px}h3.highlight_box{font-size:20px}.registration_message_page{width:930px !important;padding-left:15px !important;padding-right:15px !important}h2 i{color:#e5c357;font-size:31px}.section-team h3{text-align:center;letter-spacing:-1px;font-size:30px;text-transform:none;margin-bottom:15px}.tab-links{list-style:none;border-bottom:1px solid #e3e3e3;margin-bottom:60px;padding:0}.tab-links li{width:33%;float:left;text-align:center}.tab-links.two li{width:50%}.tab-links.three li{width:33%}.tab-links.four li{width:25%}.tab-links li a{display:block;font-weight:normal;font-size:20px;padding-bottom:20px}.tab-links li a.active{font-weight:bold;padding-bottom:16px;border-bottom:4px solid #c42f28}.tab-links li a:hover{text-decoration:none}.section-team.initial-on{display:block}.item-wrapper{padding:20px;background:#FFF;text-align:center}.tm-grid-item img{margin:0 auto 15px;float:none}.tm-grid-item img,.avatar_image{display:block;height:auto;max-width:150px;border-radius:50%}.tm-grid-item .tm-name{display:block;font-weight:bold;font-size:19px}.tm-grid-item .tm-studies{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:14px;line-height:130%;margin-bottom:0}.tm-grid-item .tm-description{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:16px;line-height:130%}.tm-grid-item .tm-position{font-size:15px}.tm-grid-item .tm-summary{color:#666;font-size:16px}.clearfix:before,.clearfix:after{content:'.';display:block;overflow:hidden;visibility:hidden;font-size:0;line-height:0;width:0;height:0}.clearfix:after{clear:both}.clr{clear:both;display:block;overflow:hidden;visibility:hidden;width:0;height:0}#accordion-home{border-radius:5px;box-shadow:0 8px 16px -12px #666;margin:0 15px 15px;height:280px}.kwicks{display:block;list-style-type:none;list-style:none;position:relative;margin:0;padding:0}.kwicks>*{display:block;overflow:hidden;padding:0;margin:0}.kwicks.kwicks-processed>*{margin:0;position:absolute}.kwicks-horizontal>*{float:left}.kwicks-horizontal>:first-child{margin-left:0}.kwicks-vertical>:first-child{margin-top:0}.kwicks{height:280px}.kwicks>li{height:280px}.kwicks>a{height:280px;width:125px;margin-left:5px;float:left}#panel-1{background:url('/template/images/accordion/encyclopedia.png') left bottom no-repeat #fff}#panel-2{background:url('/template/images/accordion/education.png') left bottom no-repeat #fff}#panel-3{background:url('/template/images/accordion/translation.png') left bottom no-repeat #fff}#panel-4{background:url('/template/images/accordion/medialibrary.png') left bottom no-repeat #fff}#panel-5{background:url('/template/images/accordion/books.png') left bottom no-repeat #fff}#panel-6{background:url('/template/images/accordion/maps.png') left bottom no-repeat #fff}#panel-7{background:url('/template/images/accordion/membership.png') left bottom no-repeat #fff}.pagination strong,.pagination a{display:inline-block;width:auto;height:35px;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;padding:0 10px 0;margin:1px;cursor:pointer;font-size:17px;border-radius:2px;border:1px solid #e3e3e3;line-height:35px;transition:all .25s}.book_recommendation_list .book_detail.book_image.book_smallimage{left:15px;top:-45px}.book_recommendation_list h3{line-height:24px;margin:5px 0 0 75px;padding:0}.book_recommendation_list p{margin-top:20px}.content_main_full_width,#map_area{padding-left:15px;padding-right:15px}.full_4_column{width:auto;padding-left:15px;padding-right:15px}.contribute_page td p{padding-right:20px}.tooltipster-default{border-radius:5px;border:1px solid #f3f3f3;background:#f3f3f3;color:#000}.tooltipster-default .tooltipster-content{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:14px;line-height:16px;padding:8px 10px;overflow:hidden;max-width:350px}.tooltipster-icon{cursor:help;margin-left:4px}.tooltipster-base{padding:0;font-size:0;line-height:0;position:absolute;left:0;top:0;z-index:19999999;pointer-events:none;width:auto;overflow:visible}.tooltipster-base .tooltipster-content{overflow:hidden}.tooltipster-arrow{display:block;text-align:center;width:100%;height:100%;position:absolute;top:1px;left:0;z-index:-1}.tooltipster-arrow span,.tooltipster-arrow-border{display:block;width:0;height:0;position:absolute}.tooltipster-arrow-top span,.tooltipster-arrow-top-right span,.tooltipster-arrow-top-left span{border-left:8px solid transparent !important;border-right:8px solid transparent !important;border-top:8px solid;bottom:-7px}.tooltipster-arrow-top .tooltipster-arrow-border,.tooltipster-arrow-top-right .tooltipster-arrow-border,.tooltipster-arrow-top-left .tooltipster-arrow-border{border-left:9px solid transparent !important;border-right:9px solid transparent !important;border-top:9px solid;bottom:-7px}.tooltipster-arrow-bottom span,.tooltipster-arrow-bottom-right span,.tooltipster-arrow-bottom-left span{border-left:8px solid transparent !important;border-right:8px solid transparent !important;border-bottom:8px solid;top:-7px}.tooltipster-arrow-bottom .tooltipster-arrow-border,.tooltipster-arrow-bottom-right .tooltipster-arrow-border,.tooltipster-arrow-bottom-left .tooltipster-arrow-border{border-left:9px solid transparent !important;border-right:9px solid transparent !important;border-bottom:9px solid;top:-7px}.tooltipster-arrow-top span,.tooltipster-arrow-top .tooltipster-arrow-border,.tooltipster-arrow-bottom span,.tooltipster-arrow-bottom .tooltipster-arrow-border{left:0;right:0;margin:0 auto}.tooltipster-arrow-top-left span,.tooltipster-arrow-bottom-left span{left:6px}.tooltipster-arrow-top-left .tooltipster-arrow-border,.tooltipster-arrow-bottom-left .tooltipster-arrow-border{left:5px}.tooltipster-arrow-top-right span,.tooltipster-arrow-bottom-right span{right:6px}.tooltipster-arrow-top-right .tooltipster-arrow-border,.tooltipster-arrow-bottom-right .tooltipster-arrow-border{right:5px}.tooltipster-arrow-left span,.tooltipster-arrow-left .tooltipster-arrow-border{border-top:8px solid transparent !important;border-bottom:8px solid transparent !important;border-left:8px solid;top:50%;margin-top:-7px;right:-7px}.tooltipster-arrow-left .tooltipster-arrow-border{border-top:9px solid transparent !important;border-bottom:9px solid transparent !important;border-left:9px solid;margin-top:-8px}.tooltipster-arrow-right span,.tooltipster-arrow-right .tooltipster-arrow-border{border-top:8px solid transparent !important;border-bottom:8px solid transparent !important;border-right:8px solid;top:50%;margin-top:-7px;left:-7px}.tooltipster-arrow-right .tooltipster-arrow-border{border-top:9px solid transparent !important;border-bottom:9px solid transparent !important;border-right:9px solid;margin-top:-8px}.tooltipster-fade{opacity:0}.tooltipster-fade-show{opacity:1}.tooltipster-grow{transform:scale(0,0);transition-property:transform}.tooltipster-grow-show{transform:scale(1,1);transition-timing-function:cubic-bezier(0.175,.885,.32,1.15)}.tooltipster-swing{opacity:0;transform:rotateZ(4deg);transition-property:transform}.tooltipster-swing-show{opacity:1;transform:rotateZ(0deg);transition-timing-function:cubic-bezier(0.230,.635,.495,2.4)}.tooltipster-fall{top:0;transition-property:top;transition-timing-function:cubic-bezier(0.175,.885,.32,1.15)}.tooltipster-fall.tooltipster-dying{transition-property:all;top:0 !important;opacity:0}.tooltipster-slide{left:-40px;transition-property:left;transition-timing-function:cubic-bezier(0.175,.885,.32,1.15)}.tooltipster-slide.tooltipster-dying{transition-property:all;left:0 !important;opacity:0}.tooltipster-content-changing{opacity:.5;transform:scale(1.1,1.1)}@media(min-width:992px) and (max-width:1199px){.right_3_column img,.left_3_column img{max-width:100%;height:auto}.ad_Flexi_TopLeft{display:none}.left_1_column{width:200px}.right_3_column{width:700px}.right_3_column .content_item{max-width:320px}.right_3_column .content_item:nth-child(odd){margin-left:50px}.right_1_column{margin-left:40px}.left_3_column{width:560px}.left_3_column .content_item{max-width:255px}.left_3_column .content_item:nth-child(even){margin-left:40px}#books_preview .booklistentry:nth-child(5){display:none}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item{margin-right:40px;max-width:255px !important}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item .ci_image{width:255px;height:143px}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item:nth-child(2n){margin-right:0 !important}.xres_wrapper.card{column-count:2}}@media(min-width:992px){.right_1_column #time_list{max-height:500px;overflow:scroll;overflow-y:scroll;overflow-x:hidden}#nav_bar ul li.toplevel>a{padding-right:2.5em}.sf-arrows .sf-with-ul{padding-right:2.5em;*padding-right:1em;}.sf-arrows .sf-with-ul:after{content:'';position:absolute;top:50%;right:1em;margin-top:-3px;height:0;width:0;border:5px solid transparent;border-top-color:#c02a1c}.sf-arrows>li>.sf-with-ul:focus:after,.sf-arrows>li:hover>.sf-with-ul:after,.sf-arrows>.sfHover>.sf-with-ul:after{border-top-color:#c02a1c}.sf-arrows ul .sf-with-ul:after{margin-top:-5px;margin-right:-3px;border-color:transparent;border-left-color:#c02a1c}.sf-arrows ul li>.sf-with-ul:focus:after,.sf-arrows ul li:hover>.sf-with-ul:after,.sf-arrows ul .sfHover>.sf-with-ul:after{border-left-color:white}.ci_rel_type{margin-bottom:8px !important}#primis_video_mobile_container{display:none}#div-adcontainer-AHE_ad_Search_Top{min-height:90px}.user_biography .sm_links{position:absolute;top:160px;left:-200px;display:block;width:150px;text-align:center}.user_biography .sm_links .sm_tiny_sprite{margin-right:initial}}@media(max-height:800px){#header_wrapper{background-size:auto 80px;padding-bottom:70px !important}.sf-menu a{padding-top:15px !important;padding-bottom:15px !important}}@media(min-width:1200px){#header{width:1140px}#page{width:1200px}#content{width:1170px}.left_narrow_column{width:190px}.right_narrow_column{width:250px}.middle_wide_column{width:600px;padding:15px 35px 15px}.left_3_column{width:750px;padding-right:75px}.right_3_column{width:790px;padding-left:35px}.right_1_column,.left_1_column{width:300px}.box_wrapper{width:1140px}.first-menu-item{padding-left:0 !important}.index_alphabet{z-index:1000 !important;top:0 !important;padding-top:15px !important;background-color:#FFF}.left_2_column{width:540px;padding-right:30px;margin-left:0;margin-right:0}.right_2_column{width:540px;padding-left:30px;margin-left:0;margin-right:0}#header_ahe_logo{margin-top:25px;margin-bottom:25px}#header_donate_button{margin-left:60px}.header_sm_link{display:inline-block}.header_row_bottom{float:left;margin-right:100px !important}.membership-intext-promo p,.membership-intext-promo h5{margin:0;width:500px}.membership-intext-promo .content_button.red{position:absolute;right:30px;top:35px}#header_tools .header_row_top{float:right}#header_tools .header_row_bottom{padding-top:0}#header_tools .follow_us{display:none}#header_tools .patreon_button{margin-left:60px}#header_search_field,.common_search_field{width:300px !important}.registration_message_page{width:1140px !important;padding-left:15px !important;padding-right:15px !important}.ad_Flexi_TopLeft{display:none}.left_3_column .content_item:nth-child(even),.right_3_column .content_item:nth-child(even){margin-left:70px}.left_3_column .content_item,.right_3_column .content_item{max-width:335px}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item .ci_image{width:220px;height:123px}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item:nth-child(3n+0){margin-right:0}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item{max-width:220px !important}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item:nth-child(3n){margin-right:0 !important}}@media screen{@media(max-width:767px){.left_1_column,#primis_intext{display:none}#audio-frame-close{top:60px}.ad_ad_Search_Top{min-height:100px;margin-bottom:20px}#mobile_sm_buttons{display:block}#mobile_sm_buttons .header_sm_buttons{position:absolute;top:8px;left:15px;margin:0 !important;z-index:1000000}#mobile_sm_buttons .header_sm_link{display:inline-block;margin-right:3px;filter:invert(1);opacity:1}#mobile_sm_buttons .header_sm_buttons .pinterest{display:none}#mobile_sm_buttons strong{display:none}#nav_bar{display:none !important}#meanmenu{min-height:48px}a.meanmenu-reveal{display:none}h1#page_title_text{font-size:40px !important}.home_page .membership-below-block-wrapper{display:none}.pagination .pagination_page{display:none !important}.mean-container .mean-bar{float:left;width:100%;position:relative;background:#b52600;padding:4px 0 0;min-height:42px;z-index:999999;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif}.mean-container a.meanmenu-reveal{width:22px;height:22px;padding:13px 13px 11px 13px;position:absolute;top:0;right:0;cursor:pointer;color:#fff;text-decoration:none;font-size:16px;text-indent:-9999em;line-height:22px;font-size:1px;display:block;font-family:Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-weight:700}.mean-container a.meanmenu-reveal span{display:block;background:#fff;height:3px;margin-top:3px}.mean-container .mean-nav{float:left;width:100%;background:#b52600;margin-top:44px}.mean-container .mean-nav ul{padding:0;margin:0;width:100%;list-style-type:none}.mean-container .mean-nav ul li{position:relative;float:left;width:100%}.mean-container .mean-nav ul li a{display:block;float:left;width:90%;padding:1em 5%;margin:0;text-align:left;color:#fff;border-top:1px solid #383838;border-top:1px solid rgba(255,255,255,0.5);text-decoration:none;text-transform:uppercase}.mean-container .mean-nav ul li li a{width:80%;padding:1em 10%;border-top:1px solid #f1f1f1;border-top:1px solid rgba(255,255,255,0.25);opacity:.75;filter:alpha(opacity=75);text-shadow:none !important;visibility:visible;text-transform:none}.mean-container .mean-nav ul li.mean-last a{border-bottom:0;margin-bottom:0}.mean-container .mean-nav ul li li li a{width:70%;padding:1em 15%}.mean-container .mean-nav ul li li li li a{width:60%;padding:1em 20%}.mean-container .mean-nav ul li li li li li a{width:50%;padding:1em 25%}.mean-container .mean-nav ul li a:hover{background:#252525;background:rgba(255,255,255,0.1)}.mean-container .mean-nav ul li a.mean-expand{margin-top:1px;width:26px;height:25px;padding:12px !important;text-align:center;position:absolute;right:0;top:0;z-index:2;font-weight:700;background:rgba(255,255,255,0.1);border:0 !important;border-left:1px solid rgba(255,255,255,0.4) !important;border-bottom:1px solid rgba(255,255,255,0.2) !important}.mean-container .mean-nav ul li a.mean-expand:hover{background:rgba(0,0,0,0.9)}.mean-container .mean-push{float:left;width:100%;padding:0;margin:0;clear:both}.mean-nav .wrapper{width:100%;padding:0;margin:0}.mean-container .mean-bar,.mean-container .mean-bar *{-webkit-box-sizing:content-box;-moz-box-sizing:content-box;box-sizing:content-box}.mean-remove{display:none !important}.ad img{box-shadow:none}#div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_BottomLeft{margin:auto;width:320px;min-height:50px !important}#page{margin-bottom:40px}#header{padding-left:0;padding-right:0;width:100%}#header_wrapper{padding-left:15px;padding-right:15px;padding-bottom:0 !important;background-image:none;box-shadow:none}#header_ahe_logo{float:none;display:block;text-align:center;margin:25px auto;padding-top:20px}.header_row_top{display:none}#header_tools{float:none;padding-top:0}#header_tools .header_row_bottom{text-align:center;float:none;margin-right:0}#title_bar{padding-left:15px;padding-right:15px;width:auto;padding-top:5px;text-align:center}.right_narrow_column{display:none}.home #title_bar,.index #title_bar{display:none}.index #page,.home #page{padding-top:30px}.box_wrapper{width:100%}.membership-intext-promo{margin-left:-100px;margin-right:-100px;padding-left:100px;padding-right:100px}.grid.four_col,.grid.three_col{grid-template-columns:1fr}.tab-links{margin-bottom:30px}.tab-links li{width:33%}.tab-links li a{display:block;font-weight:normal;font-size:18px;letter-spacing:-1px;padding-bottom:20px}.tab-links li a.active{font-weight:bold;border-bottom:4px solid #c42f28}.content_item{max-width:100%}.left_1_column,.right_3_column{width:100%;padding:15px 0;margin:0}.left_menu{display:none}.subscribe_button_container{display:block;width:90% !important;padding-left:5% !important;padding-right:5% !important}.content_button.subscribe_button{display:inline-block !important;margin:0 auto;width:80%;line-height:23px}.content_main_full_width{padding-left:0;padding-right:0}.benefit,.reason{width:45% !important;padding-left:1.25%;padding-right:1.25%;padding-top:30px;margin:0 !important}.reasons_list{margin-bottom:40px}.hide-in-mobile{display:none}#accordion-home{display:none}.left_narrow_column{display:none}.middle_wide_column{width:100%;padding-left:0;padding-right:0;margin-left:0;margin-right:0}#page{width:100%;min-width:320px;overflow:hidden !important}#content{width:100%}.left_3_column,.right_1_column{width:100%;padding-left:0;padding-right:0}.map_section{margin-top:40px}.ad_Flexi_TopLeft{margin-bottom:30px}.ad_Flexi_BottomLeft{margin-top:30px}.footer_phrase{margin-top:1px;line-height:130%}#footer{padding-bottom:70px}#footer_contents{background-position:center 80px}.footer_section{margin-right:20px !important;margin-left:20px !important}.footer_section .center,.footer_section .right{margin:60px 0 !important;text-align:center;display:block !important;width:auto !important}.footer_section p{font-size:14px}.footer_section .partners img{margin:15px 15px}.shop_promo{margin-bottom:0 !important}#footer_spacer{height:1px;margin:0}.header_row_bottom search{background:#f3f3f3;padding:20px;margin:20px -15px}body.home .header_row_bottom search{margin:40px -15px -50px}.header_row_bottom search input.common_search_field{font-size:18px;width:258px !important}.header_row_bottom search .mobile_search_button{font-size:18px;display:inline-block;border-radius:5px;padding:6px 10px;background-color:#dadada;margin-left:2px;width:12px;text-align:center;position:relative;top:1px}.header_row_bottom search .mobile_search_button:hover{background-color:#222;color:#fff;cursor:pointer}.header_row_bottom search .mobile_search_button:active{background-color:#b52600;color:#fff;cursor:pointer}#editor_tools,.gravity_widget_wrapper,.gravity_right_col,#middle_float_ad_container,.addthis-smartlayers-desktop,.visual_timeline_button,.ad_Flexi_TopRight,.ad_Flexi_MiddleRight,.ad_Flexi_LowerRight,#uvTab,#squinchpix_results,.share_this,#sponsors_box,#partners_list,.bottomRightStickySpacer,#ad_sidebar_whitespace_sticky{display:none}.search_page .ci_related_content_outer_wrapper{display:block !important}.ci_related_content_outer_wrapper #ci_related_type_list{display:none}.ci_two_cols .columns{column-count:1}#content .search_form_in_content{display:none !important}.search_results_page h2.search_header{display:none}.static_page .left_1_column{display:none}.user_biography .bio_image{float:none;margin:1em 0;display:block}.user_biography{margin-left:0}#txt_book_search.wide{width:100%;max-width:300px}#txt_book_search_submit{display:none}.reasons_list{padding-left:10px;padding-right:10px}.shop_sections_wrapper{text-align:center}.shop_section{margin-right:0}.right_1_column .timeline_wrapper #time_list{margin-top:20px;margin-bottom:20px;overflow:initial}.book_purchase_buttons .lp_download_wrapper{padding-left:0}}@media(max-width:560px){.big_quote{float:none;padding:76px 5% 30px;margin:20px 0;display:block;width:90%}img.tag_definition_image{float:none}figure.definition_image{float:none;margin:0;display:block;width:100%;max-width:100%}.body img,img.tag_definition_image,img.in_text_image,.video_link img,figure.image_intext_wrapper{margin:1em -8px;width:100%;width:calc(100% + 16px) !important;max-width:calc(100% + 16px) !important;display:block;height:auto;max-height:none}.left_2_column,.right_2_column{padding-right:0;padding-left:0;width:100%;margin-left:0;margin-right:0}.item-map{margin-bottom:25px;margin-top:10px}.benefit,.reason{width:100% !important;padding-left:0;padding-right:0}.tm-lg-2{width:100%}.tm-lg-3{width:100%}.tm-lg-4{width:100%}.tm-lg-5{width:100%}.ci_audio_link img.soundcloud_icon{display:none}.book_review_text img.book_image.reviews_img{float:none;display:block;max-width:100%;height:auto}}@media(max-width:360px){.latest_content_items .content_item img.ci_image{margin:1em -15px;width:100%;width:calc(100% + 30px) !important;max-width:calc(100% + 30px) !important;display:block;height:auto;max-height:none}.featured_ci_marker{margin-left:-15px !important}}}@media screen{@media(max-width:991px){.print_button{display:none}#mc_embed_signup{background:none;min-height:auto}aside .newsletter_promo{display:none}.right_1_column .institutional_sub_promo{margin:0 !important;padding:0 !important;background-color:transparent}#content .right_1_column h2:first-child{margin-top:0}aside.right_1_column{padding-top:0}#header_tools .patreon_button{display:none}.mobile-band{margin-left:-40px !important;margin-right:-40px !important;padding-left:40px !important;padding-right:40px !important}.right_1_column .timeline_wrapper #time_list{height:initial !important;max-height:initial !important}.right_1_column .timeline_wrapper h2{display:block;margin-top:15px !important}.right_1_column .timeline_outer_wrapper{margin:80px 0}.right_1_column .timeline_wrapper{background:transparent;padding:0}.right_1_column .timeline_entry{border-bottom:0;margin:0}.right_1_column #time_list{margin:0}.right_1_column .timeline_entry .date{background-color:#f3f3f3;display:inline-block;padding:5px 15px 5px 200px;margin-left:-200px}#mobilenewsletter{display:block;margin:20px -40px;padding:20px 40px}body.home .membership_below_notice,body.home .membership-below-block-wrapper,img.newsletter_banner,.latest_content_items.featured,.our_videos_wrapper,.right_1_column .timeline_wrapper .timeline_add,#ad_sidebar_whitespace_sticky,#primis_intext{display:none}}@media(min-width:768px){.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item{margin:20px 40px 20px 0 !important}}@media(min-width:768px) and (max-width:991px){#header{width:708px}#page{width:768px}#content{width:738px}.left_narrow_column{display:none}.right_narrow_column{display:none}.middle_wide_column{width:708px}.left_3_column{width:100%;padding-left:0;padding-right:0}.left_1_column{display:none}.right_3_column{width:100%}.right_1_column{width:100%;padding:0}#accordion-home{display:none}.content_item.featured .ci_preview_content{padding-left:395px}.left_3_column .content_item{max-width:340px}.left_3_column .content_item:nth-child(even){margin-left:50px}.left_3_column .content_item.featured:nth-child(even){margin-left:0}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item:nth-child(2n+0){margin-right:0}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item{max-width:215px !important;margin-right:40px !important}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item .ci_image{width:215px;height:121px}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item:nth-child(3n){margin-right:0 !important}.video_embed .right_1_column,.left_1_column{width:300px}.box_wrapper{width:708px;padding-left:30px;padding-right:30px}.ci_info .ci_social_media_buttons{display:none}img.tag_definition_image{margin:20px 0 20px 20px}.follow_us{display:none !important}.right_3_column .big_quote,.left_3_column .big_quote{margin-left:0;margin-right:0;width:338px}.right_3_column img,.left_3_column img{max-width:100%;height:auto}#grid_submissions .item_1_col{min-height:382px}.item_1_col{width:46%;margin:0 2% 0;float:left}.team_member{padding-top:20px;padding-bottom:10px;border-bottom:1px solid #e3e3e3;margin-bottom:10px}.team_pic{float:none;width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;padding-bottom:15px}.team_pic img{border:1px solid silver;padding:2px;border-radius:75px}.team_member_details{float:right;width:100%;margin-left:0;margin:0;padding:0}#header_search_field,.common_search_field{width:220px !important}#header_search_button_new,.common_search_button_new{left:234px !important}#header_tools{padding-top:46px}#footer_contents .footer_connect,#footer_contents .footer_about{width:12%}#footer_contents .footer_contribute{width:16%}#header_ahe_logo{margin-top:25px;margin-bottom:25px;margin-right:0 !important}.header_row_bottom{float:left;margin-right:34px !important}#header_tools .header_row_top{float:right !important}#header_follow_buttons{display:none !important}.registration_message_page{width:708px !important;padding-left:15px !important;padding-right:15px !important}.visual_timeline_button,.ad_Flexi_TopRight,.ad_Flexi_MiddleRight,.ad_Flexi_LowerRight,#uvTab,.bottomRightStickySpacer{display:none}.grid.four_col,.grid.three_col{grid-template-columns:1fr 1fr}}@media(min-width:768px){header nav{min-height:60px}#nav_bar{border-top:0 solid #e3e3e3;border-bottom:1px solid #e3e3e3;background:url('/template/images/bg_timeline.png') left top repeat}.sf-menu{padding-top:0;margin:0 auto}.sf-menu a{padding:20px 1em}#header_wrapper{padding-bottom:156px}.ad_ad_Search_Top{min-height:140px;margin-bottom:20px}.sf-menu,.sf-menu *{margin:0;padding:0;list-style:none}.sf-menu li{position:relative}.sf-menu ul{position:absolute;display:none;top:100%;left:50%;z-index:99;width:180px;margin-left:-96px}.sf-menu>li{float:left}.sf-menu li:hover>ul,.sf-menu li.sfHover>ul{display:block}.sf-menu a{display:block;position:relative}.sf-menu ul ul{top:0;left:100%}.sf-menu{margin-bottom:1em;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;margin:0 auto;margin-bottom:-4px !important;display:inline-block;text-transform:uppercase}.sf-menu ul{box-shadow:2px 2px 6px rgba(0,0,0,.2);min-width:12em;*width:12em;padding-top:18px !important;background:url('/template/images/bg_nav_ul.png') top left no-repeat rgba(0,0,0,0) !important;border-radius:0 0 4px 4px;-moz-border-radius:0 0 4px 4px;-web-border-radius:0 0 4px 4px;-moz-box-shadow:0 15px 10px rgba(0,0,0,.1);box-shadow:0 15px 10px rgba(0,0,0,.1)}.sf-menu ul li{text-transform:none}.sf-menu a{text-decoration:none;zoom:1;transition:all .25s}.sf-menu a{color:#494949;cursor:pointer}.sf-menu li{white-space:nowrap;*white-space:normal;transition:background .25s}.sf-menu ul li{background:#FFF}.sf-menu ul li a{border-bottom:1px solid #f0f0f0;padding:11px 8px;transition:all .25s;margin-left:10px;margin-right:10px;font-size:14px}.sf-menu ul li a:hover{color:#b52600}.sf-menu li:hover,.sf-menu li.sfHover{transition:none}}}</style>  <link rel="alternate" type="application/rss+xml" title="World History Encyclopedia RSS Feed" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/rss2/?lang=en"> <link rel="image_src" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/4416.jpg?v=1664099764" /> <link rel="icon shortcut" type="image/png" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-16px.png" sizes="16x16"> <link rel="icon shortcut" type="image/png" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-32px.png" sizes="32x32"> <link rel="icon shortcut" type="image/png" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-64px.png" sizes="64x64"> <link rel="icon shortcut" type="image/png" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-96px.png" sizes="96x96"> <link rel="icon shortcut" type="image/png" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-128px.png" sizes="128x128"> <link rel="icon shortcut" type="image/png" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-192px.png" sizes="192x192"> <link rel="icon shortcut" type="image/png" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-196px.png" sizes="196x196"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-120px.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-152px.png" sizes="152x152"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-167px.png" sizes="167x167"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-180px.png" sizes="180x180">  <script> jsQueue(function(){ wheAnalyticsPageview(); }); </script>   <script defer src="https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtag/js?id=G-DMCY1BLGCJ" fetchpriority="low"></script> <script> window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; function gtag(){dataLayer.push(arguments);} gtag('js', new Date()); pageReady.then(()=>{ jsQueue(()=>{ // Consent Mode Defaults if (AHE.isEU) { if (AHE.is_member) { gtag('consent', 'default', { 'ad_storage': 'denied', 'ad_user_data': 'denied', 'ad_personalization': 'denied' }); } else { gtag('consent', 'default', { 'ad_storage': 'denied', 'ad_user_data': 'denied', 'ad_personalization': 'denied', 'wait_for_update': 2000 }); } } else { gtag('consent', 'default', { 'wait_for_update': 2000 }); } async_load_js('/js/ga4.js?v=1743674526'); }); }); </script>  <script> jsQueue(()=> { async_load_js('/js/deferred-min.js?v=1743674526',false,true); }); </script>  <script> window.addEventListener('load', () => { processIdleQueue(); }); </script> </head> <body class="tag adthrive-cat-bronze_age adthrive-cat-mari adthrive-cat-mesopotamia adthrive-cat-mesopotamian_culture adthrive-cat-syro-mesopotamia adthrive-cat-tell_hariri">  <img fetchpriority="low" src="https://tracker.metricool.com/c3po.jpg?hash=583da8995f3bf53448b13ddf790ada6c" class="metricoolPixel" /> <div id="mobile_sm_buttons"></div> <div id="meanmenu"></div> <header id="header_wrapper"> <div id="header"> <a href="/" id="logo_link"> <div id="header_ahe_logo" style="width: 318px; height: 77px; position: relative;"> <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 496.06 120.11"><defs><style>.c{fill:#fff;}.d{fill:#b52600;}.e{fill:#231f20;}</style></defs><g id="a"><path class="e" d="m175.92,47.11h.15c.99-3.38,4.39-14.03,5.68-18.73.37-1.36.41-1.87.41-2.35,0-.66-.4-1.1-2.09-1.1-.18,0-.33-.11-.33-.26,0-.18.18-.26.62-.26,1.87,0,3.42.11,3.75.11.26,0,1.84-.11,2.98-.11.33,0,.52.07.52.22,0,.18-.11.3-.33.3-.15,0-.84.03-1.25.18-1.1.4-1.69,1.95-2.39,3.96-1.62,4.67-5.34,16.35-6.78,20.46-.96,2.72-1.14,3.16-1.55,3.16-.37,0-.59-.48-1.1-1.91l-7.18-20.44h-.07c-1.33,3.53-6.37,16.97-7.7,20.39-.59,1.54-.77,1.94-1.21,1.94-.37,0-.55-.4-1.28-2.9l-6.52-21.79c-.59-1.95-1.06-2.5-2.02-2.87-.47-.18-1.39-.22-1.65-.22-.18,0-.33-.04-.33-.26,0-.18.22-.26.59-.26,1.91,0,3.93.11,4.34.12.33,0,1.95-.11,3.78-.11.52,0,.66.11.66.26,0,.22-.18.26-.37.26-.3,0-.99,0-1.43.22-.22.11-.48.4-.48.88s.33,1.76.7,3.38c.55,2.35,4.36,15.84,4.91,17.79h.07l7.81-20.93c.55-1.5.7-1.69.92-1.69.26,0,.48.48.91,1.73l7.29,20.84Z"/><path class="e" d="m203.84,23.92c8.27,0,14.43,5.23,14.43,13.79,0,8.23-5.82,15.02-14.67,15.01-10.07,0-14.25-7.84-14.24-14.45,0-5.95,4.35-14.36,14.49-14.35Zm.75,27.41c3.31,0,10.14-1.9,10.15-12.59,0-8.82-5.35-13.56-11.16-13.57-6.14,0-10.73,4.03-10.74,12.08,0,8.56,5.13,14.07,11.74,14.08Z"/><path class="e" d="m226.05,35.1c0-5.73,0-6.76-.07-7.93-.07-1.25-.37-1.84-1.58-2.09-.3-.07-.92-.11-1.25-.11-.15,0-.3-.07-.3-.22,0-.22.18-.3.59-.3,1.65,0,3.97.11,4.15.12.4,0,3.2-.11,4.34-.11,2.32,0,4.78.22,6.72,1.62.92.66,2.53,2.47,2.53,5,0,2.72-1.14,5.44-4.45,8.48,3.01,3.86,5.5,7.13,7.63,9.41,1.98,2.09,3.56,2.5,4.48,2.65.7.11,1.21.11,1.43.11.18,0,.33.11.33.22,0,.22-.22.3-.88.29h-2.61c-2.06,0-2.98-.19-3.93-.7-1.58-.85-2.86-2.65-4.95-5.4-1.54-2.02-3.27-4.49-4-5.44-.15-.15-.26-.22-.48-.22l-4.52-.08c-.18,0-.26.11-.26.29v.88c0,3.53,0,6.43.18,7.97.11,1.06.33,1.87,1.43,2.02.51.07,1.32.15,1.65.15.22,0,.3.11.3.22,0,.18-.18.29-.59.29-2.02,0-4.34-.11-4.52-.11-.04,0-2.35.11-3.45.11-.4,0-.59-.07-.59-.3,0-.11.07-.22.29-.22.33,0,.77-.07,1.1-.15.74-.15.92-.95,1.07-2.02.19-1.54.19-4.45.19-7.97v-6.47Zm2.93,3.2c0,.18.07.33.26.44.55.33,2.24.59,3.86.59.88,0,1.91-.11,2.76-.7,1.29-.88,2.24-2.86,2.25-5.65,0-4.59-2.42-7.35-6.35-7.35-1.1,0-2.09.11-2.46.22-.18.07-.3.22-.3.44v12.01Z"/><path class="e" d="m256.83,41.67c0,5.4.14,7.75.8,8.41.59.59,1.54.85,4.41.85,1.95,0,3.56-.04,4.45-1.1.48-.59.85-1.5.96-2.2.04-.3.11-.48.33-.48.18,0,.22.15.22.55,0,.4-.26,2.61-.56,3.67-.26.84-.37.99-2.32.99-5.29,0-7.71-.23-9.85-.23-.15,0-.77.04-1.5.03-.74.04-1.54.07-2.1.07-.4,0-.59-.07-.59-.3,0-.11.07-.22.29-.22.33,0,.77-.07,1.1-.15.74-.15.92-.95,1.07-2.02.19-1.54.19-4.45.19-7.97v-6.47c.01-5.73.01-6.76-.06-7.93-.07-1.25-.37-1.84-1.58-2.09-.3-.07-.92-.11-1.25-.11-.15,0-.3-.07-.3-.22,0-.22.18-.3.59-.3,1.65,0,3.97.11,4.15.11s2.87-.11,3.97-.11c.41,0,.59.07.59.3,0,.15-.15.22-.3.22-.26,0-.77.04-1.21.11-1.07.18-1.36.81-1.44,2.09-.07,1.18-.07,2.21-.08,7.94v6.54Z"/><path class="e" d="m275.49,35.15c0-5.73,0-6.76-.07-7.94-.07-1.25-.37-1.84-1.58-2.09-.3-.07-.92-.11-1.25-.11-.15,0-.3-.07-.3-.22,0-.22.18-.29.59-.29,1.65,0,3.97.11,4.15.11.44,0,2.76-.11,4.96-.11,3.64,0,10.36-.32,14.73,4.2,1.83,1.91,3.56,4.96,3.55,9.34,0,4.63-1.92,8.19-3.98,10.36-1.58,1.65-4.89,4.22-11.14,4.21-3.16,0-7.79-.45-8.16-.45-.18,0-2.5.11-3.6.11-.4,0-.59-.07-.59-.3,0-.11.07-.22.29-.22.33,0,.77-.07,1.1-.15.74-.15.92-.95,1.07-2.02.19-1.54.19-4.45.19-7.97v-6.47Zm3.08,3.97c0,3.89.03,7.27.07,7.97.04.92.11,2.39.4,2.79.48.7,1.91,1.47,6.24,1.48,3.42,0,6.58-1.24,8.75-3.41,1.91-1.87,2.94-5.4,2.95-8.78,0-4.67-2.01-7.68-3.52-9.26-3.45-3.64-7.64-4.16-12.01-4.16-.74,0-2.09.11-2.39.26-.33.15-.44.33-.44.74-.04,1.25-.04,5-.04,7.82v4.56Z"/><path class="e" d="m343.28,41.68c0,3.53,0,6.43.18,7.98.11,1.06.33,1.87,1.43,2.02.51.07,1.32.15,1.65.15.22,0,.3.11.3.22,0,.18-.18.29-.59.29-2.02,0-4.34-.11-4.52-.11s-2.5.11-3.6.11c-.4,0-.59-.07-.59-.3,0-.11.07-.22.3-.22.33,0,.77-.07,1.1-.15.73-.15.92-.95,1.07-2.02.19-1.54.19-4.45.19-7.97v-3.86c0-.15-.11-.22-.22-.22h-15.58c-.11-.01-.22.02-.22.2v3.86c0,3.53,0,6.43.17,7.97.11,1.07.33,1.87,1.43,2.02.52.07,1.32.15,1.65.15.22,0,.29.11.29.22,0,.18-.18.3-.59.3-2.02,0-4.34-.12-4.52-.12s-2.5.11-3.6.11c-.4,0-.59-.07-.59-.29,0-.11.07-.22.29-.22.33,0,.77-.07,1.1-.15.74-.15.92-.95,1.07-2.02.19-1.54.19-4.45.19-7.97v-6.47c.01-5.73.01-6.76-.06-7.94-.07-1.25-.37-1.84-1.58-2.09-.3-.07-.92-.11-1.25-.11-.15,0-.3-.07-.3-.22,0-.22.18-.29.59-.29,1.65,0,3.97.11,4.15.11s2.5-.11,3.6-.11c.4,0,.59.07.59.3,0,.15-.15.22-.3.22-.26,0-.48.04-.92.11-.99.18-1.29.81-1.36,2.09-.07,1.17-.07,2.2-.08,7.93v.77c0,.18.11.22.22.22h15.58c.11.01.22-.02.22-.21v-.77c0-5.73,0-6.76-.06-7.93-.07-1.25-.37-1.84-1.58-2.09-.29-.07-.92-.11-1.25-.11-.15,0-.29-.07-.29-.22,0-.22.18-.3.59-.3,1.65,0,3.97.11,4.15.11s2.5-.11,3.6-.11c.4,0,.59.07.59.3,0,.15-.15.22-.29.22-.26,0-.48.04-.92.11-.99.18-1.29.81-1.36,2.09-.07,1.18-.07,2.2-.08,7.93v6.47Z"/><path class="e" d="m359.43,41.7c0,3.53,0,6.43.18,7.97.11,1.06.33,1.87,1.43,2.02.52.07,1.32.15,1.65.15.22,0,.29.11.29.22,0,.18-.18.3-.59.29-2.02,0-4.34-.11-4.52-.11s-2.5.11-3.6.11c-.4,0-.59-.07-.59-.29,0-.11.07-.22.29-.22.33,0,.77-.07,1.1-.15.74-.15.92-.95,1.07-2.02.19-1.54.19-4.45.19-7.97v-6.47c.01-5.73.01-6.76-.06-7.94-.07-1.25-.44-1.87-1.25-2.06-.4-.11-.88-.15-1.14-.15-.15,0-.3-.07-.3-.22,0-.22.18-.29.59-.29,1.21,0,3.53.11,3.71.11s2.5-.11,3.6-.11c.4,0,.59.07.59.29,0,.15-.15.22-.3.22-.26,0-.48.04-.92.11-.99.18-1.29.81-1.36,2.09-.07,1.18-.07,2.21-.08,7.94v6.47Z"/><path class="e" d="m370.14,51.89c-.51-.26-.55-.4-.55-1.4,0-1.84.15-3.31.19-3.89.04-.4.11-.59.29-.59.22,0,.26.11.26.4,0,.33,0,.85.11,1.36.55,2.72,2.97,3.75,5.43,3.75,3.53,0,5.25-2.53,5.26-4.88,0-2.54-1.06-4.01-4.22-6.62l-1.65-1.36c-3.89-3.2-4.77-5.48-4.77-7.98,0-3.93,2.95-6.61,7.61-6.61,1.43,0,2.5.15,3.42.37.7.15.99.19,1.29.19s.37.07.37.26-.15,1.4-.15,3.89c0,.59-.07.85-.26.84-.22,0-.26-.18-.3-.48-.04-.44-.25-1.43-.47-1.84s-1.21-1.95-4.59-1.95c-2.54,0-4.52,1.58-4.52,4.26,0,2.09,1.02,3.34,4.48,6.18l1.03.81c4.34,3.42,5.36,5.7,5.36,8.64,0,1.51-.59,4.3-3.13,6.1-1.58,1.1-3.56,1.54-5.55,1.54-1.72,0-3.42-.26-4.92-1Z"/><path class="e" d="m401.26,41.74c0,3.53,0,6.43.18,7.97.11,1.07.33,1.87,1.43,2.02.51.07,1.32.15,1.65.15.22,0,.29.11.29.22,0,.18-.18.29-.59.29-2.02,0-4.34-.11-4.52-.11s-2.5.11-3.6.11c-.4,0-.59-.07-.59-.3,0-.11.07-.22.3-.22.33,0,.77-.07,1.1-.15.74-.15.92-.96,1.07-2.02.19-1.54.19-4.45.19-7.97v-15.54s-5.42.07-5.42.07c-2.28.04-3.16.29-3.75,1.17-.41.62-.52.88-.63,1.14-.11.3-.22.37-.37.37-.11,0-.18-.11-.18-.33,0-.37.74-3.52.81-3.82.07-.22.22-.7.37-.7.26,0,.62.37,1.62.45,1.06.11,2.46.19,2.9.19h13.78c1.18.01,2.02-.1,2.61-.17.55-.11.88-.18,1.03-.18.18,0,.18.22.18.44,0,1.1-.12,3.64-.12,4.04,0,.33-.11.48-.26.48-.18,0-.26-.11-.3-.63l-.04-.4c-.15-1.1-.99-1.95-4.52-2.02l-4.63-.08v15.54Z"/><path class="e" d="m428.03,24.13c8.27,0,14.43,5.23,14.43,13.79,0,8.23-5.82,15.02-14.67,15.01-10.07,0-14.25-7.84-14.24-14.45,0-5.95,4.35-14.36,14.49-14.35Zm.75,27.41c3.31,0,10.14-1.9,10.15-12.59,0-8.82-5.35-13.56-11.16-13.57-6.14,0-10.73,4.03-10.74,12.08,0,8.56,5.13,14.07,11.74,14.08Z"/><path class="e" d="m450.24,35.32c0-5.73,0-6.76-.07-7.93-.07-1.25-.37-1.84-1.58-2.09-.3-.07-.92-.11-1.25-.11-.15,0-.3-.07-.3-.22,0-.22.18-.3.59-.3,1.65,0,3.97.12,4.15.12.4,0,3.2-.11,4.34-.11,2.32,0,4.78.22,6.72,1.62.92.66,2.53,2.47,2.53,5,0,2.72-1.14,5.44-4.45,8.48,3.01,3.86,5.5,7.13,7.63,9.41,1.98,2.09,3.56,2.5,4.48,2.65.7.11,1.21.11,1.43.11.18,0,.33.11.33.22,0,.22-.22.3-.88.29h-2.61c-2.06,0-2.98-.19-3.93-.7-1.58-.85-2.86-2.65-4.95-5.4-1.54-2.02-3.27-4.49-4-5.44-.15-.15-.26-.22-.48-.22l-4.52-.08c-.18,0-.26.11-.26.29v.88c0,3.53,0,6.43.18,7.97.11,1.06.33,1.87,1.43,2.02.51.07,1.32.15,1.65.15.22,0,.3.11.3.22,0,.18-.18.29-.59.29-2.02,0-4.34-.11-4.52-.11-.04,0-2.35.11-3.45.11-.4,0-.59-.07-.59-.3,0-.11.07-.22.29-.22.33,0,.77-.07,1.1-.15.74-.15.92-.95,1.07-2.02.19-1.54.19-4.45.19-7.97v-6.47Zm2.93,3.2c0,.18.07.33.26.44.55.33,2.24.59,3.86.59.88,0,1.91-.11,2.76-.7,1.29-.88,2.24-2.86,2.25-5.65,0-4.59-2.42-7.35-6.35-7.35-1.1,0-2.09.11-2.46.22-.18.07-.3.22-.3.44v12.01Z"/><path class="e" d="m481.28,42.95c0-1.98-.37-2.79-.84-3.86-.26-.59-5.17-8.68-6.46-10.59-.92-1.36-1.84-2.28-2.5-2.72-.55-.37-1.25-.59-1.58-.59-.18,0-.37-.07-.37-.26,0-.15.15-.26.48-.26.7,0,3.45.11,3.64.11.26,0,1.65-.11,3.09-.11.4,0,.48.11.48.26s-.22.18-.55.33c-.3.15-.48.37-.48.66,0,.44.18.88.48,1.43.59,1.07,6.09,10.55,6.75,11.62.7-1.54,5.37-9.58,6.11-10.8.48-.77.63-1.39.63-1.87,0-.51-.15-.92-.59-1.03-.33-.11-.55-.18-.55-.37,0-.15.22-.22.59-.22.95,0,2.13.11,2.42.11.22,0,2.87-.11,3.56-.11.26,0,.48.07.48.22,0,.18-.18.3-.48.3-.4,0-1.11.15-1.69.51-.74.44-1.14.88-1.95,1.87-1.22,1.47-6.37,10.1-7.03,11.68-.55,1.32-.55,2.46-.55,3.67v3.16c0,.59,0,2.13.1,3.67.07,1.06.4,1.87,1.5,2.02.52.07,1.32.15,1.65.15.22,0,.29.11.29.22,0,.18-.18.3-.59.3-2.02,0-4.34-.12-4.52-.12s-2.5.11-3.6.11c-.4,0-.59-.07-.59-.29,0-.11.07-.22.29-.22.33,0,.77-.07,1.1-.15.74-.15,1.06-.95,1.14-2.02.11-1.54.11-3.09.11-3.67v-3.16Z"/><path class="e" d="m153.78,81.94c0-6.33,0-7.46-.07-8.76-.08-1.38-.41-2.03-1.74-2.31-.32-.08-1.01-.12-1.38-.12-.16,0-.32-.08-.32-.24,0-.24.2-.32.65-.32,1.82,0,4.38.13,4.58.13.29,0,8.36,0,9.29-.03.77-.04,1.42-.12,1.74-.2.2-.04.37-.2.57-.2.12,0,.16.16.16.37,0,.28-.2.77-.33,1.9-.04.41-.12,2.19-.2,2.68-.04.2-.12.45-.29.45-.24,0-.32-.2-.32-.53,0-.28-.04-.97-.24-1.46-.28-.65-.69-1.13-2.88-1.38-.69-.08-5.11-.13-5.56-.13-.16,0-.24.12-.24.4v11.2c-.01.28.03.4.23.41.53,0,5.52,0,6.45-.07.97-.08,1.54-.16,1.91-.57.28-.32.45-.52.61-.52.12,0,.2.08.2.32s-.21.93-.33,2.27c-.08.81-.16,2.31-.16,2.6,0,.32,0,.77-.28.77-.2,0-.29-.16-.29-.37,0-.4,0-.81-.16-1.34-.16-.57-.52-1.26-2.11-1.42-1.09-.12-5.11-.21-5.8-.21-.2,0-.28.12-.28.28v3.57c0,1.38-.05,6.08,0,6.93.12,2.8.72,3.33,4.7,3.33,1.05,0,2.84,0,3.89-.44,1.06-.45,1.54-1.26,1.83-2.92.08-.45.16-.61.37-.61.24,0,.24.32.24.61,0,.32-.33,3.08-.53,3.93-.28,1.05-.61,1.05-2.19,1.05-6.13,0-8.84-.25-10.02-.25-.2,0-2.76.12-3.97.12-.45,0-.65-.08-.65-.33,0-.12.08-.24.32-.24.37,0,.85-.08,1.22-.16.81-.16,1.01-1.05,1.18-2.23.21-1.7.21-4.91.21-8.8v-7.14Z"/><path class="e" d="m179.6,95.34c.08,3.33.48,4.38,1.58,4.71.77.2,1.66.24,2.03.24.2,0,.32.08.32.24,0,.24-.24.32-.73.32-2.31,0-3.93-.13-4.3-.13s-2.07.12-3.89.12c-.41,0-.65-.04-.65-.33,0-.16.12-.24.32-.24.32,0,1.05-.04,1.66-.24,1.01-.28,1.22-1.46,1.22-5.15l.06-23.24c0-1.58.12-2.03.45-2.03.32,0,1.01.89,1.42,1.3.61.69,6.65,7.22,12.88,13.92,4.01,4.3,8.43,9.26,9.72,10.59l-.43-20.6c-.04-2.64-.32-3.53-1.58-3.86-.73-.16-1.66-.21-1.99-.21-.28,0-.32-.12-.32-.28,0-.24.32-.28.81-.28,1.82,0,3.77.13,4.22.13s1.79-.12,3.45-.12c.45,0,.73.04.73.29,0,.16-.16.28-.45.28-.2,0-.49,0-.98.12-1.34.28-1.5,1.17-1.5,3.61l-.1,23.77c0,2.68-.08,2.88-.37,2.88-.33,0-.81-.45-2.96-2.6-.45-.41-6.28-6.37-10.58-11-4.7-5.07-9.28-10.19-10.57-11.65l.51,19.43Z"/><path class="e" d="m217.2,97.08c-3.93-3.53-4.9-8.15-4.9-12.01,0-2.72.94-7.46,4.55-11.07,2.44-2.43,6.13-4.33,12.37-4.33,1.62,0,3.89.12,5.88.49,1.54.29,2.84.53,4.14.61.45.04.52.2.52.45,0,.32-.12.81-.21,2.27-.08,1.34-.08,3.57-.12,4.18-.04.61-.12.85-.37.85-.28,0-.32-.28-.32-.85,0-1.58-.65-3.24-1.7-4.14-1.42-1.22-4.54-2.32-8.11-2.32-5.39,0-7.91,1.57-9.33,2.95-2.96,2.84-3.66,6.45-3.66,10.58,0,7.75,5.95,14.85,14.63,14.86,3.04,0,5.44-.36,7.06-2.02.85-.89,1.38-2.68,1.5-3.41.08-.45.16-.61.41-.61.2,0,.28.29.28.61,0,.28-.49,3.81-.9,5.19-.24.77-.32.85-1.05,1.18-1.62.65-4.71.93-7.3.92-6.08,0-10.18-1.51-13.38-4.39Z"/><path class="e" d="m254.67,90.43c0-2.19-.4-3.08-.93-4.26-.29-.65-5.71-9.58-7.13-11.69-1.01-1.5-2.02-2.52-2.76-3-.61-.41-1.38-.65-1.74-.65-.2,0-.41-.08-.41-.28,0-.16.16-.29.53-.29.77,0,3.81.13,4.02.13.28,0,1.82-.12,3.41-.12.45,0,.53.12.53.29s-.24.2-.61.36c-.33.16-.53.41-.53.73,0,.49.2.97.53,1.58.65,1.18,6.72,11.65,7.45,12.82.77-1.7,5.93-10.58,6.74-11.92.53-.85.69-1.54.69-2.07,0-.57-.16-1.02-.65-1.14-.37-.12-.61-.2-.61-.41,0-.16.24-.24.65-.24,1.05,0,2.35.12,2.68.12.24,0,3.16-.12,3.93-.12.28,0,.53.08.53.24,0,.2-.2.32-.53.32-.45,0-1.22.16-1.87.57-.81.49-1.26.97-2.15,2.07-1.34,1.62-7.03,11.15-7.76,12.89-.61,1.46-.61,2.72-.61,4.05v3.49c0,.65,0,2.35.11,4.06.08,1.18.44,2.07,1.66,2.23.57.08,1.46.16,1.83.16.24,0,.32.12.32.24,0,.2-.2.32-.65.32-2.23,0-4.79-.13-4.99-.13s-2.76.12-3.98.12c-.45,0-.65-.08-.65-.32,0-.12.08-.24.32-.24.37,0,.85-.08,1.22-.16.81-.16,1.18-1.05,1.26-2.23.12-1.7.12-3.41.12-4.05v-3.49Z"/><path class="e" d="m276.58,97.14c-3.93-3.53-4.9-8.16-4.9-12.01,0-2.72.94-7.46,4.55-11.07,2.44-2.43,6.13-4.33,12.37-4.33,1.62,0,3.89.13,5.88.49,1.54.29,2.84.53,4.14.61.45.04.52.21.52.45,0,.32-.12.81-.2,2.27-.08,1.34-.08,3.57-.13,4.18-.04.61-.12.85-.37.85-.28,0-.32-.28-.32-.85,0-1.58-.65-3.24-1.7-4.14-1.42-1.22-4.54-2.32-8.11-2.32-5.39,0-7.91,1.57-9.33,2.95-2.96,2.84-3.66,6.44-3.66,10.58,0,7.75,5.95,14.85,14.63,14.86,3.04,0,5.44-.36,7.06-2.02.85-.89,1.38-2.68,1.5-3.41.08-.45.16-.61.41-.61.2,0,.28.28.28.61,0,.29-.49,3.81-.9,5.19-.24.77-.32.85-1.05,1.18-1.62.65-4.71.93-7.3.93-6.08,0-10.18-1.51-13.38-4.39Z"/><path class="e" d="m312.35,89.31c0,5.96.15,8.56.88,9.29.65.65,1.7.93,4.86.94,2.15,0,3.94-.04,4.91-1.21.53-.65.93-1.66,1.06-2.43.04-.33.12-.53.37-.53.2,0,.24.16.24.61s-.29,2.88-.61,4.05c-.29.93-.41,1.09-2.55,1.09-5.84,0-8.52-.25-10.87-.25-.16,0-.85.04-1.66.04-.81.04-1.7.08-2.31.08-.45,0-.65-.08-.65-.33,0-.12.08-.24.32-.24.37,0,.85-.08,1.22-.16.81-.16,1.01-1.05,1.18-2.23.21-1.7.21-4.91.21-8.8v-7.14c.01-6.33.01-7.46-.06-8.76-.08-1.38-.41-2.03-1.74-2.31-.32-.08-1.01-.12-1.38-.12-.16,0-.32-.08-.32-.24,0-.24.2-.32.65-.32,1.82,0,4.38.13,4.58.13s3.16-.12,4.38-.12c.45,0,.65.08.65.32,0,.16-.16.24-.32.24-.28,0-.85.04-1.34.12-1.18.2-1.5.89-1.58,2.31-.08,1.3-.08,2.43-.09,8.76v7.22Z"/><path class="e" d="m343.36,69.79c9.12,0,15.93,5.77,15.92,15.22,0,9.08-6.42,16.58-16.2,16.57-11.11,0-15.73-8.65-15.72-15.95,0-6.57,4.8-15.85,16-15.84Zm.82,30.26c3.65,0,11.2-2.1,11.21-13.9,0-9.73-5.91-14.97-12.32-14.98-6.77,0-11.84,4.45-11.85,13.33,0,9.45,5.66,15.54,12.96,15.55Z"/><path class="e" d="m367.89,82.14c0-6.33,0-7.46-.07-8.76-.08-1.38-.41-2.03-1.74-2.31-.32-.08-1.01-.12-1.38-.12-.16,0-.32-.08-.32-.24,0-.24.2-.32.65-.32,1.82,0,4.26.13,4.58.13.89,0,3.25-.12,5.11-.12,5.07,0,6.89,1.71,7.54,2.32.89.85,2.03,2.68,2.02,4.83,0,5.76-4.23,9.65-9.99,9.64-.2,0-.65,0-.85-.04-.2,0-.45-.08-.45-.28,0-.33.24-.37,1.09-.37,3.94,0,7.02-2.87,7.03-6.6,0-1.34-.12-4.06-2.27-6.25-2.15-2.19-4.62-2.03-5.55-2.03-.69,0-1.38.08-1.74.24-.24.08-.32.36-.32.77l-.02,16.67c0,3.89,0,7.1.2,8.8.12,1.18.36,2.07,1.58,2.23.57.08,1.46.16,1.82.16.24,0,.32.12.32.24,0,.2-.2.32-.65.32-2.23,0-4.78-.13-4.99-.13-.12,0-2.68.12-3.89.12-.45,0-.65-.08-.65-.33,0-.12.08-.24.32-.24.37,0,.85-.08,1.22-.16.81-.16,1.01-1.05,1.18-2.23.21-1.7.21-4.91.21-8.8v-7.14Z"/><path class="e" d="m393.32,82.17c0-6.33,0-7.46-.07-8.76-.08-1.38-.41-2.03-1.74-2.31-.32-.08-1.01-.12-1.38-.12-.16,0-.32-.08-.32-.24,0-.24.2-.32.65-.32,1.82,0,4.38.13,4.58.13.29,0,8.36,0,9.29-.03.77-.04,1.42-.12,1.74-.2.2-.04.37-.2.57-.2.12,0,.16.16.16.37,0,.28-.2.77-.33,1.9-.04.41-.12,2.19-.2,2.68-.04.2-.12.45-.29.45-.24,0-.32-.2-.32-.53,0-.28-.04-.97-.24-1.46-.28-.65-.69-1.13-2.88-1.38-.69-.08-5.11-.13-5.56-.13-.16,0-.24.12-.24.4v11.2c-.01.28.03.41.23.41.53,0,5.52,0,6.45-.07.97-.08,1.54-.16,1.91-.57.28-.32.45-.52.61-.52.12,0,.2.08.2.32s-.21.93-.33,2.27c-.08.81-.16,2.31-.16,2.6,0,.32,0,.77-.28.77-.2,0-.29-.16-.29-.37,0-.4,0-.81-.16-1.34-.16-.57-.52-1.26-2.11-1.42-1.09-.12-5.11-.21-5.8-.21-.2,0-.28.12-.28.28v3.57c0,1.38-.05,6.08,0,6.93.12,2.8.72,3.33,4.7,3.33,1.05,0,2.84,0,3.89-.44,1.06-.45,1.54-1.26,1.83-2.92.08-.45.16-.61.37-.61.24,0,.24.32.24.61,0,.32-.33,3.08-.53,3.93-.28,1.05-.61,1.05-2.19,1.05-6.13,0-8.84-.25-10.02-.25-.08,0-.77.04-1.62.04-.81.04-1.74.08-2.35.08-.45,0-.65-.08-.65-.33,0-.12.08-.24.32-.24.37,0,.85-.08,1.22-.16.81-.16,1.01-1.05,1.18-2.23.21-1.7.21-4.91.21-8.8v-7.14Z"/><path class="e" d="m418.06,82.19c0-6.33,0-7.46-.07-8.76-.08-1.38-.41-2.03-1.74-2.31-.32-.08-1.01-.12-1.38-.12-.16,0-.32-.08-.32-.24,0-.24.2-.32.65-.32,1.82,0,4.38.13,4.58.13.49,0,3.04-.12,5.48-.12,4.02,0,11.44-.35,16.26,4.64,2.02,2.11,3.93,5.48,3.92,10.31,0,5.11-2.12,9.04-4.39,11.43-1.74,1.82-5.39,4.66-12.29,4.65-3.49,0-8.6-.49-9-.49-.2,0-2.76.12-3.97.12-.45,0-.65-.08-.65-.32,0-.12.08-.24.32-.24.37,0,.85-.08,1.22-.16.81-.16,1.01-1.05,1.18-2.23.21-1.7.21-4.91.21-8.8v-7.14Zm3.4,4.38c0,4.3.03,8.03.07,8.8.04,1.01.12,2.63.45,3.08.52.77,2.1,1.62,6.89,1.63,3.77,0,7.26-1.37,9.66-3.76,2.11-2.07,3.25-5.96,3.25-9.69,0-5.15-2.22-8.48-3.88-10.22-3.81-4.02-8.43-4.59-13.26-4.6-.81,0-2.31.12-2.63.28-.37.16-.49.37-.49.81-.04,1.38-.04,5.52-.05,8.64v5.03Z"/><path class="e" d="m458.26,89.36c0,3.89,0,7.1.19,8.8.12,1.18.36,2.07,1.58,2.23.57.08,1.46.16,1.83.16.24,0,.32.12.32.24,0,.2-.2.33-.65.32-2.23,0-4.79-.13-4.99-.13s-2.76.12-3.97.12c-.45,0-.65-.08-.65-.33,0-.12.08-.24.32-.24.37,0,.85-.08,1.22-.16.81-.16,1.01-1.05,1.18-2.23.21-1.7.21-4.91.21-8.8v-7.14c.01-6.33.01-7.46-.06-8.76-.08-1.38-.49-2.07-1.38-2.27-.45-.12-.97-.16-1.26-.16-.16,0-.32-.08-.32-.24,0-.24.2-.32.65-.32,1.34,0,3.89.13,4.1.13s2.76-.12,3.97-.12c.45,0,.65.08.65.32,0,.16-.16.24-.32.24-.29,0-.53.04-1.02.12-1.09.2-1.42.89-1.5,2.31-.08,1.3-.08,2.43-.09,8.76v7.14Z"/><path class="e" d="m478.55,71.5c.49-1.34.65-1.58.89-1.58s.41.2.89,1.46c.61,1.54,6.96,18.3,9.43,24.46,1.45,3.61,2.63,4.26,3.48,4.5.61.21,1.22.24,1.62.25.24,0,.41.04.41.24,0,.24-.37.33-.81.32-.61,0-3.57,0-6.37-.09-.77-.04-1.22-.04-1.22-.29,0-.16.12-.24.29-.28.24-.08.49-.45.24-1.09l-3.76-9.98c-.08-.16-.16-.24-.37-.24h-8.72c-.2,0-.33.11-.41.31l-2.44,7.18c-.37,1.01-.57,1.99-.57,2.72,0,.81.85,1.18,1.54,1.18h.41c.28,0,.41.08.41.24,0,.24-.24.32-.61.32-.97,0-2.72-.13-3.16-.13s-2.68.12-4.58.12c-.53,0-.77-.08-.77-.33,0-.16.16-.24.37-.24.29,0,.85-.04,1.18-.08,1.87-.24,2.68-1.78,3.41-3.81l9.23-25.18Zm4.2,16.23c.2,0,.2-.12.16-.28l-3.84-10.95c-.2-.61-.4-.61-.61,0l-3.58,10.95c-.08.2,0,.28.12.28h7.75Z"/><path class="d" d="m15.26,0h89.58c8.42,0,15.26,6.84,15.26,15.26v89.59c0,8.42-6.84,15.26-15.26,15.26H15.25c-8.42,0-15.25-6.83-15.25-15.25V15.26C0,6.84,6.84,0,15.26,0Z"/><path class="c" d="m101.37,23.07c-1.15,2.45-2.13,5.56-2.94,9.32-.82,3.76-1.49,7.91-2.02,12.45-.53,4.54-.94,9.26-1.23,14.16-.29,4.91-.51,9.71-.67,14.41-.16,4.7-.31,9.12-.43,13.24-.12,4.13-.27,7.66-.43,10.61v1.72c0,.82-.04,1.64-.12,2.45-.08.82-.23,1.53-.43,2.15-.21.61-.47.92-.8.92-.25,0-.45-.33-.61-.98-.16-.65-.29-1.41-.37-2.27-.08-.86-.14-1.67-.18-2.45-.04-.78-.06-1.29-.06-1.53-.16-2.94-.31-6.48-.43-10.61-.12-4.13-.27-8.54-.43-13.24-.17-4.7-.41-9.5-.74-14.41-.33-4.91-.76-9.63-1.29-14.16-.53-4.54-1.19-8.71-1.96-12.51-.78-3.8-1.74-6.89-2.88-9.26-.41-.98-.96-1.96-1.66-2.94-.7-.98-1.53-2.04-2.51-3.19-.57-.65-.8-1.06-.67-1.23.12-.16.55-.16,1.29,0,1.47.17,2.72.72,3.74,1.66,1.02.94,2.1,1.86,3.25,2.76,2.13,1.55,3.96,2.33,5.52,2.33s3.39-.78,5.52-2.33c1.14-.9,2.23-1.82,3.25-2.76,1.02-.94,2.31-1.49,3.86-1.66.74-.08,1.16-.06,1.29.06.12.12-.1.51-.67,1.17-1.96,2.29-3.35,4.33-4.17,6.13Zm-63.61,78.59c-1.02,1.63-1.28,2.58-.77,2.82.51.25,1.74-.61,3.69-2.58l38.61-40.47c.62-.66.92-1.1.92-1.35s-.31-.7-.92-1.35L40.69,18.39c-1.85-1.88-3.05-2.74-3.61-2.58-.56.16-.33,1.1.69,2.82,3.79,6.46,7.1,11.87,9.92,16.25,2.82,4.37,5.15,8.09,7,11.16,1.85,3.07,3.26,5.66,4.23,7.79.98,2.13,1.46,4.17,1.46,6.13s-.49,4-1.46,6.13c-.97,2.13-2.41,4.74-4.31,7.85-1.9,3.11-4.23,6.87-7,11.28-2.77,4.41-6.05,9.89-9.84,16.43Zm-20.4-42.2c2.16.44,4.32.94,6.48,1.5,2.16.56,4.3,1.39,6.41,2.49,2.12,1.11,4.25,2.63,6.41,4.57,2.16,1.94,4.32,4.52,6.48,7.73.99,1.33,1.4,1,1.21-1-.09-1.66-.43-3.19-1.01-4.57-.58-1.38-1.21-2.74-1.89-4.07-.67-1.33-1.26-2.66-1.75-3.99-.49-1.33-.74-2.72-.74-4.16s.25-2.85.74-4.24c.5-1.38,1.08-2.74,1.75-4.07.67-1.33,1.31-2.69,1.89-4.07.59-1.39.92-2.85,1.01-4.41.09-1.22.02-1.86-.2-1.91-.22-.05-.56.19-1.01.75-2.25,3.22-4.43,5.79-6.55,7.73-2.11,1.94-4.23,3.47-6.34,4.57-2.11,1.11-4.25,1.94-6.41,2.49-2.16.56-4.32,1.05-6.48,1.5-.81.22-1.6.44-2.36.67-.76.22-1.15.56-1.15,1,0,.33.38.61,1.15.83.77.22,1.55.44,2.36.67Z"/></g><g id="b"><path d="m485.74,74.37c0-2.59,1.98-4.47,4.68-4.47s4.68,1.88,4.68,4.47-1.98,4.42-4.68,4.42-4.68-1.93-4.68-4.42Zm8.49-.05c0-2.19-1.63-3.66-3.81-3.66s-3.81,1.47-3.81,3.66,1.63,3.71,3.86,3.71,3.76-1.58,3.76-3.71Zm-5.54-.71c0-.76-.05-1.12-.05-1.37,0-.31-.15-.36-.56-.36-.05,0-.15-.05-.15-.1,0-.1.1-.15.25-.15h.25c.1,0,.51.05.66.05.46,0,.66-.05,1.07-.05.86,0,2.13.15,2.13,1.37,0,.51-.15.92-.91,1.52l.86,1.07c.66.81.86.86.97.86s.15.05.15.1c0,.1-.05.15-.36.15-.66,0-1.02.05-1.78-.97l-.71-.97h-.91v.46c0,1.02.05,1.07.1,1.12.1.05.36.1.51.1.1,0,.15,0,.15.1s-.1.15-.2.15h-.2c-.1,0-.56-.05-.81-.05-.15,0-.66.05-.76.05h-.25c-.1,0-.2,0-.2-.1s.1-.15.2-.15q.46,0,.51-.31c0-.25.05-.61.05-1.42v-1.12Zm.92.61c.15.1.46.15.76.15.15,0,.36-.05.51-.15.25-.15.46-.41.46-.91,0-.71-.46-1.22-1.27-1.22-.05,0-.36,0-.46.1v2.03Z"/></g></svg> </div> </a> <div id="header_tools"> <div class="header_row_top"> <span class="header_sm_buttons"> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/facebook" rel="external" class="header_sm_link facebook"><svg role="img" viewBox="0 0 24 24" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><title>Facebook</title><path d="M24 12.073c0-6.627-5.373-12-12-12s-12 5.373-12 12c0 5.99 4.388 10.954 10.125 11.854v-8.385H7.078v-3.47h3.047V9.43c0-3.007 1.792-4.669 4.533-4.669 1.312 0 2.686.235 2.686.235v2.953H15.83c-1.491 0-1.956.925-1.956 1.874v2.25h3.328l-.532 3.47h-2.796v8.385C19.612 23.027 24 18.062 24 12.073z"/></svg></a> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/twitter" rel="external" class="header_sm_link twitter"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="24" height="24" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M12 0c-6.627 0-12 5.373-12 12s5.373 12 12 12 12-5.373 12-12-5.373-12-12-12zm6.066 9.645c.183 4.04-2.83 8.544-8.164 8.544-1.622 0-3.131-.476-4.402-1.291 1.524.18 3.045-.244 4.252-1.189-1.256-.023-2.317-.854-2.684-1.995.451.086.895.061 1.298-.049-1.381-.278-2.335-1.522-2.304-2.853.388.215.83.344 1.301.359-1.279-.855-1.641-2.544-.889-3.835 1.416 1.738 3.533 2.881 5.92 3.001-.419-1.796.944-3.527 2.799-3.527.825 0 1.572.349 2.096.907.654-.128 1.27-.368 1.824-.697-.215.671-.67 1.233-1.263 1.589.581-.07 1.135-.224 1.649-.453-.384.578-.87 1.084-1.433 1.489z"/></svg></a> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/instagram" rel="external" class="header_sm_link instagram"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="24" height="24" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M14.829 6.302c-.738-.034-.96-.04-2.829-.04s-2.09.007-2.828.04c-1.899.087-2.783.986-2.87 2.87-.033.738-.041.959-.041 2.828s.008 2.09.041 2.829c.087 1.879.967 2.783 2.87 2.87.737.033.959.041 2.828.041 1.87 0 2.091-.007 2.829-.041 1.899-.086 2.782-.988 2.87-2.87.033-.738.04-.96.04-2.829s-.007-2.09-.04-2.828c-.088-1.883-.973-2.783-2.87-2.87zm-2.829 9.293c-1.985 0-3.595-1.609-3.595-3.595 0-1.985 1.61-3.594 3.595-3.594s3.595 1.609 3.595 3.594c0 1.985-1.61 3.595-3.595 3.595zm3.737-6.491c-.464 0-.84-.376-.84-.84 0-.464.376-.84.84-.84.464 0 .84.376.84.84 0 .463-.376.84-.84.84zm-1.404 2.896c0 1.289-1.045 2.333-2.333 2.333s-2.333-1.044-2.333-2.333c0-1.289 1.045-2.333 2.333-2.333s2.333 1.044 2.333 2.333zm-2.333-12c-6.627 0-12 5.373-12 12s5.373 12 12 12 12-5.373 12-12-5.373-12-12-12zm6.958 14.886c-.115 2.545-1.532 3.955-4.071 4.072-.747.034-.986.042-2.887.042s-2.139-.008-2.886-.042c-2.544-.117-3.955-1.529-4.072-4.072-.034-.746-.042-.985-.042-2.886 0-1.901.008-2.139.042-2.886.117-2.544 1.529-3.955 4.072-4.071.747-.035.985-.043 2.886-.043s2.14.008 2.887.043c2.545.117 3.957 1.532 4.071 4.071.034.747.042.985.042 2.886 0 1.901-.008 2.14-.042 2.886z"/></svg></a> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/youtube" rel="external" class="header_sm_link youtube"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="24" height="24" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M12 0c-6.627 0-12 5.373-12 12s5.373 12 12 12 12-5.373 12-12-5.373-12-12-12zm4.441 16.892c-2.102.144-6.784.144-8.883 0-2.276-.156-2.541-1.27-2.558-4.892.017-3.629.285-4.736 2.558-4.892 2.099-.144 6.782-.144 8.883 0 2.277.156 2.541 1.27 2.559 4.892-.018 3.629-.285 4.736-2.559 4.892zm-6.441-7.234l4.917 2.338-4.917 2.346v-4.684z"/></svg></a> </span> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=header-button&utm_campaign=membership" class="donate_button membership no_external" id="header_donate_button" rel="nofollow"> <span class="base">Membership</span> <span class="hover">No ads</span> </a> <div class="clr"></div> </div> <div class="header_row_bottom"> <search> <form accept-charset="utf-8" action="/search/"> <div class="search_wrapper"> <input name="q" size="" class="autocomplete_tags_readable ancient_search_btn common_search_field" type="text" value="" placeholder="Search or ask question..."> <span class="mobile_search_button hidden">❯</span> </div> </form> </search> <div class="media_search_clear"></div> <script type="text/javascript"> jsQueue(()=>{ $(".ci_type_filter_checkbox").change(function(e) { var ci_types_list = []; $(".ci_type_filter_checkbox").each(function() { if (this.checked) { ci_types_list.push(this.value); } }); var ci_types_string = ci_types_list.join(','); console.log("CI types selected: " + ci_types_string); $("#ci_types_filter").val(ci_types_string); }); }); </script> <style> .media_search_type_filters { clear: both; position: relative; margin-bottom: 1em; } .search_checkbox input[type=checkbox] { position: relative; top: -1px; } .half_column { display: inline-block; width: 300px; } </style> <div class="clr"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="clr"></div> <nav> <div id="nav_bar"> <ul class="sf-menu" id="example"> <li class="toplevel"> <a class="first-menu-item" href="/index/">Encyclopedia</a> <ul> <li><a href="/index/">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/timeline/">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/mapselect/">Maps</a></li> <li><a href="/books/">Book Reviews</a></li> <li><a href="/measure/">Weights & Measures</a></li> <li><a href="/trans/">Translations</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toplevel"> <a href="/edu/">Education</a> <ul> <li><a href="/edu/teaching-resources/">Teaching Materials</a></li> <li><a href="/xres/">Link Database</a></li> <li><a href="/type/11/1/">Quizzes</a></li> <li><a href="/category/100/1/">Primary Sources</a></li> <li><a href="/edu/collections/">Collections</a></li> <li><a href="/edu/subscription/?utm_campaign=institutional_subscription&utm_source=whe&utm_medium=header-nav" id="institutional-sub-header-link">School Subscription</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toplevel"> <a href="/medialibrary/">Media</a> <ul> <li><a href="/medialibrary/">Media Library</a></li> <li><a href="/audio/">Audio Articles</a></li> <li><a href="https://experts.worldhistory.org">Podcast</a></li> <li><a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/youtube">Youtube Channel</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="hide-in-mobile toplevel"> <a href="/contribute/">Contribute</a> <ul> <li><a href="/contribute/">Submissions</a></li> <li><a href="/static/needed/">Needed Content</a></li> <li><a href="/static/style_guide/">Style Guide</a></li> <li><a href="/static/legal_terms/">Terms & Conditions</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.worldhistory.foundation/volunteer">Volunteer</a></li> <li><a href="/donate/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=header-nav&utm_campaign=donate_en" rel="nofollow">Donate</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toplevel"> <a href="/shop/" title="Ancient History Shop">Shop</a> <ul> <li><a href="/books/">Books</a></li> <li><a href="https://worldhistory.store/#!/wall+prints+map+posters?q=P180-map">Map Posters</a></li> <li><a href="/shop/magazines/">Magazines</a></li> <li><a href="/shop/posters/" rel="nofollow">Wall Charts</a></li> <li><a href="https://worldhistory.store/">Clothing</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toplevel"> <a href="/static/about/">About</a> <ul> <li><a href="/static/about/">About</a></li> <li><a href="/team/">Our Team</a></li> <li><a href="/static/editorial-policy/">Editorial Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/static/reports/">Annual Reports</a></li> <li><a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_campaign=membership&utm_medium=header-nav">Membership</a></li> <li><a href="/static/contact/">Contact</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toplevel"> <a href="/login/" class="login_link">Login</a> <ul> <li><a href="/login/?ui_lang=en" title="Login" class="login_link">Login</a></li> <li><a href="/register/?ui_lang=en" title="Registration" class="login_link">Register</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </nav> </header> <div id="title_bar"> <div class="box_wrapper v_spacing"> <h1 id="page_title_text" class="trans">Mari</h1> </div> </div> <div id="page"> <div id="content_wrapper"> <div id="content" class="mari_page">  <script> function darkMode() { let css = document.createElement("link"); css.id = 'darkCSS'; css.setAttribute("rel", "stylesheet") css.setAttribute("type", "text/css") css.setAttribute("media","screen"); css.setAttribute("href", "/template/css/exclude/dark.css?v=1743674526"); document.getElementsByTagName("head")[0].appendChild(css) document.querySelector('#header_ahe_logo').innerHTML = '<img src="/template/images/header/whe-logo-white-r.svg">'; } function lightMode() { document.getElementById('darkCSS').remove(); document.querySelector('#header_ahe_logo').innerHTML = '<img src="/template/images/header/whe-logo-r.svg">'; } if (localStorage.getItem('darkMode') == 'dark') { darkMode(); } </script>  <main class="left_3_column" id="main_content"> <nav id="toc_wrapper" style="display: none;"> <div id="toc"> <h2 class="no_toc">Contents</h2> <div id="toc_contents"></div> <p class="toc_buttons"> <a href="/interestemails/?tags=Bronze_Age+mari+Mesopotamia+Mesopotamian_Culture+Syro-Mesopotamia+Tell_Hariri" class="topic_subscribe outline_button">Subscribe to topic</a> <a href="/interestemails/?author=hpelgrift" class="outline_button" rel="nofollow">Subscribe to author</a> <span class="outline_button print_button" onclick="printButtonClicked();">Print Article</span> <span class="outline_button pdf_button" onclick="pdfButtonClicked();">PDF</span> <script> function printButtonClicked() { pageReady.then(()=>{ ga4Event('print_button','clicked',AHE.canonicalPath); window.print(); }); } function pdfButtonClicked() { pageReady.then(()=>{ ahe_dialogue('/template/files/print-to-pdf-dialogue.php?v='+AHE.lastDeploy,400,null,'PDF') }); } </script> </p> </div> </nav> <div id="tag_definition_wrapper"> <script> jsQueue(()=>{ async_load_js('https://assets.pinterest.com/js/pinit.js') }); </script> <div class="pinterest_button"> <a href="https://www.pinterest.com/pin/create/button/" data-pin-do="buttonPin" data-pin-id="https://www.worldhistory.org/mari/" data-pin-media="https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/4416.jpg" data-pin-url="https://www.worldhistory.org/mari/" data-pin-description="Mari was a city-state located near the west bank of the Euphrates River in Northern Mesopotamia (now eastern Syria) during the Early Bronze Age and the Middle Bronze Age. One of the earliest known planned cities, Mari is believed to have been founded as a trade hub, and copper and bronze-smelting..." data-pin-count="beside" > </a> </div> <h2>Definition</h2> <div id="tag_definition_text"> <div class="clr"></div> <div class="ci_info"> <div class="ci_author_image"> <img loading="lazy" alt="Henry Curtis Pelgrift" src="/uploads/profile_photos/150-hpelgrift.jpg" width="50" height="50"> </div> <div class="ci_author trans block"> by <a href="/user/hpelgrift/" rel="author" title="User Page: Henry Curtis Pelgrift">Henry Curtis Pelgrift</a> <br/> published on 19 January 2016 </div> </div> <div class="pre_article_section"> <div class="translations_header"> <div class="translations_title">Available in other languages: <a href="/trans/ar/1-153/" class="translation_link ar " rel="alternate">Arabic</a>, <a href="/trans/az/1-153/mari/" class="translation_link az " rel="alternate">Azerbaijani</a>, <a href="/trans/fr/1-153/mari-ville/" class="translation_link fr " rel="alternate">French</a>, <a href="/trans/fa/1-153/" class="translation_link fa " rel="alternate">Persian</a></div> </div> <div id="audio-outer-wrapper"> <iframe id="audio-frame-contents" data-src="/audioplayer/en/1-153/" height="80" width="100%" frameborder="no" scrolling="no"></iframe> </div> <script> pageReady.then(()=>{ jsQueue(()=>{ let litPlayer = $('#audio-frame-contents'); if (litPlayer) { litPlayer.attr('src',litPlayer.attr('data-src')); } }); }); </script> <style> #audio-outer-wrapper { height: 80px; width: 100%; margin: 1em 0em; } #audio-frame-contents { background-image: url("/template/images/loading-audio-3.png"); background-size: contain; background-repeat: no-repeat; max-height: 80px; } </style> <div class="pre_article_buttons no_print"> <a href="/interestemails/?tags=Bronze_Age+mari+Mesopotamia+Mesopotamian_Culture+Syro-Mesopotamia+Tell_Hariri" class="topic_subscribe outline_button">Subscribe to topic</a> <a href="/interestemails/?author=hpelgrift" class="outline_button" rel="nofollow">Subscribe to author</a> <span class="outline_button print_button" onclick="printButtonClicked();">Print Article</span> <span class="outline_button pdf_button" onclick="pdfButtonClicked();">PDF</span> <script> function printButtonClicked() { pageReady.then(()=>{ ga4Event('print_button','clicked',AHE.canonicalPath); window.print(); }); } function pdfButtonClicked() { pageReady.then(()=>{ ahe_dialogue('/template/files/print-to-pdf-dialogue.php?v='+AHE.lastDeploy,400,null,'PDF') }); } </script> </div> </div> <div class="body"> <article> <figure class="definition_image"> <a href="/image/4416/labelled-map-of-mari-modern-day-tell-hariri-syria/" title="Labelled map of Mari, modern-day Tell Hariri, Syria"> <picture>  <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/4416.jpg.webp?v=1721949303 300w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/4416.jpg.webp?v=1721949303 600w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/4416.jpg?v=1721949303 300w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/4416.jpg?v=1721949303 600w" type="image/jpeg"> <img src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/4416.jpg?v=1721949303" width="300" height="281" alt="Labelled map of Mari, modern-day Tell Hariri, Syria (by Attar-Aram syria, CC BY-SA)" title="Labelled map of Mari, modern-day Tell Hariri, Syria (by Attar-Aram syria, CC BY-SA)" class="tag_definition_image" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Labelled map of Mari, modern-day Tell Hariri, Syria</div><div class="figauthor">Attar-Aram syria (CC BY-SA)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/4416/labelled-map-of-mari-modern-day-tell-hariri-syria/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/4416/labelled-map-of-mari-modern-day-tell-hariri-syria/","caption":"A satellite photograph of the site of Tell Hariri, Syria. Tell Hariri is the site of the ancient city of Mari, which, at various times from c. 3000 BCE - c. 1760 BCE, controlled large portions of Northern Mesopotamia. The photograph has been labelled with the locations of the major monuments at the site that have been excavated. It is unknown when this image was taken however the state of the site suggests prior to 2012 CE as the site has suffered heavy looting since the beginning of the Syrian Civil War.","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/4416.jpg","copyrightNotice":"Attar-Aram syria - CC BY-SA - This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon a work even for commercial reasons, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included.","creator":{"@type":"Person","name":"Attar-Aram syria"},"creditText":"Attar-Aram syria / Wikipedia","dateModified":"2025-04-04T12:13:18+0000","datePublished":"2016-01-18T11:43:27+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"Labelled map of Mari, modern-day Tell Hariri, Syria","height":2412,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isBasedOn":{"@type":"CreativeWork","url":"https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mari_landmarks.png"},"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/4416/labelled-map-of-mari-modern-day-tell-hariri-syria/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":true,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/4416/labelled-map-of-mari-modern-day-tell-hariri-syria/","width":2576} </script> <p>Mari was a <a href="/Polis/">city-state</a> located near the west bank of the Euphrates River in Northern <a href="/Mesopotamia/">Mesopotamia</a> (now eastern <a href="/syria/">Syria</a>) during the Early <a href="/disambiguation/Bronze_Age/">Bronze Age</a> and the Middle <a href="/disambiguation/bronze/">Bronze</a> Age. One of the earliest known planned <a href="/city/">cities</a>, Mari is believed to have been founded as a <a href="/disambiguation/trade/">trade</a> hub, and <a href="/copper/">copper</a> and bronze-smelting centre, between <a href="/babylon/">Babylonia</a> in Southern Mesopotamia and the resource-rich Taurus Mountains of modern <a href="/Asia_Minor/">Turkey</a>. For 1,200 years, Mari served as a major centre of Northern Mesopotamia until it was destroyed by <a href="/hammurabi/">Hammurabi</a> of <a href="/babylon/">Babylon</a> between 1760 BCE and 1757 BCE and gradually eroded away from memory and quite literally - today only one-third of the <a href="/city/">city</a> survives with the rest washed away by the Euphrates.</p> <h3>Geography & condition of the site</h3> <p>The ruins of Mari are located at modern-day <i>Tell Hariri</i> in eastern Syria. In the Bronze Age, the Euphrates was around 4-6 km from the city but has since moved farther east. The city is believed to have been constructed along with a 10 km long man-made "linking canal" that once cut through the city and provided water essential for the city's existence as the city itself was too far from the Euphrates for daily water retrieval on foot and the ground water is too salty for wells. As a result of the destruction of Mari by Hammurabi, Mari's linkage canal expanded outside of its intended boundaries and eventually eroded away two-thirds of the city, including most of the housing from the third and last phase of the city. </p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-1"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_1' class="adcontainer intext innerwrapper mobile"> </div> </div> <h3>Canals: the life-blood of Mari</h3> <p>In addition to providing water for the city, the linkage canal also gave easy access for trading ships travelling on the river. Along with the linkage canal, two other substantial canals were constructed by the city's builders. One was an irrigation canal, 16 km long and 100 m wide, and the other was a 126 km long navigational canal which ran past Mari on the opposite side of the Euphrates and allowed boats to bypass the winding Euphrates in favour of a straight passage - Mari controlled the entry points and profited from tolls.</p><div id="primis_intext"> <div id="3e3744ed-0893-4ec9-8757-582bfa65ad5c"></div> <div id="6b0cd791-ab2c-4669-b35a-8252ddaa7467"></div> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/youtube_intext" target="_blank" class="youtube_notice"> <svg role="img" viewBox="0 0 24 24" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><title>YouTube</title><path d="M23.498 6.186a3.016 3.016 0 0 0-2.122-2.136C19.505 3.545 12 3.545 12 3.545s-7.505 0-9.377.505A3.017 3.017 0 0 0 .502 6.186C0 8.07 0 12 0 12s0 3.93.502 5.814a3.016 3.016 0 0 0 2.122 2.136c1.871.505 9.376.505 9.376.505s7.505 0 9.377-.505a3.015 3.015 0 0 0 2.122-2.136C24 15.93 24 12 24 12s0-3.93-.502-5.814zM9.545 15.568V8.432L15.818 12l-6.273 3.568z"></path></svg> Follow us on YouTube!</a> </div> <script> </script> <h3>Technological & architectural innovations</h3> <p>Mari is an early example of complex urban planning and is believed to have been entirely planned out prior to its actual construction by another unknown but complex society. This is evident in Mari's overall design as the city was built as two concentric rings, the outer ring intended to protect the city from the occasional violent floods of the Euphrates, and the inner ring designed to defend against attackers.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-2"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_2' class="adcontainer intext innerwrapper mobile"> </div> </div> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="4415"> <a href="/image/4415/a-portion-of-wall-at-mari/" title="A portion of wall at Mari" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/4415.jpg.webp?v=1709674926 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/4415.jpg.webp?v=1709674926 1000w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/4415.jpg?v=1709674926 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/4415.jpg?v=1709674926 1000w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/4415.jpg?v=1709674926" alt="A portion of wall at Mari" class="in_text_image" width="501" height="335" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">A portion of wall at Mari</div><div class="figauthor">Zukka (CC BY-SA)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/4415/a-portion-of-wall-at-mari/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/4415/a-portion-of-wall-at-mari/","caption":"A portion of the fortifications at the site of Mari, modern-day Tell Hariri, Syria. Mari's fortifications entered their most advanced stage in the 19th century BCE when the city and the rest of the region were under threat from Amorite invaders. The walls were unsuccessful in this regard, however, as Mari fell to the Amorites c. 1830 BCE, thus ending the ruling Shakkanakku Dynasty and beginning the Amorite Lim Dynasty.","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/4415.jpg","copyrightNotice":"Zukka - CC BY-SA - This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon a work even for commercial reasons, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included.","creator":{"@type":"Person","name":"Zukka"},"creditText":"Zukka / World History Encyclopedia","dateModified":"2025-04-04T12:13:18+0000","datePublished":"2016-01-18T11:43:42+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"A portion of wall at Mari","height":548,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isBasedOn":{"@type":"CreativeWork","url":"https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1_%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A9_%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A.JPG"},"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/4415/a-portion-of-wall-at-mari/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/4415/a-portion-of-wall-at-mari/","width":819} </script> </p> <p>The earliest examples of certain Syro-Mesopotamian technologies were excavated by archaeologists at <i>Tell Hariri</i>, including the wheel and plumbing. Mari was built so that the whole city sloped gradually downwards, and the streets had complex drainage systems. This meant rainwater from the occasional torrential rains could be safely drained out of the city without risking damage to the buildings which were all made from mudbrick.</p> <h3><a href="/Archaeology/">Archaeology</a> & modern perils</h3> <p>Mari was discovered in 1933 CE by a local Bedouin who found a statue and informed the French government - this was a period when Syria was controlled by France. Since then, Mari has been a French-excavated site, with most of the <a href="/literature/">literature</a> on the site published in French. It was excavated by André Parrot from 1933–1939 CE, 1951–1954 CE, and 1960–1974 CE. In 1979 CE, a new expedition began under Jean-Claude Margueron, who ran the excavation until 2004 CE.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-3"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_3' class="adcontainer intext innerwrapper mobile desktop"> </div> </div> <p>After he retired and gave his responsibilities over to Pascal Butterlin, Margueron went on to write a book on Mari, which compressed 70 years of scholarship on the site into a 159-page English-language summary, which forms the basis of this definition. Butterlin ran the excavations up to 2012 CE when the Syrian Civil <a href="/war/">War</a> placed further excavation on hold indefinitely. Since 2012 CE, Mari has faced extensive looting, the impact of which is not yet known.</p> <h3>Mari tablets</h3> <p>Between 1933 CE and 1938 CE, excavators uncovered over 15,000 tablets at Mari. Many of these were concentrated in the "Great Royal <a href="/disambiguation/palace/">Palace</a>," but many also came from private homes. While some tablets are from an earlier period, most of the tablets are from the last 50 years of Mari's existence, and these help to recreate the Syro-Mesopotamian world of the time in great detail.</p> <h3>History</h3> <p>Mari's history as a city and regional power lasted from c. 2950 BCE to 1760 BCE, and this 1,200-year history was divided into three major periods by Margueron: City I, City II, and City III. After Hammurabi laid waste to the city between 1760 BCE and 1757 BCE, it became a backwater. The following history is based on Margueron's conclusions about the likely foundation and existence of Mari, combined with other sources.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-4"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_4' class="adcontainer intext innerwrapper mobile desktop"> </div> </div> <h3>City I - A superpower is born</h3> <p>The earliest part of Mari's history, c. 2950-2650 BCE, was called "City I" by Margueron.</p> <div class="big_quote">Between 3000 BCE and 2900 BCE, an unidentified, but well-organised, complex society selected an inhospitable area near a bend in the Euphrates River to build their new capital. </div> <p>Between 3000 BCE and 2900 BCE, an unidentified, but well-organised, complex society selected an inhospitable area near a bend in the Euphrates River to build their new capital. They likely wished to corner the market in trade and <a href="/disambiguation/metal/">metal</a> goods production in Northern Mesopotamia. After digging a canal to connect two bends of the river, they used the earth from this to raise a perfectly circular area that would form the heart of their new city and through which this canal passed, making the uninhabitable location habitable. Fortifications were constructed, and a grand capital enclosed within two concentric circles took shape, a design it would retain for its entire 1,200-year history.</p> <p>Along with the construction of the linking canal, these people built two other canals on either side of the city. The eastern one on the eastern side of the river was a navigation canal. The other was an irrigation canal to feed Mari's crops.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-5"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_5' class="adcontainer intext innerwrapper mobile desktop"> </div> </div> <p>As of 2008 CE there had been no religious or palatial structures found from City I. Many houses were found, however, and excavations of these houses paint a picture of a city filled with a vibrant and varied industry producing goods far beyond those made of metal.</p> <p>At some point, c. 2650 BCE, City I ceased to be inhabited for reasons unknown. Over the next century, the canals silted up and the city lay empty.</p> <h3>City II - Mari reborn</h3> <p>In c. 2550 BCE, a new city was founded over the ruins of City I, which were levelled by the new inhabitants, hence the lack of evidence for the end of City I. The new inhabitants completely rebuilt over the old plan of the city and re-dredged the canals.</p><div class="intext_6 ahe-ad book_rec_banner"></div> <p>Much of the historical knowledge of Mari from this period, called "City II" by Margueron, is informed by texts found at the site of Ebla, Mari's on-and-off rival and ally. Mari is known to have controlled a significant portion of Northern Mesopotamia, and during the reign of Ishbi-Irra, it may have even controlled territories as far south as <a href="/ur/">Ur</a> in what is now southeastern Iraq and which was then a coastal city. Sometime in the latter half of the 25th century BCE, Mari and Kish are known to have been allied with Zuzu of Akshak in his unsuccessful campaign against Eannatum, King of Lagash.</p> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="4445"> <a href="/image/4445/ebla-and-mari-during-the-reign-of-iblul-il-of-mari/" title="Ebla and Mari during the reign of Iblul-Il of Mari" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/4445.png.webp?v=1706638024 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/4445.png.webp?v=1706638024 1000w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/4445.png?v=1706638024 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/4445.png?v=1706638024 1000w" type="image/png"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/4445.png?v=1706638024" alt="Ebla and Mari during the reign of Iblul-Il of Mari" class="in_text_image" width="500" height="318" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Ebla and Mari during the reign of Iblul-Il of Mari</div><div class="figauthor">Attar-Aram syria, using a modified map originally made by SÃ©mhur. (CC BY-SA)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/4445/ebla-and-mari-during-the-reign-of-iblul-il-of-mari/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/4445/ebla-and-mari-during-the-reign-of-iblul-il-of-mari/","caption":"This map shows Ebla and Mari's territories c. 2380 BCE. The two powers were rivals and allies on and off and together dominated much of modern-day Syria and western Iraq. Iblul-Il of Mari is known to have exacted tribute from Ebla during the course of a century-long war between the two. Ebla was eventually destroyed c. 2300 BCE for reasons unknown.","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/4445.png","copyrightNotice":"Attar-Aram syria, using a modified map originally made by S\u00c3\u00a9mhur. - CC BY-SA - This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon a work even for commercial reasons, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included.","creator":{"@type":"Person","name":"Attar-Aram syria, using a modified map originally made by S\u00c3\u00a9mhur."},"creditText":"Attar-Aram syria, using a modified map originally made by S\u00c3\u00a9mhur. / Wikipedia","dateModified":"2025-04-04T12:13:18+0000","datePublished":"2016-01-19T09:30:53+0000","encodingFormat":"image/png","headline":"Ebla and Mari during the reign of Iblul-Il of Mari","height":842,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isBasedOn":{"@type":"CreativeWork","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iblul-Il#/media/File:Second_Mariote_kingdom.png"},"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/4445/ebla-and-mari-during-the-reign-of-iblul-il-of-mari/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/4445/ebla-and-mari-during-the-reign-of-iblul-il-of-mari/","width":1326} </script> </p> <p>From c. 2420 to c. 2360 BCE, Mari exacted tribute from Ebla, starting during the reign of Iblul-Il of Mari. This ended when a dispute over lands held by Mari on the eastern side of a bend in the Euphrates River escalated into a war which eventually ended in Mari's favour. However, Ebla managed to string together a northern trade route of friendly cities north of Mari's holdings and thus avoided having to rely on Mari for goods from the East. The rivalry between Mari and Ebla ended with the destruction of Ebla c. 2350 BCE.</p> <p>City II was destroyed by the <a href="/disambiguation/akkadian/">Akkadian</a> King and grandson of <a href="/disambiguation/sargon/">Sargon</a>, <a href="/Naram-Sin/">Naram-Sin</a>. Naram-Sin sought to expand the <a href="/akkad/">Akkadian Empire</a>, and c. 2220 BCE, he razed the city and its walls.</p><div id="mobilenewsletter" class="grey_box mobilenewsletter"> <div class="headline">Love History?</div> <p>Sign up for our free weekly email newsletter!</p> <form action="//ancient.us8.list-manage.com/subscribe/post?u=c3168e59d8bfba7986977db46&id=ac74a77c22" method="post" id="mailchimp-mobile-form" name="mc-embedded-subscribe-form" class="validate"> <input type="email" placeholder="Email address..." name="EMAIL" class="required email" id="mce-EMAIL-mobile" style="width:60%;" required> <input type="submit" value="Sign Up" name="subscribe" id="mc-embedded-subscribe-mobile" style="margin-top: 10px;">  <div style="position: absolute; left: -5000px;"><input type="text" name="b_c3168e59d8bfba7986977db46_ac74a77c22" tabindex="-1" value=""></div> </form> </div> <h3>City III - Mari the Great & the <a href="/empire/">Empire</a> in the North</h3> <p>Mari was rebuilt under the Akkadians, and this incarnation of Mari is classified by Margueron as City III. Local governors called <i>Shakkanakku</i> controlled the city, and this administrative title became a hereditary title after the first ruler.</p> <p>When the Akkadian Empire fell, c. 2150 BCE, Mari became independent once more and regained dominion over Northern Mesopotamia. The use of the <i>Shakkanakku</i> title continued despite Mari's freedom and was used for the rest of City III's existence.</p> <p>For the first 150–200 years of City III's existence, the <i>Shakkanakku</i> lived in a palace for which the only details known are its existence and location, and that it and some temples were the first structures rebuilt following the destruction of City II. The lack of information results from the razing of this so-called "phantom palace" to make way for the "Great Royal Palace," a massive structure of over 250 rooms on just the ground floor.</p> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="4417"> <a href="/image/4417/remains-of-the-ziggurat-attached-to-the-temple-of/" title="Remains of the Ziggurat Attached to the Temple of Lions at Mari" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/4417.jpg.webp?v=1721053692-1721030861 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/4417.jpg.webp?v=1721053692-1721030861 1000w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/4417.jpg?v=1721053692-1721030861 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/4417.jpg?v=1721053692-1721030861 1000w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/4417.jpg?v=1721053692-1721030861" alt="Remains of the Ziggurat Attached to the Temple of Lions at Mari" class="in_text_image" width="500" height="375" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Remains of the Ziggurat Attached to the Temple of Lions at Mari</div><div class="figauthor">Heretiq (CC BY-NC-SA)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/4417/remains-of-the-ziggurat-attached-to-the-temple-of/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/4417/remains-of-the-ziggurat-attached-to-the-temple-of/","caption":"Excavated remains of the Temple of Lions, a 40-foot terrace attached to a temple at Mari. The temple, also known as the Temple of the King of the Land was built by the ruler, Ishtup-Ilum, in the 22nd century BCE and dedicated to the god, Degan.\r\n\r\nTell Hariri, Syria.","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/4417.jpg","copyrightNotice":"Heretiq - CC BY-NC-SA - This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included.","creator":{"@type":"Person","name":"Heretiq"},"creditText":"Heretiq / Wikipedia","dateModified":"2024-07-15T08:07:41+0000","datePublished":"2016-01-18T11:42:50+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"Remains of the Ziggurat Attached to the Temple of Lions at Mari","height":1536,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isBasedOn":{"@type":"CreativeWork","url":"https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:MariZiggurat.jpg"},"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/4417/remains-of-the-ziggurat-attached-to-the-temple-of/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/4417/remains-of-the-ziggurat-attached-to-the-temple-of/","width":2048} </script> </p> <p>In order to maintain peace in the region, Mari allied itself with Ur's Dynasty III, which controlled Southern Mesopotamia, and Mari cemented this through royal marriages. This peace continued until Ur's dynasty crumbled c. 2000 BCE, as a result of <a href="/amorite/">Amorite</a> incursions and internal decay, and the south fell into chaos.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-6"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_8' class="adcontainer intext innerwrapper mobile desktop"> </div> </div> <p>Around 2000 BCE, nomadic Semitic peoples known as <i>Amaru</i> or "Amorites" invaded from Syria and took control of the cities of Mesopotamia. Mari is known to have reinforced its walls in an effort to keep the Amorites out, but by c. 1830 BCE, this proved futile and the <i>Shakkanakku</i> fell.</p> <h3>Amorite Period</h3> <p>Around 1830 BCE, the Amorite ruler, Yaggid-Lim took control of Mari and replaced the "<i>Shakkanakku</i> Dynasty" with one referred to today as the "Lim" or "Amorite Dynasty." With a notable period of interruption, the rule of Yaggid-Lim's descendants lasted until 1761 BCE. The archive of inscribed clay tablets from Mari dates from this time, and as a result, many key historical actors and stories are known. The tablets help paint a picture of the political, economic, and social landscape of Mari in its last years, as well as in the wider world around Mari.</p> <p>During his ten-year reign, Yaggid-Lim is known to have run afoul of the king of Ekallatum who conquered Mari and took Yaggid-Lim's son, Yakhud-Lim, hostage. In 1820 BCE, Yaggid-Lim died, and his son, Yakhud-Lim took the throne. Yakhud-Lim sought to increase Mari's influence both economically and militarily. Along with expanding Mari's already impressive irrigation systems and reinforcing the fortifications of Mari and Terqa, he also sent forces as far west as the coastal cities in the <a href="/levant/">Levant</a> and forced them to pay tribute to Mari.</p> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="510"> <a href="/image/510/amorite-pottery-juglet/" title="Amorite pottery juglet" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/510.jpg.webp?v=1706638027 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/510.jpg.webp?v=1706638027 1000w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/510.jpg?v=1706638027 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/510.jpg?v=1706638027 1000w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/510.jpg?v=1706638027" alt="Amorite pottery juglet" class="in_text_image" width="500" height="500" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Amorite pottery juglet</div><div class="figauthor">Trustees of the British Museum (Copyright)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/510/amorite-pottery-juglet/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/510/amorite-pottery-juglet/","caption":"Amorite, about 2400-2000 BC \r\nFrom the Middle Euphrates region, Syria\r\n\r\nThis juglet, with its applied figurine, is pierced at the base and may have been a strainer. Alternatively it could have been used a sprinkler, by clamping a thumb over the top when the vessel was filled with liquid, then withdrawing it gently and so releasing the pressure.\r\n\r\nMuch of the Middle Euphrates region now lies beneath the waters of a lake. Between 1963 and 1973 an international rescue mission excavated many sites in the area, which was threatened by flooding as a result of the construction of the Tabqa dam. These excavations revealed a distinctive regional culture.\r\n\r\nDuring the period from about 2400 to 2000 BC, northern Mesopotamia and Syria appear to have been dominated by a number of expanding sites. Mari on the Euphrates and Ebla (modern Tell Mardikh, south-west of Aleppo) were among the most important. Over 8000 inscribed clay tablets discovered at Ebla show close contact with Mari and indicate that the site wielded extensive political power. Contacts with cities in the south of Mesopotamia were also significant. At the end of the third millennium BC King Sargon, or Naram-Sin, who was ruler of Agade, one of these southern cities, campaigned into the north and destroyed Ebla, thus changing the balance of power","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/510.jpg","copyrightNotice":"Trustees of the British Museum - Copyright - You cannot use, copy, distribute, or modify this item without explicit permission from the author.","creator":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Trustees of the British Museum"},"creditText":"Trustees of the British Museum / Trustees of the British Museum","dateModified":"2025-04-04T12:13:18+0000","datePublished":"2012-04-26T07:45:12+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"Amorite pottery juglet","height":"600","isAccessibleForFree":true,"isBasedOn":{"@type":"CreativeWork","url":"http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/me/p/pottery_juglet.aspx"},"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/510/amorite-pottery-juglet/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/510/amorite-pottery-juglet/","width":"600"} </script> </p> <p>Despite these efforts, Mari under Yakhud-Lim became a vassal of Aleppo, but at one point was forced to become a vassal of another Naram-Sîn, this time of Eshnunna. Naram-Sîn died c. 1811 BCE, and Mari once more became independent and began to regain its old territory. However, this was not the end of Yakhud-Lim's troubles.</p> <h3>Amorite intrigues & the "Assyrian" Kings</h3> <p>Around 1808 BCE, Shamsi-Adad, who would be retroactively counted as a King of <a href="/assyria/">Assyria</a> by later Assyrian kings, began conquering Northern Mesopotamia when he took control of <a href="/assur/">Assur</a>. When Shamsi-Adad's ambitions became apparent, a war erupted between him and Yakhud-Lim for control of the region. After a time, Yakhud-Lim lost and was later assassinated by his own son, Sumu-Yamam, c. 1798 BCE, who ruled Mari for two years before being crushed by Shamsi-Adad in 1796 BCE. Shamsi-Adad's son and co-ruler, Yasmakh-Adad was given rule over Mari at an uncertain date, possibly c. 1788 BCE.</p> <p>Letters between Yamsakh-Adad and his father show that Yamsakh-Adad was an extraordinarily ineffective and dissolute ruler and that he had to call on his father - who showed a deep disdain for his son - frequently for assistance. A ruler named Zimri-Lim, who was a grandson or nephew of Yakhud-Lim, defeated Yamsakh-Adad with the help of Aleppo in 1776 BCE, after Shamsi-Adad's <a href="/disambiguation/Death/">death</a>, and retook the throne for the Amorite Dynasty.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-7"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_9' class="adcontainer intext innerwrapper mobile desktop"> </div> </div> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="4447"> <a href="/image/4447/the-investiture-of-zimri-lim/" title="The Investiture of Zimri-Lim" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/4447.jpg.webp?v=1600880408 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/4447.jpg.webp?v=1600880408 1000w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/4447.jpg?v=1600880408 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/4447.jpg?v=1600880408 1000w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/4447.jpg?v=1600880408" alt="The Investiture of Zimri-Lim" class="in_text_image" width="500" height="334" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">The Investiture of Zimri-Lim</div><div class="figauthor">Marie-Lan Nguyen (Public Domain)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/4447/the-investiture-of-zimri-lim/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/4447/the-investiture-of-zimri-lim/","caption":"This fresco mural depicts Zimri-Lim, the last king of Mari. It was likely created c. 1775 BCE when Zimri-Lim regained the throne of Mari for the Amorite \"Lim Dynasty\" from Shamsi-Adad's son, Yasmakh-Adad. The mural depicts Zimri-Lim receiving his divine right to rule from Ishtar.","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/4447.jpg","copyrightNotice":"Marie-Lan Nguyen - Public Domain - This item is in the public domain, and can be used, copied, and modified without any restrictions.","creator":{"@type":"Person","name":"Marie-Lan Nguyen"},"creditText":"Marie-Lan Nguyen / Wikipedia","dateModified":"2025-04-04T12:13:18+0000","datePublished":"2016-01-19T09:22:53+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"The Investiture of Zimri-Lim","height":2538,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isBasedOn":{"@type":"CreativeWork","url":"https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Investiture_of_Zimri-Lim_Louvre_AO19826_n01.jpg"},"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/4447/the-investiture-of-zimri-lim/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/4447/the-investiture-of-zimri-lim/","width":3807} </script> </p> <h3>Zimri-Lim: the last King of Mari & the end of Mari</h3> <p>Zimri-Lim sought to reclaim Mari's old glory, and after spending five years settling tribal disputes and battling with the Kingdom of Eshnunna, whose alliance Zimri-Lim had dismissed in favour of one with Aleppo. He cemented an alliance with Aleppo with a marriage to the king's daughter.</p> <p>Mari is known to have been very tribal at this time - with the bulk of Marians calling themselves "Khanaeans", a reference to the Amorites' origins - and there are several known instances when the palace-bound Amorite rulers are known to have had conflicts with their fellow, nomadic Amorites. Zimri-Lim is known to have lived a life of splendour.</p> <p>Around 1766 BCE, a coalition of Babylon, Mari, and <a href="/elam/">Elam</a> captured Eshnunna, but Mari and Babylon were betrayed by Elam, which they later managed to rebuff. Afterwards, though Zimri-Lim and Hammurabi of Babylon did not trust each other, the two frequently campaigned together against many powerful enemies.</p> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="4446"> <a href="/image/4446/ancient-syro-mesopotamia-ca-1764-bce/" title="Ancient Syro-Mesopotamia ca. 1764 BCE" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/4446.png.webp?v=1706638030 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/4446.png.webp?v=1706638030 1000w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/4446.png?v=1706638030 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/4446.png?v=1706638030 1000w" type="image/png"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/4446.png?v=1706638030" alt="Ancient Syro-Mesopotamia ca. 1764 BCE" class="in_text_image" width="500" height="386" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Ancient Syro-Mesopotamia ca. 1764 BCE</div><div class="figauthor">Attar-Aram syria, using a modified map originally made by SÃ©mhur. (CC BY-SA)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/4446/ancient-syro-mesopotamia-ca-1764-bce/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/4446/ancient-syro-mesopotamia-ca-1764-bce/","caption":"This map shows the political situation in Syro-Mesopotamia c. 1764 BCE. During this time, the Amorite Kings, Hammurabi of Babylon and Zimri-Lim of Mari were engaged in near-constant warfare with surrounding polities, many of whom were also predominantly Amorite. The two kings crushed powers like Eshnunna and fought back the Elamites. In 1761 BCE, Babylon is known to have taken control of Mari and its territories, and the reasons behind this are unclear to this day.","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/4446.png","copyrightNotice":"Attar-Aram syria, using a modified map originally made by S\u00c3\u00a9mhur. - CC BY-SA - This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon a work even for commercial reasons, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included.","creator":{"@type":"Person","name":"Attar-Aram syria, using a modified map originally made by S\u00c3\u00a9mhur."},"creditText":"Attar-Aram syria, using a modified map originally made by S\u00c3\u00a9mhur. / Wikipedia","dateModified":"2025-04-04T12:13:18+0000","datePublished":"2016-01-19T09:27:59+0000","encodingFormat":"image/png","headline":"Ancient Syro-Mesopotamia ca. 1764 BCE","height":1020,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isBasedOn":{"@type":"CreativeWork","url":"https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Third_Mari.png"},"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/4446/ancient-syro-mesopotamia-ca-1764-bce/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/4446/ancient-syro-mesopotamia-ca-1764-bce/","width":1324} </script> </p> <p>In 1761 BCE, Hammurabi - once an ally of Zimri-Lim - captured Mari. It is not known what became of Zimri-Lim, whether he had been betrayed by Hammurabi or died on a military campaign. It is also unknown whether Mari was taken by threat of force - there is no evidence of this or that Mari was preparing to defend itself - or, finding itself leaderless, the city simply gave itself over to Hammurabi who then sent emissaries to seize the riches of the Great Royal Palace over a period of two years. Regardless, sometime between 1759 and 1757 BCE, Hammurabi razed Mari to the ground.</p> <p>When Hammurabi burned the palace, he unintentionally baked the tablets inside - an event that has occurred in several ancient cities, such as Ebla and <a href="/ugarit/">Ugarit</a>, where the palace becomes an unintended <a href="/pottery/">pottery</a> kiln - thus preserving the tablets for future excavators of the site. Mari never recovered from this destruction, and the city fell into obscurity. The site saw only occasional habitation until the time of <a href="/Alexander_the_Great/">Alexander the Great</a>'s successors when it was finally abandoned for good.</p> </article> <div id="ci_rating_wrapper"> <div class="rating_label filter_label">Did you like this definition?</div> <div id="ci_rating_buttons_wrapper"> <div class="rating_button up base" data-rating="1"></div> <div class="rating_button down base" data-rating="-1"></div> </div> </div> <div id="sections_below_links"> <p> <a href="/interestemails/?tags=Bronze_Age+mari+Mesopotamia+Mesopotamian_Culture+Syro-Mesopotamia+Tell_Hariri" class="topic_subscribe outline_button below_article">Subscribe to topic</a> <a href="#ci_related_content_outer_wrapper" class="outline_button">Related Content</a> <a href="#books_preview" class="outline_button">Books</a> <a href="#citation_info" class="outline_button">Cite This Work</a> <a href="#ci_author_and_copyright" class="outline_button">License</a> </p> </div> <div class="editorial_review_notice"> <span class="editorial_review_header">Editorial Review</span> This human-authored article has been reviewed by our editorial team before publication to ensure accuracy, reliability and adherence to academic standards in accordance with our <a href="/static/editorial-policy/">editorial policy</a>. </div> </div> </div></div> <div class="ad_Flexi_BottomLeft ahe-ad"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id="div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_BottomLeft" class="adcontainer worldhistory_below_content"> </div> </div> <div class="map_section"> <h3>Map</h3> <div class="map_wrapper"> <div class="map_container"> <iframe data-src="/template/files/map_animation.php?loc_id=32" id="map_iframe" width="100%" height="385" frameborder="0"></iframe> </div> </div> </div> <style> .map_container.il { border: none; } .map_container h3 { text-align: center; } </style> <div id="references"> <h2>Bibliography</h2> <ul id="reference_list" class="ref_list bibliography"> <li id="bibID__a9286b8d847f108452de2bc0ffeb4cf4"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/B0000CLF3Q/" rel="sponsored">Beek, M.A. <i>Atlas of Mesopotamia.</i> Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd. Publishers, 1962.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__90e0a78434d3090574ca687e6ce7d7d4"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0195183649/" rel="sponsored">Bertman, S. <i>Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia.</i> Oxford University Press, 2005.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__7e4fc166673f7b853989ea33fab58391"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0684192799/" rel="sponsored">Charpin, D. "The History of Ancient Mesopotamia: An Overview." <i>Civilizations of the Ancient Near East</i>, edited by Sasson, J.M. Charles Scribner's Sons, 1995.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__02881ce3311f4ff88c4cbe3ebfd5f69b"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/1250054168/" rel="sponsored">Kriwaczek, P. <i>Babylon: Mesopotamia and the Birth of Civilization.</i> New York: St. Martin's Press, 2012, 164â€“165.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__758fa89f6653bbfecb440604d664885d"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0684192799/" rel="sponsored">Lemche, N.P. "The History of Ancient Syria and Palestine: An Overview." <i>Civilizations of the Ancient Near East</i>, edited by Sasson, J.M. Charles Scribner's Sons, 1995.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__b2f0e168a21a44ae666e8d12b0c191e9"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/1782977317/" rel="sponsored">Margueron, J. <i>Mari: Capital of Northern Mesopotamia in the Third Millenium - The archaeology of Tell Hariri on the Euphrates.</i> Oxford & Philadelphia: Oxbow Books, 2014.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__39db94d802c6b513476a92dcb203f5d9"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0684192799/" rel="sponsored">Margueron, J. "Mari: A Portrait in Art." <i>Civilizations of the Ancient Near East</i>, edited by Sasson, J.M. Charles Scribner's Sons, 1995.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__89ae221ec8ab79c92a1a977c9dabe347"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0684192799/" rel="sponsored">Milano, L. "Ebla: A Third-Millenium City-State in Ancient Syria." <i>Civilizations of the Ancient Near East</i>, edited by Sasson, J.M. Charles Scribner's Sons, 1995.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__0a89b3dac9a161407264fd066a428809"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0880291273/" rel="sponsored">Saggs, H.W.F. <i>Everyday Life in Babylonia and Assyria.</i> Hippocrene Books, 1987.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__4cc46aa74a212f6240f2c6cde0a69abe"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0684192799/" rel="sponsored">Sasson, J.M. "King Hammurabi of Babylon." <i>Civilizations of the Ancient Near East</i>, edited by Sasson, J.M. Charles Scribner's Sons, 1995.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__00f71f9050ee7237bee3087925d64687"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0684192799/" rel="sponsored">Villard, P. "Shamsi-Adad and Sons: The Rise and Fall of an Upper Mesopotamian Empire." <i>Civilizations of the Ancient Near East</i>, edited by Sasson, J.M. Charles Scribner's Sons, 1995.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__5122670220509c52eac2c1885d832e0e"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0801415187/" rel="sponsored">Woolley, L. <i>Ur 'of the Chaldees.</i> Cornell University Press, 1982.</a></cite> </li> </ul> <div class="book_promo_wrapper"></div> <span class="light affiliate_notice">World History Encyclopedia is an Amazon Associate and earns a commission on qualifying book purchases.</span> <div id="books_rec"> </div> <script> jsQueue(()=>{ $("ul.bibliography").sortList(); }); </script> </div> <div class="user_short_bio_wrapper"> <a href="/interestemails/?author=hpelgrift" class="headline_button" rel="nofollow">Subscribe to this author</a> <h2>About the Author</h2> <div class="user_short_bio"> <div class="left_col"> </div> <div class="right_col"> <a href="/user/hpelgrift/" rel="nofollow" title="Henry Curtis Pelgrift"><img data-src="/uploads/profile_photos/150-hpelgrift.jpg?v=1485683140" width="100" height="100" alt="Henry Curtis Pelgrift" class="avatar_image" /></a> <div class="user_name"> <a href="/user/hpelgrift/" rel="author" title="Henry Curtis Pelgrift">Henry Curtis Pelgrift</a> </div> <div class="short_bio_text"> Henry Curtis Pelgrift is an archaeologist with 13 excavations over seven seasons under his belt and has worked at the British Museum and Met. He is currently doing a PhD in Archaeology and has an MA in Mediterranean Archaeology and a BA in Archaeology. </div> <div class="sm_links"> <a href="https://www.facebook.com/10153238128496461" title="Henry Curtis Pelgrift" class="sm_tiny_sprite facebook no_external"></a> <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/henrypelgrift" title="Henry Curtis Pelgrift" class="sm_tiny_sprite linkedin no_external"></a> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="translations_notice"> <h2 class="translations">Translations</h2> <a href="/trans/ar/1-153/" class="translation_link ar outline_button" rel="alternate">Arabic</a> <a href="/trans/az/1-153/mari/" class="translation_link az outline_button" rel="alternate">Azerbaijani</a> <a href="/trans/fr/1-153/mari-ville/" class="translation_link fr outline_button" rel="alternate">French</a> <a href="/trans/fa/1-153/" class="translation_link fa outline_button" rel="alternate">Persian</a> <p>We want people all over the world to learn about history. Help us and <a href="/trans/x/1-153/edit/" class="translation_add_button" rel="nofollow">translate this definition</a> into another language!</p> </div> <div id="ci_related_wrapper"> <div class="ci_related_content_outer_wrapper" id="ci_related_content_outer_wrapper"> <h2>Related Content</h2> <div id="ci_related_type_list"> <span class="filter_label">Filters:</span> <div rel="0" class="ci_type_0 ci_rel_type selected">All<span class="ci_rel_type_count"> </span></div> <div rel="1" class="ci_type_1 ci_rel_type ">Definitions<span class="ci_rel_type_count">29</span></div> <div rel="2" class="ci_type_2 ci_rel_type ">Articles<span class="ci_rel_type_count">28</span></div> <div rel="3" class="ci_type_3 ci_rel_type ">Images<span class="ci_rel_type_count">37</span></div> <div rel="9" class="ci_type_9 ci_rel_type ">Collections<span class="ci_rel_type_count">3</span></div> <div rel="10" class="ci_type_10 ci_rel_type ">Teaching Materials<span class="ci_rel_type_count">2</span></div> </div> <div id="ci_related_content"> <div class="ci_related_content_wrapper ci_two_cols three_cols"> <div class="columns"> <a href="/image/4416/labelled-map-of-mari-modern-day-tell-hariri-syria/" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_3 " id="3-4416" data-score="621021" data-ci-type-id="3"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/4416.jpg.webp?v=1721949303 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/4416.jpg.webp?v=1721949303 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/4416.jpg?v=1721949303 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/4416.jpg?v=1721949303 720w" type="image/jpg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/4416.jpg?v=1721949303" width="360" height="202" alt="Labelled map of Mari, modern-day Tell Hariri, Syria" class="ci_image " /> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__3"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Image </div> <h3>Labelled map of Mari, modern-day Tell Hariri, Syria</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> A satellite photograph of the site of Tell Hariri, Syria. Tell... </div> </div> </a> <a href="/Bronze_Age_Aegean/" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_1 " id="1-20075" data-score="416240" data-ci-type-id="1"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/294.jpg.webp?v=1721757184 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/294.jpg.webp?v=1721757184 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/294.jpg?v=1721757184 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/294.jpg?v=1721757184 720w" type="image/jpg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/294.jpg?v=1721757184" width="360" height="202" alt="Bronze Age Aegean" class="ci_image " /> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__1"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Definition </div> <h3>Bronze Age Aegean</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> The Bronze Age (c. 3000-1000 BCE) is the period when cultures were... </div> </div> </a> <a href="/image/4445/ebla-and-mari-during-the-reign-of-iblul-il-of-mari/" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_3 " id="3-4445" data-score="363653" data-ci-type-id="3"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/4445.png.webp?v=1706638024 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/4445.png.webp?v=1706638024 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/4445.png?v=1706638024 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/4445.png?v=1706638024 720w" type="image/png"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/4445.png?v=1706638024" width="360" height="202" alt="Ebla and Mari during the reign of Iblul-Il of Mari" class="ci_image " /> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__3"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Image </div> <h3>Ebla and Mari during the reign of Iblul-Il of Mari</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> This map shows Ebla and Mari's territories c. 2380 BCE. The two... </div> </div> </a> <a href="/Bronze_Age_Collapse/" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_1 " id="1-10433" data-score="344599" data-ci-type-id="1"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/10322.jpg.webp?v=1738022356 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/10322.jpg.webp?v=1738022356 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/10322.jpg?v=1738022356 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/10322.jpg?v=1738022356 720w" type="image/jpg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/10322.jpg?v=1738022356" width="360" height="202" alt="Bronze Age Collapse" class="ci_image " /> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__1"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Definition </div> <h3>Bronze Age Collapse</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> The Bronze Age Collapse (also known as Late Bronze Age Collapse... </div> </div> </a> <a href="/article/850/mesopotamian-effects-on-israel-during-the-iron-age/" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_2 " id="2-850" data-score="313863" data-ci-type-id="2"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/285.png.webp?v=1738022349 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/285.png.webp?v=1738022349 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/285.png?v=1738022349 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/285.png?v=1738022349 720w" type="image/png"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/285.png?v=1738022349" width="360" height="202" alt="Mesopotamian Effects on Israel During the Iron Age" class="ci_image " /> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__2"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Article </div> <h3>Mesopotamian Effects on Israel During the Iron Age</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> The Iron Age in the traditional Ancient Near Eastern chronology... </div> </div> </a> <a href="/article/1190/bronze-age-sicily/" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_2 " id="2-1190" data-score="287125" data-ci-type-id="2"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/7478.jpg.webp?v=1718101929 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/7478.jpg.webp?v=1718101929 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/7478.jpg?v=1718101929 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/7478.jpg?v=1718101929 720w" type="image/jpg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/7478.jpg?v=1718101929" width="360" height="202" alt="Bronze Age Sicily" class="ci_image " /> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__2"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Article </div> <h3>Bronze Age Sicily</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> The Bronze Age in Sicily, considered one of the most important... </div> </div> </a> </div> <nav class="pagination"> <strong class="pagination_page">1</strong> <a href="#" class="pagination_page" data-page="2" rel="next ">2</a> <a href="#" class="pagination_page" data-page="3" rel="">3</a> <a href="#" class="pagination_page" data-page="4" rel="">4</a> <a href="#" class="pagination_page" data-page="5" rel="">5</a> <a href="#" class="pagination_page" data-page="6" rel="">6</a> <a href="#" class="pagination_page" data-page="7" rel="">7</a> <a href="#" class="pagination_page" data-page="8" rel="">8</a> <a href="#" class="pagination_page" data-page="9" rel="">9</a> <a href="#" class="pagination_page" data-page="10" rel="">10</a> <a href="#" data-page="2" rel="next">Next &rsaquo;</a> <a href="#" data-page="17" rel="">Last »</a> </nav> </div> </div> </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript"> var wrapper_selector_prefix = '#ci_related_wrapper '; var pag = 1; var cit = "0"; var cist = ""; function handle_related_pagination_click() { $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper .pagination a").off().one("click",function(e) { e.preventDefault(); var newpage = $(this).attr("data-page"); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper").fadeTo(400,0.1,function() { $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper").load("/ajax/ajax-search-new.php?q=mari+bronze+age+mari+mesopotamia+mesopotamian+culture+syro-mesopotamia+tell+hariri&caching=1&ci_id=1-153&filter=%7B%22exclude_ci_ids%22%3A%221-153%22%7D&cit=" + cit + "&lim=6&pag=" + newpage + "&ci_subtype_ids=" + cist,function() { $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper").fadeTo(400,1); if (document.getElementById('ci_related_type_list')) { var eTop = $(wrapper_selector_prefix + '#ci_related_type_list').offset().top; } else if (document.getElementById('ci_related_content_outer_wrapper')) { var eTop = $(wrapper_selector_prefix + '#ci_related_content_outer_wrapper').offset().top; } if (eTop > 0) { $(window).scrollTop(eTop); } updateBrowserURL(cit,newpage,cist); handle_related_pagination_click(); }); }); }); } function updateBrowserURL(cit,page,cist) { let urlComponents = []; let url = ''; if (cit) { urlComponents.push('type:'+cit); } if (page) { urlComponents.push('page:'+page); } if (cist) { urlComponents.push('subtype:'+cist); } url = '#ci_related_filters=' + urlComponents.join('&'); window.location = url; } function applyBrowserURLFilters() { if (window.location.hash) { let filters = window.location.hash.match(/ci_related_filters=type:([0-9]+)&page:([0-9]+)(&subtype:([0-9]+))?/); if (filters) { let type = filters[1] ?? 0; let page = filters[2] ?? 0; let subtype = filters[4] ?? 0; if (type || page || subtype) { console.log('Applying filters!'); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper").load("/ajax/ajax-search-new.php?q=mari+bronze+age+mari+mesopotamia+mesopotamian+culture+syro-mesopotamia+tell+hariri&caching=1&ci_id=1-153&filter=%7B%22exclude_ci_ids%22%3A%221-153%22%7D&cit=" + type + "&lim=6&pag=" + page + "&ci_subtype_ids=" + subtype,function() { jsQueue(()=>{ // Change UI selection $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_rel_type").removeClass("selected"); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + '.ci_type_'+type).addClass("selected"); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_subtype_selectors .outline_button.selector").removeClass("selected"); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_subtype_selectors .outline_button.selector[data-subtype-id=2]").addClass("selected"); }); jsQueue(()=>{ handle_related_pagination_click(); }); }); } } } } jsQueue(()=>{ applyBrowserURLFilters(); }); jsQueue(()=>{ handle_related_pagination_click(); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_rel_type").click(function() { cit = $(this).attr('rel'); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + "#ci_related_type_current_selection").html(null); $(this).clone().appendTo("#ci_related_type_current_selection"); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_rel_type").removeClass("selected"); $(this).addClass("selected"); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper").fadeTo(400,0.1,function() { $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper").load("/ajax/ajax-search-new.php?q=mari+bronze+age+mari+mesopotamia+mesopotamian+culture+syro-mesopotamia+tell+hariri&caching=1&ci_id=1-153&filter=%7B%22exclude_ci_ids%22%3A%221-153%22%7D&cit=" + cit + "&lim=6&pag=" + pag + "&ci_subtype_ids=" + cist,function() { $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper").fadeTo(400,1); updateBrowserURL(cit,pag,cist); handle_related_pagination_click(); }); }); }); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + '.ci_subtype_selectors .outline_button.selector').click(function() { cist = $(this).attr('data-subtype-id'); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_subtype_selectors .outline_button.selector").removeClass("selected"); $(this).addClass("selected"); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper").fadeTo(400,0.1,function() { $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper").load("/ajax/ajax-search-new.php?q=mari+bronze+age+mari+mesopotamia+mesopotamian+culture+syro-mesopotamia+tell+hariri&caching=1&ci_id=1-153&filter=%7B%22exclude_ci_ids%22%3A%221-153%22%7D&cit=" + cit + "&lim=6&pag=" + pag + "&ci_subtype_ids=" + cist,function() { $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper").fadeTo(400,1); updateBrowserURL(cit,pag,cist); handle_related_pagination_click(); }); }); }); }); </script> <div class="membership-below-block-wrapper"> <div class="membership_below_notice"> <div class="membership_below_notice_inner"> <h2 class="no_toc">Free for the World, Supported by You</h2> <p class="a"> World History Encyclopedia is a non-profit organization. Please support free history education for millions of learners worldwide for only <span class="mem_monthly_price">$5</span> per month by becoming a member. Thank you! </p> <p class="b"> World History Encyclopedia is a non-profit organization. Please support free history education for millions of learners worldwide for only <span class="mem_monthly_price">$5</span> per month by becoming a member. Thank you! </p> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=below-content-a&utm_campaign=membership" class="content_button member-button" rel="nofollow">Become a Member</a>   <a href="/donate/?utm_campaign=donation&utm_medium=below_content_a&utm_source=membership_block_en" class="content_button donate-button" rel="nofollow">Donate</a> </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript"> var membership_below_block_bg = '/template/images/membership-below-block-bg-princess.jpg'; pageReady.then(()=>{ if (AHE.ab == 'b') { $('.membership_below_notice .member-button').attr('href',$('.membership_below_notice .member-button').attr('href').replace('below-content-a','below-content-b')); $('.membership_below_notice .donate-button').attr('href',$('.membership_below_notice .donate-button').attr('href').replace('below_content_a','below_content_b')); $('.membership_below_notice p.a').hide(); $('.membership_below_notice p.b').show(); // A/B Testing Code Below // A/B Testing Code End } observedElementInView('.membership_below_notice',function() { $('.membership_below_notice').attr("style","background-image: url('"+membership_below_block_bg+"');"); }); observedElementInView('.membership_below_notice',()=>{ ga4Event('membership-below-block-viewed','version-' + AHE.ab); },0,true); $('.membership_below_notice .member-button').click(function(e) { e.preventDefault(); var targetUrl = this.href; console.log("Link clicked: " + targetUrl); window.setTimeout(function() { console.log("Google Analytics timeout!"); top.window.location.href = targetUrl; },2000); ga4Event('membership-below-block-clicked','version-' + AHE.ab,targetUrl,()=>{ top.window.location.href = targetUrl; }); }); $('.membership_below_notice .donate-button').click(function(e) { e.preventDefault(); var targetUrl = this.href; console.log("Link clicked: " + targetUrl); window.setTimeout(function() { console.log("Google Analytics timeout!"); top.window.location.href = targetUrl; },2000); ga4Event('membership-below-block-clicked','version-' + AHE.ab,targetUrl,()=>{ top.window.location.href = targetUrl; }); }); $('.membership_below_notice .mem_monthly_price').html(getMembershipPriceMonthly()); }); </script> <style> .membership_below_notice p.b { display: none; } </style> </div> <div class="xres_list_wrapper"> <a href="/xres/add/ci_id:1-153/" class="headline_button" rel="nofollow">Add External Link</a> <h2>External Links</h2> <div class="xres_wrapper list"> <div class="xres listitem"> <a href="https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/meru/hd_meru.htm" title="List of Rulers of Mesopotamia | Lists of Rulers | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art" rel="external noopener" class="xres_headline"> <div class="xres_headline">List of Rulers of Mesopotamia | Lists of Rulers | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art </div> </a> <div class="xres_domain external_link"> metmuseum.org </div> </div> </div> </div> <div id="citation_info"> <h2>Cite This Work</h2> <div class="citation_apa"> <h4>APA Style</h4> <div class="citation_details citation_style"> <p> Pelgrift, H. C. (2016, January 19). <a href="https://www.worldhistory.org/mari/" class="no_external">Mari</a>. <i>World History Encyclopedia</i>. Retrieved from https://www.worldhistory.org/mari/ </p> </div> </div> <div class="citation_chicago"> <h4>Chicago Style</h4> <div class="citation_details citation_style"> <p> Pelgrift, Henry Curtis. "<a href="https://www.worldhistory.org/mari/" class="no_external">Mari</a>." <i>World History Encyclopedia</i>. Last modified January 19, 2016. https://www.worldhistory.org/mari/. </p> </div> </div> <div class="citation_mla citation_style"> <h4>MLA Style</h4> <div class="citation_details"> <p> Pelgrift, Henry Curtis. "<a href="https://www.worldhistory.org/mari/" class="no_external">Mari</a>." <i>World History Encyclopedia</i>. World History Encyclopedia, 19 Jan 2016. Web. 04 Apr 2025. </p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ci_author_and_copyright" id="ci_author_and_copyright"> <h2>License & Copyright</h2> <p> Submitted by <a href="/user/hpelgrift/" rel="author" title="User Page: Henry Curtis Pelgrift">Henry Curtis Pelgrift</a>, published on 19 January 2016. The copyright holder has published this content under the following license: <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/deed.en" rel="nofollow">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike</a>. This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included. <span class="no_print">Please note that content linked from this page may have different licensing terms.</span></p> </div> </main> <aside class="right_1_column"> <div id="editor_tools"> </div> <div class="timeline_outer_wrapper"> <div class="timeline_wrapper"> <h2>Timeline</h2> <a href="https://www.worldhistory.org/login/" title="Add Timeline Entry" class="outline_button" rel="nofollow">Add Event</a> <a href="/ajax/ajax_print_visual_timeline.php?tag=mari&width=950&height=600" rel="nofollow" class="thickbox outline_button visual_timeline_button" title="Visual Timeline">Visual Timeline</a> <ul id="time_list"> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3553" title=""> <div class="date">c. 3000 BCE - c. 2900 BCE</div> <a href="/mari/">Mari</a>, the earliest known planned <a href="/city/">city</a>, is built near the eastern bank of the Euphrates. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3608" title=""> <div class="date">c. 3000 BCE - c. 2300 BCE</div> The Semitic Kish <a href="/disambiguation/culture/">culture</a> is dominant in the area of modern-day <a href="/syria/">Syria</a>. This culure is exemplified by Ebla and the <a href="/city/">Cities</a> I and II of <a href="/mari/">Mari</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3552" title=""> <div class="date">c. 2950 BCE - c. 2650 BCE</div> The first of the <a href="/city/">city</a> phases of the Syro-Mesopotamian city of <a href="/mari/">Mari</a>. This period is called "City I" in the archaeological <a href="/literature/">literature</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3602" title=""> <div class="date">c. 2550 BCE - c. 2220 BCE</div> The second of three <a href="/city/">city</a> phases of the Syro-Mesopotamian city of <a href="/mari/">Mari</a>. This period is called 'City II' in the archaeological <a href="/literature/">literature</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3597" title=""> <div class="date">c. 2350 BCE</div> Ebla is destroyed in the rivalry between <a href="/mari/">Mari</a> and Ebla. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3598" title=""> <div class="date">c. 2220 BCE</div> <a href="/city/">City</a> II at <a href="/mari/">Mari</a> is destroyed by <a href="/Naram-Sin/">Naram-Sin</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3609" title=""> <div class="date">c. 2220 BCE - c. 2150 BCE</div> The <a href="/akkad/">Akkadian Empire</a> dominates <a href="/mari/">Mari</a> with military governors called <i>Shakkanakku</i> serving as rulers. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3603" title=""> <div class="date">c. 2220 BCE - c. 1761 BCE</div> The third and final <a href="/city/">city</a> phase of the Syro-Mesopotamian city of <a href="/mari/">Mari</a>. This period is called 'City III' in the archaeological <a href="/literature/">literature</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3599" title=""> <div class="date">c. 2150 BCE</div> The <a href="/akkad/">Akkadian Empire</a> falls, <a href="/mari/">Mari</a> gains independence. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3550" title=""> <div class="date">c. 1830 BCE</div> The <i>Shakkanakku</i> Dynasty of <a href="/mari/">Mari</a> falls and is replaced by the <a href="/amorite/">Amorite</a> Lim Dynasty under Yaggid-Lim. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3607" title=""> <div class="date">c. 1830 BCE - c. 1760 BCE</div> The <a href="/amorite/">Amorite</a> period of <a href="/mari/">Mari</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3600" title=""> <div class="date">c. 1811 BCE</div> <a href="/Naram-Sin/">Naram-Sin</a> dies, <a href="/mari/">Mari</a> becomes independent again. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3606" title=""> <div class="date">c. 1776 BCE - c. 1761 BCE</div> The reign of Zimri-Lim of <a href="/mari/">Mari</a>, the last king of Mari. Zimri-Lim, an <a href="/amorite/">Amorite</a>, reclaims the throne of Mari for the Lim Dynasty in 1776 BCE. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3551" title=""> <div class="date">c. 1761 BCE</div> Zimri-Lim, the last ruler of <a href="/mari/">Mari</a> dies for unknown reasons. His former ally, <a href="/hammurabi/">Hammurabi</a> of <a href="/babylon/">Babylon</a>, captures the <a href="/city/">city</a> of Mari. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3549" title=""> <div class="date">c. 1760 BCE - c. 1757 BCE</div> <a href="/hammurabi/">Hammurabi</a> of <a href="/babylon/">Babylon</a> destroys the <a href="/city/">city</a> of <a href="/mari/">Mari</a>. The people of Mari are spared according to Hammurabi. </li> </ul> </div> </div>  <div id="mc_embed_signup"> <img loading="lazy" data-src="/template/images/newsletter-header-red.jpg" class="newsletter_banner" width="300" height="106" alt="Weekly Newsletter"> <form action="//ancient.us8.list-manage.com/subscribe/post?u=c3168e59d8bfba7986977db46&id=ac74a77c22" method="post" id="mc-embedded-subscribe-form" name="mc-embedded-subscribe-form" class="validate"> <div id="mc_embed_signup_scroll"> <p>History delivered to you once a week:</p> <div class="mc-field-group"> <input type="email" placeholder="Email address..." name="EMAIL" autocomplete="email" class="required email" id="mce-EMAIL" style="width:80%;" required> </div> <p>Are you a...?</p> <div class="mc-field-group input-group" style="margin-top: -10px;"> <input type="radio" value="1" name="group[5]" id="mce-group[5]-5-0" required><label for="mce-group[5]-5-0">History Enthusiast</label><br/> <input type="radio" value="2" name="group[5]" id="mce-group[5]-5-1" required><label for="mce-group[5]-5-1">Teacher</label><br/> <input type="radio" value="4" name="group[5]" id="mce-group[5]-5-2" required><label for="mce-group[5]-5-2">Student</label><br/> <input type="radio" value="8" name="group[5]" id="mce-group[5]-5-3" required><label for="mce-group[5]-5-3">Librarian</label> </div> <div id="mce-responses" class="clear"> <div class="response" id="mce-error-response" style="display:none"></div> <div class="response" id="mce-success-response" style="display:none"></div> </div>  <input type="hidden" name="tags" value="40497"> <input type="submit" value="Subscribe" name="subscribe" id="mc-embedded-subscribe" class="button content_button red" style="margin-top: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; left: -5000px;"><input type="text" name="b_c3168e59d8bfba7986977db46_ac74a77c22" tabindex="-1" value=""></div> <div class="clear"></div> </div> </form> </div>  </aside> <p id="footer_spacer"> </p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ad_Flexi_MobileSticky ahe-ad">  <div id="div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_MobileSticky" class="adcontainer"></div> </div> <div class="worldhistory_sticky_dynamic"></div> <a href="/membership/?utm_campaign=membership&utm_source=whe&utm_medium=sidetab_heart_en" id="membership_sidebar" title="Membership" class="no_membership_only"> <img src="/template/images/membership/membership-sidetab-en.svg?v=1743674526" width="29" height="133" alt="Membership" /> </a> <footer> <div class="print_membership_notice no_membership_only print_only"> <p>World History Encyclopedia is a non-profit organization publishing free history content that has been carefully researched and reviewed. If you liked this content, please consider donating at <strong>www.worldhistory.org/donate/</strong>. To remove this message from printouts, you can become a supporting member at <strong>www.worldhistory.org/membership/</strong>. Thank you for supporting our work! </p> </div> <div id="footer_wrapper"> <div id="recommended_list"> <div class="box_wrapper"> <p> Numerous educational institutions recommend us, including <a href="https://www.conted.ox.ac.uk/about/curious-minds-explore">Oxford University</a>. Our publication has been reviewed for educational use by <a href="https://www.commonsense.org/education/website/world-history-encyclopedia">Common Sense Education</a>, <a href="https://scout.wisc.edu/report/2017/1020">Internet Scout (University of Wisconsin)</a>, <a href="https://www.merlot.org/merlot/viewCompositeReview.htm?id=1270309">Merlot (California State University)</a>, <a href="https://www.oercommons.org/courses/world-history-encyclopedia">OER Commons</a> and the <a href="https://www.slj.com/?detailStory=unbury-the-past-apps-and-websites-for-exploring-ancient-worlds-mix-it-up">School Library Journal</a>. Please note that some of these recommendations are listed under our old name, Ancient History Encyclopedia. </p> </div> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="box_wrapper"> <div id="footer_contents"> <div class="footer_section top"> <div class="mission center"> <strong>Our Mission</strong> Our mission is to engage people with cultural heritage and to improve history education worldwide. </div> <div class="social right"> <strong>Follow Us</strong> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/facebook" class="footer_sm_link facebook no_external" title="Follow us on Facebook" rel="me"><svg role="img" viewBox="0 0 24 24" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><title>Facebook</title><path d="M24 12.073c0-6.627-5.373-12-12-12s-12 5.373-12 12c0 5.99 4.388 10.954 10.125 11.854v-8.385H7.078v-3.47h3.047V9.43c0-3.007 1.792-4.669 4.533-4.669 1.312 0 2.686.235 2.686.235v2.953H15.83c-1.491 0-1.956.925-1.956 1.874v2.25h3.328l-.532 3.47h-2.796v8.385C19.612 23.027 24 18.062 24 12.073z"/></svg></a> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/twitter" class="footer_sm_link twitter no_external" title="Follow us on Twitter" rel="me"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="24" height="24" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M12 0c-6.627 0-12 5.373-12 12s5.373 12 12 12 12-5.373 12-12-5.373-12-12-12zm6.066 9.645c.183 4.04-2.83 8.544-8.164 8.544-1.622 0-3.131-.476-4.402-1.291 1.524.18 3.045-.244 4.252-1.189-1.256-.023-2.317-.854-2.684-1.995.451.086.895.061 1.298-.049-1.381-.278-2.335-1.522-2.304-2.853.388.215.83.344 1.301.359-1.279-.855-1.641-2.544-.889-3.835 1.416 1.738 3.533 2.881 5.92 3.001-.419-1.796.944-3.527 2.799-3.527.825 0 1.572.349 2.096.907.654-.128 1.27-.368 1.824-.697-.215.671-.67 1.233-1.263 1.589.581-.07 1.135-.224 1.649-.453-.384.578-.87 1.084-1.433 1.489z"/></svg></a> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/pinterest" class="footer_sm_link pinterest no_external" title="Follow us on Pinterest" rel="me"><?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> <svg enable-background="new 0 0 24 24" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 24 24" xml:space="preserve" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"> <path d="m12 0c-6.6 0-12 5.4-12 12 0 5.1 3.2 9.4 7.6 11.2-0.1-0.9-0.2-2.4 0-3.4 0.2-0.9 1.4-6 1.4-6s-0.3-0.8-0.3-1.8c0-1.7 1-2.9 2.2-2.9 1 0 1.5 0.8 1.5 1.7 0 1-0.7 2.6-1 4-0.3 1.2 0.6 2.2 1.8 2.2 2.1 0 3.8-2.2 3.8-5.5 0-2.9-2.1-4.9-5-4.9-3.4 0-5.4 2.6-5.4 5.2 0 1 0.4 2.1 0.9 2.7 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.3-0.1 0.4-0.3 1.2-0.3 1.4-0.1 0.2-0.2 0.3-0.4 0.2-1.5-0.7-2.4-2.9-2.4-4.6 0-3.8 2.7-7.3 7.9-7.3 4.2 0 7.4 3 7.4 6.9 0 4.1-2.6 7.5-6.2 7.5-1.2 0-2.4-0.6-2.8-1.4l-0.7 2.9c-0.3 1-1 2.3-1.5 3.1 1 0.3 2.2 0.5 3.4 0.5 6.6 0 12-5.4 12-12s-5.4-12-12-12"/> </svg></a> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/linkedin" class="footer_sm_link instagram no_external" title="Follow us on Linkedin" rel="me"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="24" height="24" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M12 0c-6.627 0-12 5.373-12 12s5.373 12 12 12 12-5.373 12-12-5.373-12-12-12zm-2 16h-2v-6h2v6zm-1-6.891c-.607 0-1.1-.496-1.1-1.109 0-.612.492-1.109 1.1-1.109s1.1.497 1.1 1.109c0 .613-.493 1.109-1.1 1.109zm8 6.891h-1.998v-2.861c0-1.881-2.002-1.722-2.002 0v2.861h-2v-6h2v1.093c.872-1.616 4-1.736 4 1.548v3.359z"/></svg></a> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/instagram" class="footer_sm_link instagram no_external" title="Follow us on Instagram" rel="me"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="24" height="24" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M14.829 6.302c-.738-.034-.96-.04-2.829-.04s-2.09.007-2.828.04c-1.899.087-2.783.986-2.87 2.87-.033.738-.041.959-.041 2.828s.008 2.09.041 2.829c.087 1.879.967 2.783 2.87 2.87.737.033.959.041 2.828.041 1.87 0 2.091-.007 2.829-.041 1.899-.086 2.782-.988 2.87-2.87.033-.738.04-.96.04-2.829s-.007-2.09-.04-2.828c-.088-1.883-.973-2.783-2.87-2.87zm-2.829 9.293c-1.985 0-3.595-1.609-3.595-3.595 0-1.985 1.61-3.594 3.595-3.594s3.595 1.609 3.595 3.594c0 1.985-1.61 3.595-3.595 3.595zm3.737-6.491c-.464 0-.84-.376-.84-.84 0-.464.376-.84.84-.84.464 0 .84.376.84.84 0 .463-.376.84-.84.84zm-1.404 2.896c0 1.289-1.045 2.333-2.333 2.333s-2.333-1.044-2.333-2.333c0-1.289 1.045-2.333 2.333-2.333s2.333 1.044 2.333 2.333zm-2.333-12c-6.627 0-12 5.373-12 12s5.373 12 12 12 12-5.373 12-12-5.373-12-12-12zm6.958 14.886c-.115 2.545-1.532 3.955-4.071 4.072-.747.034-.986.042-2.887.042s-2.139-.008-2.886-.042c-2.544-.117-3.955-1.529-4.072-4.072-.034-.746-.042-.985-.042-2.886 0-1.901.008-2.139.042-2.886.117-2.544 1.529-3.955 4.072-4.071.747-.035.985-.043 2.886-.043s2.14.008 2.887.043c2.545.117 3.957 1.532 4.071 4.071.034.747.042.985.042 2.886 0 1.901-.008 2.14-.042 2.886z"/></svg></a> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/youtube" class="footer_sm_link youtube no_external" title="Follow us on YouTube" rel="me"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="24" height="24" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M12 0c-6.627 0-12 5.373-12 12s5.373 12 12 12 12-5.373 12-12-5.373-12-12-12zm4.441 16.892c-2.102.144-6.784.144-8.883 0-2.276-.156-2.541-1.27-2.558-4.892.017-3.629.285-4.736 2.558-4.892 2.099-.144 6.782-.144 8.883 0 2.277.156 2.541 1.27 2.559 4.892-.018 3.629-.285 4.736-2.559 4.892zm-6.441-7.234l4.917 2.338-4.917 2.346v-4.684z"/></svg></a> </div> </div> <div class="footer_section"> <div class="links"> <a href="/static/about/">About</a> <span class="bullet">•</span> <a href="/static/contact/">Contact</a> <span class="bullet">•</span> <a href="/static/sponsorship/">Sponsorship</a> <span class="bullet">•</span> <a href="/privacy/" rel="privacy-policy">Privacy Policy</a> <span class="bullet">•</span> <a href="/static/partners/">Partners</a> <span class="bullet">•</span> <a href="/static/supporters/">Supporters</a> <span class="bullet">•</span> <a href="/newsletter/">Newsletter</a> <span class="bullet">•</span> <a href="/config/en/">Settings</a> </div> </div> <div class="footer_section"> <div class="centered"> <p> <a href="/static/contact/">World History Foundation</a> is a 501(c)3 charity registered in the United States.<br> <a href="/static/contact/">World History Publishing</a> is a non-profit organization registered in the United Kingdom.<br> <a href="/static/contact/">World History Foundation</a> is a non-profit organization registered in Québec, Canada. </p>  <p> Some Rights Reserved (2009-2025) under Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike license unless otherwise noted. </p> <p> The World History Encyclopedia logo is a <a href="https://trademarks.ipo.gov.uk/ipo-tmcase/page/Results/1/UK00003762855">registered trademark</a>. </p> </div> </div> <div class="footer_section"> <div class="centered partners"> <strong>Featured Partner</strong> <a href="https://unesdoc.unesco.org/archives" title="UNESCO Digital Archives" rel="nofollow"><img src="/images/partners/unesco_archives_white.png" width="216" height="125" alt="UNESCO Archives" loading="lazy"></a> </div> </div> <div class="footer_section ccpa"> <div class="centered"> <div id="ccpa_message"> </div> </div> </div> <div class="footer_section exec"> <div class="centered"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div>  </footer> <div id="float_message"></div>  <script type="text/javascript" async src="https://btloader.com/tag?o=5698917485248512&upapi=true&domain=worldhistory.org"></script> <script>!function(){"use strict";var e;e=document,function(){var t,n;function r(){var t=e.createElement("script");t.src="https://cafemedia-com.videoplayerhub.com/galleryplayer.js",e.head.appendChild(t)}function a(){var t=e.cookie.match("(^|[^;]+)\s*__adblocker\s*=\s*([^;]+)");return t&&t.pop()}function c(){clearInterval(n)}return{init:function(){var e;"true"===(t=a())?r():(e=0,n=setInterval((function(){100!==e&&"false" !== t || c(), "true" === t && (r(), c()), t = a(), e++}), 50))}}}().init()}(); </script>   <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" importance="low" fetchpriority="low" href="/template/css/exclude/deferred.css?v=1743674526" media="all"> <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" importance="low" fetchpriority="low" href="/template/css/exclude/print.css?v=1743674526" media="print"> <script> document.querySelectorAll('img, picture').forEach(function(imgItem) { imgItem.addEventListener('error',function(e) { AHE.imageErrors.push(this.src); }); }); </script>  <script> pageReady.then(()=>{ jsQueue(()=>{ !function(f,b,e,v,n,t,s) {if(f.fbq)return;n=f.fbq=function(){n.callMethod? n.callMethod.apply(n,arguments):n.queue.push(arguments)}; if(!f._fbq)f._fbq=n;n.push=n;n.loaded=!0;n.version='2.0'; n.queue=[];t=b.createElement(e);t.async=!0; t.src=v;s=b.getElementsByTagName(e)[0]; s.parentNode.insertBefore(t,s)}(window,document,'script', 'https://connect.facebook.net/en_US/fbevents.js'); // Consent Gathering if (AHE.isEU) { // EU Users fbq('consent', 'revoke'); AHE.fbGdprIntervalTimeout = 0; AHE.fbGdprIntervalTimeoutMax = 10; // 1 = 500ms AHE.fbGdprInterval = setInterval(()=>{ // Interval loop to check for GDPR consent if (typeof __tcfapi == 'function') { try { __tcfapi('addEventListener', 2, (tcData, success)=>{ if (typeof tcData.purpose == 'object') { if (typeof tcData.purpose.consents == 'object') { let allConsents = true; for (const[key,value] of Object.entries(tcData.purpose.consents)) { if (!value) { allConsents = false; } } if (allConsents) { fbq('consent', 'grant'); console.log('Facebook Pixel GDPR consent granted.'); clearInterval(AHE.fbGdprInterval); } else { AHE.fbGdprIntervalTimeout++; if (AHE.fbGdprIntervalTimeout >= AHE.fbGdprIntervalTimeoutMax) { clearInterval(AHE.fbGdprInterval);; } } } } }); } catch (e) { console.warn('Failed to interact with TCF API:',e); } } },500); } else if (AHE.isUS) { // US Users fbq('dataProcessingOptions', ['LDU'], 0, 0); } // Initialise Pixel fbq('init', '1255907267809191'); fbq('track', 'PageView'); }); }); </script> <noscript> <img height="1" width="1" src="https://www.facebook.com/tr?id=1255907267809191&ev=PageView&noscript=1"/> </noscript>   <script src="https://analytics.ahrefs.com/analytics.js" data-key="AMsbSh4gAIGS1L4zNcUw3A" defer fetchpriority="low"></script> <script>(function(){function c(){var b=a.contentDocument||a.contentWindow.document;if(b){var d=b.createElement('script');d.innerHTML="window.__CF$cv$params={r:'92bf3b7d7fdddfb7',t:'MTc0MzkyMDk4Mi4wMDAwMDA='};var a=document.createElement('script');a.nonce='';a.src='/cdn-cgi/challenge-platform/scripts/jsd/main.js';document.getElementsByTagName('head')[0].appendChild(a);";b.getElementsByTagName('head')[0].appendChild(d)}}if(document.body){var a=document.createElement('iframe');a.height=1;a.width=1;a.style.position='absolute';a.style.top=0;a.style.left=0;a.style.border='none';a.style.visibility='hidden';document.body.appendChild(a);if('loading'!==document.readyState)c();else if(window.addEventListener)document.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded',c);else{var e=document.onreadystatechange||function(){};document.onreadystatechange=function(b){e(b);'loading'!==document.readyState&&(document.onreadystatechange=e,c())}}}})();</script></body> </html>

CINXE.COM

Mari - World History Encyclopedia