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<li id="toc-Hellenistic_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hellenistic_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Hellenistic period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hellenistic_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nabataean_Kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nabataean_Kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span> <span>Nabataean Kingdom</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nabataean_Kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roman_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roman_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Roman period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roman_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Culture</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Culture subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Women_in_Nabatean_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Women_in_Nabatean_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Women in Nabatean culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Women_in_Nabatean_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fashion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fashion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Fashion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fashion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Language</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Religion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Language_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Language</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Agriculture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agriculture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Agriculture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Agriculture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Architects_and_stonemasons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Architects_and_stonemasons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Architects and stonemasons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Architects_and_stonemasons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Archeological_sites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Archeological_sites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Archeological sites</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Archeological_sites-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Archeological sites subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Archeological_sites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Outside_the_Middle_East" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Outside_the_Middle_East"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Outside the Middle East</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Outside_the_Middle_East-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Nabataeans</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 51 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-51" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">51 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabate%C3%ABrs" title="Nabateërs – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Nabateërs" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B7_(%D8%B4%D8%B9%D8%A8)" title="الأنباط (شعب) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الأنباط (شعب)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C9%99batil%C9%99r" title="Nəbatilər – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Nəbatilər" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%B7%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%D9%84%D8%B1" title="نبطی‌لر – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="نبطی‌لر" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%88" title="নবতাঈ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="নবতাঈ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabateus" title="Nabateus – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Nabateus" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabatejci" title="Nabatejci – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Nabatejci" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabat%C3%A4er" title="Nabatäer – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Nabatäer" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9D%CE%B1%CE%B2%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%AF%CE%BF%CE%B9" title="Ναβαταίοι – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ναβαταίοι" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabateos" title="Nabateos – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Nabateos" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabateo" title="Nabateo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Nabateo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabateo" title="Nabateo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Nabateo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%B7%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7" title="نبطی‌ها – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نبطی‌ها" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabat%C3%A9ens" title="Nabatéens – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Nabatéens" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabatee%C3%ABrs" title="Nabateeërs – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Nabateeërs" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabateos" title="Nabateos – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Nabateos" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%82%98%EB%B0%94%ED%85%8C%EC%95%84%EC%9D%B8" title="나바테아인 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="나바테아인" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80" title="नबाती – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="नबाती" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabatejci" title="Nabatejci – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Nabatejci" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orang_Nabath" title="Orang Nabath – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Orang Nabath" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabatei" title="Nabatei – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Nabatei" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A0%D7%91%D7%98%D7%99%D7%9D" title="נבטים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="נבטים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabath" title="Nabath – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Nabath" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabateja" title="Nabateja – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Nabateja" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabat%C4%97jai" title="Nabatėjai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Nabatėjai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabateusok" title="Nabateusok – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Nabateusok" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabateana" title="Nabateana – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Nabateana" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%B7" title="نبط – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="نبط" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabatea" title="Nabatea – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Nabatea" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B9" title="Набатей – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Набатей" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabatee%C3%ABrs" title="Nabateeërs – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Nabateeërs" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabateere" title="Nabateere – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Nabateere" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabatearar" title="Nabatearar – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Nabatearar" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabat%C3%A8us" title="Nabatèus – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Nabatèus" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabatiylar" title="Nabatiylar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Nabatiylar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B7" title="انباط – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="انباط" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabatejczycy" title="Nabatejczycy – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Nabatejczycy" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabateus" title="Nabateus – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Nabateus" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabateeni" title="Nabateeni – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Nabateeni" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B8" title="Набатеи – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Набатеи" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabatejci" title="Nabatejci – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Nabatejci" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DB%95%D8%A8%D8%AA%DB%8C%DB%8C%DB%95%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86" title="نەبتییەکان – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="نەبتییەکان" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabatejci" title="Nabatejci – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Nabatejci" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabatealaiset" title="Nabatealaiset – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Nabatealaiset" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabat%C3%A9er" title="Nabatéer – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Nabatéer" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D" title="நபாத்தியர் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="நபாத்தியர்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabat%C3%AEler" title="Nabatîler – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Nabatîler" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%97" title="Набатеї – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Набатеї" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B7" title="انباط – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="انباط" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" 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northern Arabia and the Southern Levant</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Nabataean" redirects here. For the languages, see <a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Arabic" title="Nabataean Arabic">Nabataean Arabic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Aramaic" title="Nabataean Aramaic">Nabataean Aramaic</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the name used by Islamicate authors to designate the native inhabitants of Mesopotamia, see <a href="/wiki/Nabataeans_of_Iraq" title="Nabataeans of Iraq">Nabataeans of Iraq</a>.</div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ethnic group</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><caption class="infobox-title fn org">Nabataeans</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_Empire_125.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Roman_Empire_125.png/220px-Roman_Empire_125.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Roman_Empire_125.png/330px-Roman_Empire_125.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Roman_Empire_125.png/440px-Roman_Empire_125.png 2x" data-file-width="2186" data-file-height="1817" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">A map of the Roman empire under <a href="/wiki/Hadrian" title="Hadrian">Hadrian</a> (ruled AD 117–138), showing the location of the <i>Arabes Nabataei</i> in the desert regions around the Roman province of <a href="/wiki/Arabia_Petraea" title="Arabia Petraea">Arabia Petraea</a> (lower right)</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Languages</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Arabic" title="Nabataean Arabic">Nabataean Arabic</a> (native)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Aramaic" title="Nabataean Aramaic">Nabataean Aramaic</a> (commercial and official purposes)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Religion</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_religion" title="Nabataean religion">Nabataean</a> <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia">polytheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Related ethnic groups</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Nabataeans</b> or <b>Nabateans</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/æ/: 'a' in 'bad'">æ</span><span title="'b' in 'buy'">b</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/iː/: 'ee' in 'fleece'">iː</span><span title="/ən/: 'on' in 'button'">ən</span><span title="'z' in 'zoom'">z</span></span>/</a></span></span>; <a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Aramaic" title="Nabataean Aramaic">Nabataean Aramaic</a>: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1009384469">.mw-parser-output .script-Nbat{font-family:"Noto Sans Nabataean"}</style><span class="script-Nbat" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 100%;">𐢕𐢃𐢋𐢈</span>‎, <span title="Classical Syriac-language romanization"><i lang="syc-Latn"><span class="smallcaps"><span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;">NBṬW</span></span></i></span>, vocalized as <span title="Classical Syriac-language romanization"><i lang="syc-Latn">Nabāṭū</i></span>)<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were an ancient <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arab</a> people<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who inhabited northern <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Levant" title="Southern Levant">southern Levant</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their settlements—most prominently the assumed capital city of <a href="/wiki/Raqmu" class="mw-redirect" title="Raqmu">Raqmu</a> (present-day <a href="/wiki/Petra" title="Petra">Petra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-livius2_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-livius2-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—gave the name <i>Nabatene</i> (<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: <span lang="grc">Ναβατηνή</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Ancient_Greek" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanization of Ancient Greek">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Ancient Greek-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">Nabatēnḗ</i></span>) to the Arabian borderland that stretched from the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a>. </p><p>The Nabateans emerged as a distinct civilization and political entity between the 4th and 2nd centuries BC,<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor,_Jane_2001_pp._14,_17_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor,_Jane_2001_pp._14,_17-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with <a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Kingdom" title="Nabataean Kingdom">their kingdom</a> centered around a loosely controlled trading network that brought considerable wealth and influence across the ancient world. </p><p>Described as fiercely independent by contemporary Greco-Roman accounts, the Nabataeans were annexed into the Roman Empire by Emperor <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a> in 106 AD. Nabataeans' individual culture, easily identified by their characteristic finely potted painted ceramics, was adopted into the larger <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Greco-Roman culture">Greco-Roman culture</a>. They converted to <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine">Later Roman Era</a>. They have been described as one of the most gifted peoples of the ancient world<sup id="cite_ref-lost_kingdom_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lost_kingdom-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and one of the "most unjustly forgotten".<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Taylor,_Jane_2001_pp._14,_17_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor,_Jane_2001_pp._14,_17-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nabataeans&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hellenistic_period">Hellenistic period</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nabataeans&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Hellenistic period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Petra_Jordan_BW_22.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Petra_Jordan_BW_22.JPG/200px-Petra_Jordan_BW_22.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="305" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Petra_Jordan_BW_22.JPG/300px-Petra_Jordan_BW_22.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Petra_Jordan_BW_22.JPG/400px-Petra_Jordan_BW_22.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2516" data-file-height="3836" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Al-Khazneh" title="Al-Khazneh">Al-Khazneh</a> in <a href="/wiki/Petra" title="Petra">Petra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Monastery,_Petra,_Jordan8.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/The_Monastery%2C_Petra%2C_Jordan8.jpg/200px-The_Monastery%2C_Petra%2C_Jordan8.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/The_Monastery%2C_Petra%2C_Jordan8.jpg/300px-The_Monastery%2C_Petra%2C_Jordan8.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/The_Monastery%2C_Petra%2C_Jordan8.jpg/400px-The_Monastery%2C_Petra%2C_Jordan8.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3142" data-file-height="2075" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Ad_Deir" class="mw-redirect" title="Ad Deir">Ad Deir</a> in Petra</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Avdat-v.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Avdat-v.jpg/200px-Avdat-v.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Avdat-v.jpg/300px-Avdat-v.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Avdat-v.jpg/400px-Avdat-v.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2355" data-file-height="1679" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Avdat" title="Avdat">Avdat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a></div></div></div></div></div> <p>The Nabataeans were an <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arab</a> tribe who had come under significant <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonian</a>-<a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Aramaean</a> influence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipiński2000_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipiński2000-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first mention of the Nabataeans dates from 312/311 BC, when they were attacked at <a href="/wiki/Sela_(Edom)" title="Sela (Edom)">Sela</a> or perhaps at <a href="/wiki/Petra" title="Petra">Petra</a> without success by <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Antigonus I">Antigonus I</a>'s officer Athenaeus in the course of the <a href="/wiki/Third_War_of_the_Diadochi" class="mw-redirect" title="Third War of the Diadochi">Third War of the Diadochi</a>; at that time <a href="/wiki/Hieronymus_of_Cardia" title="Hieronymus of Cardia">Hieronymus of Cardia</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Seleucid" class="mw-redirect" title="Seleucid">Seleucid</a> officer, mentioned the Nabataeans in a battle report. About 50 BC, the <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greek</a> historian <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a> cited Hieronymus in his report,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (February 2010)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and added the following: "Just as the Seleucids had tried to subdue them, so the Romans made several attempts to get their hands on that lucrative trade."<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>They wrote a letter to Antigonus in <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac</a> letters, and Aramaic continued as the language of their coins and inscriptions when the tribe grew into a kingdom and profited by the decay of the Seleucids to extend its borders northward over the more fertile country east of the <a href="/wiki/Jordan_River" title="Jordan River">Jordan River</a>. They occupied <a href="/wiki/Hauran" title="Hauran">Hauran</a>, and in about 85 BC their king <a href="/wiki/Aretas_III" title="Aretas III">Aretas III</a> became lord of <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coele-Syria" title="Coele-Syria">Coele-Syria</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nabataean_Kingdom">Nabataean Kingdom</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nabataeans&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Nabataean Kingdom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Kingdom" title="Nabataean Kingdom">Nabataean Kingdom</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Petra" title="Petra">Petra</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arabia_Petraea.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Arabia_Petraea.png/220px-Arabia_Petraea.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Arabia_Petraea.png/330px-Arabia_Petraea.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Arabia_Petraea.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="296" /></a><figcaption>The Roman province of Arabia Petraea, created from the Nabataean kingdom</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Malichos_II_silver_drachm.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Malichos_II_silver_drachm.jpg/220px-Malichos_II_silver_drachm.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Malichos_II_silver_drachm.jpg/330px-Malichos_II_silver_drachm.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Malichos_II_silver_drachm.jpg/440px-Malichos_II_silver_drachm.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1647" data-file-height="808" /></a><figcaption>Silver drachm of Malichos II with Shaqilat II</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Silver_drachm_of_Obodas_II_with_Hagaru.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Silver_drachm_of_Obodas_II_with_Hagaru.jpg/220px-Silver_drachm_of_Obodas_II_with_Hagaru.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Silver_drachm_of_Obodas_II_with_Hagaru.jpg/330px-Silver_drachm_of_Obodas_II_with_Hagaru.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Silver_drachm_of_Obodas_II_with_Hagaru.jpg/440px-Silver_drachm_of_Obodas_II_with_Hagaru.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1620" data-file-height="812" /></a><figcaption>Silver drachm of Obodas II with Hagaru</figcaption></figure> <p>Petra was rapidly built in the 1st century BC, and developed a population estimated at 20,000.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Nabataeans were allies of the first <a href="/wiki/Hasmoneans" class="mw-redirect" title="Hasmoneans">Hasmoneans</a> in their struggles against the Seleucid monarchs. They then became rivals of the Judaean dynasty, and a chief element in the disorders that invited <a href="/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey">Pompey</a>'s intervention in <a href="/wiki/Judea" title="Judea">Judea</a>. According to <a href="/wiki/Popular_historian" class="mw-redirect" title="Popular historian">popular historian</a> <a href="/wiki/Paul_Johnson_(writer)" title="Paul Johnson (writer)">Paul Johnson</a>, many Nabataeans were forcefully converted to Judaism by Hasmonean king <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Jannaeus" title="Alexander Jannaeus">Alexander Jannaeus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="Paul Johnson is not really a historian, and I'm not finding any real [I.E. academic] historians that support this, and in fact a number of more reliable sources that seem to contradict this. (See https://www.google.com/books?id=hKAaJXvUaUoC&pg=PA186) (April 2022)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> It was this king who, after putting down a local rebellion, invaded and occupied the Nabataean towns of <a href="/wiki/Moab" title="Moab">Moab</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gilead" title="Gilead">Gilead</a> and imposed a tribute of an unknown amount. <a href="/wiki/Obodas_I" title="Obodas I">Obodas I</a> knew that Alexander would attack, so was able to ambush Alexander's forces near Gaulane destroying the Judean army (90 BC).<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Roman military was not very successful in their campaigns against the Nabataeans. In 62 BC, <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aemilius_Scaurus_(praetor_56_BCE)" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus Aemilius Scaurus (praetor 56 BCE)">Marcus Aemilius Scaurus</a> accepted a bribe of 300 <a href="/wiki/Talent_(measurement)" title="Talent (measurement)">talents</a> to lift the siege of Petra, partly because of the difficult terrain and the fact that he had run out of supplies. <a href="/wiki/Hyrcanus_II" title="Hyrcanus II">Hyrcanus II</a>, who was a friend of Aretas, was despatched by Scaurus to the King to buy peace. In so obtaining peace, King Aretas retained all his possessions, including Damascus, and became a Roman vassal.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 32 BC, during King <a href="/wiki/Malichus_I" title="Malichus I">Malichus I</a>'s reign, <a href="/wiki/Herod_the_Great" title="Herod the Great">Herod the Great</a>, with the support of <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra" title="Cleopatra">Cleopatra</a>, started a war against Nabataea. The war began with Herod plundering Nabataea with a large cavalry force, and occupying <a href="/wiki/Dion,_Jordan" class="mw-redirect" title="Dion, Jordan">Dium</a>. After this defeat, the Nabataean forces regrouped near <a href="/wiki/Canatha" class="mw-redirect" title="Canatha">Canatha</a> in Syria, but were attacked and routed. Cleopatra's general, <a href="/wiki/Athenion_(general)" title="Athenion (general)">Athenion</a>, sent Canathans to the aid of the Nabataeans, and this force crushed Herod's army, which then fled to Ormiza. One year later, Herod's army overran Nabataea.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nabatean_Pillars_Bosra.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Nabatean_Pillars_Bosra.jpg/220px-Nabatean_Pillars_Bosra.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Nabatean_Pillars_Bosra.jpg/330px-Nabatean_Pillars_Bosra.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Nabatean_Pillars_Bosra.jpg/440px-Nabatean_Pillars_Bosra.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1152" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Colossal Nabataean columns stand in <a href="/wiki/Bosra" title="Bosra">Bosra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a></figcaption></figure> <p>After an earthquake in Judaea, the Nabateans rebelled and invaded Judea, but Herod at once crossed the Jordan river to Philadelphia (modern <a href="/wiki/Amman" title="Amman">Amman</a>) and both sides set up camp. The Nabataeans under Elthemus refused to give battle, so Herod forced the issue when he attacked their <a href="/wiki/Palisade" title="Palisade">camp</a>. A confused mass of Nabataeans gave battle but were defeated. Once they had retreated to their defences, Herod laid siege to the camp and over time some of the defenders surrendered. The remaining Nabataean forces offered 500 talents for peace, but this was rejected. Lacking water, the Nabataeans were forced out of their camp and battled but were defeated.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aretas, IV king of Nabatea, defeated Herod Antipas, son of Herod the Great, in a battle after he intended to divorce his daughter Phasaelis<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Roman_period">Roman period</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nabataeans&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Roman period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An ally of the Roman Empire, the Nabataean kingdom flourished throughout the 1st century. Its power extended far into Arabia along the Red Sea to Yemen, and Petra was a cosmopolitan marketplace, though its commerce was diminished by the rise of the Eastern trade-route from <a href="/wiki/Myos_Hormos" title="Myos Hormos">Myos Hormos</a> to <a href="/wiki/Coptos" class="mw-redirect" title="Coptos">Coptos</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a>. Under the <i><a href="/wiki/Pax_Romana" title="Pax Romana">Pax Romana</a></i>, the Nabataeans lost their warlike and nomadic habits and became a sober, acquisitive, orderly people, wholly intent on trade and agriculture. The kingdom was a bulwark between Rome and the wild hordes of the desert except in the time of Trajan, who reduced Petra and converted the Nabataean <a href="/wiki/Client_state" title="Client state">client state</a> into the Roman province of <a href="/wiki/Arabia_Petraea" title="Arabia Petraea">Arabia Petraea</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There was a Nabataean community in <a href="/wiki/Pozzuoli" title="Pozzuoli">Puteoli</a>, in southern Italy, that reached its end around the establishment of the province.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Five Greek-Nabataean bilingual inscriptions are known dating to AD 165–169, known as the <a href="/wiki/Ruwafa_inscriptions" title="Ruwafa inscriptions">Ruwafa inscriptions</a>. They are ascribed to an auxiliary military unit drawn from the Roman-allied <a href="/wiki/Thamud" title="Thamud">Thamud</a> tribe and were built to describe the temple they were inscribed in and to recognize the authority of the emperors <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Verus" title="Lucius Verus">Lucius Verus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the 3rd century AD, the Nabataeans had stopped writing in Aramaic and begun writing in <a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek</a> instead. By the 5th century AD, they had converted to Christianity.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The new Arab invaders, who soon pressed forward into their seats<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (June 2024)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup>, found the remnants of the Nabataeans transformed into <a href="/wiki/Peasant" title="Peasant">peasants</a>. Their lands were divided between the new <a href="/wiki/Qahtanite" title="Qahtanite">Qahtanite</a> Arab tribal kingdoms of the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine">Byzantine</a> vassals, the <a href="/wiki/Ghassanid" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghassanid">Ghassanid</a> Arabs, and the <a href="/wiki/Himyarite" class="mw-redirect" title="Himyarite">Himyarite</a> vassals, the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kinda" title="Kingdom of Kinda">Kingdom of Kinda</a> in North Arabia. The city of Petra was brought to the attention of Westerners by the Swiss explorer <a href="/wiki/Johann_Ludwig_Burckhardt" title="Johann Ludwig Burckhardt">Johann Ludwig Burckhardt</a> in 1812.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nabataeans&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Incense_Route" class="mw-redirect" title="Incense Route">Incense Route</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NabateensRoutes.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/NabateensRoutes.png/220px-NabateensRoutes.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/NabateensRoutes.png/330px-NabateensRoutes.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/NabateensRoutes.png/440px-NabateensRoutes.png 2x" data-file-width="837" data-file-height="814" /></a><figcaption>Nabataean trade routes</figcaption></figure> <p>Many examples of graffiti and inscriptions—largely of names and greetings—document the area of Nabataean culture, which extended as far north as the north end of the <a href="/wiki/Dead_Sea" title="Dead Sea">Dead Sea</a>, and testify to widespread literacy; but except for a few letters<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> no Nabataean literature has survived, nor was any noted in antiquity.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Onomastic" class="mw-redirect" title="Onomastic">Onomastic</a> analysis has suggested<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that Nabataean culture may have had multiple influences. Classical references to the Nabataeans begin with <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a>. They suggest that the Nabataeans' trade routes and the origins of their goods were regarded as trade secrets, and disguised in tales that should have strained outsiders' credulity.<sup id="cite_ref-W._Eadie,_J._P_1986_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W._Eadie,_J._P_1986-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a> (book II) described them as a strong tribe of some 10,000 warriors, preeminent among the nomads of Arabia, eschewing agriculture, fixed houses, and the use of wine, but adding to pastoral pursuits a profitable trade with the seaports in <a href="/wiki/Frankincense" title="Frankincense">frankincense</a>, <a href="/wiki/Myrrh" title="Myrrh">myrrh</a> and spices from <a href="/wiki/Arabia_Felix" title="Arabia Felix">Arabia Felix</a> (today's Yemen), as well as a trade with <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bitumen" title="Bitumen">bitumen</a> from the Dead Sea. Their arid country was their best safeguard, for the bottle-shaped cisterns for rain-water which they excavated in the rocky or clay-rich soil were carefully concealed from invaders.<sup id="cite_ref-W._Eadie,_J._P_1986_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W._Eadie,_J._P_1986-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Sayyar_al-Warraq" title="Ibn Sayyar al-Warraq">Ibn Sayyar al-Warraq</a>'s <i>Kitab al-Tabikh</i>, the earliest known <a href="/wiki/Arab_literature#culinary" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab literature">Arabic cookbook</a>, contains a recipe for <a href="/wiki/Fermentation" title="Fermentation">fermented</a> Nabatean water bread (<span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">khubz al-ma al-nabati</i></span>). The yeast-leavened bread is made with a high quality wheat flour called <i>samidh</i> that is finely milled and free of <a href="/wiki/Bran" title="Bran">bran</a> and is baked in a <a href="/wiki/Tandoor" title="Tandoor">tandoor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Women_in_Nabatean_culture">Women in Nabatean culture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nabataeans&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Women in Nabatean culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Based on coins, inscriptions and non-Nabatean contemporary sources, Nabataean women seem to have had many legal rights. Inscriptions on tombs demonstrate the equality of property rights between man and woman and women's rights in matters of inheritance and also their ability to make decisions about their own property.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That set the Nabateans apart from the attitudes on a woman's role in society by their neighbours in the region. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Monnaie_-_Bronze,_Nabat%C3%A8ne,_Arabie,_Ar%C3%A9tas_Iv_-_btv1b11318602z_(2_of_2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Monnaie_-_Bronze%2C_Nabat%C3%A8ne%2C_Arabie%2C_Ar%C3%A9tas_Iv_-_btv1b11318602z_%282_of_2%29.jpg/167px-Monnaie_-_Bronze%2C_Nabat%C3%A8ne%2C_Arabie%2C_Ar%C3%A9tas_Iv_-_btv1b11318602z_%282_of_2%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="167" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Monnaie_-_Bronze%2C_Nabat%C3%A8ne%2C_Arabie%2C_Ar%C3%A9tas_Iv_-_btv1b11318602z_%282_of_2%29.jpg/251px-Monnaie_-_Bronze%2C_Nabat%C3%A8ne%2C_Arabie%2C_Ar%C3%A9tas_Iv_-_btv1b11318602z_%282_of_2%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Monnaie_-_Bronze%2C_Nabat%C3%A8ne%2C_Arabie%2C_Ar%C3%A9tas_Iv_-_btv1b11318602z_%282_of_2%29.jpg/334px-Monnaie_-_Bronze%2C_Nabat%C3%A8ne%2C_Arabie%2C_Ar%C3%A9tas_Iv_-_btv1b11318602z_%282_of_2%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2187" data-file-height="2187" /></a><figcaption>Queen <a href="/wiki/Chuldu" title="Chuldu">Huldu</a> of Nabatea depicted on a drachma</figcaption></figure> <p>Women also participated in religious activities, and had a right to visit the temples and make sacrifices. </p><p>Archeological evidence strongly suggest that the Nabataean women had a role in the social and political life by the first century AD, which is shown by the fact that Nabatean queens were depicted on coins, both independentely and together with their spouse the king. The assumption to be made from this were that they ruled together and that the Nabatean queens and other female members were given or already had political importance and status.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One can surmise other Nabatean women also benefited from this by extension.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Though admittedly Nabatean culture seems to have favored male succession rather than female or equal succession, it seems plausible that like their neighbouring <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_dynasty" title="Ptolemaic dynasty">Ptolemaic dynasty</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucids</a>, marrying a female member of the Nabatean royal family reinforced a ruler's position or one whose claim to the throne was not as strong as his wife's.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Nabatean royal house like the Ptolemaic and Seleucids later adopted sibling marriage.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fashion">Fashion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nabataeans&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Fashion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Not much is known for certain about the fashions of ancient Nabateans and before the <a href="/wiki/Hellenization" title="Hellenization">Hellenization</a> and Romanization of the region but based on extant clothes and textiles found in graves and tombs on Nabatean territory, the clothing worn by the Nabateans during the first and second century were not unlike their neighbour Judaeans.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its hard to say with any certainty what the Nabateans wore in more ancient times since their art before this period was non-figurative. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Camel_and_riders_MET_me31_67_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Camel_and_riders_MET_me31_67_2.jpg/123px-Camel_and_riders_MET_me31_67_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="123" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Camel_and_riders_MET_me31_67_2.jpg/185px-Camel_and_riders_MET_me31_67_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Camel_and_riders_MET_me31_67_2.jpg/246px-Camel_and_riders_MET_me31_67_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="648" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <p>That is based on finds of similar clothing and textiles being found in both places. Among the most common colors were yellow made from <a href="/wiki/Saffron" title="Saffron">saffron</a> and a bright red produced from <a href="/wiki/Rubia" title="Rubia">madder</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Blue textiles were also found.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When it comes to the types of clothing and what can be surmised from these finds are that Nabatean men wore a tunic and a mantle both made of wool.The tunic in a Roman style (sleeveless) and with the mantle cut in a Greek style. This, as stated before, reflects a popular style rather than an ethnic style exclusive to the Nabateans.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nabataean women wore long tunics along with scarves and mantles. These scarves were loosely woven and sported fringes at the bottom. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Malichos_II_silver_drachm.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Malichos_II_silver_drachm.jpg/220px-Malichos_II_silver_drachm.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Malichos_II_silver_drachm.jpg/330px-Malichos_II_silver_drachm.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Malichos_II_silver_drachm.jpg/440px-Malichos_II_silver_drachm.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1647" data-file-height="808" /></a><figcaption>Aretas IV and Shaqilath II</figcaption></figure> <p>The upper class of Nabataean society, what can be seen on coins, show an even stronger Greek and Roman influence. The kings are depicted clean-shaven with long curled hair while queens are depicted wearing headcoverings with curled hair and long tunics and highnecked garments. <a href="/wiki/Tyrian_purple" title="Tyrian purple">Purple cloth</a> seems to have been associated with the king based on <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo's</a> account of Nabatean men going outside "without tunics girdles about their loins, and with slippers on their feet – even the kings, though in their case the colour is purple."<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Language">Language</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nabataeans&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Language"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Historians such as <a href="/wiki/Irfan_Shah%C3%AEd" title="Irfan Shahîd">Irfan Shahîd</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Warwick_Ball" title="Warwick Ball">Warwick Ball</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Robert_G._Hoyland" title="Robert G. Hoyland">Robert G. Hoyland</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Michael_C._A._Macdonald" title="Michael C. A. Macdonald">Michael C. A. Macdonald</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and others<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> believe Nabataeans spoke Arabic as their native language. <a href="/wiki/John_F._Healy" title="John F. Healy">John F. Healy</a> states that "Nabataeans normally spoke a form of Arabic, while, like the Persians etc., they used Aramaic for formal purposes and especially for inscriptions."<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Proper names on their inscriptions suggest that they were ethnically Arabs who had come under Aramaic influence, and the Nabataeans had already some trace of Aramaic culture when they first appear in history. Some of the authors of <a href="/wiki/Safaitic" title="Safaitic">Safaitic</a> inscriptions identified themselves as Nabataeans.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nabataeans&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nabataean_religion" title="Nabataean religion">Nabataean religion</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Madain_Saleh_(6724692639).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Madain_Saleh_%286724692639%29.jpg/300px-Madain_Saleh_%286724692639%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Madain_Saleh_%286724692639%29.jpg/450px-Madain_Saleh_%286724692639%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Madain_Saleh_%286724692639%29.jpg/600px-Madain_Saleh_%286724692639%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4608" data-file-height="3072" /></a><figcaption>An eagle on the tomb facade that represents the guardianship of Dushara against intruders at <a href="/wiki/Mada%27in_Saleh" class="mw-redirect" title="Mada'in Saleh">Mada'in Saleh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hejaz" title="Hejaz">Hejaz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The extent of Nabataean trade resulted in cross-cultural influences that reached as far as the Red Sea coast of southern Arabia. The major gods worshiped at Petra were notably <a href="/wiki/Dushara" title="Dushara">Dushara</a> and <a href="/wiki/Al-%E2%80%98Uzz%C3%A1" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-‘Uzzá">Al-‘Uzzá</a>. Dushara was the supreme deity of the Nabataean <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a>, and was the official god of the Nabataean Kingdom who enjoyed special royal patronage.<sup id="cite_ref-Teixidor2015_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Teixidor2015-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His official position is reflected in multiple inscriptions that render him as "The god of our lord" (The King).<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor2001_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor2001-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The name Dushara is from the Arabic "Dhu ash-Shara": which simply means "the one of Shara", a mountain range south-east of Petra also known as <a href="/wiki/Mount_Seir" title="Mount Seir">Mount Seir</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Teixidor2015_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Teixidor2015-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, from a Nabataean perspective, Dhushara was probably associated with the heavens. However, one theory which connects Dushara with the forest gives a different idea of the god.<sup id="cite_ref-Sánchez2015_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sánchez2015-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The eagle was one of the symbols of Dushara.<sup id="cite_ref-Guides2016_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guides2016-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was widely used in <a href="/wiki/Hegra_(Mada%27in_Salih)" title="Hegra (Mada'in Salih)">Hegra</a> as a source of protection for the tombs against thievery.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nabataean inscriptions from Hegra suggest that Dushara was linked either with the sun, or with <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(planet)" title="Mercury (planet)">Mercury</a>, with which <a href="/wiki/Ruda_(deity)" title="Ruda (deity)">Ruda</a>, another Arabian god, was identified.<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor2001_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor2001-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "His throne" was frequently mentioned in inscriptions; certain interpretations of the text consider it as a reference for Dushara's wife, goddess Harisha. She was probably a solar deity.<sup id="cite_ref-Sánchez2015_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sánchez2015-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jordan_Archaeological_Museum_Nabatean_Idol_2013_0279.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Jordan_Archaeological_Museum_Nabatean_Idol_2013_0279.jpg/148px-Jordan_Archaeological_Museum_Nabatean_Idol_2013_0279.jpg" decoding="async" width="148" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Jordan_Archaeological_Museum_Nabatean_Idol_2013_0279.jpg/222px-Jordan_Archaeological_Museum_Nabatean_Idol_2013_0279.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Jordan_Archaeological_Museum_Nabatean_Idol_2013_0279.jpg/296px-Jordan_Archaeological_Museum_Nabatean_Idol_2013_0279.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2484" data-file-height="3208" /></a><figcaption>Nabatean baetyl (possibly a replica of the actual artifact) at the <a href="/wiki/Jordan_Archaeological_Museum" title="Jordan Archaeological Museum">Jordan Archaeological Museum</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Dushara's consort at Petra is considered to have been al-Uzza and the goddess has been associated with <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_the_Winged_Lions" title="Temple of the Winged Lions">Temple of Winged Lions</a> on the basis that if the divine couple of Petra was Dushara and al-Uzza and the <a href="/wiki/Qasr_al-Bint" title="Qasr al-Bint">Qasr al Bint</a>i temple was dedicated to Dushara then the other major temple must have been al-Uzzas.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is just a theory however, based on conjecture, and it can only be said that the temple is likely dedicated to the supreme goddess figure of the Nabateans, but the exact identity of this goddess is uncertain. Excavated from The Temple of the Winged Lions was the "Eye <a href="/wiki/Baetyl" title="Baetyl">Baetyl</a>" or "Eye-Idol". </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Atargatis,_Nabatean,_c.100_AD,_Jordan_Archaeological_Museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Atargatis%2C_Nabatean%2C_c.100_AD%2C_Jordan_Archaeological_Museum.jpg/305px-Atargatis%2C_Nabatean%2C_c.100_AD%2C_Jordan_Archaeological_Museum.jpg" decoding="async" width="305" height="229" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Atargatis%2C_Nabatean%2C_c.100_AD%2C_Jordan_Archaeological_Museum.jpg/458px-Atargatis%2C_Nabatean%2C_c.100_AD%2C_Jordan_Archaeological_Museum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Atargatis%2C_Nabatean%2C_c.100_AD%2C_Jordan_Archaeological_Museum.jpg/610px-Atargatis%2C_Nabatean%2C_c.100_AD%2C_Jordan_Archaeological_Museum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>A Nabatean sculpture of <a href="/wiki/Atargatis" title="Atargatis">Atargatis</a> </figcaption></figure> <p>Numerous Nabatean bas-relief busts of the Northern Syrian goddess <a href="/wiki/Atargatis" title="Atargatis">Atargatis</a> were identified by <a href="/wiki/Nelson_Glueck" title="Nelson Glueck">Nelson Glueck</a> at <a href="/wiki/Khirbet_et-Tannur" title="Khirbet et-Tannur">Khirbet et-Tannû</a>. Atargatis was amalgamated into the worship of Al-‘Uzzá. </p><p>However, when the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Romans</a> annexed the Nabataean Kingdom, Dushara still had an important role despite losing his former royal privilege. The greatest testimony to the status of the god after the fall of the Nabataean Kingdom was during the 1000th anniversary of the founding of Rome where Dushara was celebrated in <a href="/wiki/Bosra" title="Bosra">Bostra</a> by striking coins in his name, Actia Dusaria (linking the god with <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> victory at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Actium" title="Battle of Actium">Actium</a>). He was venerated in his Arabian name with a Greek fashion in the reign of an Arabian emperor, <a href="/wiki/Philip_the_Arab" title="Philip the Arab">Philip</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor2001_47-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor2001-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other gods worshipped in Nabatea during this period were <a href="/wiki/Isis" title="Isis">Isis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baalshamin" title="Baalshamin">Balshamin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Obodas_I" title="Obodas I">Obodat</a><sup id="cite_ref-:0_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sacrifices of animals were common, and <a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyry</a>'s <i>De Abstenentia</i>, written in the 3rd century, states that in <a href="/wiki/Dumat_Al-Jandal" class="mw-redirect" title="Dumat Al-Jandal">Dūmah</a>, a boy was sacrificed annually and was buried underneath an altar. Some scholars have extrapolated this practice to the rest of the Nabataeans, but this view is contested due to the lack of evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Nabataeans used to represent their gods as <a href="/wiki/Aniconism" title="Aniconism">featureless pillars or blocks</a>. Their most common monuments to the gods, commonly known as "god blocks", involved cutting away the whole top of a hill or cliff face so as to leave only a block behind. However, over time the Nabataeans were influenced by <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greece</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</a> and their Gods became anthropomorphic and were represented with human features.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Language_2">Language</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nabataeans&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Language"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Qasr_al_Farid.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Qasr_al_Farid.JPG/250px-Qasr_al_Farid.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Qasr_al_Farid.JPG/375px-Qasr_al_Farid.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Qasr_al_Farid.JPG/500px-Qasr_al_Farid.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="1875" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Qasr_al-Farid" class="mw-redirect" title="Qasr al-Farid">Qasr al-Farid</a>, the largest tomb at Mada'in Saleh</figcaption></figure> <p>The Nabataeans spoke an Arabic dialect but, for their inscriptions, used a form of <a href="/wiki/Aramaic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Aramaic language">Aramaic</a> that was heavily influenced by Arabic forms and words.<sup id="cite_ref-Healey1990_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Healey1990-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When communicating with other <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle Eastern</a> peoples, they, like their neighbors, used Aramaic, the region's <i>lingua franca</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor2001_47-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor2001-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, Aramaic was used for commercial and official purposes across the Nabataean political sphere.<sup id="cite_ref-Maalouf_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maalouf-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Nabataean_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Nabataean alphabet">Nabataean alphabet</a> itself also developed out of the <a href="/wiki/Aramaic_alphabet" title="Aramaic alphabet">Aramaic alphabet</a>, but it used a distinctive cursive script from which the <a href="/wiki/Arabic_alphabet" title="Arabic alphabet">Arabic alphabet</a> emerged. There are different opinions concerning the development of the Arabic script. J. Starcky considers the <a href="/wiki/Lakhmid" class="mw-redirect" title="Lakhmid">Lakhmids</a>' Syriac form script as a probable candidate.<sup id="cite_ref-Arabic_p.44_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arabic_p.44-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, John F. Healey states that: "The Nabataean origin of the Arabic script is now almost universally accepted".<sup id="cite_ref-Arabic_p.44_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arabic_p.44-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In surviving Nabataean documents, Aramaic legal terms are followed by their equivalents in Arabic. That could suggest that the Nabataeans used Arabic in their legal proceedings but recorded them in Aramaic.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Woodard2008_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Woodard2008-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The name may be derived from the same root as <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a> <i>nabatu</i>, to shine brightly.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Agriculture">Agriculture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nabataeans&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Agriculture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nabataean-style_farming,_capturing_50_acres_run-off_for_one_acre_crops,_near_Avdat_Research_Station,_Israel_(August_1970).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Nabataean-style_farming%2C_capturing_50_acres_run-off_for_one_acre_crops%2C_near_Avdat_Research_Station%2C_Israel_%28August_1970%29.jpg/200px-Nabataean-style_farming%2C_capturing_50_acres_run-off_for_one_acre_crops%2C_near_Avdat_Research_Station%2C_Israel_%28August_1970%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="66" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Nabataean-style_farming%2C_capturing_50_acres_run-off_for_one_acre_crops%2C_near_Avdat_Research_Station%2C_Israel_%28August_1970%29.jpg/300px-Nabataean-style_farming%2C_capturing_50_acres_run-off_for_one_acre_crops%2C_near_Avdat_Research_Station%2C_Israel_%28August_1970%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Nabataean-style_farming%2C_capturing_50_acres_run-off_for_one_acre_crops%2C_near_Avdat_Research_Station%2C_Israel_%28August_1970%29.jpg/400px-Nabataean-style_farming%2C_capturing_50_acres_run-off_for_one_acre_crops%2C_near_Avdat_Research_Station%2C_Israel_%28August_1970%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6472" data-file-height="2144" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Nabataean farming, capturing 50 acres of run-off water for one acre of crops</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nabatean_Well_Negev_031812.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Nabatean_Well_Negev_031812.JPG/200px-Nabatean_Well_Negev_031812.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Nabatean_Well_Negev_031812.JPG/300px-Nabatean_Well_Negev_031812.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Nabatean_Well_Negev_031812.JPG/400px-Nabatean_Well_Negev_031812.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Remains of a Nabataean <a href="/wiki/Cistern" title="Cistern">cistern</a> north of <a href="/wiki/Makhtesh_Ramon" title="Makhtesh Ramon">Makhtesh Ramon</a>, southern Israel</div></div></div></div></div> <p>Although not as dry as at present, the area occupied by the Nabataeans was still a desert and required special techniques for agriculture. One was to contour an area of land into a shallow funnel and to plant a single fruit tree in the middle. Before the '<a href="/wiki/Rainy_season" class="mw-redirect" title="Rainy season">rainy season</a>', which could easily consist of only one or two rain events, the area around the tree was broken up. When the rain came, all the water that collected in the funnel would flow down toward the fruit tree and sink into the ground. The ground, which was largely <a href="/wiki/Loess" title="Loess">loess</a>, would seal up when it got wet and retain the water. </p><p>In the mid-1950s, a research team headed by <a href="/wiki/Michael_Evenari" title="Michael Evenari">Michael Evenari</a> set up a research station near Avdat (Evenari, Shenan and Tadmor 1971). He focused on the relevance of runoff rainwater management in explaining the mechanism of the ancient agricultural features, such as terraced wadis, channels for collecting runoff rainwater, and the enigmatic phenomenon of "Tuleilat el-Anab". Evenari showed that the runoff rainwater collection systems concentrate water from an area that is five times larger than the area in which the water actually drains.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another study was conducted by Y. Kedar<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (November 2014)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> in 1957, which also focused on the mechanism<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Vagueness" title="Wikipedia:Vagueness"><span title="This information is too vague. (November 2014)">vague</span></a></i>]</sup> of the agriculture systems, but he studied <a href="/wiki/Soil_management" title="Soil management">soil management</a>, and claimed that the ancient agriculture systems were intended to increase the accumulation of loess in <a href="/wiki/Wadi" title="Wadi">wadis</a> and create an infrastructure for agricultural activity. This theory has also been explored by E. Mazor,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (November 2014)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> of the <a href="/wiki/Weizmann_Institute_of_Science" title="Weizmann Institute of Science">Weizmann Institute of Science</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Architects_and_stonemasons">Architects and stonemasons</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nabataeans&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Architects and stonemasons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apollodorus_of_Damascus" title="Apollodorus of Damascus">Apollodorus of Damascus</a> - Greek-Nabataean architect and engineer from Damascus, Roman Syria, who flourished during the 2nd century AD. his massive architectural output gained him immense popularity during his time. He is one of the few architects whose name survives from antiquity, and is credited with introducing several Eastern innovations to the Roman Imperial style, such as making the dome a standard.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Wahb'allahi - a first century stonemason who worked in the city of Hegra.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wahb'allahi was the brother of the stonemason 'Abdharetat and the father of 'Abd'obodat. He is named in an inscription as the responsible stonemason on the oldest datable grave in Hegra in the ninth year of the Nabataean king Aretas IV (1 BC-AD).<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd%CA%BFobodat" title="Abdʿobodat">'Abd'obodat son of Wahballahi</a> - a 1st-century Nabatean Stonemason who worked in the city of Hegra.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He is named by inscriptions on five of the grave facades typical of Hegra as the executing craftsman. On the basis of the inscriptions, four of the facades can be dated to the reigns of kings Aretas IV and Malichus II. 'Abd'obodat was evidently a successful craftsman. He succeeded his father Wahb'allahi and his uncle 'Abdharetat in at least one workshop in the second generation of Nabatean architects. 'Abd'obodat is considered to be the main representative of one of the two main schools of the Nabataean stonemasons, to which his father, his uncle belonged. Two more grave facades are assigned to the school on the basis of stylistic investigations; 'Abd'obodat is probably to be regarded as the stonemason who carried out the work.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>'Aftah - a Nabatean stonemason who became prominent in the beginning of the third decade of the first century.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 'Aftah is attested in inscriptions on eight of the grave facades in Hegra and one grave as the executing stonemason. The facades are dated to the late reign of King Aretas IV. On one of the facades he worked with Halaf'allahi, on another with Wahbu and Huru. A tenth facade without an inscription was attributed to the 'Aftah sculpture school due to technical and stylistic similarities. He is the main representative of one of the two stonemason schools in the city of Hegra.</li> <li>Halaf'allahi - Nabatean stonemason who worked in the city of Hegra in the first century. Halaf'allahi is named in inscriptions on two graves in Hegra as the responsible stonemason in the reign of the Nabataean king Aretas IV. The first grave, which can be dated to the year 26-27 AD, was created together with the stonemason 'Aftah. He is therefore assigned to the workshop of the 'Aftah. Nabataean architects and sculptors were in reality contractors, who negotiated the costs of specific tomb types and their decorations. Tombs were therefore executed based on the desires and financial abilities of their future owners. The activities of Halaf'allahi offer an excellent example of this, as he had been commissioned with the execution of a simple tomb for a person who apparently belonged to the lower middle class. However, he was also in charge of completing a more sophisticated tomb for one of the local military officials.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has the text of the <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">1911 <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i></a> article "<span style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Nabataeans" class="extiw" title="wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nabataeans">Nabataeans</a></span>".</div></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Archeological_sites">Archeological sites</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nabataeans&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Archeological sites"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Incense_route" class="mw-redirect" title="Incense route">Incense route</a></div> <dl><dt>Jordan</dt></dl> <ul><li>Raqmu (<a href="/wiki/Petra" title="Petra">Petra</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Little_Petra" title="Little Petra">Little Petra</a>/Siq al-Barid</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khirbet_edh-Dharih" title="Khirbet edh-Dharih">Khirbet edh-Dharih</a>, settlement and sanctuary</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khirbet_et-Tannur" title="Khirbet et-Tannur">Khirbet et-Tannur</a>, temple</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sela_(Edom)" title="Sela (Edom)">Sela (Edom)</a>, mountaintop site</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wadi_Rum" title="Wadi Rum">Wadi Rum</a>, temple</li></ul> <dl><dt>Syria</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bosra" title="Bosra">Bosra</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Northwest Saudi Arabia</dt></dl> <ul><li>Dumah (<a href="/wiki/Dumat_al-Jandal" title="Dumat al-Jandal">Dumat al-Jandal</a>/Jawf), trade hub at southeastern end of Wadi Sirhan corridor</li> <li>Hegra (<a href="/wiki/Mada%27in_Saleh" class="mw-redirect" title="Mada'in Saleh">Mada'in Saleh</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jabal_al-Lawz" title="Jabal al-Lawz">Jabal al-Lawz</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Negev Desert, Israel</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Incense_Route_%E2%80%93_Desert_Cities_in_the_Negev" title="Incense Route – Desert Cities in the Negev">Incense Route – Desert Cities in the Negev</a>: <ul><li>Obodas (<a href="/wiki/Avdat" title="Avdat">Avdat</a>), city with Nabataean temple</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elusa_(Haluza)" title="Elusa (Haluza)">Elusa (Haluza)</a>, town, road station</li> <li>Mampshis (<a href="/wiki/Mamshit" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamshit">Mamshit</a>), road station</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shivta" title="Shivta">Shivta</a>, Byzantine agricultural town with contested Nabataean, Roman precursor</li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dt>South Sinai, Egypt</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dahab" title="Dahab">Dahab</a>: excavated Nabataean trading port</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Outside_the_Middle_East">Outside the Middle East</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nabataeans&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Outside the Middle East"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>A now submerged Nabataean temple in Puteoli (modern <a href="/wiki/Pozzuoli" title="Pozzuoli">Pozzuoli</a>), Italy</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nabataeans&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Asia_(orthographic_projection).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/28px-Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/42px-Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/56px-Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="541" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Asia" title="Portal:Asia">Asia portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nabataean_kings" title="List of Nabataean kings">List of Nabataean kings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azd" title="Azd">Azd</a>, ancient Arab tribe</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nabataeans&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">ٱلْأَنْبَاط</span></span>, <span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">al-ʾAnbāṭ</i></span>, singular <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">النبطي</span></span>, <span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">an-Nabaṭī</i></span>; compare <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: <span lang="grc">Ναβαταῖος</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Ancient_Greek" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanization of Ancient Greek">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Ancient Greek-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">Nabataîos</i></span>; <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">Nabataeus</i></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nabataeans&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBowersock1994" class="citation book cs1">Bowersock, Glen Warren (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=L4NBigJ3NF4C&pg=PA12"><i>Roman Arabia</i></a>. Harvard University Press. p. 12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674777569" title="Special:BookSources/9780674777569"><bdi>9780674777569</bdi></a>. <q>In the reign of Caesar Augustus, towards the end of the first century B.C., the extensive territory of what was to become Roman Arabia comprised the Arab kingdom of the Nabataeans. At that pivotal time in the fortunes of Rome, these Arabs had achieved both a high culture and a powerful monopoly of the traffic in perfume and spices.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+Arabia&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=9780674777569&rft.aulast=Bowersock&rft.aufirst=Glen+Warren&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DL4NBigJ3NF4C%26pg%3DPA12&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHealey2023" class="citation book cs1">Healey, John (2023-05-31). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H6i_EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA216"><i>Law and Religion between Petra and Edessa: Studies in Aramaic Epigraphy on the Roman Frontier</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. p. 216. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-000-94209-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-000-94209-5"><bdi>978-1-000-94209-5</bdi></a>. <q>The Nabatean people are in fact of rather obscure origin. The earliest settlements were in southern Jordan and Palestine, though it is likely that they came ultimately from the east, possibly from the marginal regions to the north of modern Saudi Arabia. Others would see their origins in the Hijāz or Gulf areas. The Greek writers who mention these people (including well-informed authorities like Josephus, who wrote in the 1st century A.D. and knew the area well) frequently call them Arabs. In view of this fact and the clear evidence of Arabic influence in the Nabateans' language, personal names and religion, we can be virtually certain that they were originally a nomadic Arab group who had gradually settled to form a state. This background is reflected in the Greek sources which say that the Nabateans did not build houses originally or drink wine and that they reared sheep and camels.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Law+and+Religion+between+Petra+and+Edessa%3A+Studies+in+Aramaic+Epigraphy+on+the+Roman+Frontier&rft.pages=216&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2023-05-31&rft.isbn=978-1-000-94209-5&rft.aulast=Healey&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DH6i_EAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA216&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchürerMillarVermes2015" class="citation book cs1">Schürer, Emil; Millar, Fergus; Vermes, Geza (2015-03-26). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lbyFBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA57"><i>The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ</i></a>. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 57. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-567-50161-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-567-50161-5"><bdi>978-0-567-50161-5</bdi></a>. <q>On the other hand, they are repeatedly spoken of as Arabs by ancient writers, not only by those remote from them in time, but also by Josephus, to whom the distinction between Syrians and Arabs must have been quite familiar. In addition, the names on the inscriptions are Arabic throughout. It has therefore been concluded that they were Arabs who, because Arabic had not yet developed into a written language, made use of Aramaic.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Jewish+People+in+the+Age+of+Jesus+Christ&rft.pages=57&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Academic&rft.date=2015-03-26&rft.isbn=978-0-567-50161-5&rft.aulast=Sch%C3%BCrer&rft.aufirst=Emil&rft.au=Millar%2C+Fergus&rft.au=Vermes%2C+Geza&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlbyFBwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA57&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStokes2009" class="citation book cs1">Stokes, Jamie (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=stl97FdyRswC&pg=PA483"><i>Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East</i></a>. Infobase Publishing. p. 483. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781438126760" title="Special:BookSources/9781438126760"><bdi>9781438126760</bdi></a>. <q>The Nabateans were a nomadic Arab people who migrated in the sixth century B.C.E. from the northern area of modern-day Jordan to the region south of the Dead Sea that was to become the heartland of their sedentary civilization.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Peoples+of+Africa+and+the+Middle+East&rft.pages=483&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9781438126760&rft.aulast=Stokes&rft.aufirst=Jamie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dstl97FdyRswC%26pg%3DPA483&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowersock1994" class="citation book cs1">Bowersock, Glen Warren (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=L4NBigJ3NF4C&pg=PA12"><i>Roman Arabia</i></a>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674777569" title="Special:BookSources/9780674777569"><bdi>9780674777569</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+Arabia&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=9780674777569&rft.aulast=Bowersock&rft.aufirst=Glen+Warren&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DL4NBigJ3NF4C%26pg%3DPA12&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-livius2-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-livius2_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/articles/people/nabataeans/">"Nabataeans"</a>. <i>livius.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 31,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=livius.org&rft.atitle=Nabataeans&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.livius.org%2Farticles%2Fpeople%2Fnabataeans%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Taylor,_Jane_2001_pp._14,_17-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Taylor,_Jane_2001_pp._14,_17_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Taylor,_Jane_2001_pp._14,_17_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Taylor, Jane (2001). <i>Petra and the Lost Kingdom of the Nabataeans</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/I.B.Tauris" class="mw-redirect" title="I.B.Tauris">I.B.Tauris</a>. pp. 14, 17, 30, 31. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781860645082" title="Special:BookSources/9781860645082">9781860645082</a>. Retrieved 8 July 2016.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lost_kingdom-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-lost_kingdom_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor,_Jane2001" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, Jane (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FcAoBq4_EnEC"><i>Petra and the Lost Kingdom of the Nabataeans</i></a>. London, United Kingdom: <a href="/wiki/I.B.Tauris" class="mw-redirect" title="I.B.Tauris">I.B.Tauris</a>. pp. centerfold, 14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86064-508-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-86064-508-2"><bdi>978-1-86064-508-2</bdi></a>. <q>The Nabataean Arabs, one of the most gifted peoples of the ancient world, are today known only for their hauntingly beautiful rock-carved capital — Petra.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Petra+and+the+Lost+Kingdom+of+the+Nabataeans&rft.place=London%2C+United+Kingdom&rft.pages=centerfold%2C+14&rft.pub=I.B.Tauris&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-86064-508-2&rft.au=Taylor%2C+Jane&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFcAoBq4_EnEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor2002" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, Jane (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8nfiAAAAMAAJ"><i>Petra and the Lost Kingdom of the Nabataeans</i></a>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-00849-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-00849-6"><bdi>978-0-674-00849-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Petra+and+the+Lost+Kingdom+of+the+Nabataeans&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-674-00849-6&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Jane&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8nfiAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrant2011" class="citation book cs1">Grant, Michael (2011-12-30). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2ZTik-9_TpUC&dq=nabateans+%22gifted+people%22&pg=PT35"><i>Jews In The Roman World</i></a>. Orion. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78022-281-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78022-281-3"><bdi>978-1-78022-281-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jews+In+The+Roman+World&rft.pub=Orion&rft.date=2011-12-30&rft.isbn=978-1-78022-281-3&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2ZTik-9_TpUC%26dq%3Dnabateans%2B%2522gifted%2Bpeople%2522%26pg%3DPT35&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElborough2019" class="citation book cs1">Elborough, Travis (2019-09-17). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UqOfDwAAQBAJ&dq=nabateans+gifted+people&pg=PA52"><i>Atlas of Vanishing Places: The lost worlds as they were and as they are today</i></a>. White Lion Publishing. p. 52. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78131-895-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78131-895-9"><bdi>978-1-78131-895-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atlas+of+Vanishing+Places%3A+The+lost+worlds+as+they+were+and+as+they+are+today&rft.pages=52&rft.pub=White+Lion+Publishing&rft.date=2019-09-17&rft.isbn=978-1-78131-895-9&rft.aulast=Elborough&rft.aufirst=Travis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUqOfDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dnabateans%2Bgifted%2Bpeople%26pg%3DPA52&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELipiński2000-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipiński2000_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLipiński2000">Lipiński 2000</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.civilization.ca/cmc/exhibitions/cmc/petra/petra8e.shtml">"A City Carved in Stone"</a>. <i>Petra: Lost City of Stone</i>. Canadian Museum of Civilization. 7 April 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 February</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Petra%3A+Lost+City+of+Stone&rft.atitle=A+City+Carved+in+Stone&rft.date=2006-04-07&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.civilization.ca%2Fcmc%2Fexhibitions%2Fcmc%2Fpetra%2Fpetra8e.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson1987" class="citation book cs1">Johnson, Paul (1987). <i>A History of the Jews</i>. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-297-79091-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-297-79091-4"><bdi>978-0-297-79091-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Jews&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Weidenfeld+and+Nicolson&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-297-79091-4&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJosephus1981" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus, Flavius</a> (1981). <i>The Jewish War</i>. Vol. 1. Trans. G. A. Williamson 1959. Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin. p. 40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-044420-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-044420-9"><bdi>978-0-14-044420-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jewish+War&rft.place=Harmondsworth%2C+Middlesex%2C+England&rft.pages=40&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-14-044420-9&rft.aulast=Josephus&rft.aufirst=Flavius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Josephus 1:61, p. 48.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Josephus 1:363–377, pp. 75–77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Josephus 1:377–391, pp. 78–79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Antiquities of the Jews</i>. Josephus. pp. 18.109–118 or 18.5.1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Antiquities+of+the+Jews&rft.pages=18.109-118+or+18.5.1&rft.pub=Josephus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Smith, William Robertson (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nabataeans"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Nabataeans">"Nabataeans" </a></span>. In <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 19 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 146 to 147.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Nabataeans&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=146+to+147&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=William+Robertson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStefanileSilaniTardugno2024" class="citation journal cs1">Stefanile, Michele; Silani, Michele; Tardugno, Maria Luisa (2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antiquity/article/submerged-nabataean-temple-in-puteoli-at-pozzuoli-italy-first-campaign-of-underwater-research/446AE61E8E3ECBC6CFA7DF6239452967">"The submerged Nabataean temple in Puteoli at Pozzuoli, Italy: first campaign of underwater research"</a>. <i>Antiquity</i>. <b>98</b> (400): e20. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.15184%2Faqy.2024.107">10.15184/aqy.2024.107</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-598X">0003-598X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Antiquity&rft.atitle=The+submerged+Nabataean+temple+in+Puteoli+at+Pozzuoli%2C+Italy%3A+first+campaign+of+underwater+research&rft.volume=98&rft.issue=400&rft.pages=e20&rft.date=2024&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.15184%2Faqy.2024.107&rft.issn=0003-598X&rft.aulast=Stefanile&rft.aufirst=Michele&rft.au=Silani%2C+Michele&rft.au=Tardugno%2C+Maria+Luisa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fjournals%2Fantiquity%2Farticle%2Fsubmerged-nabataean-temple-in-puteoli-at-pozzuoli-italy-first-campaign-of-underwater-research%2F446AE61E8E3ECBC6CFA7DF6239452967&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacdonald2009" class="citation book cs1">Macdonald, Michael C. A. (2009). <i>Literacy and identity in pre-Islamic Arabia</i>. Variorum collected studies series. Farnham, GB: Ashgate Variorum. pp. 1–26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-5965-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-5965-5"><bdi>978-0-7546-5965-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Literacy+and+identity+in+pre-Islamic+Arabia&rft.place=Farnham%2C+GB&rft.series=Variorum+collected+studies+series&rft.pages=1-26&rft.pub=Ashgate+Variorum&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-7546-5965-5&rft.aulast=Macdonald&rft.aufirst=Michael+C.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFisher2020" class="citation book cs1">Fisher, Greg (2020). <i>Rome, Persia, and Arabia: shaping the Middle East from Pompey to Muhammad</i>. London New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. pp. 51–56. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-72880-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-72880-5"><bdi>978-0-415-72880-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rome%2C+Persia%2C+and+Arabia%3A+shaping+the+Middle+East+from+Pompey+to+Muhammad&rft.place=London+New+York&rft.pages=51-56&rft.pub=Routledge%2C+Taylor+%26+Francis+Group&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-0-415-72880-5&rft.aulast=Fisher&rft.aufirst=Greg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRimon" class="citation web cs1">Rimon, Ofra. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181120110215/http://mushecht.haifa.ac.il/archeology/ExhibitionC_eng.aspx?id=9">"The Nabateans in the Negev"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hecht_Museum" title="Hecht Museum">Hecht Museum</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mushecht.haifa.ac.il/archeology/ExhibitionC_eng.aspx?id=9">the original</a> on 20 November 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 February</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Nabateans+in+the+Negev&rft.pub=Hecht+Museum&rft.aulast=Rimon&rft.aufirst=Ofra&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmushecht.haifa.ac.il%2Farcheology%2FExhibitionC_eng.aspx%3Fid%3D9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deadseascrolls.org.il/explore-the-archive/search?locale=en_US">"The Dead Sea Scrolls - Browse Manuscripts"</a>. <i>The Dead Sea Scrolls - Browse Manuscripts</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Dead+Sea+Scrolls+-+Browse+Manuscripts&rft.atitle=The+Dead+Sea+Scrolls+-+Browse+Manuscripts&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.deadseascrolls.org.il%2Fexplore-the-archive%2Fsearch%3Flocale%3Den_US&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The carbonized <a href="/wiki/Petra_papyri" title="Petra papyri">Petra papyri</a>, mostly economic documents in Greek, date to the 6th century: Glen L. Peterman, "Discovery of Papyri in Petra", <i>The Biblical Archaeologist</i> <b>57</b> 1 (March 1994), pp. 55–57.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">P. M. Bikai (1997) "The Petra Papyri", <i>Studies in the History and Archaeology of Jordan</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marjo Lehtinen (December 2002) "Petra Papyri", <i>Near Eastern Archaeology</i> Vol.65 No. 4 pp. 277–278.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacdonald1999" class="citation journal cs1">Macdonald, M. C. A. (1999). "Personal names in the Nabataean realm: a review article". <i>Journal of Semitic Studies</i>. <b>XLIV</b> (2): 251–289. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjss%2Fxliv.2.251">10.1093/jss/xliv.2.251</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Semitic+Studies&rft.atitle=Personal+names+in+the+Nabataean+realm%3A+a+review+article&rft.volume=XLIV&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=251-289&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjss%2Fxliv.2.251&rft.aulast=Macdonald&rft.aufirst=M.+C.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W._Eadie,_J._P_1986-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-W._Eadie,_J._P_1986_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W._Eadie,_J._P_1986_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">J. W. Eadie, J. P. Oleson (1986) "The Water-Supply Systems of Nabatean and Roman Ḥumayma", <i>Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNasrallah2007" class="citation book cs1">Nasrallah, Nawal (2007). <i>Annals of the Caliphs' Kitchens</i>. Brill.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Annals+of+the+Caliphs%27+Kitchens&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Nasrallah&rft.aufirst=Nawal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArchaeometry_(MAA)2013" class="citation journal cs1">Archaeometry (MAA), Mediterranean Archaeology and (2013-01-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/39943706">"WOMAN IN THE NABATAEAN SOCIETY"</a>. <i>M. Alzoubi, E. Al Masri, F. Al Ajlouny</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=M.+Alzoubi%2C+E.+Al+Masri%2C+F.+Al+Ajlouny&rft.atitle=WOMAN+IN+THE+NABATAEAN+SOCIETY&rft.date=2013-01-01&rft.aulast=Archaeometry+%28MAA%29&rft.aufirst=Mediterranean+Archaeology+and&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F39943706&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJosephZaatari2022" class="citation book cs1">Joseph, Suad; Zaatari, Zeina (2022-12-30). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2vqhEAAAQBAJ&dq=%22women+rulers%22+1st+century+palmyra+nabatea&pg=PT61"><i>Routledge Handbook on Women in the Middle East</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-351-67643-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-351-67643-4"><bdi>978-1-351-67643-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Routledge+Handbook+on+Women+in+the+Middle+East&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2022-12-30&rft.isbn=978-1-351-67643-4&rft.aulast=Joseph&rft.aufirst=Suad&rft.au=Zaatari%2C+Zeina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2vqhEAAAQBAJ%26dq%3D%2522women%2Brulers%2522%2B1st%2Bcentury%2Bpalmyra%2Bnabatea%26pg%3DPT61&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_32-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEsler2017" class="citation book cs1">Esler, Philip F. (2017-02-15). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rFUjDgAAQBAJ&dq=nabatean+lady+-herod&pg=PT64"><i>Babatha's Orchard: The Yadin Papyri and an Ancient Jewish Family Tale Retold</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-107990-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-107990-0"><bdi>978-0-19-107990-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Babatha%27s+Orchard%3A+The+Yadin+Papyri+and+an+Ancient+Jewish+Family+Tale+Retold&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017-02-15&rft.isbn=978-0-19-107990-0&rft.aulast=Esler&rft.aufirst=Philip+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrFUjDgAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dnabatean%2Blady%2B-herod%26pg%3DPT64&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFāsī2007" class="citation book cs1">Fāsī, Hatūn Ajwād (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9x9mAAAAMAAJ&q=nabatean+women"><i>Women in Pre-Islamic Arabia: Nabataea</i></a>. Archaeopress. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4073-0095-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4073-0095-5"><bdi>978-1-4073-0095-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+in+Pre-Islamic+Arabia%3A+Nabataea&rft.pub=Archaeopress&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-4073-0095-5&rft.aulast=F%C4%81s%C4%AB&rft.aufirst=Hat%C5%ABn+Ajw%C4%81d&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9x9mAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dnabatean%2Bwomen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraf2019" class="citation book cs1">Graf, David F. (2019-04-23). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=P4mUDwAAQBAJ"><i>Rome and the Arabian Frontier: From the Nabataeans to the Saracens</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-429-78455-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-429-78455-2"><bdi>978-0-429-78455-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rome+and+the+Arabian+Frontier%3A+From+the+Nabataeans+to+the+Saracens&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2019-04-23&rft.isbn=978-0-429-78455-2&rft.aulast=Graf&rft.aufirst=David+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DP4mUDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichard2003" class="citation book cs1">Richard, Suzanne (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=khR0apPid8gC"><i>Near Eastern Archaeology: A Reader</i></a>. Eisenbrauns. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-083-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-083-5"><bdi>978-1-57506-083-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Near+Eastern+Archaeology%3A+A+Reader&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-57506-083-5&rft.aulast=Richard&rft.aufirst=Suzanne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkhR0apPid8gC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFḤak̲lîlî2005" class="citation book cs1">Ḥak̲lîlî, Rāḥēl (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8BgLu74SWbAC"><i>Jewish Funerary Customs, Practices And Rites In The Second Temple Period</i></a>. BRILL. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-12373-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-12373-1"><bdi>978-90-04-12373-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jewish+Funerary+Customs%2C+Practices+And+Rites+In+The+Second+Temple+Period&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-90-04-12373-1&rft.aulast=%E1%B8%A4ak%CC%B2l%C3%AEl%C3%AE&rft.aufirst=R%C4%81%E1%B8%A5%C4%93l&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8BgLu74SWbAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStuckenbruckGurtner2019" class="citation book cs1">Stuckenbruck, Loren T.; Gurtner, Daniel M. (2019-12-26). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ica_DwAAQBAJ"><i>T&T Clark Encyclopedia of Second Temple Judaism Volume Two</i></a>. Bloomsbury Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-567-66095-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-567-66095-4"><bdi>978-0-567-66095-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=T%26T+Clark+Encyclopedia+of+Second+Temple+Judaism+Volume+Two&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2019-12-26&rft.isbn=978-0-567-66095-4&rft.aulast=Stuckenbruck&rft.aufirst=Loren+T.&rft.au=Gurtner%2C+Daniel+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dica_DwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHealey2015" class="citation book cs1">Healey, J. F. (2015-08-27). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hbO9CwAAQBAJ&dq=nabatean+girdle&pg=PA28"><i>The Religion of the Nabataeans: A Conspectus</i></a>. BRILL. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-30148-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-30148-1"><bdi>978-90-04-30148-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Religion+of+the+Nabataeans%3A+A+Conspectus&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2015-08-27&rft.isbn=978-90-04-30148-1&rft.aulast=Healey&rft.aufirst=J.+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhbO9CwAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dnabatean%2Bgirdle%26pg%3DPA28&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rome and the Arabs, Dumbarton Oaks, p. 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rome in the East, Routledge, p. 65.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Language and Identity: Arabic and Aramaic, Scripta Classica Israelica vol. XXIII 2004, p. 185.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arabs, Arabias and Arabic before Late Antiquity, Topoi. Orient-Occident Année 2009 16-1 p. 309.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Nabateans in the Early Hellenistic Period : The Testimony of Posidippus of Pella, Topoi. Orient-Occident Année 2006 14-1 pp. 48.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John F. Healey, 'Were the Nabataeans Arabs?' Aram 1 (1989), 43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAl-Jallad2015" class="citation book cs1">Al-Jallad, Ahmed (2015). <i>An Outline of the Grammar of the Safaitic Inscriptions</i>. Leiden: Brill. p. 19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-28929-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-28929-1"><bdi>978-90-04-28929-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Outline+of+the+Grammar+of+the+Safaitic+Inscriptions&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=19&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-90-04-28929-1&rft.aulast=Al-Jallad&rft.aufirst=Ahmed&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Teixidor2015-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Teixidor2015_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Teixidor2015_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJavier_Teixidor2015" class="citation book cs1">Javier Teixidor (8 March 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m5Z9BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA83"><i>The Pagan God: Popular Religion in the Greco-Roman Near East</i></a>. Princeton University Press. p. 83. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-7139-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-7139-1"><bdi>978-1-4008-7139-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Pagan+God%3A+Popular+Religion+in+the+Greco-Roman+Near+East&rft.pages=83&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2015-03-08&rft.isbn=978-1-4008-7139-1&rft.au=Javier+Teixidor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dm5Z9BgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA83&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Taylor2001-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Taylor2001_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Taylor2001_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Taylor2001_47-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Taylor2001_47-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJane_Taylor2001" class="citation book cs1">Jane Taylor (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FcAoBq4_EnEC&pg=PA124"><i>Petra and the Lost Kingdom of the Nabataeans</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/I.B.Tauris" class="mw-redirect" title="I.B.Tauris">I.B.Tauris</a>. pp. 124–151. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86064-508-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-86064-508-2"><bdi>978-1-86064-508-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Petra+and+the+Lost+Kingdom+of+the+Nabataeans&rft.pages=124-151&rft.pub=I.B.Tauris&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-86064-508-2&rft.au=Jane+Taylor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFcAoBq4_EnEC%26pg%3DPA124&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sánchez2015-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sánchez2015_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sánchez2015_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrancisco_del_Río_Sánchez2015" class="citation book cs1">Francisco del Río Sánchez (4 December 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nvxSDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA118"><i>Nabatu. The Nabataeans through their inscriptions</i></a>. Edicions Universitat Barcelona. p. 118. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-475-3748-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-84-475-3748-8"><bdi>978-84-475-3748-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nabatu.+The+Nabataeans+through+their+inscriptions&rft.pages=118&rft.pub=Edicions+Universitat+Barcelona&rft.date=2015-12-04&rft.isbn=978-84-475-3748-8&rft.au=Francisco+del+R%C3%ADo+S%C3%A1nchez&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnvxSDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA118&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Guides2016-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Guides2016_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRough_Guides2016" class="citation book cs1">Rough Guides (1 November 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_IUnDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT395"><i>The Rough Guide to Jordan</i></a>. Apa Publications. p. 395. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-241-29849-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-241-29849-7"><bdi>978-0-241-29849-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rough+Guide+to+Jordan&rft.pages=395&rft.pub=Apa+Publications&rft.date=2016-11-01&rft.isbn=978-0-241-29849-7&rft.au=Rough+Guides&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_IUnDQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT395&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mahdi al-Zoubi: Nabataean Practices for Tombs Protection - p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlpass2013" class="citation book cs1">Alpass, Peter (2013-06-13). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gLUEOJ-LGc0C&q=al+uzza+nabatean"><i>The Religious Life of Nabataea</i></a>. BRILL. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-21623-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-21623-5"><bdi>978-90-04-21623-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Religious+Life+of+Nabataea&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2013-06-13&rft.isbn=978-90-04-21623-5&rft.aulast=Alpass&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgLUEOJ-LGc0C%26q%3Dal%2Buzza%2Bnabatean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHealey2001" class="citation book cs1">Healey, John F. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=coso-V3gCEAC&pg=PA169">"Ritual Actions: Offerings"</a>. <i>The Religion of the Nabataeans: A Conspectus</i>. Religions in the Graeco-Roman World (136) (print ed.). BRILL. pp. 161–163 [ <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=coso-V3gCEAC&pg=PA162">162</a> ]. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-10754-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-10754-0"><bdi>978-90-04-10754-0</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 March</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ritual+Actions%3A+Offerings&rft.btitle=The+Religion+of+the+Nabataeans%3A+A+Conspectus&rft.series=Religions+in+the+Graeco-Roman+World+%28136%29&rft.pages=161-163+162+&rft.edition=print&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-90-04-10754-0&rft.aulast=Healey&rft.aufirst=John+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dcoso-V3gCEAC%26pg%3DPA169&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180405024829/https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/bar-issues/may-june-2016/#toc">"Biblical Archaeology Review, May/June 2016, page 20"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/bar-issues/may-june-2016/#toc">the original</a> on 2018-04-05<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-05-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Biblical+Archaeology+Review%2C+May%2FJune+2016%2C+page+20&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.biblicalarchaeology.org%2Fbar-issues%2Fmay-june-2016%2F%23toc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Healey1990-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Healey1990_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_F._Healey1990" class="citation book cs1">John F. Healey (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0_KnI588AnkC&pg=PA52"><i>The Early Alphabet</i></a>. University of California Press. p. 52. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-07309-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-07309-8"><bdi>978-0-520-07309-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Early+Alphabet&rft.pages=52&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-520-07309-8&rft.au=John+F.+Healey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0_KnI588AnkC%26pg%3DPA52&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Maalouf-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Maalouf_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTony_Maalouf" class="citation book cs1">Tony Maalouf. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=A0BdsFRX55cC&pg=PA172"><i>Arabs in the Shadow of Israel: The Unfolding of God's Prophetic Plan for Ishmael's Line</i></a>. Kregel Academic. p. 172. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8254-9363-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8254-9363-8"><bdi>978-0-8254-9363-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arabs+in+the+Shadow+of+Israel%3A+The+Unfolding+of+God%27s+Prophetic+Plan+for+Ishmael%27s+Line&rft.pages=172&rft.pub=Kregel+Academic&rft.isbn=978-0-8254-9363-8&rft.au=Tony+Maalouf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DA0BdsFRX55cC%26pg%3DPA172&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Arabic_p.44-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Arabic_p.44_56-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Arabic_p.44_56-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Nabataean to Arabic: Calligraphy and script development among the pre-Islamic Arabs by John F. Healey p. 44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cuEzDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA79"><i>Arabic in Context: Celebrating 400 years of Arabic at Leiden University</i></a>. BRILL. 21 June 2017. p. 79. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-34304-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-34304-7"><bdi>978-90-04-34304-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arabic+in+Context%3A+Celebrating+400+years+of+Arabic+at+Leiden+University.&rft.pages=79&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2017-06-21&rft.isbn=978-90-04-34304-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcuEzDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA79&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Woodard2008-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Woodard2008_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoger_D._Woodard2008" class="citation book cs1">Roger D. Woodard (10 April 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vTrT-bZyuPcC&pg=PA2"><i>The Ancient Languages of Syria-Palestine and Arabia</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-46934-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-46934-0"><bdi>978-1-139-46934-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Languages+of+Syria-Palestine+and+Arabia&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008-04-10&rft.isbn=978-1-139-46934-0&rft.au=Roger+D.+Woodard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvTrT-bZyuPcC%26pg%3DPA2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrinkman,_Gelb,_Civil,_Oppenheim_&_Reiner1980" class="citation book cs1">Brinkman, Gelb, Civil, Oppenheim & Reiner (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/cad_n1.pdf"><i>The Assyrian Dictionary</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Oriental Institute, Chicago. p. 22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-918986-17-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-918986-17-7"><bdi>978-0-918986-17-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Assyrian+Dictionary&rft.pages=22&rft.pub=Oriental+Institute%2C+Chicago&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-918986-17-7&rft.au=Brinkman%2C+Gelb%2C+Civil%2C+Oppenheim+%26+Reiner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foi.uchicago.edu%2Fsites%2Foi.uchicago.edu%2Ffiles%2Fuploads%2Fshared%2Fdocs%2Fcad_n1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnsonLewis2007" class="citation book cs1">Johnson, Douglas L.; Lewis, Laurence A. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HhNnjrqlXCQC&q=Evenari+showed+that+the+runoff+rainwater+collection+systems+concentrate+water&pg=PA37"><i>Land Degradation: Creation and Destruction</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Rowman_%26_Littlefield" title="Rowman & Littlefield">Rowman & Littlefield</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-1948-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-1948-0"><bdi>978-0-7425-1948-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Land+Degradation%3A+Creation+and+Destruction&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7425-1948-0&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Douglas+L.&rft.au=Lewis%2C+Laurence+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHhNnjrqlXCQC%26q%3DEvenari%2Bshowed%2Bthat%2Bthe%2Brunoff%2Brainwater%2Bcollection%2Bsystems%2Bconcentrate%2Bwater%26pg%3DPA37&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLandart2015" class="citation book cs1">Landart, Paula (2015). <i>Finding Ancient Rome: Walks in the city</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Finding+Ancient+Rome%3A+Walks+in+the+city&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Landart&rft.aufirst=Paula&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeller2007" class="citation book cs1">Keller, Daniel (2007). <i>Rainer Vollkommer (Hrsg.): Künstlerlexikon der Antike . Over 3800 artists from three millennia. Nikol, Hamburg 2007</i>. Nikol. p. 947. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-937872-53-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-937872-53-7"><bdi>978-3-937872-53-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rainer+Vollkommer+%28Hrsg.%29%3A+K%C3%BCnstlerlexikon+der+Antike+.+Over+3800+artists+from+three+millennia.+Nikol%2C+Hamburg+2007&rft.pages=947&rft.pub=Nikol&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-3-937872-53-7&rft.aulast=Keller&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHealey1994" class="citation journal cs1">Healey, John (1994). "The Nabataean Tomb Inscriptions of Mada'in Salih". <i>Journal of Semitic Studies Supplement</i>. <b>1</b> (Oxford University Press): 154–162.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Semitic+Studies+Supplement&rft.atitle=The+Nabataean+Tomb+Inscriptions+of+Mada%27in+Salih&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=Oxford+University+Press&rft.pages=154-162&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Healey&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZbigniew1987" class="citation journal cs1">Zbigniew, Fiema (1987). "Remarks on the Sculptors from Ḥegra". <i>Journal of Near Eastern Studies</i>. <b>46</b> (1): 52–53.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Near+Eastern+Studies&rft.atitle=Remarks+on+the+Sculptors+from+%E1%B8%A4egra&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=52-53&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=Zbigniew&rft.aufirst=Fiema&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeller2007" class="citation book cs1">Keller, Daniel (2007). <i>Abd'obodat. In: Rainer Vollkommer (Herausgeber): Künstlerlexikon der Antike. Über 3800 Künstler aus drei Jahrtausenden</i>. Nikol. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-937872-53-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-937872-53-7"><bdi>978-3-937872-53-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Abd%27obodat.+In%3A+Rainer+Vollkommer+%28Herausgeber%29%3A+K%C3%BCnstlerlexikon+der+Antike.+%C3%9Cber+3800+K%C3%BCnstler+aus+drei+Jahrtausenden.&rft.pub=Nikol&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-3-937872-53-7&rft.aulast=Keller&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeller2007" class="citation book cs1">Keller, Daniel (2007). <i>Aftah. In: Rainer Vollkommer (editor): Künstlerlexikon der Antike. Over 3800 artists from three millennia</i>. Nikol. p. 6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-937872-53-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-937872-53-7"><bdi>978-3-937872-53-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aftah.+In%3A+Rainer+Vollkommer+%28editor%29%3A+K%C3%BCnstlerlexikon+der+Antike.+Over+3800+artists+from+three+millennia&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=Nikol&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-3-937872-53-7&rft.aulast=Keller&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNegev" class="citation book cs1">Negev, Abraham. <i>Nabatean Necropolis</i>. p. 219.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nabatean+Necropolis&rft.pages=219&rft.aulast=Negev&rft.aufirst=Abraham&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nabataea.net/medain.html">"Nabataea: Medain Saleh"</a>. <i>nabataea.net</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=nabataea.net&rft.atitle=Nabataea%3A+Medain+Saleh&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnabataea.net%2Fmedain.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nabataeans&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEphʿal1984" class="citation book cs1">Ephʿal, Israel (1984). <i>The Ancient Arabs: Nomads on the Borders of the Fertile Crescent, 9th-5th Centuries B.C</i>. <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>: Magnes Press, <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_University_of_Jerusalem" title="Hebrew University of Jerusalem">Hebrew University</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-685-74243-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-685-74243-3"><bdi>978-0-685-74243-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Arabs%3A+Nomads+on+the+Borders+of+the+Fertile+Crescent%2C+9th-5th+Centuries+B.C.&rft.place=Jerusalem&rft.pub=Magnes+Press%2C+Hebrew+University&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-685-74243-3&rft.aulast=Eph%CA%BFal&rft.aufirst=Israel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraf1997" class="citation book cs1">Graf, David F. (1997). <i>Rome and the Arabian Frontier: From the Nabataeans to the Saracens</i>. Aldershot: Ashgate. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86078-658-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86078-658-0"><bdi>978-0-86078-658-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rome+and+the+Arabian+Frontier%3A+From+the+Nabataeans+to+the+Saracens&rft.place=Aldershot&rft.pub=Ashgate&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-86078-658-0&rft.aulast=Graf&rft.aufirst=David+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Healey, John F., <i>The Religion of the Nabataeans: A Conspectus</i> (Leiden, Brill, 2001) (Religions in the Graeco-Roman World, 136).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrasnovMazor,_Emanuel2001" class="citation book cs1">Krasnov, Boris R.; Mazor, Emanuel (2001). <i>The Makhteshim Country: A Laboratory of Nature: Geological and Ecological Studies in the Desert Region of Israel</i>. Sofia: Pensoft. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-954-642-135-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-954-642-135-7"><bdi>978-954-642-135-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Makhteshim+Country%3A+A+Laboratory+of+Nature%3A+Geological+and+Ecological+Studies+in+the+Desert+Region+of+Israel&rft.place=Sofia&rft.pub=Pensoft&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-954-642-135-7&rft.aulast=Krasnov&rft.aufirst=Boris+R.&rft.au=Mazor%2C+Emanuel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLipiński2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Lipi%C5%84ski_(orientalist)" title="Edward Lipiński (orientalist)">Lipiński, Edward</a> (2000). <i>The Aramaeans: Their Ancient History, Culture, Religion</i>. Orientalia Lovaniensia analecta. Vol. 100. <a href="/wiki/Leuven" title="Leuven">Leuven</a>, <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>: <a href="/wiki/Peeters_Publishers" title="Peeters Publishers">Peeters Publishers</a>. pp. 448–450. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789042908598" title="Special:BookSources/9789042908598"><bdi>9789042908598</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Aramaeans%3A+Their+Ancient+History%2C+Culture%2C+Religion&rft.place=Leuven%2C+Belgium&rft.series=Orientalia+Lovaniensia+analecta&rft.pages=448-450&rft.pub=Peeters+Publishers&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9789042908598&rft.aulast=Lipi%C5%84ski&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>"Nabat", <i>Encyclopedia of Islam</i>, Volume VII.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNegev1986" class="citation book cs1">Negev, Avraham (1986). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nabateanarchaeol0000nege"><i>Nabatean Archaeology Today</i></a></span>. Hagop Kevorkian Series on Near Eastern Art and Civilization. New York: New York University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-5760-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-5760-4"><bdi>978-0-8147-5760-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nabatean+Archaeology+Today&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Hagop+Kevorkian+Series+on+Near+Eastern+Art+and+Civilization&rft.pub=New+York+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-8147-5760-4&rft.aulast=Negev&rft.aufirst=Avraham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnabateanarchaeol0000nege&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmid2001" class="citation book cs1">Schmid, Stephan G. (2001). "The Nabataeans: Travellers between Lifestyles". In MacDonald, Burton; Adams, Russell; Bienkowski, Piotr (eds.). <i>The Archaeology of Jordan</i>. Sheffield, England: Sheffield Academic Press. pp. 367–426. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84127-136-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84127-136-1"><bdi>978-1-84127-136-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Nabataeans%3A+Travellers+between+Lifestyles&rft.btitle=The+Archaeology+of+Jordan&rft.place=Sheffield%2C+England&rft.pages=367-426&rft.pub=Sheffield+Academic+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-84127-136-1&rft.aulast=Schmid&rft.aufirst=Stephan+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANabataeans" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nabataeans&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140824040018/http://mushecht.haifa.ac.il/michmanim/CatalogMenu_eng.aspx?id=30">Hecht Museum - Catalogues | The Nabateans in the Negev</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181120110215/http://mushecht.haifa.ac.il/archeology/ExhibitionC_eng.aspx?id=9">Hecht Museum - Exhibitions | The Nabateans in the Negev</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.auac.ch/bns/bulletin/bulletin.html"><i>The Bulletin of Nabataean Studies</i> online</a>—links on Petra and the Nabataeans</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=6&letter=N">NABATÆANS in the <i>Jewish Encyclopedia</i></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070928014730/http://www.cincinnatiartmuseum.org/Search/CollectionResults.aspx?SearchString=Nabataean&Field=SearchAll">Cincinnati Art Museum</a>—the only collection of ancient Nabataean art outside of Jordan</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mnemotrix.com/adasr/arch.html">Archaeological Studies</a>—Ancient Desert Agriculture Systems Revived (ADASR)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.civilization.ca/cmc/exhibitions/cmc/petra/petra1e.shtml">Petra: Lost City of Stone Exhibition</a>—Canadian Museum of Civilization</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090816192721/http://www.bib-arch.org/e-features/petra.asp">"Solving the Enigma of Petra and the Nabataeans"</a>, <i>Biblical Archaeology Review</i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101124204625/http://www.petracrown.net/petra-city/170-nabataeans-nation-civilization.html">Nabataeans a nation civilization</a>—Petra Crown</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://edoc.unibas.ch/15693/9/NTOA_51.pdf">Quellen zur Geschichte der Nabatäer</a>—Ursula Hackl, Hanna Jenni, and Christoph Schneider</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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