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<span>Voices</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Voices-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1720–1740" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1720–1740"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>1720–1740</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1720–1740-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1740–1770" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1740–1770"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>1740–1770</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1740–1770-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1770–1800" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1770–1800"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>1770–1800</span> </div> </a> <ul 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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cited_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cited_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Cited sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cited_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><i>Opera seria</i></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 38 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-38" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">38 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera_seria" title="Opera seria – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Opera seria" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera_seria" title="Opera seria – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Opera seria" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0-%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Опера-серыя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Опера-серыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Опера серия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Опера серия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera_seria" title="Opera seria – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Opera seria" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera_seria" title="Opera seria – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Opera seria" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera_seria" title="Opera seria – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Opera seria" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera_seria" title="Opera seria – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Opera seria" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera_seria" title="Opera seria – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Opera seria" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera_seria" title="Opera seria – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Opera seria" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%8C%CF%80%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B1_%CF%83%CE%AD%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%B1" title="Όπερα σέρια – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Όπερα σέρια" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%93pera_seria" title="Ópera seria – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ópera seria" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serioza_opero" title="Serioza opero – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Serioza opero" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7_%D8%B3%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="اپرا سریا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اپرا سریا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera_seria" title="Opera seria – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Opera seria" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%93pera_seria" title="Ópera seria – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Ópera seria" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%98%A4%ED%8E%98%EB%9D%BC_%EC%84%B8%EB%A6%AC%EC%95%84" title="오페라 세리아 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="오페라 세리아" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera_seria" title="Opera seria – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Opera seria" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera_seria" title="Opera seria – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Opera seria" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%94_%D7%A1%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94" title="אופרה סריה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אופרה סריה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0-%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B0" title="Опера-сериа – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Опера-сериа" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera_seria" title="Opera seria – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Opera seria" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera_seria" title="Opera seria – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Opera seria" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera_seria" title="Opera seria – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Opera seria" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AA%E3%83%9A%E3%83%A9%E3%83%BB%E3%82%BB%E3%83%AA%E3%82%A2" title="オペラ・セリア – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="オペラ・セリア" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera_seria" title="Opera seria – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Opera seria" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera_seria" title="Opera seria – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Opera seria" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera_seria" title="Opera seria – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Opera seria" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%93pera-s%C3%A9ria" title="Ópera-séria – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Ópera-séria" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0-%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B0" title="Опера-сериа – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Опера-сериа" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera_seria" title="Opera seria – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Opera seria" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera_seria" title="Opera seria – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Opera seria" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera_seria" title="Opera seria – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Opera seria" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera_seria" title="Opera seria – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Opera seria" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera_seria" title="Opera seria – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Opera seria" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96%D0%B0" title="Опера серіа – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Опера серіа" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera_seria" title="Opera seria – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Opera seria" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%AD%A3%E6%AD%8C%E5%89%A7" title="正歌剧 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="正歌剧" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q210675#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Senesino%2C_Cuzzoni%2C_Berenstadt.JPG/300px-Senesino%2C_Cuzzoni%2C_Berenstadt.JPG" decoding="async" width="300" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Senesino%2C_Cuzzoni%2C_Berenstadt.JPG/450px-Senesino%2C_Cuzzoni%2C_Berenstadt.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Senesino%2C_Cuzzoni%2C_Berenstadt.JPG/600px-Senesino%2C_Cuzzoni%2C_Berenstadt.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4256" data-file-height="3064" /></a><figcaption>Caricature of a performance of <a href="/wiki/Handel" class="mw-redirect" title="Handel">Handel</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Flavio" title="Flavio">Flavio</a></i>, featuring three of the best-known <i>opera seria</i> singers of their day: <a href="/wiki/Senesino" title="Senesino">Senesino</a> on the left, diva <a href="/wiki/Francesca_Cuzzoni" title="Francesca Cuzzoni">Francesca Cuzzoni</a> in the centre, and art-loving castrato <a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Berenstadt" title="Gaetano Berenstadt">Gaetano Berenstadt</a> on the right</figcaption></figure> <p><i><b>Opera seria</b></i> (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">Italian pronunciation:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="it-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Italian" title="Help:IPA/Italian">[ˈɔːpera<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈsɛːrja]</a></span>; plural: <i>opere serie</i>; usually called <i><a href="/wiki/Dramma_per_musica" title="Dramma per musica">dramma per musica</a></i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Melodramma" title="Melodramma">melodramma</a> serio</i>) is an Italian musical term which refers to the noble and "serious" style of <a href="/wiki/Italian_opera" title="Italian opera">Italian opera</a> that predominated in Europe from the 1710s to about 1770. The term itself was rarely used at the time and only attained common usage once <i>opera seria</i> was becoming unfashionable and beginning to be viewed as something of a historical genre. The popular rival to <i>opera seria</i> was <i><a href="/wiki/Opera_buffa" title="Opera buffa">opera buffa</a>,</i> the 'comic' opera that took its cue from the improvisatory <a href="/wiki/Commedia_dell%27arte" title="Commedia dell'arte">commedia dell'arte</a>. An opera seria had a historical or Biblical subject, whereas an opera buffa had a contemporary subject. </p><p>Italian <i>opera seria</i> (invariably to Italian <a href="/wiki/Libretto" title="Libretto">libretti</a>) was produced not only in <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a> but almost throughout Europe, and beyond (see <a href="/wiki/Opera_in_Latin_America" title="Opera in Latin America">Opera in Latin America</a>, <a href="/wiki/Opera_in_Cuba" title="Opera in Cuba">Opera in Cuba</a> e. g.). Among the main centres in Europe were the <a href="/wiki/Royal_court" title="Royal court">court</a> operas based in <a href="/wiki/Warsaw" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a> (since 1628), <a href="/wiki/Bavarian_State_Opera" title="Bavarian State Opera">Munich</a> (founded in 1653), <a href="/wiki/Royal_Opera_House" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Opera House">London</a> (established in 1662), <a href="/wiki/Theater_am_K%C3%A4rntnertor" title="Theater am Kärntnertor">Vienna</a> (firmly established 1709; first operatic representation: <i><a href="/wiki/Il_pomo_d%27oro" title="Il pomo d'oro">Il pomo d'oro</a></i>, 1668), <a href="/wiki/Opernhaus_am_Zwinger" title="Opernhaus am Zwinger">Dresden</a> (since 1719) as well as other <a href="/wiki/German_states_of_the_Holy_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="German states of the Holy Roman Empire">German residences</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bolshoi_Theatre,_Saint_Petersburg" title="Bolshoi Theatre, Saint Petersburg">Saint Petersburg</a> (Italian opera reached <a href="/wiki/Russian_opera" title="Russian opera">Russia</a> in 1731, first opera venues followed <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1742</span>), <a href="/wiki/Madrid" title="Madrid">Madrid</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Spanish_opera" title="Spanish opera">Spanish opera</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Teatro_Nacional_de_S%C3%A3o_Carlos" title="Teatro Nacional de São Carlos">Lisbon</a>. <i>Opera seria</i> was less popular in France, where the national genre of <a href="/wiki/French_opera" title="French opera">French opera</a> (or <i><a href="/wiki/Trag%C3%A9die_en_musique" title="Tragédie en musique">tragédie en musique</a></i>) was preferred. </p><p>Acclaimed composers of <i>opera seria</i> included <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Caldara" title="Antonio Caldara">Antonio Caldara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Scarlatti" title="Alessandro Scarlatti">Alessandro Scarlatti</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Frideric_Handel" title="George Frideric Handel">George Frideric Handel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Vivaldi" title="Antonio Vivaldi">Antonio Vivaldi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tomaso_Albinoni" title="Tomaso Albinoni">Tomaso Albinoni</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nicola_Porpora" title="Nicola Porpora">Nicola Porpora</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Vinci" title="Leonardo Vinci">Leonardo Vinci</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Adolph_Hasse" title="Johann Adolph Hasse">Johann Adolph Hasse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Leo" title="Leonardo Leo">Leonardo Leo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baldassare_Galuppi" title="Baldassare Galuppi">Baldassare Galuppi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Feo" title="Francesco Feo">Francesco Feo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Battista_Pergolesi" title="Giovanni Battista Pergolesi">Giovanni Battista Pergolesi</a> and in the second half of the 18th century <a href="/wiki/Christoph_Willibald_Gluck" title="Christoph Willibald Gluck">Christoph Willibald Gluck</a>, <a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Jommelli" title="Niccolò Jommelli">Niccolò Jommelli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Traetta" title="Tommaso Traetta">Tommaso Traetta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Josef_Myslive%C4%8Dek" title="Josef Mysliveček">Josef Mysliveček</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Haydn" title="Joseph Haydn">Joseph Haydn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Christian_Bach" title="Johann Christian Bach">Johann Christian Bach</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carl_Heinrich_Graun" title="Carl Heinrich Graun">Carl Heinrich Graun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Salieri" title="Antonio Salieri">Antonio Salieri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Sacchini" title="Antonio Sacchini">Antonio Sacchini</a>, <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Sarti" title="Giuseppe Sarti">Giuseppe Sarti</a>, <a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Piccinni" title="Niccolò Piccinni">Niccolò Piccinni</a>, <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Paisiello" title="Giovanni Paisiello">Giovanni Paisiello</a>, <a href="/wiki/Domenico_Cimarosa" title="Domenico Cimarosa">Domenico Cimarosa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart" title="Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart">Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart</a>. By far the most successful <a href="/wiki/Librettist" class="mw-redirect" title="Librettist">librettist</a> of the era was <a href="/wiki/Metastasio" class="mw-redirect" title="Metastasio">Metastasio</a>, others were <a href="/wiki/Apostolo_Zeno" title="Apostolo Zeno">Apostolo Zeno</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benedetto_Pamphili" title="Benedetto Pamphili">Benedetto Pamphili</a>, <a href="/wiki/Silvio_Stampiglia" title="Silvio Stampiglia">Silvio Stampiglia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Salvi" title="Antonio Salvi">Antonio Salvi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pietro_Pariati" title="Pietro Pariati">Pietro Pariati</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pietro_Ottoboni_(cardinal)" title="Pietro Ottoboni (cardinal)">Pietro Ottoboni</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stefano_Benedetto_Pallavicino" title="Stefano Benedetto Pallavicino">Stefano Benedetto Pallavicino</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nicola_Francesco_Haym" title="Nicola Francesco Haym">Nicola Francesco Haym</a>, <a href="/wiki/Domenico_Lalli" title="Domenico Lalli">Domenico Lalli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paolo_Antonio_Rolli" class="mw-redirect" title="Paolo Antonio Rolli">Paolo Antonio Rolli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Claudio_Pasquini" title="Giovanni Claudio Pasquini">Giovanni Claudio Pasquini</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ranieri_de%27_Calzabigi" title="Ranieri de' Calzabigi">Ranieri de' Calzabigi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Ambrogio_Migliavacca" title="Giovanni Ambrogio Migliavacca">Giovanni Ambrogio Migliavacca</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure">Structure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Opera_seria&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Opera seria</i> built upon the conventions of the High Baroque era by developing and exploiting the <a href="/wiki/Da_capo_aria" title="Da capo aria"><i>da capo</i> aria</a>, with its A–B–A form. The first section presented a theme, the second a complementary one, and the third a repeat of the first with ornamentation and elaboration of the music by the singer. As the genre developed and arias grew longer, a typical <i>opera seria</i> would contain not more than thirty musical movements.<sup id="cite_ref-GD_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GD-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A typical opera would start with an instrumental overture of three movements (fast-slow-fast) and then a series of recitatives containing dialogue interspersed with arias expressing the emotions of the character, this pattern only broken by the occasional duet for the leading amatory couple. The recitative was typically <i>secco</i>: that is, accompanied only by <i><a href="/wiki/Basso_continuo" title="Basso continuo">continuo</a></i> (usually <a href="/wiki/Harpsichord" title="Harpsichord">harpsichord</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theorbo" title="Theorbo">theorbo</a>, and cello, sometimes supported by further bass and chordal instruments). At moments of especially violent passion <i>secco</i> was replaced by <i>stromentato</i> (or <i>accompagnato</i>) recitative, where the singer was accompanied by the entire body of strings. After an aria was sung, accompanied by strings and oboe (and sometimes with horns or flutes), the character usually exited the stage, encouraging the audience to applaud. This continued for three acts before concluding with an upbeat chorus, to celebrate the jubilant climax. The leading singers each expected their fair share of arias of varied mood, be they sad, angry, heroic or meditative. </p><p>The dramaturgy of opera seria developed largely as a response to French criticism of what were often viewed as impure and corrupting librettos. As response, the Rome-based <a href="/wiki/Academy_of_Arcadia" class="mw-redirect" title="Academy of Arcadia">Academy of Arcadia</a> sought to return Italian opera to what they viewed as neoclassical principles, obeying the <a href="/wiki/Classical_unities" title="Classical unities">classical unities</a> of drama, defined by <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, and replacing "immoral" plots, such as <a href="/wiki/Busenello" class="mw-redirect" title="Busenello">Busenello</a>'s for <i><a href="/wiki/L%27incoronazione_di_Poppea" title="L'incoronazione di Poppea">L'incoronazione di Poppea</a></i>, with highly moral narratives that aimed to instruct, as well as entertain. However, the often tragic endings of classical drama were rejected out of a sense of decorum: early writers of <i>opera seria</i> librettos such as <a href="/wiki/Apostolo_Zeno" title="Apostolo Zeno">Apostolo Zeno</a> felt that virtue should be rewarded and shown triumphant, while the antagonists were to be put on their way to remorse. The spectacle and ballet, so common in French opera, were banished.<sup id="cite_ref-GD_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GD-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Voices">Voices</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Opera_seria&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Voices"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The age of <i>opera seria</i> corresponded with the rise to prominence of the <a href="/wiki/Castrato" title="Castrato">castrati</a>, often prodigiously gifted male singers who had undergone castration before puberty in order to retain a high, powerful <a href="/wiki/Soprano" title="Soprano">soprano</a> or <a href="/wiki/Alto" title="Alto">alto</a> voice backed by decades of rigorous musical training. They were cast in heroic male roles, alongside another new breed of operatic creature, the <a href="/wiki/Prima_donna" title="Prima donna">prima donna</a>. The rise of these star singers with formidable technical skills spurred composers to write increasingly complex vocal music, and many operas of the time were written as vehicles for specific singers. Of these the most famous is perhaps <a href="/wiki/Farinelli" title="Farinelli">Farinelli</a>, whose debut in 1722 was guided by <a href="/wiki/Nicola_Porpora" title="Nicola Porpora">Nicola Porpora</a>. Though Farinelli did not sing for Handel, his main rival, <a href="/wiki/Senesino" title="Senesino">Senesino</a>, did.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1720–1740"><span id="1720.E2.80.931740"></span>1720–1740</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Opera_seria&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: 1720–1740"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jacopo_amigoni,_il_cantante_farinelli_con_amici,_1750-52_circa.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Jacopo_amigoni%2C_il_cantante_farinelli_con_amici%2C_1750-52_circa.JPG/260px-Jacopo_amigoni%2C_il_cantante_farinelli_con_amici%2C_1750-52_circa.JPG" decoding="async" width="260" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Jacopo_amigoni%2C_il_cantante_farinelli_con_amici%2C_1750-52_circa.JPG/390px-Jacopo_amigoni%2C_il_cantante_farinelli_con_amici%2C_1750-52_circa.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Jacopo_amigoni%2C_il_cantante_farinelli_con_amici%2C_1750-52_circa.JPG/520px-Jacopo_amigoni%2C_il_cantante_farinelli_con_amici%2C_1750-52_circa.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1992" data-file-height="1503" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jacopo_Amigoni" title="Jacopo Amigoni">Jacopo Amigoni</a>: <i>Il cantante Farinelli con amici</i> (among which <a href="/wiki/Metastasio" class="mw-redirect" title="Metastasio">Metastasio</a>), <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1752</span> (<a href="/wiki/National_Gallery_of_Victoria" title="National Gallery of Victoria">National Gallery of Victoria</a>, Melbourne)</figcaption></figure> <p>Opera seria acquired definitive form early during the 1720s. While <a href="/wiki/Apostolo_Zeno" title="Apostolo Zeno">Apostolo Zeno</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Scarlatti" title="Alessandro Scarlatti">Alessandro Scarlatti</a> had paved the way, the genre only truly came to fruition due to <a href="/wiki/Metastasio" class="mw-redirect" title="Metastasio">Metastasio</a> and later composers. Metastasio's career began with the <a href="/wiki/Serenata" class="mw-redirect" title="Serenata">serenata</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Gli_orti_esperidi" title="Gli orti esperidi">Gli orti esperidi</a></i> ("The Gardens of the <a href="/wiki/Hesperides" title="Hesperides">Hesperides</a>"). <a href="/wiki/Nicola_Porpora" title="Nicola Porpora">Nicola Porpora</a>, (much later to be <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Haydn" title="Joseph Haydn">Haydn</a>'s master), set the work to music, and the success was so great that the famed Roman <i>prima donna</i>, <a href="/wiki/Marianna_Bulgarelli" title="Marianna Bulgarelli">Marianna Bulgarelli</a>, "La Romanina", sought out Metastasio, and took him on as her protégé. Under her wing, Metastasio produced libretto after libretto, and they were rapidly set by the greatest composers in Italy and Austria, establishing the transnational tone of <i>opera seria</i>: <i><a href="/wiki/Didone_abbandonata" title="Didone abbandonata">Didone abbandonata</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Catone_in_Utica" title="Catone in Utica">Catone in Utica</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Ezio_(Handel)" title="Ezio (Handel)">Ezio</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Alessandro_nelle_Indie_(Pacini)" title="Alessandro nelle Indie (Pacini)">Alessandro nelle Indie</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Semiramide_riconosciuta" title="Semiramide riconosciuta">Semiramide riconosciuta</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Siroe" title="Siroe">Siroe</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Artaserse" title="Artaserse">Artaserse</a></i>. After 1730 he was settled in Vienna and turned out more librettos for the imperial theater, until the mid-1740s: <i><a href="/wiki/Adriano_in_Siria" title="Adriano in Siria">Adriano in Siria</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Demetrio_(1773)" title="Demetrio (1773)">Demetrio</a></i>, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Issipile&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Issipile (page does not exist)">Issipile</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Issipile" class="extiw" title="de:Issipile">de</a>]</span></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Demofoonte" class="mw-redirect" title="Demofoonte">Demofoonte</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Olimpiade" class="mw-redirect" title="Olimpiade">Olimpiade</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/La_clemenza_di_Tito" title="La clemenza di Tito">La clemenza di Tito</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Achille_in_Sciro" title="Achille in Sciro">Achille in Sciro</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Temistocle" class="mw-redirect" title="Temistocle">Temistocle</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Il_re_pastore" title="Il re pastore">Il re pastore</a></i> and what he regarded as his finest libretto, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Attilio_Regolo_(libretto)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Attilio Regolo (libretto) (page does not exist)">Attilio Regolo</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attilio_Regolo" class="extiw" title="de:Attilio Regolo">de</a>]</span></i>. For the librettos, Metastasio and his imitators customarily drew on dramas featuring classical characters from antiquity bestowed with princely values and morality, struggling with conflicts between love, honour and duty, in elegant and ornate language that could be performed equally well as both opera and non-musical drama. On the other hand, Handel, working far outside the mainstream genre, set only a few Metastasio libretti for his London audience, preferring a greater diversity of texts. </p><p>At this time the leading Metastasian composers were Hasse, <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Caldara" title="Antonio Caldara">Caldara</a>, Vinci, Porpora, and <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Battista_Pergolesi" title="Giovanni Battista Pergolesi">Pergolesi</a>. Vinci's settings of <i>Didone abbandonata</i> and <i>Artaserse</i> were much praised for their <i>stromento</i> recitative, and he played a crucial part in establishing the new style of melody. Hasse, by contrast, indulged in stronger accompaniment and was regarded at the time as the more adventurous of the two. Pergolesi was noted for his lyricism. The main challenge for all was achieving variety, a break from the pattern of <i><a href="/wiki/Recitativo_secco" class="mw-redirect" title="Recitativo secco">recitativo secco</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Aria_da_capo" class="mw-redirect" title="Aria da capo">aria da capo</a></i>. The mutable moods of Metastasio's librettos helped, as did innovations made by the composer, such as <i>stromento</i> recitative or cutting a <a href="/wiki/Ritornello" title="Ritornello">ritornello</a>. During this period the choice of <a href="/wiki/Key_(music)" title="Key (music)">keys</a> to reflect certain emotions became standardized: <a href="/wiki/D_minor" title="D minor">D minor</a> became the choice key for a composer's typical <a href="/wiki/Rage_aria" title="Rage aria">"rage" aria</a>, while <a href="/wiki/D_major" title="D major">D major</a> for pomp and bravura, G minor for pastoral effect and E flat for pathetic effect, became the usual options.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcClymondsHeartzn.d.section_2,_1720–1740_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcClymondsHeartzn.d.section_2,_1720–1740-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1740–1770"><span id="1740.E2.80.931770"></span>1740–1770</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Opera_seria&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: 1740–1770"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gluck%27s_Orph%C3%A9e_-_title_page_illustration_(lightened_and_cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Gluck%27s_Orph%C3%A9e_-_title_page_illustration_%28lightened_and_cropped%29.jpg/170px-Gluck%27s_Orph%C3%A9e_-_title_page_illustration_%28lightened_and_cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Gluck%27s_Orph%C3%A9e_-_title_page_illustration_%28lightened_and_cropped%29.jpg/255px-Gluck%27s_Orph%C3%A9e_-_title_page_illustration_%28lightened_and_cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Gluck%27s_Orph%C3%A9e_-_title_page_illustration_%28lightened_and_cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="259" data-file-height="388" /></a><figcaption>Illustration from a 1764 edition of the score of <a href="/wiki/Christoph_Willibald_Gluck" title="Christoph Willibald Gluck">Gluck</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Orfeo_ed_Euridice" title="Orfeo ed Euridice">Orfeo ed Euridice</a></i></figcaption></figure> <p>After peaking during the 1750s, the popularity of the Metastasian model began to wane. New trends, popularized by composers such as <a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Jommelli" title="Niccolò Jommelli">Niccolò Jommelli</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Traetta" title="Tommaso Traetta">Tommaso Traetta</a>, began to seep into <i>opera seria</i>. The Italianate pattern of alternating, sharply-contrasted recitative and aria began to give way to ideas from the French operatic tradition. Jommelli's works from 1740 onwards increasingly favored accompanied recitative and greater dynamic contrast, as well as a more prominent role for the orchestra while limiting virtuosic vocal displays. Traetta reintroduced the ballet in his operas and restored the tragic, melodramatic endings of classical dramas. His operas, particularly after 1760, also gave a larger role to the chorus. </p><p>The culmination of these reforms arrived in the operas of <a href="/wiki/Christoph_Willibald_Gluck" title="Christoph Willibald Gluck">Christoph Willibald Gluck</a>. Beginning with <i><a href="/wiki/Orfeo_ed_Euridice" title="Orfeo ed Euridice">Orfeo ed Euridice</a></i> (1762), Gluck drastically cut back on the possibilities for vocal virtuosity afforded to singers, abolished <i>secco</i> recitative (thereby heavily reducing the delineation between aria and recitative), and took great care to unify drama, dance, music, and theatrical practice in the synthesis of Italian and French traditions. He continued his reform with <i><a href="/wiki/Alceste_(Gluck)" title="Alceste (Gluck)">Alceste</a></i> (1767) and <i><a href="/wiki/Paride_ed_Elena" title="Paride ed Elena">Paride ed Elena</a></i> (1770). Gluck paid great attention to orchestration and considerably increased the role of the chorus: he also cut back heavily on exit arias. The labyrinthine subplots that had riddled earlier baroque opera were eliminated. In 1768, the year after Gluck's <i>Alceste</i>, Jommelli and his librettist Verazi produced <i>Fetonte</i>. Ensemble and chorus are predominant: the usual number of exit arias slashed in half. For the most part, however, these trends did not become mainstream until the 1790s, and the Metastasian model continued to dominate.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1770–1800"><span id="1770.E2.80.931800"></span>1770–1800</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Opera_seria&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: 1770–1800"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anton_Raaff_als_Idomeneo.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Anton_Raaff_als_Idomeneo.JPG/170px-Anton_Raaff_als_Idomeneo.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Anton_Raaff_als_Idomeneo.JPG/255px-Anton_Raaff_als_Idomeneo.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Anton_Raaff_als_Idomeneo.JPG/340px-Anton_Raaff_als_Idomeneo.JPG 2x" data-file-width="598" data-file-height="880" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Anton_Raaff" title="Anton Raaff">Anton Raaff</a>, the German tenor who created the title role in <a href="/wiki/Mozart" class="mw-redirect" title="Mozart">Mozart</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Idomeneo" title="Idomeneo">Idomeneo</a></i>, seen here performing a heroic role, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1780</span></figcaption></figure> <p>Gluck's reforms made most of the composers of <i>opera seria</i> of the previous decades obsolete. The careers of Hasse, Jommelli, <a href="/wiki/Baldassare_Galuppi" title="Baldassare Galuppi">Galuppi</a>, and Traetta were effectively finished. Replacing them came a new wave of composers such as <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart" title="Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart">Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Haydn" title="Joseph Haydn">Joseph Haydn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Christian_Bach" title="Johann Christian Bach">Johann Christian Bach</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carl_Heinrich_Graun" title="Carl Heinrich Graun">Carl Heinrich Graun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Salieri" title="Antonio Salieri">Antonio Salieri</a> (a disciple of Gluck), <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Sacchini" title="Antonio Sacchini">Antonio Sacchini</a>, <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Sarti" title="Giuseppe Sarti">Giuseppe Sarti</a>, <a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Piccinni" title="Niccolò Piccinni">Niccolò Piccinni</a>, <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Paisiello" title="Giovanni Paisiello">Giovanni Paisiello</a> and <a href="/wiki/Domenico_Cimarosa" title="Domenico Cimarosa">Domenico Cimarosa</a>. The popularity of the <i>aria da capo</i> began to fade, replaced by the rondò. Orchestras grew in size, arias lengthened, ensembles became more prominent, and obbligato recitative became both common and more elaborate. While throughout the 1780s Metastasio's libretti still dominated the repertory, a new group of Venetian librettists pushed <i>opera seria</i> in a new direction. The work of Gaetano Sertor and the group surrounding him finally broke the absolute dominance of the singers and gave <i>opera seria</i> a new impetus towards the spectacular and the dramatic elements of 19th-century Romantic opera. Tragic endings, on-stage death and regicide became the norm rather than the exception. By the final decade of the century <i>opera seria</i> as it had been traditionally defined was essentially dead, and the political upheavals that the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> inspired swept it away once and for all.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Social_context">Social context</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Opera_seria&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Social context"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>With a few exceptions, <i>opera seria</i> was the opera of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_court" title="Royal court">court</a>, of the monarchy and the nobility. This is not a universal picture: Handel in London composed not for the court but for a much more socially diverse audience, and in the Venetian republic composers modified their operas to suit the public taste and not that of the court. But for the most part, <i>opera seria</i> was synonymous with court opera. This brought with it a number of conditions: the court, and particularly the monarch, required that their own nobility be reflected on the stage. <i>Opera seria</i> plot-lines are heavily shaped by this criterion: <i><a href="/wiki/Il_re_pastore_(libretto)" title="Il re pastore (libretto)">Il re pastore</a></i> displays the glory of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>, while <i><a href="/wiki/La_clemenza_di_Tito" title="La clemenza di Tito">La clemenza di Tito</a></i> does the same for the Roman emperor <a href="/wiki/Titus" title="Titus">Titus</a>. The potentate in the audience would watch his counterparts from the ancient world and see their benevolent autocracy redound to his own credit. </p><p>Many aspects of the staging contributed to this effect: both the auditorium and stage were lit during performances, while the sets mirrored almost exactly the architecture of the palace hosting the opera. Sometimes the links between opera and audience were even closer: Gluck's <a href="/wiki/Serenata" class="mw-redirect" title="Serenata">serenata</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Il_Parnaso_confuso" title="Il Parnaso confuso">Il Parnaso confuso</a></i> was first performed at Vienna with a cast consisting of members of the royal family. However, with the French Revolution came serious political upheavals across Italy, and as new, more egalitarian republics were established and old autocracies fell away, the Arcadian ideals of <i>opera seria</i> seemed increasingly irrelevant. Rulers were no longer free from violent deaths, and under new social ideals the hierarchy of singers broke down. Such significant socio-political change meant that <i>opera seria</i>, so closely allied to the ruling class, was finished.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Opera_seria&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Opera_seria&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-GD-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GD_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GD_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcClymondsHeartzn.d.">McClymonds & Heartz n.d.</a>, section 1: "Dramaturgy"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For this section see <a href="#CITEREFOrreyMilnes1987">Orrey & Milnes 1987</a>, p. 72</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcClymondsHeartzn.d.section_2,_1720–1740-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcClymondsHeartzn.d.section_2,_1720–1740_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcClymondsHeartzn.d.">McClymonds & Heartz n.d.</a>, section 2, 1720–1740.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">General reference for this section: <a href="#CITEREFMcClymondsHeartzn.d.">McClymonds & Heartz n.d.</a>, section 3: "1740–1770"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">General reference for this section: <a href="#CITEREFMcClymondsHeartzn.d.">McClymonds & Heartz n.d.</a>, section 4: "1770–1780"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">General references for this section: see <a href="#CITEREFOrreyMilnes1987">Orrey & Milnes 1987</a>, Chapter 5, especially pp. 67–84. For the French Revolution's effect on <i>opera seria</i>, see <a href="#CITEREFMcClymondsHeartzn.d.">McClymonds & Heartz n.d.</a>, section 4</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cited_sources">Cited sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Opera_seria&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Cited sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMcClymondsHeartzn.d." class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">McClymonds, Marita P.; <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Heartz" title="Daniel Heartz">Heartz, Daniel</a> (n.d.). "Opera seria". <i><a href="/wiki/Grove_Music_Online" class="mw-redirect" title="Grove Music Online">Grove Music Online</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Opera+seria&rft.btitle=Grove+Music+Online&rft.aulast=McClymonds&rft.aufirst=Marita+P.&rft.au=Heartz%2C+Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOpera+seria" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOrreyMilnes1987" class="citation book cs1">Orrey, Leslie; <a href="/wiki/Rodney_Milnes" title="Rodney Milnes">Milnes, Rodney</a> (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/operaconcisehist00orre"><i>Opera: A Concise History</i></a>. World of Art, Thames & Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-500-20217-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-500-20217-6"><bdi>0-500-20217-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Opera%3A+A+Concise+History&rft.pub=World+of+Art%2C+Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-500-20217-6&rft.aulast=Orrey&rft.aufirst=Leslie&rft.au=Milnes%2C+Rodney&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foperaconcisehist00orre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOpera+seria" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Opera_seria&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Brown, J. <i>Letters upon the Poetry and Music of the Italian Opera</i>. London 1789, <sup>2</sup>1791.</li> <li>Burt, Nathaniel. "Opera in Arcadia", <i><a href="/wiki/The_Musical_Quarterly" title="The Musical Quarterly">The Musical Quarterly</a></i>, xli (1955), pp. 145–70.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winton_Dean" title="Winton Dean">Dean, Winton</a> <i>Handel and the Opera Seria</i>. Berkeley 1969.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Joseph_Dent" title="Edward Joseph Dent">Dent, E. J.</a> "Ensembles and Finales in 18th Century Italian Opera", <i>Sammelbände der Internationalen Musikgesellschaft</i> xi (1909–10), 543–69, xii (1910–11), pp. 112–38.</li> <li>Dent, E. J. "Italian Opera in the Eighteenth Century, and its Influence on the Music of the Classical Period", <i>Sammelbände der Internationalen Musikgesellschaft</i>, xiv (1912–13), p. 500.</li> <li>Downes, E. O., "The Neapolitan Tradition in Opera", <i>International Musicological Society: Congress Report</i>, viii New York 1961, i, pp. 277–84</li> <li>Feldman, M. <i>Opera and Sovereignty: Transforming Myths in Eighteenth Century Italy</i>, University of Chicago Press, 2007.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Heartz" title="Daniel Heartz">Heartz, Daniel</a>. "Opera and the Periodization of 18th-century Music", <i>International Musicological Society: Congress Report</i>, Ljubljana 1967, pp. 160–68.</li> <li>Lee, V. [V. Paget], <i>Studies of the Eighteenth Century in Italy</i>, London 1880, <sup>2</sup>1907.</li> <li>McClymonds, Marita P. "The Venetian Role In the Transformation of Italian Opera Seria during the 1790s", <i>I vicini di Mozart</i>: Venice 1987, pp. 221–40.</li> <li>Rice, John A., <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/34346122/Nasolinis_Teseo_a_Stige_1791_and_the_Return_of_Opera_Seria_to_Vienna">"Nasolini's <i>Teseo a Stige</i> (1791) and the Return of Opera Seria to Vienna"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_F._Robinson" title="Michael F. Robinson">Robinson, Michael F.</a> "The Aria in Opera Seria, 1725–1780", <i>Proceedings of the Royal Musical Association</i>, lxxxviii (1961–2), pp. 31–43.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Warrack" title="John Warrack">Warrack, John</a> & West, Ewan. <i>The Oxford Dictionary of Opera</i>. 1992, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-869164-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-869164-5">0-19-869164-5</a>.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output 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title="Opera ballo">Opera ballo</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Op%C3%A9ra-ballet" title="Opéra-ballet">Opéra-ballet</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Opera_buffa" title="Opera buffa">Opera buffa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Op%C3%A9ra_bouffe" title="Opéra bouffe">Opéra bouffe</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Op%C3%A9ra_bouffon" title="Opéra bouffon">Opéra bouffon</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Op%C3%A9ra_comique" title="Opéra comique">Opéra comique</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Op%C3%A9ra_f%C3%A9erie" title="Opéra féerie">Opéra féerie</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Op%C3%A9ra_lyrique" class="mw-redirect" title="Opéra lyrique">Opéra lyrique</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Opera_semiseria" title="Opera semiseria">Opera semiseria</a></i></li> <li><i><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Opera seria</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operetta" title="Operetta">Operetta</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Op%C3%A9rette" class="mw-redirect" 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