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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Temporary and permanent employment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Temporary_and_permanent_employment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Occupations_and_work_environments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Occupations_and_work_environments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Occupations and work environments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Occupations_and_work_environments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ease_of_replacement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ease_of_replacement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Ease of replacement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ease_of_replacement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Workloads_and_job_demands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Workloads_and_job_demands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Workloads and job demands</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Workloads_and_job_demands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Workaholism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Workaholism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Workaholism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Workaholism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Performance-based_self-esteem" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Performance-based_self-esteem"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Performance-based self-esteem</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Performance-based_self-esteem-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Health_factors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health_factors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Health factors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Health_factors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consequences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consequences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Consequences</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Consequences-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Consequences subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Consequences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Productivity_loss" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Productivity_loss"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Productivity loss</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Productivity_loss-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Poor_health_and_exhaustion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poor_health_and_exhaustion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Poor health and exhaustion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poor_health_and_exhaustion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Workplace_epidemics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Workplace_epidemics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Workplace epidemics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Workplace_epidemics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Measurement_and_impact_on_productivity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Measurement_and_impact_on_productivity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Measurement and impact on productivity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Measurement_and_impact_on_productivity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Implications_for_practice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Implications_for_practice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Implications for practice</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Implications_for_practice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Future_directions_and_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Future_directions_and_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Future directions and research</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Future_directions_and_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" 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class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Presenteeism</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C3%A9sent%C3%A9isme" title="Présentéisme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Présentéisme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presenteisme" title="Presenteisme – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Presenteisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%97%E3%83%AC%E3%82%BC%E3%83%B3%E3%83%86%E3%82%A3%E3%83%BC%E3%82%A4%E3%82%BA%E3%83%A0" title="プレゼンティーイズム – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="プレゼンティーイズム" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presente%C3%ADsmo" title="Presenteísmo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Presenteísmo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prezenteism" title="Prezenteism – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Prezenteism" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Презентеизм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Презентеизм" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prezentizem" title="Prezentizem – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Prezentizem" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presenteismi" title="Presenteismi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Presenteismi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%97%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Презентеїзм – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Презентеїзм" 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searchaux" style="display:none">Pressure to work while sick</div> <p><b>Presenteeism</b> or <b>working while sick</b> is the act or culture of <a href="/wiki/Employment" title="Employment">employees</a> continuing to work as a performative measure, despite having reduced <a href="/wiki/Productivity" title="Productivity">productivity</a> levels or negative consequences. Reduced productivity during presenteeism is often due to illness, injury, exhaustion, or other conditions, but presenteeism can also describe working while <a href="/wiki/Contagious_disease" title="Contagious disease">contagiously sick</a>, which has the added risk of creating a <a href="/wiki/Workplace" title="Workplace">workplace</a> <a href="/wiki/Epidemics" class="mw-redirect" title="Epidemics">epidemic</a>. </p><p>Many different motives can lead to presenteeism.<sup id="cite_ref-Johns_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johns-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An employee may come to work because they simply need the money and cannot afford to take time off due to illness. Doctors may attend work while <a href="/wiki/Illness" class="mw-redirect" title="Illness">sick</a> due to feelings of being irreplaceable. Additionally, one could go to work due to a love and devotion to the job; in this case, it could be considered an act of <a href="/wiki/Organizational_citizenship_behavior" title="Organizational citizenship behavior">organizational citizenship</a> and inspire admiration from colleagues.<sup id="cite_ref-Johns_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johns-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other reasons include feeling that <a href="/wiki/Career" title="Career">career</a> prospects may be damaged if they take time off, and an expectation of presence driven from management. </p><p>Presenteeism is ingrained in the culture of certain industries and regions of the world. In <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a> and other <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">South East Asian</a> countries, it is a common practice for employees to stay in the office even after their work is done, waiting until their boss leaves.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jobs with large workloads are often associated with presenteeism. <a href="/wiki/Workaholic" title="Workaholic">Workaholics</a> and people who base their <a href="/wiki/Self-esteem" title="Self-esteem">self-esteem</a> on performance typically exhibit higher levels of presenteeism. </p><p>While the contrasting subject of <a href="/wiki/Absenteeism" title="Absenteeism">absenteeism</a> has historically received extensive attention in the <a href="/wiki/Management_science" title="Management science">management sciences</a>, presenteeism has only been studied recently.<sup id="cite_ref-Johns_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johns-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Construct_validity">Construct validity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presenteeism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Construct validity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Construct_validity" title="Construct validity">Construct validity</a></div> <p>Scholars have provided various descriptions of the concept. For instance, Simpson claimed that presenteeism is "the tendency to stay at work beyond the time needed for effective performance on the job."<sup id="cite_ref-Simpson_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Simpson-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aronsson, Gustafsson, and Dallner wrote that it means attending work even when one feels unhealthy.<sup id="cite_ref-Aronsson_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aronsson-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a recent review of the literature, Johns highlighted the lack of agreement between the many definitions.<sup id="cite_ref-Johns_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johns-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The author claimed that many of the definitions lack utility and that the term is most often defined as going to work while ill. He further noted that definitions of presenteeism, which are centered on attending work while sick, have received more evidence of <a href="/wiki/Construct_validity" title="Construct validity">construct validity</a>. In other words, when defined as coming to work while sick, presenteeism seems to relate more to logical outcome variables and correlates.<sup id="cite_ref-Johns_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johns-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Simply viewing presenteeism as a negative act that leads to productivity loss and decreased health may be restricting potential analysis of the construct.<sup id="cite_ref-Johns_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johns-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relationship_with_absenteeism">Relationship with absenteeism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presenteeism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Relationship with absenteeism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In some cases, scholars relate presenteeism to <a href="/wiki/Absenteeism" title="Absenteeism">absenteeism</a>, which is the tendency not to show up for scheduled work.<sup id="cite_ref-Johns_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johns-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, Johns described the notion that some believe that factors that reduce absenteeism will increase presenteeism.<sup id="cite_ref-Johns_1-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johns-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He stated, however, that this is plausible but not always the case because he pointed out that Aronsson et al. found high rates of presenteeism in industries where absenteeism was also high.<sup id="cite_ref-Aronsson_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aronsson-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Additionally, research that examines absenteeism is at times used to draw conclusions about presenteeism. For example, Virtanen, Kivimaki, Elovainio, Vahtera, and Ferrie found that employees exhibited much higher rates of absenteeism once they became permanent workers.<sup id="cite_ref-Virtanen_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Virtanen-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The authors thought that this increase could have been due to decreases in the preexisting levels of presenteeism. However, they did not directly measure presenteeism. Commenting on such research behavior, Johns said in his review of the literature that researchers should not infer presenteeism from absenteeism data. Instead, the author noted that both constructs should be measured at the same time.<sup id="cite_ref-Johns_1-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johns-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Antecedents">Antecedents</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presenteeism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Antecedents"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Temporary_and_permanent_employment">Temporary and permanent employment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presenteeism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Temporary and permanent employment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Temporary_work" title="Temporary work">Temporary</a> and <a href="/wiki/Permanent_employment" title="Permanent employment">permanent employment</a> are often considered when examining the antecedents of presenteeism. More specifically, researchers have studied these positions with the thought that lack of <a href="/wiki/Job_security" title="Job security">job security</a> will cause those who do not have permanent positions to come to work more often even if they are sick.<sup id="cite_ref-Johns_1-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johns-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This hypothesis, however, has not received complete support. Aronsson et al. discovered that permanent employees were more prone to presenteeism than those in more <a href="/wiki/Seasonal_industry" title="Seasonal industry">seasonal positions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Aronsson_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aronsson-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast, Aronsson and Gustafson found no effect of job type.<sup id="cite_ref-Aronsson2_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aronsson2-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, Heponiemi et al. found that <a href="/wiki/Fixed-term_employment_contract" title="Fixed-term employment contract">fixed-term employees</a> as opposed to permanent employees were less likely to report working while ill, and the work of Bockerman and Laukkanen supported this finding.<sup id="cite_ref-Heponiemi_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heponiemi-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bockerman2010a_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bockerman2010a-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Based on these inconclusive results, Johns called for researchers to reconsider the job insecurity hypothesis.<sup id="cite_ref-Johns_1-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johns-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Occupations_and_work_environments">Occupations and work environments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presenteeism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Occupations and work environments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Individuals working in certain occupations may be more prone to presenteeism. In a study in <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>, Aronsson et al. found higher rates of presenteeism in organizations whose function is to provide welfare and teaching services.<sup id="cite_ref-Aronsson_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aronsson-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The authors pointed out that these employees often worked with clients in more vulnerable populations, such as the elderly. Outside of education and healthcare, most studied occupations had lower rates of presenteeism; however, the results did suggest that higher-risk jobs, which had more physical workload and <a href="/wiki/Stress_(biology)" title="Stress (biology)">stress</a>, saw increased levels of presenteeism. </p><p>Certain work environments may stimulate presenteeism. To explore this topic, Dew, Keefe, and Small qualitatively examined a <a href="/wiki/Private_hospital" title="Private hospital">private hospital</a>, a large <a href="/wiki/Public_hospital" title="Public hospital">public hospital</a>, and a small factory.<sup id="cite_ref-Dew_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dew-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the private hospital, there was little pressure from management to exhibit presenteeism; however, a sense of family seemed to exist between the staff, and a strong loyalty to coworkers pushed employees to come to work while unhealthy. The public hospital had a distant management, but presenteeism was fostered by "loyalty to professional image, colleagues, and the institution as a whole."<sup id="cite_ref-Dew_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dew-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Finally, in the factory, there was strong pressure from management for employees to exhibit presenteeism. Furthermore, workers often had few other employment options, which often resulted in increased presenteeism. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ease_of_replacement">Ease of replacement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presenteeism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Ease of replacement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The ease with which one can be replaced on the job also affects levels of presenteeism. Specifically, if one feels that they cannot be replaced, that individual is more prone to attend work while sick.<sup id="cite_ref-Aronsson2_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aronsson2-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bockerman2010a_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bockerman2010a-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Doctors are often examined in this regard. For example, Jena et al. studied residents in training and noted high rates of presenteeism, which they concluded were the result of feeling irreplaceable.<sup id="cite_ref-Jena_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jena-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further extending the examination of the medical field, McKevitt, Morgan, Dundas, and Holland studied hundreds of healthcare professionals and found that more than 80 percent of respondents had worked while ill. Individuals listed some of the reasons they had not taken sick days, and many cited the fact that they felt large pressure to work.<sup id="cite_ref-McKevitt_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McKevitt-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some cases, general practitioners did not want to burden their partners, and many felt a strong commitment to the job that prevented them from taking <a href="/wiki/Sick_leave" title="Sick leave">sick leave</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Workloads_and_job_demands">Workloads and job demands</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presenteeism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Workloads and job demands"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Jobs that have large <a href="/wiki/Workload" title="Workload">workloads</a> and many demands are often associated with higher levels of presenteeism. Caverely, Cunningham, and Macgregor studied Canadian firms and noted that presenteeism was often not the result of <a href="/wiki/Job_security" title="Job security">job insecurity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Caverley_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caverley-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead individuals felt they had to come to work while ill or injured because they believed they had high workloads, many deadlines, and often very little backup support. Complementing this finding, McKevitt et al. also found that individuals feared their work would pile up if they did not go to their job.<sup id="cite_ref-McKevitt_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McKevitt-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, Demerouti, Le Blanc, Bakker, Schaufeli, and Hox examined job demands and found that they had a positive relationship with presenteeism.<sup id="cite_ref-Demerouti_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Demerouti-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the case of this study, the authors defined job demands as aspects of the job that require physical and/or psychological effort. </p><p>Forced overtime, heavy workloads, and frenetic work paces give rise to debilitating <a href="/wiki/Repetitive_strain_injury" title="Repetitive strain injury">repetitive stress injuries</a>, <a href="/wiki/Work_accident" title="Work accident">on-the-job accidents</a>, over-exposure to toxic substances, and other dangerous <a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">work conditions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-lung2_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lung2-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some studies are beginning to show the costs of compulsory overwork. Reg Williams and Patricia Strasser, professors of nursing at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan" title="University of Michigan">University of Michigan</a>, estimated in the journal of the American Association of Occupational Health Nurses that the total cost of depression at work was as high as $44 billion. They pointed out that healthcare workers have focused much attention on the workplace risk factors for heart disease, cancer, <a href="/wiki/Obesity" title="Obesity">obesity</a>, and other illnesses, but little emphasis on the risk factors for depression, stress, negative changes in personal life, and difficulties in interpersonal relationships.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Workaholism">Workaholism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presenteeism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Workaholism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Those who exhibit <a href="/wiki/Workaholic" title="Workaholic">workaholism</a> tend to demonstrate higher levels of presenteeism. As defined by Schaufeli, Bakker, van der Heijden, and Prins, workaholics tend to work excessively and <a href="/wiki/Compulsive_behavior" title="Compulsive behavior">compulsively</a>, and they are internally motivated to work to an excessive extent.<sup id="cite_ref-Schaufeli_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schaufeli-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to their high levels of presenteeism, Schaufeli et al. discovered that workaholics also displayed the highest <a href="/wiki/Occupational_burnout" title="Occupational burnout">burnout</a> and lowest happiness levels relative to other groups who were not defined as workaholics.<sup id="cite_ref-Schaufeli_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schaufeli-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Performance-based_self-esteem">Performance-based self-esteem</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presenteeism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Performance-based self-esteem"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Performance-based <a href="/wiki/Self-esteem" title="Self-esteem">self-esteem</a> (PBSE) has also been considered another antecedent of presenteeism. This term describes the idea that individuals' self-esteem may depend on their performance.<sup id="cite_ref-Love_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Love-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Employees who demonstrate high levels of this construct have to prove their worth while on the job. Love et al. found that PBSE positively predicted presenteeism; however, the authors also discovered that the relationship between PBSE and presenteeism was strengthened when workers experienced high physical and psychological work demands.<sup id="cite_ref-Love_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Love-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This finding suggested that demanding work environments could interact with employees' overambitious work styles, which could result in over-performance and increased levels of presenteeism.<sup id="cite_ref-Love_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Love-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Health_factors">Health factors</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presenteeism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Health factors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Certain health factors serve as <a href="/wiki/Risk_factor" title="Risk factor">risk factors</a> for presenteeism as opposed to absenteeism. Boles, Pelletier, and Lynch examined a variety of emotional and physical health symptoms and noted that the odds of reporting presenteeism were largest for those with high <a href="/wiki/Psychological_stress" title="Psychological stress">stress</a> compared to those without stress.<sup id="cite_ref-Boles_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boles-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Those with poor diet and less emotional fulfillment also reported higher levels of presenteeism than those without these conditions. The researchers noted that individuals with <a href="/wiki/Diabetes" title="Diabetes">diabetes</a> tended to report higher levels of <a href="/wiki/Absenteeism" title="Absenteeism">absenteeism</a> as opposed to those without the condition. Individuals who partook in no physical activity were more prone to report higher levels of both absenteeism and presenteeism compared to those who took part in some physical activity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Consequences">Consequences</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presenteeism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Consequences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Productivity_loss">Productivity loss</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presenteeism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Productivity loss"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One consequence of presenteeism is <a href="/wiki/Productivity" title="Productivity">productivity</a> loss, and scholars have attempted to estimate these productivity numbers. While examining productivity decrements, however, it is implied that losses are measured relative to not having a particular sickness or health issue.<sup id="cite_ref-Johns_1-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johns-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, in comparison to being absent from a job, those exhibiting presenteeism may be far more productive. Nonetheless, a large study by Goetzel et al. estimated that on average in the United States, an employee's presenteeism costs or lost on-the-job productivity are approximately $255.<sup id="cite_ref-Goetzel_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goetzel-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, the authors concluded that of all the health related costs faced by employers, one fifth to three fifths of those expenses could be attributable to on-the-job productivity losses. Complementing that study, Schultz and Edington provided a detailed review of the effects of certain health conditions on productivity.<sup id="cite_ref-Schultz_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schultz-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These authors examined conditions such as <a href="/wiki/Allergy" title="Allergy">allergies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arthritis" title="Arthritis">arthritis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chronic_pain" title="Chronic pain">chronic pain</a>, diabetes, and mental health disorders. The studies in the review showed, for example, that increases in pollen (a common allergen) are associated with decreased performance.<sup id="cite_ref-Burton_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burton-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, Schultz and Edington noted that chronic pain had to be studied more thoroughly to better understand its effects on productivity.<sup id="cite_ref-Schultz_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schultz-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Poor_health_and_exhaustion">Poor health and exhaustion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presenteeism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Poor health and exhaustion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Fatigue_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatigue (medical)">Exhaustion</a> and future poor health are often other consequences of presenteeism. For example, Bergstrom, Bodin, Hagberg, Aronsson, and Josephson found that sickness presenteeism was a risk factor for future <a href="/wiki/Sick_leave" title="Sick leave">sick leave</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bergstrom_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bergstrom-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, in their study of job demands and presenteeism, Demerouti et al. found that presenteeism resulted in increased exhaustion.<sup id="cite_ref-Demerouti_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Demerouti-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Presenteeism can also have an effect on occupational injuries for workers. A 2012 study from the <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_for_Occupational_Safety_and_Health" title="National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health">National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health</a> showed that workers with access to paid sick leave were 28% less likely overall to sustain nonfatal injuries than workers without access to paid sick leave.<sup id="cite_ref-Asfaw_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Asfaw-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Workplace_epidemics">Workplace epidemics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presenteeism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Workplace epidemics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the case of an infectious disease such as <a href="/wiki/Influenza" title="Influenza">influenza</a>, a culture of presenteeism will inevitably also lead to further infections throughout the workforce, compounding the ill-effects and leading to a much wider problem. In a 2014 survey by Canada Life Insurance, over 80% of respondents stated that they had become ill as a result of an infection contracted in the workplace.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Measurement_and_impact_on_productivity">Measurement and impact on productivity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presenteeism&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Measurement and impact on productivity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Scholars have often measured presenteeism in terms of how often an individual attends work while unhealthy. For instance, Aronsson et al. asked participants to what extent over the past year they had gone to work despite feeling they should have taken sick leave.<sup id="cite_ref-Aronsson_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aronsson-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Respondents could choose from never, once, between two and 5 times, and more than 5 times. Other researchers have examined the frequency of presenteeism by asking participants a similar question. The responses, however, were on a scale of "spells of one day presenteeism, spells of 2-4 day presenteeism, and spells of 5 day or more presenteeism."<sup id="cite_ref-Munir_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Munir-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aside from measuring the frequency of presenteeism, scholars often look to measure the effects of poor health on job productivity. The Work Limitations Questionnaire (WLQ) is often used to perform this task.<sup id="cite_ref-Lerner_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lerner-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With 25 items, it examines the extent to which respondents can handle time, physical, mental-interpersonal, and output demands. Additionally, the Stanford Presenteeism Scale seeks to determine the effects of health on productivity. It measures participants' abilities to concentrate and perform work despite having a primary health problem.<sup id="cite_ref-Koopman_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koopman-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Using six items, respondents determine the extent to which they agree with statements that describe how their health condition may or may not affect their work. The scale measures two factors that the authors labeled as completing work and avoiding <a href="/wiki/Distraction" title="Distraction">distraction</a>. Finally, another measure often used is the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a>'s Health and Work Performance Questionnaire (HPQ).<sup id="cite_ref-Kessler_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kessler-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This self-report measure acquires information about respondents' health conditions and has them provide perceptions of their <a href="/wiki/Job_performance" title="Job performance">job performance</a>. The WLQ and HPQ have become the two most popular instruments;<sup id="cite_ref-Schultz_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schultz-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however, there are other measures that have been created to estimate the effects of health on productivity.<sup id="cite_ref-Lofland_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lofland-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Implications_for_practice">Implications for practice</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presenteeism&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Implications for practice"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Workplace_health_promotion" title="Workplace health promotion">Workplace health promotion</a></div> <p>Given the prominence and costs of presenteeism, scholars have suggested a variety of courses of action for employers. Companies should implement wellness programs for their employees aimed at increasing health and productivity. These organizations, however, must be aware that the effects of these programs may have an immediate impact on presenteeism as opposed to simply absenteeism. Firms must be cognizant of this fact when evaluating the effectiveness of their programs.<sup id="cite_ref-Caverley_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caverley-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Complementing this suggestion, Schultz and Edington wrote that employees must receive effective <a href="/wiki/Health_education" title="Health education">health education</a> so they can better manage their health.<sup id="cite_ref-Schultz_20-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schultz-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They also commented that employers need to consider the health of workers who are low risk along with those who have high-risk health conditions. In the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, one other proposed response has been to require that paid sick and <a href="/wiki/Parental_leave" title="Parental leave">family leave</a> be provided to all workers. In November 2006, <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco" title="San Francisco">San Francisco</a> became the first jurisdiction to pass such a law.<sup id="cite_ref-Zappone_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zappone-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Future_directions_and_research">Future directions and research</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presenteeism&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Future directions and research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While progress has been made in regards to understanding presenteeism, many possible topics of inquiry still remain. In his literature review, Johns said that presenteeism had to be related to other constructs such as work attitudes and personality.<sup id="cite_ref-Johns_1-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johns-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, lessons from absenteeism could be applied to presenteeism. For instance, absenteeism can be defined as voluntary and involuntary, and scholars could consider applying such ideas to presenteeism. Lastly, the construct could be related to other elements of the workplace. Specifically, how does presenteeism relate to <a href="/wiki/Remote_work" title="Remote work">remote work</a>? Is an individual who works from home while he or she is sick exhibiting presenteeism? </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presenteeism&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absenteeism" title="Absenteeism">Absenteeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karoshi" title="Karoshi">Karoshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaveism" title="Leaveism">Leaveism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">Occupational safety and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_burnout" title="Occupational burnout">Occupational burnout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overwork" title="Overwork">Overwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perfect_attendance_award" title="Perfect attendance award">Perfect attendance award</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-esteem" title="Self-esteem">Self-esteem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sick_leave" title="Sick leave">Sick leave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Job_strain" title="Job strain">Job strain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work%E2%80%93life_balance" title="Work–life balance">Work–life balance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workaholic" title="Workaholic">Workaholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workism" title="Workism">Workism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workload" title="Workload">Workload</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_stress" title="Occupational stress">Occupational stress</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Presenteeism&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Johns-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Johns_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Johns_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Johns_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Johns_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Johns_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Johns_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Johns_1-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Johns_1-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Johns_1-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Johns_1-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Johns_1-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Johns_1-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Johns_1-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Johns, G. 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Journal of Organizational Behavior, 31, 519-542. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fjob.630">10.1002/job.630</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.todayonline.com/singapore/singapore-residents-working-fewer-hours-2010-mom-report">"Singapore residents working fewer hours since 2010: MOM report"</a>. <i>TODAYonline</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=TODAYonline&rft.atitle=Singapore+residents+working+fewer+hours+since+2010%3A+MOM+report&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.todayonline.com%2Fsingapore%2Fsingapore-residents-working-fewer-hours-2010-mom-report&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresenteeism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Simpson-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Simpson_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Simpson, R. (1998). Presenteeism, power and organizational change: Long hours as a career barrier and the impact on the working lives of women managers. <i><a href="/wiki/British_Journal_of_Management" title="British Journal of Management">British Journal of Management</a></i>, 9, S37–S50. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1467-8551.9.s1.5">10.1111/1467-8551.9.s1.5</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Aronsson-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Aronsson_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aronsson_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aronsson_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aronsson_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aronsson_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Aronsson, G., Gustafsson, K., & Dallner, M. (2000). Sick but yet at work. An empirical study of sickness presenteeism. <i>Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health'</i>, 54, 502–509. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fjech.54.7.502">10.1136/jech.54.7.502</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Virtanen-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Virtanen_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Virtanen, M., Kivimaki, M., Elovainio, J., Vahtera, J., & Ferrie, J. E. (2003). From insecure to secure employment: Changes in work, health, health related behaviors, and sickness absence. <i>Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine</i>, 60, 948–953. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Foem.60.12.948">10.1136/oem.60.12.948</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Aronsson2-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Aronsson2_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aronsson2_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Aronsson, G. & Gustafsson, K. (2005). Sickness presenteeism: Prevalence, attendance-pressure factors, and an outline of a model for research. <i>Journal of Occupational and Environmental</i> <i>Medicine</i>, 47, 958–966. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2F01.jom.0000177219.75677.17">10.1097/01.jom.0000177219.75677.17</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Heponiemi-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Heponiemi_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Heponiemi, T., Elovainio, M., Pentti, J., Virtanen, M., Westerlund, H., Virtanen, P., Oksanen, T., Kivimäki, M., Vahtera, J. (2010). Association of contractual and subjective job insecurity with sickness presenteeism among public sector employees. <i>Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine</i>, 52, 830-835. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2FJOM.0b013e3181ec7e23">10.1097/JOM.0b013e3181ec7e23</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bockerman2010a-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bockerman2010a_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bockerman2010a_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bockerman, P. & Laukkanen, E. (2010). What makes you work while you are sick? 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Presenteeism among resident physicians. <i>Journal of the American Medical Association</i>, 304, 1166-1168. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1001%2Fjama.2010.1315">10.1001/jama.2010.1315</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McKevitt-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McKevitt_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McKevitt_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">McKevitt, C., Morgan, M., Dundas, R., & Holland, W. W. (1997). Sickness absence and 'working through' illness: A comparison of two professional groups. <i>Journal of Public Health Medicine</i>, 19, 295–300.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Caverley-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Caverley_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Caverley_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Caverley, N., Cunningham, J. B., & MacGregor, J. N. (2007). 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