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Nutt |pages=107 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Japp |first1=Sarah |last2=Gerlach |first2=Iris |last3=Hitgen |first3=Holger |last4=Schnelle |first4=Mike |date=2011 |title=Yeha and Hawelti: cultural contacts between Sabaʾ and DʿMT — New research by the German Archaeological Institute in Ethiopia |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41622129 |journal=Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies |volume=41 |pages=145–160 |jstor=41622129 |issn=0308-8421}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v_wvAQAAIAAJ&q=sabean+colonised |title=Aethiopica: International Journal of Ethiopian Studies |date=2006 |publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag |pages=283 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Robertshaw |first=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cN1Tf1DncbgC&dq=sabean+yeha&pg=PA96 |title=A History of African Archaeology |date=1990 |publisher=J. Currey |isbn=978-0-85255-065-6 |pages=96 |language=en}}</ref> Many hold to this view, because according to archeology, "epigraphic and monumental evidence point to an indisputable South Arabian influence suggesting migration and colonization from Yemen in the early 1st millennium BC as the main factor of state formation on the highlands. Rock inscriptions in [[Qohaito|Qohayto]] ([[Akalä Guzay|Akkala Guzay]], Eritrea) document the presence of individuals or small groups from Arabia on the highlands at this time."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=D'Andrea |first1=A. Catherine |last2=Manzo |first2=Andrea |last3=Harrower |first3=Michael J. |last4=Hawkins |first4=Alicia L. |date=2008 |title=The Pre-Aksumite and Aksumite Settlement of NE Tigrai, Ethiopia |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25608503 |journal=Journal of Field Archaeology |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=151–176 |doi=10.1179/009346908791071268 |issn=0093-4690 |jstor=25608503 |s2cid=129636976}}</ref> The professor of anthropology Joseph W. Michels discovered based on his archeological surveying at Aksumite sites that "there is abundant evidence of specific Sabean traits such as inscription style, religious ideology and symbolism, art style and architectural techniques."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Curtis |first=Matthew C. |date=2008 |title=Review of Changing Settlement Patterns in the Aksum-Yeha Region of Ethiopia: 700 BC-AD 850 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40282460 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=123–126 |issn=0361-7882 |jstor=40282460}}</ref> Some other significant elements from this event, include the introduction of [[South Semitic languages]] to Ethiopia, replacing the native [[Cushitic languages]], and the adoption of [[Ancient South Arabian script]] by Ethiopians, where it would later evolve into the [[Ge'ez script]]. == Impact and legacy == === Cultural features === Sabean cultural diffusion into the Horn of Africa influenced the development of several civilizations like [[Dʿmt|D'mt]] as well as the [[Kingdom of Aksum]], and left an important mark in [[History of Ethiopia|Ethiopian history]] and culture. Scholarly consensus had previously been that Sabaeans had been the founders of Semitic civilization in Ethiopia, though this has now been contested, and their influence has been reassessed for its impact on architectural, sociopolitical, religious, and cultic spheres.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Pankhurst |first1=Richard |title=Ethiopia’s Historic Ties with Yemen |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060109162335/http://www.addistribune.com/Archives/2003/01/17-01-03/Let.htm#expand |website=Archive.org |publisher=Institute of Ethiopian Studies}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Munro-Hay |first1=Stuart |title=Aksum : an African civilisation of late antiquity |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130123223427/http://www.dskmariam.org/artsandlitreature/litreature/pdf/aksum.pdf |publisher=Edinburgh : Edinburgh University Press}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Radner |first1=Karen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TPGxEAAAQBAJ&dq=sabean+yeha&pg=PA352 |title=The Oxford History of the Ancient Near East: Volume V: the Age of Persia |last2=Moeller |first2=Nadine |last3=Potts |first3=Daniel T. |date=2023-04-07 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-068766-3 |pages=352 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bonsall |first=James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5xUSEAAAQBAJ&dq=sabean+yeha&pg=PA180 |title=New Global Perspectives on Archaeological Prospection: 13th International Conference on Archaeological Prospection, 28 August – 1 September 2019, Sligo – Ireland |date=2019-09-02 |publisher=Archaeopress Publishing Ltd |isbn=978-1-78969-307-2 |pages=180 |language=en}}</ref> The Sabaean presence likely lasted only for a matter of decades, but their influence on later Aksumite civilization included the adoption of Ancient South Arabian script, which developed into Geʽez script, and [[Ancient Semitic religion]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Pankhurst |first1=Richard |title=Ethiopia’s Historic Ties with Yemen |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060109162335/http://www.addistribune.com/Archives/2003/01/17-01-03/Let.htm#expand |website=Archive.org |publisher=Institute of Ethiopian Studies}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Robertshaw |first=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cN1Tf1DncbgC&dq=sabean+colonised&pg=PA96 |title=A History of African Archaeology |date=1990 |publisher=J. Currey |isbn=978-0-85255-065-6 |pages=96 |language=en}}</ref> The Sabean character of the pantheon is clearly evident in the worship of '[[Almaqah]], to whom, in addition to the Great Sabean Temple at [[Yeha]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ireland |first=Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NBBih8TKXKAC&dq=sabean+yeha&pg=PA208 |title=Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute |date=1895 |pages=208 |language=en |quote=Some scholars consider the temple at [[Yeha]] to be the work of these Sabean colonists.}}</ref> four other sanctuaries are known. Some of these are accompanied by the building dedications of Sabean stonemasons and can be identified archaeologically.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Radner |first1=Karen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TPGxEAAAQBAJ&dq=sabean+yeha&pg=PA352 |title=The Oxford History of the Ancient Near East: Volume V: the Age of Persia |last2=Moeller |first2=Nadine |last3=Potts |first3=Daniel T. |date=2023-04-07 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-068766-3 |pages=353 |language=en}}</ref> There are many other archaeological sites of this period in Ethiopia where some inscriptions have also been found which were executed in a Sabean-Himyaritic script. Near [[Mekelle|Makalle]], for example, is where a seated female figure was found with a South Arabian inscription on the pedestal which also makes reference to South Arabia.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Daum |first=Werner |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-ylzAAAAMAAJ&q=sabean+yeha |title=Yemen: 3000 Years of Art and Civilisation in Arabia Felix |date=1987 |publisher=Penguin Books Australia |isbn=978-3-7016-2292-4 |pages=413 |language=en}}</ref> Older inscriptions were found at [[Yeha]], which some scholars identify with Ava, a city built by Sabean colonists, and which apparently fell into decay after the building of [[Axum|Aksum]] the "Sacred City of the Ethiopians."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ireland |first=Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NBBih8TKXKAC&dq=sabean+yeha&pg=PA208 |title=Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute |date=1895 |pages=208 |language=en}}</ref> Not only Yeha but also the ancient city of Aksum is considered by some scholars to have been founded by these Sabeans,<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Cliffe |first1=Lionel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vjZhFR3vTvgC&dq=sabean+yeha&pg=PA68 |title=The Long Struggle of Eritrea for Independence and Constructive Peace |last2=Davidson |first2=Basil |date=1988 |publisher=The Red Sea Press |isbn=978-0-932415-37-0 |pages=68 |language=en}}</ref> where old [[Sabaic]] inscriptions have also been found.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=22gaTnnU-F0C&dq=sabean+yeha&pg=PA88 |title=The Athenaeum |date=1894 |publisher=J. Lection |pages=88 |language=en |quote=Sabean inscriptions brought from Aksum and Yeha}}</ref> === Genetic influences === Anthropogenetic studies using blood samples on Ethiopians, have found that their allele and haplotype frequencies appear quite similar to South Arabians, and were considerably differentiated from that of other African peoples. Results were consistent with a common origin from a Cushitic-speaking group living in eastern Africa, with signals of influence from Arabia.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tartaglia |first=Marco |last2=Scano |first2=Giuseppina |last3=De Stefano |first3=Gian Franco |date=1996 |title=An anthropogenetic study on the Oromo and Amhara of central Ethiopia |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28557072/ |journal=American Journal of Human Biology |language=en |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=505–516 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1520-6300(1996)8:4<505::AID-AJHB11>3.0.CO;2-Q}}</ref> The populations used for identifying genetic relationships were: 1. Hutu, Sukuma, Nyaturu and Sandawe, 2. Sara, Mbugu and Sango, 3. South Arabians, Libyans and Egyptians, 4. Amhara, Oromo, Beja and Falasha, which all grouped into four tight clusters. On the projection axis, Amhara, Oromo, Beja and Falasha were genetically located in an intermediate position between the cluster made by Southern Arabians, and that of the Sub-Saharan Africans, with these tribes exhibiting high affinity towards Arabians.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Scano |first=Giuseppina |date=1996-01-01 |title=An anthropogenetic study on the Oromo and Amhara of central Ethiopia |url=https://www.academia.edu/28258507/An_anthropogenetic_study_on_the_Oromo_and_Amhara_of_central_Ethiopia |journal=American Journal of Human Biology}}</ref> A 2010 study found that their phylogenetic clock estimates of the [[Haplogroup J-M267|Haplogroup J1]] in the Horn of Africa, were indirectly supported by a linguistic model for an introduction of Semitic from Arabia 2800 years ago.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chiaroni |first=Jacques |last2=King |first2=Roy J. |last3=Myres |first3=Natalie M. |last4=Henn |first4=Brenna M. |last5=Ducourneau |first5=Axel |last6=Mitchell |first6=Michael J. |last7=Boetsch |first7=Gilles |last8=Sheikha |first8=Issa |last9=Lin |first9=Alice A. |last10=Nik-Ahd |first10=Mahnoosh |last11=Ahmad |first11=Jabeen |last12=Lattanzi |first12=Francesca |last13=Herrera |first13=Rene J. |last14=Ibrahim |first14=Muntaser E. |last15=Brody |first15=Aaron |date=2010-03-18 |title=The emergence of Y-chromosome haplogroup J1e among Arabic-speaking populations |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/ejhg2009166 |journal=European Journal of Human Genetics |language=en |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=348–353 |doi=10.1038/ejhg.2009.166 |issn=1476-5438|pmc=2987219 }}</ref> In 2014, a paper concluded that a likely source of some of the west Eurasian admixture in East Africans, especially the [[Amhara people|Amhara]] and [[Tigrayans|Tigray]] who speak Ethiosemitic languages, could have been from southern Arabia and associated with the D’mt kingdom. They also noted the archeological work during this time period, shows architecture in the Ethiopian culture of D’mt has an “unmistakable South Arabian appearance in many details.” However, the team acknowledges there is debate as to whether these are from large movements of people, or simply adopted elite-driven cultural practices.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pickrell |first1=Joseph K. |last2=Patterson |first2=Nick |last3=Loh |first3=Po-Ru |last4=Lipson |first4=Mark |last5=Berger |first5=Bonnie |last6=Stoneking |first6=Mark |last7=Pakendorf |first7=Brigitte |last8=Reich |first8=David |date=2014-02-18 |title=Ancient west Eurasian ancestry in southern and eastern Africa |url=https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.1313787111 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=111 |issue=7 |pages=2632–2637 |arxiv=1307.8014 |bibcode=2014PNAS..111.2632P |doi=10.1073/pnas.1313787111 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=3932865 |pmid=24550290 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The population geneticist and professor [[David Reich (geneticist)|David Reich]] noted in his 2018 publication on human origins: "There is significant archaeological evidence of intense contact and migration between Ethiopia and southern Arabia around 3,000 years BP. During the first millennium BC, southern Arabians from the Saba territory established a polity in the Abyssinian highlands of Ethiopia, and a new conglomerate cultural landscape called the Ethio-Sabean society emerged. This event overlaps with the timing of Eurasian genetic admixture signals in Ethiopian populations and is a good candidate for the source of Eurasian admixture in East Africa."<ref>{{Cite book |last=David Reich (Harvard Medical School) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uLNSDwAAQBAJ |title=Who We are and how We Got Here: Ancient DNA and the New Science of the Human Past |date=2018 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-882125-0 |pages=216–217 |language=en |quote=}}</ref> == Criticism of the Sabean migration hypothesis == Some academics and Ethiopian scholars have highlighted issues with the extent of this migration, and argue for mutual cultural exchange without demographic replacement. [[Stuart Munro-Hay]] and related researchers believe that the Sabaean "colonization" was minor, and limited to a few localities. It may have even simply represented a trading colony (trading outposts) or military installations in a symbiotic or military alliance between Sabaeans and the Ethiopian population of D'mt.<ref>Stuart Munro-Hay, ''Aksum: An African Civilisation of Late Antiquity''. Edinburgh: University Press, 1991, pp. 57f. https://www.livingston.org/cms/lib4/NJ01000562/Centricity/Domain/602/aksum.pdf</ref> Although the script is clearly identical to that in southern Arabia, evidence exists of pre-Sabaean Semitic languages or a group of languages in Ethiopia during the Sabaic period already. Even with the similarities in writing, language, pantheon, and monuments with South Arabian civilizations, researchers contend there is no strong indication of a domination, dependency or control. It appears that, if the Sabaeans did move to Ethiopia, they were integrated by the local population by the 8th century BC, and likely even earlier.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dugast |first1=Fabienne |last2=Gajda |first2=Iwona |date=2012-10-29 |title=Reconsidering contacts between southern Arabia and the highlands of Tigrai in the 1st millennium BC according to epigraphic data |url=https://shs.hal.science/halshs-00865945 |journal=HAL SHS (Sciences de l'Homme et de la Société) |language=en}}</ref> == See also == * [[Sabaeans|Kingdom of Saba]] * [[History of Yemen]] * [[Habesha peoples|Habesha people]] * [[Colonialism]] * [[Colonization]] * [[Ethiopia]] * [[Eritrea]] == References == {{reflist}} [[Category:Prehistoric Ethiopia]] [[Category:Sabaeans]] [[Category:Colonialism]] [[Category:Habesha peoples]] [[Category:History of Eritrea]] </textarea><div class="templatesUsed"><div class="mw-templatesUsedExplanation"><p><span id="templatesused">Pages transcluded onto the current version of this 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