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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Persistent_arcs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Persistent arcs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Persistent_arcs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Voltage-current_relation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Voltage-current_relation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Voltage-current relation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Voltage-current_relation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Corona_breakdown" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Corona_breakdown"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Corona breakdown</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Corona_breakdown-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Corona breakdown subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Corona_breakdown-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Appearance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Appearance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Appearance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Appearance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ozone_generation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ozone_generation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Ozone generation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ozone_generation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_uses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_uses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Other uses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_uses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disruptive_devices" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disruptive_devices"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Disruptive devices</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disruptive_devices-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " 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Available in 23 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-23" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">23 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%87%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D9%83%D9%87%D8%B1%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A" title="انهيار كهربائي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="انهيار كهربائي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espurneig" title="Espurneig – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Espurneig" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnist" title="Gnist – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Gnist" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spannungsdurchschlag" title="Spannungsdurchschlag – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Spannungsdurchschlag" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A4bil%C3%B6%C3%B6k" title="Läbilöök – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Läbilöök" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chisporroteo" title="Chisporroteo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Chisporroteo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparko" title="Sparko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Sparko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%DA%A9%D8%B3%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9%DB%8C" title="شکست الکتریکی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="شکست الکتریکی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claquage_(%C3%A9lectronique)" title="Claquage (électronique) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Claquage (électronique)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%88%EC%97%B0%ED%8C%8C%EA%B4%B4" title="절연파괴 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="절연파괴" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97" title="वैद्युत भंग – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="वैद्युत भंग" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kegagalan_listrik" title="Kegagalan listrik – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kegagalan listrik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rottura_dielettrica" title="Rottura dielettrica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Rottura dielettrica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A6%D7%94_%D7%97%D7%A9%D7%9E%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%AA" title="פריצה חשמלית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פריצה חשמלית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B5%B6%E7%B8%81%E7%A0%B4%E5%A3%8A" title="絶縁破壊 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="絶縁破壊" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrisk_gjennomslag" title="Elektrisk gjennomslag – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Elektrisk gjennomslag" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wy%C5%82adowanie_elektryczne" title="Wyładowanie elektryczne – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wyładowanie elektryczne" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%B9" title="Электрический пробой – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Электрический пробой" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%81" title="மின் முறிவு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மின் முறிவு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektriksel_k%C4%B1r%C4%B1l%C4%B1m" title="Elektriksel kırılım – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Elektriksel kırılım" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%96%D0%B9" title="Електричний пробій – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Електричний пробій" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%E1%BB%B1_%C4%91%C3%A1nh_th%E1%BB%A7ng" title="Sự đánh thủng – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Sự đánh thủng" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E6%93%8A%E7%A9%BF" title="電擊穿 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="電擊穿" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Conduction of electricity through an insulator under sufficiently high voltage</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Electrostatic-discharge.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Electrostatic-discharge.jpg/180px-Electrostatic-discharge.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="445" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Electrostatic-discharge.jpg/270px-Electrostatic-discharge.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Electrostatic-discharge.jpg 2x" data-file-width="316" data-file-height="782" /></a><figcaption>Electrical breakdown in an <a href="/wiki/Electric_discharge" title="Electric discharge">electric discharge</a> showing the ribbon-like <a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">plasma</a> filaments from a <a href="/wiki/Tesla_coil" title="Tesla coil">Tesla coil</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">electronics</a>, <b>electrical breakdown</b> or <b>dielectric breakdown</b> is a process that occurs when an <a href="/wiki/Insulator_(electricity)" title="Insulator (electricity)">electrically insulating</a> material (a <a href="/wiki/Dielectric" title="Dielectric">dielectric</a>), subjected to a high enough <a href="/wiki/Voltage" title="Voltage">voltage</a>, suddenly becomes a <a href="/wiki/Electrical_conductor" title="Electrical conductor">conductor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">current</a> flows through it. All insulating materials undergo breakdown when the <a href="/wiki/Electric_field" title="Electric field">electric field</a> caused by an applied voltage exceeds the material's <a href="/wiki/Dielectric_strength" title="Dielectric strength">dielectric strength</a>. The voltage at which a given insulating object becomes conductive is called its <i><a href="/wiki/Breakdown_voltage" title="Breakdown voltage">breakdown voltage</a></i> and, in addition to its dielectric strength, depends on its size and shape, and the location on the object at which the voltage is applied. Under sufficient <a href="/wiki/Voltage" title="Voltage">voltage</a>, electrical breakdown can occur within <a href="/wiki/Solid" title="Solid">solids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liquid" title="Liquid">liquids</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Gas" title="Gas">gases</a> (and theoretically even in a <a href="/wiki/Vacuum" title="Vacuum">vacuum</a>). However, the specific breakdown mechanisms are different for each kind of dielectric medium. </p><p>Electrical breakdown may be a momentary event (as in an <a href="/wiki/Electrostatic_discharge" title="Electrostatic discharge">electrostatic discharge</a>), or may lead to a continuous <a href="/wiki/Electric_arc" title="Electric arc">electric arc</a> if protective devices fail to interrupt the current in a power circuit. In this case electrical breakdown can cause catastrophic failure of electrical equipment, and <a href="/wiki/Fire_hazards" class="mw-redirect" title="Fire hazards">fire hazards</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Explanation">Explanation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_breakdown&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Explanation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">Electric current</a> is a flow of electrically <a href="/wiki/Charged_particle" title="Charged particle">charged particles</a> in a material caused by an <a href="/wiki/Electric_field" title="Electric field">electric field</a>, usually created by a <a href="/wiki/Voltage" title="Voltage">voltage</a> across the material. The mobile charged particles which make up an electric current are called <a href="/wiki/Charge_carrier" title="Charge carrier">charge carriers</a>. In different substances different particles serve as charge carriers: in metals and some other solids some of the outer <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> of each atom (<a href="/wiki/Conduction_electron" class="mw-redirect" title="Conduction electron">conduction electrons</a>) are able to move about in the material; in <a href="/wiki/Electrolyte" title="Electrolyte">electrolytes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">plasma</a> it is <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ions</a>, electrically charged <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atoms</a> or <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecules</a>, and electrons that are charge carriers. A material that has a high concentration of charge carriers available for conduction, such as a <a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metal</a>, will conduct a large current with a given electric field, and thus has a low <a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical resistivity">electrical resistivity</a>; this is called an <a href="/wiki/Electrical_conductor" title="Electrical conductor">electrical conductor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ray1_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ray1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A material that has few charge carriers, such as glass or ceramic, will conduct very little current with a given electric field and has a high resistivity; this is called an <a href="/wiki/Electrical_insulator" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical insulator">electrical insulator</a> or <a href="/wiki/Dielectric" title="Dielectric">dielectric</a>. All matter is composed of charged particles, but the common property of insulators is that the negative charges, the orbital electrons, are tightly bound to the positive charges, the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nuclei" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic nuclei">atomic nuclei</a>, and cannot easily be freed to become mobile. </p><p>However, when a large enough electric field is applied to any insulating substance, at a certain field strength the number of charge carriers in the material suddenly increases by many orders of magnitude, so its resistance drops and it becomes a conductor.<sup id="cite_ref-Ray1_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ray1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is called <i>electrical breakdown</i>. The physical mechanism causing breakdown differs in different substances. In a solid, it usually occurs when the electric field becomes strong enough to pull outer <a href="/wiki/Valence_electron" title="Valence electron">valence electrons</a> away from their atoms, so they become mobile, and the heat created by their collisions with other atoms releases additional electrons. In a gas, the electric field accelerates the small number of free electrons naturally present (due to processes like <a href="/wiki/Photoionization" title="Photoionization">photoionization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">radioactive decay</a>) to a high enough speed that when they collide with gas molecules they knock additional electrons out of them, called <a href="/wiki/Ionization" title="Ionization">ionization</a>, which go on to ionize more molecules creating more free electrons and ions in a chain reaction called a <a href="/wiki/Townsend_discharge" title="Townsend discharge">Townsend discharge</a>. As these examples indicate, in most materials breakdown occurs by a rapid <a href="/wiki/Chain_reaction" title="Chain reaction">chain reaction</a> in which mobile charged particles release additional charged particles. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dielectric_strength_and_breakdown_voltage">Dielectric strength and breakdown voltage</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_breakdown&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Dielectric strength and breakdown voltage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:225W_Zeus_Tesla_coil_-_arcs3_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/225W_Zeus_Tesla_coil_-_arcs3_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-225W_Zeus_Tesla_coil_-_arcs3_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="291" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/225W_Zeus_Tesla_coil_-_arcs3_%28cropped%29.jpg/495px-225W_Zeus_Tesla_coil_-_arcs3_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/225W_Zeus_Tesla_coil_-_arcs3_%28cropped%29.jpg/660px-225W_Zeus_Tesla_coil_-_arcs3_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4240" data-file-height="3744" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Tesla_coil" title="Tesla coil">Tesla coil</a>, showing several forms of electrical breakdown. On the right side of the aluminum high voltage terminal <i>(top right)</i> is a purple <a href="/wiki/Corona_discharge" title="Corona discharge">corona discharge</a>. At the end of the wire projecting from the terminal <i>(top left)</i> is a <a href="/wiki/Brush_discharge" title="Brush discharge">brush discharge</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Fluorescent_tube" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluorescent tube">fluorescent tube</a> lying on the stand is lit by a <a href="/wiki/Glow_discharge" title="Glow discharge">glow discharge</a> induced by the radio frequency electric field. At bottom the Tesla coil apparatus is lit by an intense white light from an <a href="/wiki/Electric_arc" title="Electric arc">electric arc</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Spark_gap" title="Spark gap">spark gap</a> which generates the high voltage</figcaption></figure> <p>The electric field strength (in <a href="/wiki/Volt" title="Volt">volts</a> per metre) at which breakdown occurs is an <a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_property" class="mw-redirect" title="Intrinsic property">intrinsic property</a> of the insulating material called its <i><a href="/wiki/Dielectric_strength" title="Dielectric strength">dielectric strength</a></i>. The electric field is usually caused by a <a href="/wiki/Voltage" title="Voltage">voltage</a> applied across the material. The applied voltage required to cause breakdown in a given insulating object is called the object's <i><a href="/wiki/Breakdown_voltage" title="Breakdown voltage">breakdown voltage</a></i>. The electric field created in a given insulating object by an applied voltage varies depending on the size and shape of the object and the location on the object of the electrical contacts where the voltage is applied, so in addition to the material's dielectric strength, the breakdown voltage depends on these factors. </p><p>In a flat sheet of insulator between two flat metal electrodes, the electric field <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>E</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4232c9de2ee3eec0a9c0a19b15ab92daa6223f9b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.776ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E}"></span> is proportional to the voltage <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle V}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>V</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle V}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/af0f6064540e84211d0ffe4dac72098adfa52845" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.787ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle V}"></span> divided by the thickness <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle D}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>D</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle D}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f34a0c600395e5d4345287e21fb26efd386990e6" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.924ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle D}"></span> of the insulator, so in general the breakdown voltage <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle V_{\text{b}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>b</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle V_{\text{b}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0f8136eaeace7a42528c6adf355d12b2ccc21bdd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.501ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle V_{\text{b}}}"></span> is proportional to the dielectric strength <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E_{\text{ds}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>E</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>ds</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E_{\text{ds}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/45e81924ea3bf5ca6cf35d774a7e0b2803c1768f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.509ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E_{\text{ds}}}"></span> and the length of insulation between two conductors </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle V_{\text{b}}=DE_{\text{ds}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>b</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mi>D</mi> <msub> <mi>E</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>ds</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle V_{\text{b}}=DE_{\text{ds}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/cbc33dbf6373e7a4915d71217ca28bc46b95c902" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:11.034ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle V_{\text{b}}=DE_{\text{ds}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>However the shape of the conductors can influence the breakdown voltage. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Breakdown_process">Breakdown process</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_breakdown&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Breakdown process"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Breakdown is a local process, and in an insulating medium subjected to a high voltage difference begins at whatever point in the insulator the electric field first exceeds the local dielectric strength of the material. Since the electric field at the surface of a conductor is highest at protruding parts, sharp points and edges, for a conductor immersed in a homogeneous insulator like air or oil, breakdown usually starts at these points. In a solid insulator, breakdown often starts at a local defect , such as a crack or bubble in a ceramic insulator. If the voltage is low enough, breakdown may remain limited to this small region; this is called <i><a href="/wiki/Partial_discharge" title="Partial discharge">partial discharge</a></i>. In a gas adjacent to a sharp pointed conductor, local breakdown processes, <a href="/wiki/Corona_discharge" title="Corona discharge">corona discharge</a> or <a href="/wiki/Brush_discharge" title="Brush discharge">brush discharge</a>, can allow current to leak off the conductor into the gas as ions. However, usually in a homogeneous solid insulator after one region has broken down and become conductive there is no voltage drop across it, and the full voltage difference is applied to the remaining length of the insulator. Since the voltage drop is now across a shorter length, this creates a higher electric field in the remaining material, which causes more material to break down. So the breakdown region rapidly (within nanoseconds) spreads in the direction of the voltage gradient (electric field) from one end of the insulator to the other, until a continuous conductive path is created through the material between the two contacts applying the voltage difference, allowing a current to flow between them, starting an <a href="/wiki/Electric_arc" title="Electric arc">electric arc</a>. </p><p>Electrical breakdown can also occur without an applied voltage, due to an electromagnetic wave. When a sufficiently intense <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_wave" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetic wave">electromagnetic wave</a> passes through a material medium, the electric field of the wave can be strong enough to cause temporary electrical breakdown. For example a <a href="/wiki/Laser" title="Laser">laser</a> beam focused to a small spot in air can cause electrical breakdown and <a href="/wiki/Ionization" title="Ionization">ionization</a> of the air at the focal point. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consequences">Consequences</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_breakdown&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Consequences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In practical <a href="/wiki/Electric_circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Electric circuit">electric circuits</a> electrical breakdown is usually an unwanted occurrence, a failure of insulating material causing a <a href="/wiki/Short_circuit" title="Short circuit">short circuit</a>, possibly resulting in a catastrophic failure of the equipment. In power circuits, the sudden drop in resistance causes a high current to flow through the material, beginning an <a href="/wiki/Electric_arc" title="Electric arc">electric arc</a>, and if safety devices do not interrupt the current quickly the sudden extreme <a href="/wiki/Joule_heating" title="Joule heating">Joule heating</a> may cause the insulating material or other parts of the circuit to melt or vaporize explosively, damaging the equipment and creating a fire hazard. However, external protective devices in the circuit such as <a href="/wiki/Circuit_breaker" title="Circuit breaker">circuit breakers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Current_limiting" title="Current limiting">current limiting</a> can prevent the high current; and the breakdown process itself is not necessarily destructive and may be reversible, as for example in a <a href="/wiki/Gas_discharge_lamp" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas discharge lamp">gas discharge lamp</a> tube. If the current supplied by the external circuit is removed sufficiently quickly, no damage is done to the material, and reducing the applied voltage causes a transition back to the material's insulating state. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Lightning" title="Lightning">Lightning</a> and sparks due to <a href="/wiki/Static_electricity" title="Static electricity">static electricity</a> are natural examples of the electrical breakdown of air. Electrical breakdown is part of the normal operating mode of a number of <a href="/wiki/Electrical_component" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical component">electrical components</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Gas_discharge_lamp" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas discharge lamp">gas discharge lamps</a> like <a href="/wiki/Fluorescent_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluorescent light">fluorescent lights</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Neon_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Neon light">neon lights</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zener_diode" title="Zener diode">zener diodes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Avalanche_diode" title="Avalanche diode">avalanche diodes</a>, <a href="/wiki/IMPATT_diode" title="IMPATT diode">IMPATT diodes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mercury-vapor_rectifier" class="mw-redirect" title="Mercury-vapor rectifier">mercury-vapor rectifiers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thyratron" title="Thyratron">thyratron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ignitron" title="Ignitron">ignitron</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Krytron" title="Krytron">krytron</a> tubes, and <a href="/wiki/Spark_plug" title="Spark plug">spark plugs</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Failure_of_electrical_insulation">Failure of electrical insulation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_breakdown&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Failure of electrical insulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Electrical breakdown is often associated with the failure of solid or liquid insulating materials used inside high voltage <a href="/wiki/Transformer" title="Transformer">transformers</a> or <a href="/wiki/Capacitors" class="mw-redirect" title="Capacitors">capacitors</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Electricity_distribution" class="mw-redirect" title="Electricity distribution">electricity distribution</a> grid, usually resulting in a <a href="/wiki/Short_circuit" title="Short circuit">short circuit</a> or a blown fuse. Electrical breakdown can also occur across the insulators that suspend overhead <a href="/wiki/Electric_power_transmission" title="Electric power transmission">power lines</a>, within underground power cables, or lines arcing to nearby branches of trees. </p><p>Dielectric breakdown is also important in the design of <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuits</a> and other solid state electronic devices. Insulating layers in such devices are designed to withstand normal operating voltages, but higher voltage such as from static electricity may destroy these layers, rendering a device useless. The dielectric strength of <a href="/wiki/Capacitor" title="Capacitor">capacitors</a> limits how much energy can be stored and the safe working voltage for the device.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mechanisms">Mechanisms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_breakdown&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Mechanisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Breakdown mechanisms differ in solids, liquids, and gases. Breakdown is influenced by electrode material, sharp curvature of conductor material (resulting in locally intensified electric fields), the size of the gap between the electrodes, and the density of the material in the gap. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Solids">Solids</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_breakdown&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Solids"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In solid materials (such as in <a href="/wiki/Power_cable" title="Power cable">power cables</a>) a long-time <a href="/wiki/Partial_discharge" title="Partial discharge">partial discharge</a> caused by a defect such as a crack or bubble in the material typically precedes breakdown. The partial discharge is a local <a href="/wiki/Ionization" title="Ionization">ionization</a> and heating of the area, degrading the insulators and metals nearest to the defect. Ultimately the partial discharge chars through a channel of carbonized material that conducts current across the gap. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Liquids">Liquids</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_breakdown&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Liquids"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Possible mechanisms for breakdown in liquids include bubbles, small impurities, and electrical <a href="/wiki/Superheating" title="Superheating">super-heating</a>. The process of breakdown in liquids is complicated by hydrodynamic effects, since additional pressure is exerted on the fluid by the non-linear electrical field strength in the gap between the electrodes. </p><p>In liquefied gases used as <a href="/wiki/Coolant" title="Coolant">coolants</a> for <a href="/wiki/Superconductivity" title="Superconductivity">superconductivity</a> – such as Helium at 4.2 K or Nitrogen at 77 K – bubbles can induce breakdown. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Oil-cooled" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil-cooled">oil-cooled</a> and <a href="/wiki/Transformer_oil" title="Transformer oil">oil-insulated</a> transformers the field strength for breakdown is about 20 kV/mm (as compared to 3 kV/mm for dry air). Despite the purified oils used, small particle contaminants are blamed. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gases">Gases</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_breakdown&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Gases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Electrical breakdown occurs within a gas when the <a href="/wiki/Dielectric_strength" title="Dielectric strength">dielectric strength</a> of the gas is exceeded. Regions of intense voltage gradients can cause nearby gas to partially ionize and begin conducting. This is done deliberately in low pressure discharges such as in <a href="/wiki/Fluorescent_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluorescent light">fluorescent lights</a>. The voltage that leads to electrical breakdown of a gas is approximated by <a href="/wiki/Paschen%27s_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Paschen's Law">Paschen's Law</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Partial_discharge" title="Partial discharge">Partial discharge</a> in air causes the "fresh air" smell of <a href="/wiki/Ozone" title="Ozone">ozone</a> during thunderstorms or around high-voltage equipment. Although air is normally an excellent insulator, when stressed by a sufficiently high voltage (an <a href="/wiki/Electric_field" title="Electric field">electric field</a> of about 3 x 10<sup>6</sup> V/m or 3 kV/mm<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), air can begin to break down, becoming partially conductive. Across relatively small gaps, breakdown voltage in air is a function of gap length times pressure. If the voltage is sufficiently high, complete electrical breakdown of the air will culminate in an <a href="/wiki/Electric_spark" title="Electric spark">electrical spark</a> or an <a href="/wiki/Electric_arc" title="Electric arc">electric arc</a> that bridges the entire gap. </p><p>The color of the spark depends upon the gases that make up the gaseous media. While the small sparks generated by <a href="/wiki/Static_electricity" title="Static electricity">static electricity</a> may barely be audible, larger sparks are often accompanied by a loud snap or bang. <a href="/wiki/Lightning" title="Lightning">Lightning</a> is an example of an immense spark that can be many miles long and <a href="/wiki/Thunder" title="Thunder">thunder</a> produced by it can be heard from a very large distance. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Persistent_arcs">Persistent arcs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_breakdown&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Persistent arcs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>If a <a href="/wiki/Fuse_(electrical)" title="Fuse (electrical)">fuse</a> or <a href="/wiki/Circuit_breaker" title="Circuit breaker">circuit breaker</a> fails to interrupt the current through a spark in a power circuit, current may continue, forming a very hot <a href="/wiki/Electric_arc" title="Electric arc">electric arc</a> (about 30 000 degrees <a href="/wiki/Celsius" title="Celsius">C</a>). The color of an arc depends primarily upon the conducting gasses, some of which may have been solids before being vaporized and mixed into the hot <a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">plasma</a> in the arc. The free ions in and around the arc recombine to create new chemical compounds, such as <a href="/wiki/Ozone" title="Ozone">ozone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nitrous_oxide" title="Nitrous oxide">nitrous oxide</a>. Ozone is most easily noticed due to its distinct odour.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although sparks and arcs are usually undesirable, they can be useful in applications such as <a href="/wiki/Spark_plugs" class="mw-redirect" title="Spark plugs">spark plugs</a> for gasoline engines, electrical <a href="/wiki/Welding" title="Welding">welding</a> of metals, or for metal melting in an <a href="/wiki/Electric_arc_furnace" title="Electric arc furnace">electric arc furnace</a>. Prior to gas discharge the gas glows with distinct colors that depend on the <a href="/wiki/Emission_spectrum" title="Emission spectrum">energy levels</a> of the atoms. Not all mechanisms are fully understood. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TownsendVI-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/TownsendVI-en.svg/220px-TownsendVI-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/TownsendVI-en.svg/330px-TownsendVI-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/TownsendVI-en.svg/440px-TownsendVI-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="835" data-file-height="677" /></a><figcaption>Voltage-current relation before breakdown</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Vacuum" title="Vacuum">vacuum</a> itself is expected to undergo electrical breakdown at or near the <a href="/wiki/Schwinger_limit" title="Schwinger limit">Schwinger limit</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Voltage-current_relation">Voltage-current relation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_breakdown&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Voltage-current relation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Before gas breakdown, there is a non-linear relation between voltage and current as shown in the figure. In region 1, there are free ions that can be accelerated by the field and induce a current. These will be saturated after a certain voltage and give a constant current, region 2. Region 3 and 4 are caused by ion avalanche as explained by the <a href="/wiki/Townsend_discharge" title="Townsend discharge">Townsend discharge</a> mechanism. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Paschen" title="Friedrich Paschen">Friedrich Paschen</a> established the relation between the breakdown condition to breakdown voltage. He derived <a href="/wiki/Paschen%27s_law" title="Paschen's law">a formula</a> that defines the breakdown voltage (<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle V_{\text{b}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>b</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle V_{\text{b}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0f8136eaeace7a42528c6adf355d12b2ccc21bdd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.501ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle V_{\text{b}}}"></span>) for uniform field gaps as a function of gap length (<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle d}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>d</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle d}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e85ff03cbe0c7341af6b982e47e9f90d235c66ab" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.216ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle d}"></span>) and gap pressure (<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle p}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>p</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle p}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/81eac1e205430d1f40810df36a0edffdc367af36" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:1.259ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle p}"></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle V_{\text{b}}={Bpd \over \ln \left({Apd \over \ln \left(1+{1 \over \gamma }\right)}\right)}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>b</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>B</mi> <mi>p</mi> <mi>d</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>ln</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>A</mi> <mi>p</mi> <mi>d</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>ln</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mi>γ</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle V_{\text{b}}={Bpd \over \ln \left({Apd \over \ln \left(1+{1 \over \gamma }\right)}\right)}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/759ecbba956954173d3c3be8ffda6b26f4d19baf" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -7.338ex; width:19.888ex; height:10.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle V_{\text{b}}={Bpd \over \ln \left({Apd \over \ln \left(1+{1 \over \gamma }\right)}\right)}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>Paschen also derived a relation between the minimum value of pressure gap for which breakdown occurs with a minimum voltage.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}(pd)_{\min }&={2.718 \over A}\ln \left(1+{\frac {1}{\gamma }}\right)\\V_{{\text{b}},\min }&=2.718{B \over A}\ln \left(1+{\frac {1}{\gamma }}\right)\end{aligned}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtable columnalign="right left right left right left right left right left right left" rowspacing="3pt" columnspacing="0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em" displaystyle="true"> <mtr> <mtd> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>p</mi> <mi>d</mi> <msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo movablelimits="true" form="prefix">min</mo> </mrow> </msub> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>2.718</mn> <mi>A</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <mi>ln</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mi>γ</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>b</mtext> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> <mo movablelimits="true" form="prefix">min</mo> </mrow> </msub> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>2.718</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>B</mi> <mi>A</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <mi>ln</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mi>γ</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}(pd)_{\min }&={2.718 \over A}\ln \left(1+{\frac {1}{\gamma }}\right)\\V_{{\text{b}},\min }&=2.718{B \over A}\ln \left(1+{\frac {1}{\gamma }}\right)\end{aligned}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8459c075f437eb610f0a59ff77c23f0df2a3009e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -5.671ex; width:30.763ex; height:12.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}(pd)_{\min }&={2.718 \over A}\ln \left(1+{\frac {1}{\gamma }}\right)\\V_{{\text{b}},\min }&=2.718{B \over A}\ln \left(1+{\frac {1}{\gamma }}\right)\end{aligned}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>A</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7daff47fa58cdfd29dc333def748ff5fa4c923e3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.743ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A}"></span> and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle B}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>B</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle B}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/47136aad860d145f75f3eed3022df827cee94d7a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.764ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle B}"></span> are constants depending on the gas used. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Corona_breakdown">Corona breakdown</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_breakdown&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Corona breakdown"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Partial breakdown of the air occurs as a <a href="/wiki/Corona_discharge" title="Corona discharge">corona discharge</a> on high voltage conductors at points with the highest electrical stress. Conductors that have sharp points, or balls with small <a href="/wiki/Radius" title="Radius">radii</a>, are prone to causing dielectric breakdown, because the field strength around points is higher than that around a flat surface. High-voltage apparatus is designed with rounded curves and <a href="/wiki/Grading_ring" class="mw-redirect" title="Grading ring">grading rings</a> to avoid concentrated fields that precipitate breakdown. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Appearance">Appearance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_breakdown&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Appearance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Corona is sometimes seen as a bluish glow around high voltage wires and heard as a sizzling sound along high voltage power lines. Corona also generates radio frequency noise that can also be heard as ‘static’ or buzzing on radio receivers. Corona can also occur naturally as "<a href="/wiki/St._Elmo%27s_Fire" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Elmo's Fire">St. Elmo's Fire</a>" at high points such as church spires, treetops, or ship masts during thunderstorms. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ozone_generation">Ozone generation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_breakdown&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Ozone generation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Corona discharge ozone generators have been used for more than 30 years in the <a href="/wiki/Water_purification" title="Water purification">water purification</a> process. Ozone is a toxic gas, even more potent than chlorine. In a typical drinking water treatment plant, the ozone gas is dissolved into the filtered water to kill <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> and destroy <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a>. Ozone also removes the bad odours and taste from the water. The main advantage of ozone is that any residual overdose decomposes to gaseous oxygen well before the water reaches the consumer. This is in contrast with <a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a> gas or chlorine salts, which stay in the water longer and can be tasted by the consumer. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_uses">Other uses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_breakdown&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Other uses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although corona discharge is usually undesirable, until recently it was essential in the operation of photocopiers (<a href="/wiki/Xerography" title="Xerography">xerography</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Laser_printers" class="mw-redirect" title="Laser printers">laser printers</a>. Many modern copiers and laser printers now charge the photoconductor drum with an electrically conductive roller, reducing undesirable indoor <a href="/wiki/Ozone" title="Ozone">ozone</a> pollution. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Lightning_rod" title="Lightning rod">Lightning rods</a> use corona discharge to create conductive paths in the air that point towards the rod, deflecting potentially-damaging <a href="/wiki/Lightning" title="Lightning">lightning</a> away from buildings and other structures.<sup id="cite_ref-UnivPhys_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UnivPhys-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Corona discharges are also used to modify the surface properties of many <a href="/wiki/Polymers" class="mw-redirect" title="Polymers">polymers</a>. An example is the corona treatment of plastic materials which allows paint or ink to adhere properly. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Disruptive_devices">Disruptive devices <span class="anchor" id="disruptive_devices"></span></h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_breakdown&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Disruptive devices"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lichtenberg_figure_in_block_of_Plexiglas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Lichtenberg_figure_in_block_of_Plexiglas.jpg/220px-Lichtenberg_figure_in_block_of_Plexiglas.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Lichtenberg_figure_in_block_of_Plexiglas.jpg/330px-Lichtenberg_figure_in_block_of_Plexiglas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Lichtenberg_figure_in_block_of_Plexiglas.jpg/440px-Lichtenberg_figure_in_block_of_Plexiglas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="726" /></a><figcaption> Dielectric breakdown within a solid insulator can permanently change its appearance and properties. As shown in this <a href="/wiki/Lichtenberg_figure" title="Lichtenberg figure">Lichtenberg figure</a></figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>disruptive device</b> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> is designed to electrically overstress a <a href="/wiki/Dielectric" title="Dielectric">dielectric</a> beyond its <a href="/wiki/Dielectric_strength" title="Dielectric strength">dielectric strength</a> so as to intentionally cause electrical breakdown of the device. The disruption causes a sudden transition of a portion of the dielectric, from an insulating state to a highly <a href="/wiki/Electrical_conduction" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical conduction">conductive</a> state. This transition is characterized by the formation of an <a href="/wiki/Electric_spark" title="Electric spark">electric spark</a> or <a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">plasma</a> channel, possibly followed by an <a href="/wiki/Electric_arc" title="Electric arc">electric arc</a> through part of the dielectric material. </p><p>If the dielectric happens to be a solid, permanent physical and chemical changes along the path of the discharge will significantly reduce the material's dielectric strength, and the device can only be used one time. However, if the dielectric material is a liquid or gas, the dielectric can fully recover its insulating properties once current through the plasma channel has been externally interrupted. </p><p>Commercial <a href="/wiki/Spark_gap" title="Spark gap">spark gaps</a> use this property to abruptly switch high voltages in <a href="/wiki/Pulsed_power" title="Pulsed power">pulsed power</a> systems, to provide <a href="/wiki/Voltage_spike" title="Voltage spike">surge</a> protection for <a href="/wiki/Telecommunication" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunication">telecommunication</a> and <a href="/wiki/Power_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Power systems">electrical power</a> systems, and ignite fuel via <a href="/wiki/Spark_plug" title="Spark plug">spark plugs</a> in <a href="/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine" title="Internal combustion engine">internal combustion engines</a>. <a href="/wiki/Spark-gap_transmitter" title="Spark-gap transmitter">Spark-gap transmitters</a> were used in early radio telegraph systems. </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_breakdown&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_Tracking_Index" title="Comparative Tracking Index">Comparative Tracking Index</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_breakdown&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Ray1-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ray1_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ray1_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRay2013" class="citation book cs1">Ray, Subir (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=raGzKNnToeoC"><i>An Introduction to High Voltage Engineering, 2nd Ed</i></a>. PHI Learning Ltd. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788120347403" title="Special:BookSources/9788120347403"><bdi>9788120347403</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+High+Voltage+Engineering%2C+2nd+Ed.&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=PHI+Learning+Ltd.&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9788120347403&rft.aulast=Ray&rft.aufirst=Subir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DraGzKNnToeoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+breakdown" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBelkinBezryadinHendrenHubler2017" class="citation journal cs1">Belkin, A.; Bezryadin, A.; Hendren, L.; Hubler, A. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5430567">"Recovery of Alumina Nanocapacitors after High Voltage Breakdown"</a>. <i>Scientific Reports</i>. <b>7</b> (1): 932. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017NatSR...7..932B">2017NatSR...7..932B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41598-017-01007-9">10.1038/s41598-017-01007-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5430567">5430567</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28428625">28428625</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+Reports&rft.atitle=Recovery+of+Alumina+Nanocapacitors+after+High+Voltage+Breakdown&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=932&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5430567%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28428625&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41598-017-01007-9&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017NatSR...7..932B&rft.aulast=Belkin&rft.aufirst=A.&rft.au=Bezryadin%2C+A.&rft.au=Hendren%2C+L.&rft.au=Hubler%2C+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5430567&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+breakdown" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHong2000" class="citation web cs1">Hong, Alice (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2000/AliceHong.shtml">"Dielectric Strength of Air"</a>. <i>The Physics Factbook</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Physics+Factbook&rft.atitle=Dielectric+Strength+of+Air&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Hong&rft.aufirst=Alice&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhypertextbook.com%2Ffacts%2F2000%2FAliceHong.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+breakdown" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.arcsuppressiontechnologies.com/arc-suppression-facts/lab-app-notes/">"Lab Note #106 <i>Environmental Impact of Arc Suppression</i>"</a>. Arc Suppression Technologies. April 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 15,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Lab+Note+%23106+Environmental+Impact+of+Arc+Suppression&rft.pub=Arc+Suppression+Technologies&rft.date=2011-04&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.arcsuppressiontechnologies.com%2Farc-suppression-facts%2Flab-app-notes%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+breakdown" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRay2009" class="citation book cs1">Ray, Subir (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?isbn=812032417X"><i>An Introduction to High Voltage Engineering</i></a>. PHI Learning. pp. <span class="nowrap">19–</span>21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8120324176" title="Special:BookSources/978-8120324176"><bdi>978-8120324176</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+High+Voltage+Engineering&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E19-%3C%2Fspan%3E21&rft.pub=PHI+Learning&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-8120324176&rft.aulast=Ray&rft.aufirst=Subir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fisbn%3D812032417X&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+breakdown" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-UnivPhys-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-UnivPhys_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoung,_Hugh_D.Roger_A._FreedmanA._Lewis_Ford2004" class="citation book cs1">Young, Hugh D.; Roger A. Freedman; A. Lewis Ford (2004) [1949]. "Electric Potential". <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/relativity00unse"><i>Sears and Zemansky's University Physics</i></a></span> (11 ed.). <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco" title="San Francisco">San Francisco</a>: <a href="/wiki/Addison_Wesley" class="mw-redirect" title="Addison Wesley">Addison Wesley</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">886–</span>7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8053-9179-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8053-9179-7"><bdi>0-8053-9179-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Electric+Potential&rft.btitle=Sears+and+Zemansky%27s+University+Physics&rft.place=San+Francisco&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E886-%3C%2Fspan%3E7&rft.edition=11&rft.pub=Addison+Wesley&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-8053-9179-7&rft.au=Young%2C+Hugh+D.&rft.au=Roger+A.+Freedman&rft.au=A.+Lewis+Ford&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frelativity00unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+breakdown" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 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