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aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ancient" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Ancient</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>India</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>China</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rome" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rome"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.3</span> <span>Rome</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rome-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islamic_caliphates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islamic_caliphates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Islamic caliphates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islamic_caliphates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Modern</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Analysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Forms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Forms</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Forms-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Forms subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Forms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Gender_and_welfare" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gender_and_welfare"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Gender and welfare</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gender_and_welfare-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-UBI_as_a_replacement_for_the_welfare_state" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#UBI_as_a_replacement_for_the_welfare_state"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>UBI as a replacement for the welfare state</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-UBI_as_a_replacement_for_the_welfare_state-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-By_country_or_region" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_country_or_region"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>By country or region</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-By_country_or_region-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle By country or region subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-By_country_or_region-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Australia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Australia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Australia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Australia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Canada</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>France</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Germany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Germany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Germany</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Germany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-India_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#India_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>India</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-India_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Latin_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Latin_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Latin America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Latin_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_East" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_East"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7</span> <span>Middle East</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_East-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nordic_countries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nordic_countries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8</span> <span>Nordic countries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nordic_countries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-People's_Republic_of_China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#People's_Republic_of_China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.9</span> <span>People's Republic of China</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-People's_Republic_of_China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sri_Lanka" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sri_Lanka"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.10</span> <span>Sri Lanka</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sri_Lanka-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Singapore" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Singapore"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.11</span> <span>Singapore</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Singapore-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_Kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.12</span> <span>United Kingdom</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.13</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Effects</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Effects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Effects subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Effects_of_welfare_on_poverty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_of_welfare_on_poverty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Effects of welfare on poverty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_of_welfare_on_poverty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_of_social_expenditure_on_economic_growth,_public_debt_and_education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_of_social_expenditure_on_economic_growth,_public_debt_and_education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Effects of social expenditure on economic growth, public debt and education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_of_social_expenditure_on_economic_growth,_public_debt_and_education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism_and_response" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism_and_response"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Criticism and response</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Criticism_and_response-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Criticism and response subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Criticism_and_response-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_welfare_queen" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_welfare_queen"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>The welfare queen</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_welfare_queen-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-External_links-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle External links subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Data_and_statistics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Data_and_statistics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Data and statistics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Data_and_statistics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Welfare state</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 67 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-67" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">67 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A9_%D8%B1%D9%81%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="دولة رفاهية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="دولة رفاهية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Est%C3%A1u_del_bienestar" title="Estáu del bienestar – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Estáu del bienestar" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosial_d%C3%B6vl%C9%99t" title="Sosial dövlət – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Sosial dövlət" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A3_%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0" title="কল্যাণ রাষ্ট্র – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="কল্যাণ রাষ্ট্র" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%8A%D1%80%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%89%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE_%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Държава на всеобщото благоденствие – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Държава на всеобщото благоденствие" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estat_del_benestar" title="Estat del benestar – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Estat del benestar" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soci%C3%A1ln%C3%AD_st%C3%A1t" title="Sociální stát – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Sociální stát" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwladwriaeth_les" title="Gwladwriaeth les – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Gwladwriaeth les" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velf%C3%A6rdsstat" title="Velfærdsstat – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Velfærdsstat" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wohlfahrtsstaat" title="Wohlfahrtsstaat – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Wohlfahrtsstaat" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heaoluriik" title="Heaoluriik – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Heaoluriik" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CF%81%CE%AC%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%82_%CF%80%CF%81%CF%8C%CE%BD%CE%BF%CE%B9%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Κράτος πρόνοιας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κράτος πρόνοιας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estado_del_bienestar" title="Estado del bienestar – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Estado del bienestar" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialema_%C5%9Dtato" title="Socialema ŝtato – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Socialema ŝtato" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ongizate-estatu" title="Ongizate-estatu – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ongizate-estatu" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%84%D8%AA_%D8%B1%D9%81%D8%A7%D9%87" title="دولت رفاه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دولت رفاه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A6lfer%C3%B0arr%C3%ADki" title="Vælferðarríki – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Vælferðarríki" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tat-providence" title="État-providence – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="État-providence" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C3%A1t_leasa" title="Stát leasa – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Stát leasa" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B3%B5%EC%A7%80%EA%B5%AD%EA%B0%80" title="복지국가 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="복지국가" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%B8%D6%81%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%BA%D5%A5%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Սոցիալական պետություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Սոցիալական պետություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="कल्याणकारी राज्य – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="कल्याणकारी राज्य" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skrbni%C4%8Dka_dr%C5%BEava" title="Skrbnička država – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Skrbnička država" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stato_sociala" title="Stato sociala – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Stato sociala" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negara_kesejahteraan" title="Negara kesejahteraan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Negara kesejahteraan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stato_sociale" title="Stato sociale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Stato sociale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%93%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%AA_%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%95%D7%97%D7%94" title="מדינת רווחה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מדינת רווחה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%A7%E1%83%9D%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%97%E1%83%90%E1%83%9D_%E1%83%99%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%93%E1%83%A6%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%AE%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9B%E1%83%AC%E1%83%98%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9D" title="საყოველთაო კეთილდღეობის სახელმწიფო – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="საყოველთაო კეთილდღეობის სახელმწიფო" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hukmeta_j%C3%AEnfirehiy%C3%AA" title="Hukmeta jînfirehiyê – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Hukmeta jînfirehiyê" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%8D%D0%BB%D1%84%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Вэлфер – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Вэлфер" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civitas_prospera" title="Civitas prospera – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Civitas prospera" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labkl%C4%81j%C4%ABbas_valsts" title="Labklājības valsts – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Labklājības valsts" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerov%C4%97s_valstyb%C4%97" title="Gerovės valstybė – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Gerovės valstybė" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verz%C3%B6rgingsstaot" title="Verzörgingsstaot – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Verzörgingsstaot" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B3l%C3%A9ti_%C3%A1llam" title="Jóléti állam – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Jóléti állam" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B7%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B7%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="ക്ഷേമരാഷ്ട്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ക്ഷേമരാഷ്ട്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A9_%D8%B1%D9%81%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%8A%D9%87" title="دولة رفاهيه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="دولة رفاهيه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negara_kebajikan" title="Negara kebajikan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Negara kebajikan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verzorgingsstaat" title="Verzorgingsstaat – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Verzorgingsstaat" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A6%8F%E7%A5%89%E5%9B%BD%E5%AE%B6%E8%AB%96" title="福祉国家論 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="福祉国家論" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velferdsstat" title="Velferdsstat – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Velferdsstat" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velferdsstat" title="Velferdsstat – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Velferdsstat" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estat_del_benestar" title="Estat del benestar – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Estat del benestar" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ijtimoiy_davlat" title="Ijtimoiy davlat – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Ijtimoiy davlat" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%92nderstant" title="Ònderstant – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Ònderstant" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Papiamentu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%DB%8C%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%87_%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%84%D8%AA" title="خیریه دولت – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="خیریه دولت" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pa%C5%84stwo_dobrobytu" title="Państwo dobrobytu – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Państwo dobrobytu" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estado_de_bem-estar_social" title="Estado de bem-estar social – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Estado de bem-estar social" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stat_social" title="Stat social – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Stat social" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%89%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Государство всеобщего благосостояния – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Государство всеобщего благосостояния" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonu_stari" title="Bonu stari – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Bonu stari" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welfare_state" title="Welfare state – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Welfare state" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AD%D9%8A_%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA" title="فلاحي رياست – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="فلاحي رياست" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0t%C3%A1t_blahobytu" title="Štát blahobytu – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Štát blahobytu" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialna_dr%C5%BEava" title="Socialna država – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Socialna država" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%DB%95%D9%88%DA%B5%DB%95%D8%AA%DB%8C_%D8%AE%DB%86%D8%B4%D8%A8%DA%98%DB%8C%D9%88%DB%8C" title="دەوڵەتی خۆشبژیوی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="دەوڵەتی خۆشبژیوی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr%C5%BEava_blagostanja" title="Država blagostanja – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Država blagostanja" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyvinvointivaltio" title="Hyvinvointivaltio – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Hyvinvointivaltio" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A4lf%C3%A4rdssamh%C3%A4lle" title="Välfärdssamhälle – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Välfärdssamhälle" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%90%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3" title="รัฐสวัสดิการ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="รัฐสวัสดิการ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refah_devleti" title="Refah devleti – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Refah devleti" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%82%D1%83" title="Держава загального добробуту – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Держава загального добробуту" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AD%DB%8C_%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA" title="فلاحی ریاست – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="فلاحی ریاست" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" 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class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/OECD_Social_Expenditure_by_Braunch.svg/400px-OECD_Social_Expenditure_by_Braunch.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/OECD_Social_Expenditure_by_Braunch.svg/600px-OECD_Social_Expenditure_by_Braunch.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/OECD_Social_Expenditure_by_Braunch.svg/800px-OECD_Social_Expenditure_by_Braunch.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1260" data-file-height="630" /></a><figcaption>Social expenditure as % of <a href="/wiki/GDP" class="mw-redirect" title="GDP">GDP</a> (<a href="/wiki/OECD" title="OECD">OECD</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>welfare state</b> is a form of government in which the <a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">state</a> (or a well-established network of social institutions) protects and promotes the economic and social <a href="/wiki/Well-being" title="Well-being">well-being</a> of its citizens, based upon the principles of <a href="/wiki/Equal_opportunity" title="Equal opportunity">equal opportunity</a>, equitable <a href="/wiki/Distribution_of_wealth" title="Distribution of wealth">distribution of wealth</a>, and public responsibility for citizens unable to avail themselves of the minimal provisions for a good life.<sup id="cite_ref-britannica_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britannica-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is substantial variability in the form and trajectory of the welfare state across countries and regions.<sup id="cite_ref-Béland-2021a_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Béland-2021a-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All welfare states entail some degree of <a href="/wiki/Public%E2%80%93private_partnership" title="Public–private partnership">private–public partnerships</a> wherein the administration and delivery of at least some welfare programs occur through private entities.<sup id="cite_ref-Béland-2021b_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Béland-2021b-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Welfare state services are also provided at varying territorial levels of government.<sup id="cite_ref-Béland-2021b_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Béland-2021b-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early features of the welfare state, such as public pensions and social insurance, developed from the 1880s onwards in industrializing Western countries.<sup id="cite_ref-Skocpol-1992_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Skocpol-1992-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Béland-2021a_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Béland-2021a-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> World War I, the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a>, and World War II have been characterized as important events that ushered in the expansion of the welfare state.<sup id="cite_ref-Skocpol-1992_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Skocpol-1992-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-WF_EPE2_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WF_EPE2-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fullest forms of the welfare state were developed after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Béland-2021a_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Béland-2021a-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welfare_state&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term welfare is much older than the term welfare state. In <a href="/wiki/Enlightened_absolutism" title="Enlightened absolutism">enlightened absolutism</a>, the ruler had an unlimited position of power, which he was to only utilize to the extent necessary for the "welfare" of his subjects. The content of the "welfare" or "good police", which limited the ruler's legitimate exercise of power, was defined by the authorities at their own discretion. This is also referred to as "welfare absolutism". The term welfare state is used in connection with princely absolutism, this is usually in conjunction with attributes such as <a href="/wiki/Absolutism_(European_history)" title="Absolutism (European history)">absolutist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">mercantilist</a> or pre-modern. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a> term <i>sozialstaat</i> ("social state") has been used since 1870 to describe state support programs devised by German <a href="/wiki/Historical_school_of_economics" title="Historical school of economics"><i>sozialpolitiker</i></a> ("social politicians") and implemented as part of <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Otto von Bismarck</a>'s conservative reforms.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Today the term is used almost entirely for the "modern" welfare state, which emerged in the 19th century in the course of the socio-economic upheavals caused by <a href="/wiki/Industrialisation" title="Industrialisation">industrialisation</a>, the formation of nation states and democratization. While the corresponding English term welfare state is descriptively neutral, the term “<i>Wohlfahrtsstaat</i>” is often used in German as a fighting term with a pejorative connotation. </p><p>The literal English equivalent "social state" did not catch on in Anglophone countries.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, during the Second World War, Anglican Archbishop <a href="/wiki/William_Temple_(bishop)" title="William Temple (bishop)">William Temple</a>, author of the book <i>Christianity and the Social Order</i> (1942), popularized the concept using the phrase "welfare state".<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bishop Temple's use of "welfare state" has been connected to <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Disraeli" title="Benjamin Disraeli">Benjamin Disraeli</a>'s 1845 novel <a href="/wiki/Sybil_(novel)" title="Sybil (novel)"><i>Sybil: or the Two Nations</i></a> (in other words, the rich and the poor), where he writes "power has only one duty – to secure the social welfare of the PEOPLE".<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the time he wrote <i>Sybil</i>, Disraeli (later a prime minister) belonged to <a href="/wiki/Young_England" title="Young England">Young England</a>, a conservative group of youthful <a href="/wiki/Tories_(British_political_party)" title="Tories (British political party)">Tories</a> who disagreed with how the <a href="/wiki/Whigs_(British_political_party)" title="Whigs (British political party)">Whigs</a> dealt with the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution#Social_effects" title="Industrial Revolution">conditions of the industrial poor</a>. Members of Young England attempted to garner support among the privileged classes to assist the less fortunate and to recognize the <a href="/wiki/Dignity_of_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Dignity of labor">dignity of labor</a> that they imagined had characterized England during the Feudal Middle Ages.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welfare_state&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Welfare#History" class="mw-redirect" title="Welfare">Welfare § History</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient">Ancient</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welfare_state&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Ancient"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="India">India</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welfare_state&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: India"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Emperor <a href="/wiki/Ashoka" title="Ashoka">Ashoka</a> of India put forward his idea of a welfare state in the 3rd century <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">BCE</a>. He envisioned his <i><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">dharma</a></i> (religion or path) as not just a collection of high-sounding phrases. He consciously tried to adopt it as a matter of state policy; he declared that "all men are my children"<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and "whatever exertion I make, I strive only to discharge debt that I owe to all living creatures." It was a completely new ideal of kingship.<sup id="cite_ref-google592_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-google592-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ashoka renounced war and conquest by violence and forbade the killing of many animals.<sup id="cite_ref-google1989_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-google1989-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since he wanted to conquer the world through love and faith, he sent many missions to propagate Dharma. Such missions were sent to places like Egypt, Greece, and Sri Lanka. The propagation of Dharma included many measures of people's welfare. Centers of the treatment of men and beasts founded inside and outside of the empire. Shady groves, wells, orchards and rest houses were laid out.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ashoka also prohibited useless sacrifices and certain forms of gatherings which led to waste, indiscipline and superstition.<sup id="cite_ref-google1989_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-google1989-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To implement these policies he recruited a new cadre of officers called Dharmamahamattas. Part of this group's duties was to see that people of various sects were treated fairly. They were especially asked to look after the welfare of prisoners.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, the historical record of Ashoka's character is conflicted. Ashoka's own inscriptions state that he converted to <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> after waging a destructive war. However, the Sri Lankan tradition claims that he had already converted to Buddhism in the 4th year of his reign, although it does not mention the conquest of Kalinga.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this war, according to <a href="/wiki/Edicts_of_Ashoka" title="Edicts of Ashoka">Ashoka's Major Rock Edict 13</a>, with nearly 100,000 killed in the war and another 150,000 deported. Some sources (particularly Buddhist oral legends) suggest that his conversion was dramatic and that he dedicated the rest of his life to the pursuit of peace and the common good.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, these sources frequently contradict each other,<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a few sources (like <i><a href="/wiki/Ashokavadana" title="Ashokavadana">Ashokavadana</a></i>, earliest versions ranging from 200 AD to 500 AD) describe Ashoka engaging in sectarian mass murder throughout his reign, and make no mention of the philanthropic efforts claimed by earlier legends. The interpretation of Ashoka's dharma after conversion is controversial, but in particular, the texts which describe him personally ordering the massacre of Buddhist heretics and Jains have been disputed by many scholars, since these are directly contradictory to his own edicts, and are legendary in nature.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="China">China</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welfare_state&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wen_of_Han" title="Emperor Wen of Han">Emperor Wen</a> (203 – 157 BCE) of <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han Dynasty</a> instituted a variety of measures with resemblances to modern welfare policies. These included pensions, in the form of food and wine, to all over 80 years of age, as well as monetary support, in the form of loans or tax breaks, to widows, orphans, and elderly without children to support them. Emperor Wen was also known for a concern over wasteful spending of tax-payer money. Unlike other Han emperors, he wore simple silk garments. In order to make the state serve the common people better, cruel criminal punishments were lessened and the state bureaucracy was made more meritocratic. This led to officials being selected by examinations for the first time in Chinese history.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources"><span title="The material near this tag may rely on an unreliable source. (October 2024)">unreliable source?</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources"><span title="The material near this tag may rely on an unreliable source. (October 2024)">unreliable source?</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rome">Rome</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welfare_state&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Rome"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> intervened sporadically to distribute free or subsidized grain to its population, through the program known as <i><a href="/wiki/Cura_Annonae" class="mw-redirect" title="Cura Annonae">Cura Annonae</a>.</i> The city of Rome grew rapidly during the Roman Republic and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a>, reaching a population approaching one million in the second century AD. The population of the city grew beyond the capacity of the nearby rural areas to meet the food needs of the city.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Regular grain distribution began in 123 BC with a grain law proposed by <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Gracchus" title="Gaius Gracchus">Gaius Gracchus</a> and approved by the Roman <a href="/wiki/Plebeian_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebeian Council">Plebeian Council</a> (popular assembly). The numbers of those receiving free or subsidized grain expanded to a high of an estimated 320,000 people at one point.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 3rd century AD, the dole of grain was replaced by bread, probably during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Septimius_Severus" title="Septimius Severus">Septimius Severus</a> (193–211 AD). Severus also began providing <a href="/wiki/Olive_oil" title="Olive oil">olive oil</a> to residents of Rome, and later the emperor <a href="/wiki/Aurelian" title="Aurelian">Aurelian</a> (270–275) ordered the distribution of <a href="/wiki/Wine" title="Wine">wine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pork" title="Pork">pork</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErdkamp2013266–267_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErdkamp2013266–267-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The doles of bread, olive oil, wine, and pork apparently continued until near the end of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a> in 476 AD.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The dole in the early Roman Empire is estimated to account for 15 to 33 percent of the total grain imported and consumed in Rome.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to food, the Roman Republic also supplied free entertainment, through <i><a href="/wiki/Ludi" title="Ludi">ludi</a></i> (public games). Public money was allocated for the staging of <i>ludi,</i> but the presiding official increasingly came to augment the splendor of his games from personal funds as a form of <a href="/wiki/Public_relations" title="Public relations">public relations</a>. The sponsor was able to cultivate the favor of the people of <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Islamic_caliphates">Islamic caliphates</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welfare_state&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Islamic caliphates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The concept of states taxing for the welfare budget was introduced to the Arabs in the early 7th century by caliph Omar, most likely adapted from the newly Roman territories.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Zakat" title="Zakat">Zakat</a></i> is also one of the <a href="/wiki/Five_pillars_of_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Five pillars of Islam">five pillars of Islam</a> and is a mandatory form of 2.5% <a href="/wiki/Wealth_tax" title="Wealth tax">Wealth tax</a> to be paid by all individuals holding above a basic threshold (<a href="/wiki/Nisab" title="Nisab">nisab</a>) to provide for the needy once a year after <a href="/wiki/Ramadan" title="Ramadan">Ramadan</a>. <a href="/wiki/Umar" title="Umar">Umar</a> (584–644), leader of the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a> (empire), established a welfare state through the <a href="/wiki/Bayt_al-mal" title="Bayt al-mal">Bayt al-mal</a> (treasury), which for instance was used to stockpile food in every region of the Islamic Empire reserved for Arabs in the Peninsula.<sup id="cite_ref-Edinburgh_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edinburgh-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern">Modern</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welfare_state&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Modern"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Otto von Bismarck</a> established the first welfare state in a modern industrial society, with <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck#Social_legislation" title="Otto von Bismarck">social-welfare legislation</a>, in 1880s <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Germany">Imperial Germany</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Vis_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vis-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bismarck extended the privileges of the <a href="/wiki/Junker" title="Junker">Junker</a> social class to ordinary Germans.<sup id="cite_ref-Vis_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vis-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His 17 November 1881 Imperial Message to the <a href="/wiki/Reichstag_(German_Empire)" title="Reichstag (German Empire)">Reichstag</a> used the term "practical Christianity" to describe his program.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> German laws from this era also insured workers against industrial risks inherent in the workplace.<sup id="cite_ref-Austria_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Austria-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>, the Swiss Factory Act of 1877 limited working hours for everyone, and gave maternity benefits.<sup id="cite_ref-Austria_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Austria-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Public_Welfare_Policy_in_Switzerland" title="Public Welfare Policy in Switzerland">Swiss welfare state</a> also arose in the late 19th century; its existence and depth varied individually by <a href="/wiki/Cantons_of_Switzerland" title="Cantons of Switzerland">canton</a>. Some of the programs first adopted were emergency relief, elementary schools, and homes for the elderly and children.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Austro-Hungarian Empire">Austro-Hungarian Empire</a>, a version was set up by Count <a href="/wiki/Eduard_von_Taaffe" class="mw-redirect" title="Eduard von Taaffe">Eduard von Taaffe</a> a few years after Bismarck in Germany. Legislation to help the working class in Austria emerged from <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic</a> <a href="/wiki/Christian_right" title="Christian right">conservatives</a>. Von Taffe used Swiss and German models of social reform, including the Swiss Factory Act of 1877 German laws that insured workers against industrial risks inherent in the workplace to create the 1885 Trade Code Amendment.<sup id="cite_ref-Austria_39-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Austria-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Changed attitudes in reaction to the worldwide <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> of the 1930s, which brought unemployment and misery to millions, were instrumental in the move to the welfare state in many countries. During the Great Depression, the welfare state was seen as a "middle way" between the extremes of <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communism</a> on the left and unregulated <i><a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire" title="Laissez-faire">laissez-faire</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a> on the right.<sup id="cite_ref-WF_EPE_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WF_EPE-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the period following World War II, some countries in Western Europe moved from partial or selective provision of <a href="/wiki/Social_service" class="mw-redirect" title="Social service">social services</a> to relatively comprehensive "cradle-to-grave" coverage of the population. Other Western European states did not, such as the United Kingdom, Ireland, Spain and France.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEsping-Andersen1990108_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsping-Andersen1990108-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Political scientist <a href="/wiki/Eileen_McDonagh" title="Eileen McDonagh">Eileen McDonagh</a> has argued that a major determinant of where welfare states arose is whether or not a country had a historical monarchy with familial foundations (a trait that <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a> called <a href="/wiki/Patrimonialism" title="Patrimonialism">patrimonialism</a>); in places where the monarchic state was viewed as a parental steward of the populace, it was easier to shift into a mindset where the industrial state could also serve as a parental steward of the populace.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The activities of present-day welfare states extend to the provision of both cash welfare benefits (such as old-age pensions or unemployment benefits) and in-kind welfare services (such as health or childcare services). Through these provisions, welfare states can affect the distribution of wellbeing and personal autonomy among their citizens, as well as influencing how their citizens consume and how they spend their time.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Analysis">Analysis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welfare_state&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Historian of the 20th-century <a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">fascist movement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Paxton" title="Robert Paxton">Robert Paxton</a>, observes that the provisions of the welfare state were enacted in the 19th century by <a href="/wiki/Christian_right" title="Christian right">religious conservatives</a> to counteract appeals from <a href="/wiki/Trade_union" title="Trade union">trade unions</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_socialism" title="History of socialism">socialism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Paxton_way_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Paxton_way-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later, Paxton writes "All the modern twentieth-century European dictatorships of the right, both fascist and authoritarian, were welfare states… They all provided medical care, pensions, affordable housing, and mass transport as a matter of course, in order to maintain productivity, national unity, and social peace."<sup id="cite_ref-Paxton_way_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Paxton_way-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Germany, <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a> maintained the welfare state established by previous German governments, but restructured it so as to help only <a href="/wiki/Aryan_race" title="Aryan race">Aryan</a> individuals considered worthy of assistance, excluding "alcoholics, tramps, homosexuals, prostitutes, the 'work-shy' or the 'asocial', habitual criminals, the hereditarily ill (a widely defined category) and members of races other than the Aryan."<sup id="cite_ref-Evans_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Evans-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, even with these limitations, over 17 million German citizens were receiving assistance under the auspices of the <a href="/wiki/Nationalsozialistische_Volkswohlfahrt" class="mw-redirect" title="Nationalsozialistische Volkswohlfahrt">National Socialist People's Welfare</a> by 1939.<sup id="cite_ref-Evans_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Evans-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When social democratic parties abandoned <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a> after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, they increasingly accepted the welfare state as a political goal, either as a temporary goal within capitalism or an ultimate goal in itself.<sup id="cite_ref-Paxton_way_46-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Paxton_way-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A theoretical addition from 2005 is that of Kahl in their article 'The religious roots of modern policy: Catholic, Lutheran and Reformed Protestant traditions compared'. They argue that the welfare state policies of several European countries can be traced back to their religious origins. This process has its origin in the 'poor relief' systems, and social norms present in Christian nations. The example countries are categorized as follows: Catholic – Spain, Italy and France; Lutheran – Denmark, Sweden and Germany; Reformed Protestant – Netherlands, the UK and the USA. The Catholic countries had a late adoption of welfare benefits and social assistance, the latter being splintered and meagre, due to several religious and social factors. Giving alms was an important part of catholic society as the wealthy could resolve their sins through participation in the act. As such, begging was allowed and was subject to a greater degree of acceptance. Poverty was seen as being close to grace and there was no onus for change placed onto the poor. These factors, coupled with the power of the church meant that state provided benefits did not arise until late in the 20th century. Additionally, social assistance was not done at a comprehensive level, each group in need had their assistance added incrementally. This accounts for the fragmented nature of social assistance in these countries.<sup id="cite_ref-Kahl_91-126_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kahl_91-126-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Lutheran states were early to provide welfare and late to provide social assistance but this was done uniformly. Poverty was seen as more of an individual affliction of laziness and immorality. Work was viewed as a calling. As such these societies banned begging and created workhouses to force the able-bodied to work. These uniform state actions paved the way for comprehensive welfare benefits, as those who worked deserved assistance when in need. When social assistance was delivered for those who had never worked, it was in the context of the uniform welfare provision. The concept of Predestination is key for understanding welfare assistance in Reformed Protestant states. Poor people were seen as being punished, therefore begging and state assistance was non existent. As such churches and charities filled the void resulting in early social assistance and late welfare benefits. The USA still has minimal welfare benefits today, because of their religious roots, according to Kahl.<sup id="cite_ref-Kahl_91-126_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kahl_91-126-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Also from 2005, Jacob Hacker stated that there was "broad agreement" in research on welfare that there had not been welfare state retrenchment. Instead, "social policy frameworks remain secure."<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Forms">Forms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welfare_state&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Forms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Welfare#Forms" class="mw-redirect" title="Welfare">Welfare § Forms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></div> <style 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href="/wiki/File:Orange_flag_waving.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Orange_flag_waving.svg/75px-Orange_flag_waving.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Orange_flag_waving.svg/113px-Orange_flag_waving.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Orange_flag_waving.svg/150px-Orange_flag_waving.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="249" data-file-height="268" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top: 1px solid #fa7406; text-align: center; padding-left: 0.4em; padding-right: 2.4em;;color: var(--color-base)">Principles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_social_teaching" title="Catholic social teaching">Catholic social teaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_corporatism" title="Christian corporatism">Christian corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_conservatism" title="Liberal conservatism">Liberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_conservatism" title="Progressive conservatism">Progressive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_conservatism" title="Social conservatism">Social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consistent_life_ethic" title="Consistent life ethic">Consistent life ethic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_mandate" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural mandate">Cultural mandate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_life" title="Culture of life">Culture of life</a></li> <li><a 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K. Chesterton">Chesterton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Day" title="Dorothy Day">Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herman_Dooyeweerd" title="Herman Dooyeweerd">Dooyeweerd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Gebhardt" title="Stanisław Gebhardt">Gebhardt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Gilson" title="Étienne Gilson">Gilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_G%C3%B6rres" title="Joseph Görres">Görres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guillaume_Groen_van_Prinsterer" title="Guillaume Groen van Prinsterer">Groen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Habsburg" title="Otto von Habsburg">Habsburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II" title="Pope John Paul II">John Paul II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Emmanuel_von_Ketteler" title="Wilhelm Emmanuel von Ketteler">Ketteler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wojciech_Korfanty" title="Wojciech Korfanty">Korfanty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9licit%C3%A9_de_La_Mennais" title="Félicité de La Mennais">Lamennais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_XIII" title="Pope Leo XIII">Leo XIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._S._Lewis" title="C. S. Lewis">Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Maritain" title="Jacques Maritain">Maritain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Mounier" title="Emmanuel Mounier">Mounier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_von_Nell-Breuning" title="Oswald von Nell-Breuning">Nell-Breuning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Pesch" title="Heinrich Pesch">Pesch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_XI" title="Pope Pius XI">Pius XI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edith_Stein" title="Edith Stein">Stein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Sturzo" title="Luigi Sturzo">Sturzo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Tischner" title="Józef Tischner">Tischner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Freiherr_von_Vogelsang" title="Karl Freiherr von Vogelsang">Vogelsang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rowan_Williams" title="Rowan Williams">Williams</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list 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Prinsterer">Groen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keith_Joseph" title="Keith Joseph">Joseph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Emmanuel_von_Ketteler" title="Wilhelm Emmanuel von Ketteler">Ketteler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helmut_Kohl" title="Helmut Kohl">Kohl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wojciech_Korfanty" title="Wojciech Korfanty">Korfanty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sebastian_Kurz" title="Sebastian Kurz">Kurz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Kuyper" title="Abraham Kuyper">Kuyper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Letta" title="Enrico Letta">Letta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilfried_Martens" title="Wilfried Martens">Martens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tadeusz_Mazowiecki" title="Tadeusz Mazowiecki">Mazowiecki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Merkel" title="Angela Merkel">Merkel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roberta_Metsola" title="Roberta Metsola">Metsola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Miko%C5%82ajczyk" title="Stanisław Mikołajczyk">Mikołajczyk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aldo_Moro" title="Aldo Moro">Moro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%A2nio_Quadros" title="Jânio Quadros">Quadros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_Pastrana_Arango" title="Andrés Pastrana Arango">Pastrana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewi_Pethrus" title="Lewi Pethrus">Pethrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Gert_P%C3%B6ttering" title="Hans-Gert Pöttering">Pöttering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano_Prodi" title="Romano Prodi">Prodi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Schuman" title="Robert Schuman">Schuman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Markus_S%C3%B6der" title="Markus Söder">Söder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Josef_Strauss" title="Franz Josef Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Sturzo" title="Luigi Sturzo">Sturzo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Tindemans" title="Leo Tindemans">Tindemans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Freiherr_von_Vogelsang" title="Karl Freiherr von Vogelsang">Vogelsang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ursula_von_der_Leyen" title="Ursula von der Leyen">von der Leyen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lech_Wa%C5%82%C4%99sa" title="Lech Wałęsa">Wałęsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manfred_Weber" title="Manfred Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Windthorst" title="Ludwig Windthorst">Windthorst</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top: 1px solid #fa7406; text-align: center; padding-left: 0.4em; padding-right: 2.4em;;color: var(--color-base)">Parties</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Solidarity_Party" title="American Solidarity Party">American Solidarity Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_People%27s_Party" title="Austrian People's Party">Austrian People's Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Democracy_(Italy)" title="Christian Democracy (Italy)">Christian Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Appeal" title="Christian Democratic Appeal">Christian Democratic Appeal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Democratic_and_Flemish" title="Christian Democratic and Flemish">Christian Democratic and Flemish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian-Democratic_Rebirth_Party" title="Christian-Democratic Rebirth Party">Christian Democratic Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Democratic_People%27s_Party_(Hungary)" title="Christian Democratic People's Party (Hungary)">Christian Democratic People's Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Union_of_Germany" title="Christian Democratic Union of Germany">Christian Democratic Union of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Social_People%27s_Party" title="Christian Social People's Party">Christian Social People's Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Social_Union_in_Bavaria" title="Christian Social Union in Bavaria">Christian Social Union in Bavaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centre_Party_(Germany)" title="Centre Party (Germany)">Centre Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civic_Platform" title="Civic Platform">Civic Platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatian_Democratic_Union" title="Croatian Democratic Union">Croatian Democratic Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Rally" title="Democratic Rally">Democratic Rally</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fianna_F%C3%A1il" title="Fianna Fáil">Fianna Fáil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fine_Gael" title="Fine Gael">Fine Gael</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kataeb_Party" title="Kataeb Party">Kataeb Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Action_Party_(Mexico)" title="National Action Party (Mexico)">National Action Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Party_(Uruguay)" title="National Party (Uruguay)">National Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalist_Party_(Malta)" title="Nationalist Party (Malta)">Nationalist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Democracy_(Greece)" title="New Democracy (Greece)">New Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriotic_Union_(Liechtenstein)" title="Patriotic Union (Liechtenstein)">Patriotic Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Party_(Spain)" title="People's Party (Spain)">People's Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Party" title="Polish People's Party">Polish People's Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_Republican_Movement" title="Popular Republican Movement">Popular Republican Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VMRO-DPMNE" title="VMRO-DPMNE">VMRO-DPMNE</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_democratic_parties" title="List of Christian democratic parties">More</a></i></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top: 1px solid #fa7406; text-align: center; padding-left: 0.4em; padding-right: 2.4em;;color: var(--color-base)">Organizations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Action" title="Catholic Action">Catholic Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrist_Democrat_International" title="Centrist Democrat International">Centrist Democrat International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Democrat_Organization_of_America" title="Christian Democrat Organization of America">Christian Democrat Organization of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_People%27s_Party" title="European People's Party">European People's Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Christian_Political_Movement" title="European Christian Political Movement">European Christian Political Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Adenauer_Foundation" title="Konrad Adenauer Foundation">Konrad Adenauer Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Christian_Fellowship" title="Conservative Christian Fellowship">Conservative Christian Fellowship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilfried_Martens_Centre_for_European_Studies" title="Wilfried Martens Centre for European Studies">Centre for European Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Ideas_Network" title="European Ideas Network">European Ideas Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Schuman_Foundation_(European_People%27s_Party)" title="Robert Schuman Foundation (European People's Party)">Schuman Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_Public_Justice" title="Center for Public Justice">Center for Public Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paneuropean_Union" title="Paneuropean Union">Paneuropean Union</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top: 1px solid #fa7406; text-align: center; padding-left: 0.4em; padding-right: 2.4em;;color: var(--color-base)">Documents</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Rerum_novarum" title="Rerum novarum">Rerum novarum</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Populorum_progressio" title="Populorum progressio">Populorum progressio</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Graves_de_communi_re" title="Graves de communi re">Graves de communi re</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Quadragesimo_anno" title="Quadragesimo anno">Quadragesimo anno</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Laborem_exercens" title="Laborem exercens">Laborem exercens</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sollicitudo_rei_socialis" title="Sollicitudo rei socialis">Sollicitudo rei socialis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Centesimus_annus" title="Centesimus annus">Centesimus annus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Laudato_si%27" title="Laudato si'">Laudato si'</a></i></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top: 1px solid #fa7406; text-align: center; padding-left: 0.4em; padding-right: 2.4em;;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_politics" title="Catholic Church and politics">Catholic Church and politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_left" title="Christian left">Christian left</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_anarchism" title="Christian anarchism">Christian anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_communism" title="Christian communism">Christian communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_socialism" title="Christian socialism">Christian socialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_right" title="Christian right">Christian right</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_libertarianism" title="Christian libertarianism">Christian libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_nationalism" title="Christian nationalism">Christian nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoconservatism" class="mw-redirect" title="Theoconservatism">Theoconservatism</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Clerical_philosophers" title="Clerical philosophers">Clerical philosophers</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_socialism" title="Ethical socialism">Ethical socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integralism" title="Integralism">Integralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illiberal_democracy" title="Illiberal democracy">Illiberal democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_democracy" title="Religious democracy">Religious democracy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_democracy" title="Buddhism and democracy">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_democracy" title="Islam and democracy">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_and_democratic_state" title="Jewish and democratic state">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodemocracy" title="Theodemocracy">Mormon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_Catholicism" title="Traditionalist Catholicism">Traditionalist Catholicism</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below plainlist" style="padding-bottom:0.22em; border-top:1px solid #fa7406; border-bottom:1px solid #fa7406; font-weight:bold"> <ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></span></li></ul> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P_christianity.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Christian cross"><img alt="Christian cross" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/20px-P_christianity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/30px-P_christianity.svg.png 1.5x, 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a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Christian_democracy_sidebar" title="Template:Christian democracy sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Christian_democracy_sidebar" title="Template talk:Christian democracy sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Christian_democracy_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Christian democracy sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Social_democracy" title="Category:Social democracy">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding:0.65em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Rose_(symbolism)#Socialism_and_social_democracy" title="Rose (symbolism)"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Pu%C3%B1o_y_rosa.svg/50px-Pu%C3%B1o_y_rosa.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="73" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Pu%C3%B1o_y_rosa.svg/75px-Pu%C3%B1o_y_rosa.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Pu%C3%B1o_y_rosa.svg/100px-Pu%C3%B1o_y_rosa.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="581" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B60202;background:transparent;padding-left:0.3em;text-align:center;color:black;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_social_democracy" title="History of social democracy">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="margin-top:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_Declaration" title="Frankfurt Declaration">Frankfurt Declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Godesberg_Program" title="Godesberg Program">Godesberg Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internationalist%E2%80%93defencist_schism" title="Internationalist–defencist schism">Internationalist–defencist schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_movement" title="Labour movement">Labor movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Marxism" title="Orthodox Marxism">Orthodox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionism_(Marxism)" title="Revisionism (Marxism)">Revisionist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_model" title="Nordic model">Nordic model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy#Second_International_era_and_reform_or_revolution_dispute_(1889–1914)" title="Social democracy">Reformist–revolutionary dispute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_socialism" title="History of socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopian_socialism" title="Utopian socialism">Utopian socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_capitalism" title="Welfare capitalism">Welfare capitalism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B60202;background:transparent;padding-left:0.3em;text-align:center;color:black;;color: var(--color-base)">Concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="margin-top:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">Civil liberties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_democracy" title="Economic democracy">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_democracy" title="Industrial democracy">Industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Representative_democracy" title="Representative democracy">Representative</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dirigisme" title="Dirigisme">Dirigisme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_protection" title="Environmental protection">Environmental protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fair_trade" title="Fair trade">Fair trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gradualism" title="Gradualism">Gradualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_abuse" title="Institutional abuse">Institutional abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internationalism_(politics)#Socialism" title="Internationalism (politics)">Internationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_reform" title="Land reform">Land reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_rights" title="Labor rights">Labor rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_nationalism" title="Left-wing nationalism">Left-wing nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_economy" title="Mixed economy">Mixed economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalization" title="Nationalization">Nationalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_and_positive_rights" title="Negative and positive rights">Negative and positive rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">Progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformism" title="Reformism">Reformism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformist_Left" class="mw-redirect" title="Reformist Left">Left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformism" title="Reformism">Socialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_socialism" title="Revolutionary socialism">Revolutionary socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_corporatism" title="Social corporatism">Social corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_market_economy" title="Social market economy">Social market economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_state" title="Socialist state">Socialist state</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_capitalism" title="State capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_socialism" title="State socialism">Socialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_abuse" title="Structural abuse">Structural abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_violence" title="Structural violence">Structural violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_union" title="Trade union">Trade union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripartism" title="Tripartism">Tripartism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Welfare">Welfare</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Welfare state</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B60202;background:transparent;padding-left:0.3em;text-align:center;color:black;;color: var(--color-base)">Variants</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="margin-top:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_socialism" title="Democratic socialism">Democratic socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_socialism" title="Ethical socialism">Ethical socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein#Opinions" title="Eduard Bernstein">Evolutionary socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_socialism" title="Liberal socialism">Liberal socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_of_the_21st_century" title="Socialism of the 21st century">Socialism of the 21st century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B60202;background:transparent;padding-left:0.3em;text-align:center;color:black;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_social_democrats" title="List of social democrats">People</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="margin-top:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvador_Allende" title="Salvador Allende">Allende</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacinda_Ardern" title="Jacinda Ardern">Ardern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clement_Attlee" title="Clement Attlee">Attlee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obafemi_Awolowo" title="Obafemi Awolowo">Awolowo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Batlle_y_Ord%C3%B3%C3%B1ez" title="José Batlle y Ordóñez">Batlle y Ordóñez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_Bebel" title="August Bebel">Bebel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Ben-Gurion" title="David Ben-Gurion">Ben-Gurion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein" title="Eduard Bernstein">Bernstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%B3mulo_Betancourt" title="Rómulo Betancourt">Betancourt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zulfikar_Ali_Bhutto" title="Zulfikar Ali Bhutto">Bhutto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tony_Blair" title="Tony Blair">Blair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Blanc" title="Louis Blanc">Blanc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willy_Brandt" title="Willy Brandt">Brandt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hjalmar_Branting" title="Hjalmar Branting">Branting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Brown" title="Gordon Brown">Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Callaghan" title="James Callaghan">Callaghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A1zaro_C%C3%A1rdenas" title="Lázaro Cárdenas">Cárdenas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helen_Clark" title="Helen Clark">Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bettino_Craxi" title="Bettino Craxi">Craxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Crosland" title="Anthony Crosland">Crosland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Corbyn" title="Jeremy Corbyn">Corbyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Curtin" title="John Curtin">Curtin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignacy_Daszy%C5%84ski" title="Ignacy Daszyński">Daszyński</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_V._Debs" title="Eugene V. Debs">Debs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tommy_Douglas" title="Tommy Douglas">Douglas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willem_Drees" title="Willem Drees">Drees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Ebert" title="Friedrich Ebert">Ebert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%BClent_Ecevit" title="Bülent Ecevit">Ecevit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Fraser" title="Peter Fraser">Fraser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Gaitskell" title="Hugh Gaitskell">Gaitskell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indira_Gandhi" title="Indira Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felipe_Gonz%C3%A1lez" title="Felipe González">González</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_Goulart" title="João Goulart">Goulart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keir_Hardie" title="Keir Hardie">Hardie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Hilferding" title="Rudolf Hilferding">Hilferding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erdal_%C4%B0n%C3%B6n%C3%BC" title="Erdal İnönü">İnönü</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Jaur%C3%A8s" title="Jean Jaurès">Jaurès</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Jenkins" title="Roy Jenkins">Jenkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamal_Jumblatt" title="Kamal Jumblatt">Jumblatt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carsun_Chang" title="Carsun Chang">Junmai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetsu_Katayama" title="Tetsu Katayama">Katayama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Kautsky" title="Karl Kautsky">Kautsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Kerensky" title="Alexander Kerensky">Kerensky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anna_K%C3%A9thly" title="Anna Kéthly">Kéthly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Kirk" title="Norman Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ricardo_Lagos" title="Ricardo Lagos">Lagos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Lassalle" title="Ferdinand Lassalle">Lassalle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Layton" title="Jack Layton">Layton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_L%C3%A9vesque" title="René Lévesque">Lévesque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Liebknecht" title="Wilhelm Liebknecht">Liebknecht (father)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Liebknecht" title="Karl Liebknecht">Liebknecht (son)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Luxemburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramsay_MacDonald" title="Ramsay MacDonald">MacDonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Mandela" title="Nelson Mandela">Mandela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alva_Myrdal" title="Alva Myrdal">Myrdal (Alva)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunnar_Myrdal" title="Gunnar Myrdal">Myrdal (Gunnar)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru" title="Jawaharlal Nehru">Nehru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olof_Palme" title="Olof Palme">Palme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgi_Plekhanov" title="Georgi Plekhanov">Plekhanov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano_Prodi" title="Romano Prodi">Prodi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Radbruch" title="Gustav Radbruch">Radbruch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_S%C3%A1nchez" title="Pedro Sánchez">Sánchez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernie_Sanders" title="Bernie Sanders">Sanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Joseph_Savage" title="Michael Joseph Savage">Savage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olaf_Scholz" title="Olaf Scholz">Scholz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorvald_Stauning" title="Thorvald Stauning">Stauning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Thomas" title="Norman Thomas">Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joop_den_Uyl" title="Joop den Uyl">Den Uyl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidney_Webb,_1st_Baron_Passfield" title="Sidney Webb, 1st Baron Passfield">Webb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gough_Whitlam" title="Gough Whitlam">Whitlam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Wilson" title="Harold Wilson">Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noe_Zhordania" title="Noe Zhordania">Zhordania</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #B60202;background:transparent;padding-left:0.3em;text-align:center;color:black;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_social_democratic_parties" title="List of social democratic parties">Organizations</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="margin-top:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Trade_Union_Confederation" title="International Trade Union Confederation">International Trade Union Confederation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Union_of_Socialist_Youth" title="International Union of Socialist Youth">International Union of Socialist Youth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Party_of_European_Socialists" title="Party of European Socialists">Party of European Socialists</a></li> <li><a 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Internationale</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Types_of_socialism" title="Types of socialism">Types of socialism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below plainlist" style="font-weight:normal; border-top:1px solid #B60202; border-bottom:none;"> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem-money.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/16px-Emblem-money.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/24px-Emblem-money.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/32px-Emblem-money.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Economics" title="Portal:Economics">Economics 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--background-color-base, #FFFFFF ); color: var( --color-base, inherit );"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Liberalism" title="Category:Liberalism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding-top:0.6em"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Political_colour#Yellow" title="Political colour"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Yellow_flag_waving.svg/75px-Yellow_flag_waving.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Yellow_flag_waving.svg/113px-Yellow_flag_waving.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Yellow_flag_waving.svg/150px-Yellow_flag_waving.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="249" data-file-height="268" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #C5C12B; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_liberalism" title="History of liberalism">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_liberal_theorists" title="List of liberal theorists">List of liberal theorists</a> (contributions to liberal theory)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #C5C12B; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Principles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Due_process" title="Due process">Due process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalism" title="Economic liberalism">Economic liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_globalization" title="Economic globalization">Economic globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equality" title="Social equality">Equality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gender_equality" title="Gender equality">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">Legal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalism" title="Federalism">Federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">Freedom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_freedom" title="Economic freedom">Economic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Free_market" title="Free market">Market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">Trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">Press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Speech</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harm_principle" title="Harm principle">Harm principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internationalism_(politics)" title="Internationalism (politics)">Internationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">Invisible hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_theory_of_property" title="Labor theory of property">Labor theory of property</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire" title="Laissez-faire">Laissez-faire</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negative_liberty" title="Negative liberty">Negative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_liberty" title="Positive liberty">Positive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limited_government" title="Limited government">Limited government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_economy" title="Market economy">Market economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_monopoly" title="Natural monopoly">Natural monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_society" title="Open society">Open society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permissive_society" title="Permissive society">Permissive society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_sovereignty" title="Popular sovereignty">Popular sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">Private</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_property" title="Public property">Public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_and_political_rights" title="Civil and political rights">Civil and political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_rights_and_legal_rights" title="Natural rights and legal rights">Natural and legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_property" title="Right to property">To own property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms" title="Right to keep and bear arms">To bear arms</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_services" title="Social services">Social services</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Welfare state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whig_history" title="Whig history">Whig history</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #C5C12B; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_liberal_theorists" title="List of liberal theorists">Philosophers</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot">Turgot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Priestley" title="Joseph Priestley">Priestley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adamantios_Korais" title="Adamantios Korais">Korais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olympe_De_Gouges" class="mw-redirect" title="Olympe De Gouges">De Gouges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Wollstonecraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Say" title="Jean-Baptiste Say">Say</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">Humboldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">Ricardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Guizot" title="François Guizot">Guizot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_List" title="Friedrich List">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Martineau" title="Harriet Martineau">Martineau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Arnold" title="Matthew Arnold">Arnold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dalberg-Acton,_1st_Baron_Acton" title="John Dalberg-Acton, 1st Baron Acton">Acton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Hobhouse" title="Leonard Hobhouse">Hobhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benedetto_Croce" title="Benedetto Croce">Croce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Cassirer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">Keynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">Collingwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karel_%C4%8Capek" title="Karel Čapek">Čapek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hu_Shih" title="Hu Shih">Hu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Friedman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Sen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_Kymlicka" title="Will Kymlicka">Kymlicka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raif_Badawi" title="Raif Badawi">Badawi</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #C5C12B; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Politicians</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Ko%C5%82%C5%82%C4%85taj" title="Hugo Kołłątaj">Kołłątaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Gervasio_Artigas" title="José Gervasio Artigas">Artigas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar" title="Simón Bolívar">Bolívar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_de_Broglie_(1785%E2%80%931870)" title="Victor de Broglie (1785–1870)">Broglie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alphonse_de_Lamartine" title="Alphonse de Lamartine">Lamartine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Babington_Macaulay" title="Thomas Babington Macaulay">Macaulay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lajos_Kossuth" title="Lajos Kossuth">Kossuth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferenc_De%C3%A1k_(politician)" title="Ferenc Deák (politician)">Deák</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Cobden" title="Richard Cobden">Cobden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benito_Ju%C3%A1rez" title="Benito Juárez">Juárez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Ewart_Gladstone" title="William Ewart Gladstone">Gladstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camillo_Benso,_Count_of_Cavour" title="Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour">Cavour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domingo_Faustino_Sarmiento" title="Domingo Faustino Sarmiento">Sarmiento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_Mommsen" title="Theodor Mommsen">Mommsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dadabhai_Naoroji" title="Dadabhai Naoroji">Naoroji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itagaki_Taisuke" title="Itagaki Taisuke">Itagaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasil_Levski" title="Vasil Levski">Levski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nam%C4%B1k_Kemal" title="Namık Kemal">Kemal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Deakin" title="Alfred Deakin">Deakin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pavel_Milyukov" title="Pavel Milyukov">Milyukov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lloyd_George" title="David Lloyd George">Lloyd George</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleftherios_Venizelos" title="Eleftherios Venizelos">Venizelos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaarlo_Juho_St%C3%A5hlberg" title="Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg">Ståhlberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gopal_Krishna_Gokhale" title="Gopal Krishna Gokhale">Gokhale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walther_Rathenau" title="Walther Rathenau">Rathenau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_I._Madero" title="Francisco I. Madero">Madero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Einaudi" title="Luigi Einaudi">Einaudi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lyon_Mackenzie_King" title="William Lyon Mackenzie King">King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lester_B._Pearson" title="Lester B. Pearson">Pearson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertil_Ohlin" title="Bertil Ohlin">Ohlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">Kennedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Jenkins" title="Roy Jenkins">Jenkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leszek_Balcerowicz" title="Leszek Balcerowicz">Balcerowicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Verhofstadt" title="Guy Verhofstadt">Verhofstadt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Macron" title="Emmanuel Macron">Macron</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #C5C12B; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Organizations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Africa_Liberal_Network" title="Africa Liberal Network">Africa Liberal Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_of_Liberals_and_Democrats_for_Europe" title="Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe">Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_of_Liberals_and_Democrats_for_Europe_Party" title="Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party">Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Liberal_Federation" title="Arab Liberal Federation">Arab Liberal Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Asian_Liberals_and_Democrats" title="Council of Asian Liberals and Democrats">Council of Asian Liberals and Democrats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Democratic_Party" title="European Democratic Party">European Democratic Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Liberal_Youth" title="European Liberal Youth">European Liberal Youth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Alliance_of_Libertarian_Parties" title="International Alliance of Libertarian Parties">International Alliance of Libertarian Parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Federation_of_Liberal_Youth" title="International Federation of Liberal Youth">International Federation of Liberal Youth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_International" title="Liberal International">Liberal International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Network_for_Latin_America" title="Liberal Network for Latin America">Liberal Network for Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Liberal_parties" title="Category:Liberal parties">Liberal parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_South_East_European_Network" title="Liberal South East European Network">Liberal South East European Network</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #C5C12B; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Liberal_parties_by_country" title="Liberal parties by country">Regional variants</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Europe" title="Liberalism in Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_conservatism_in_Latin_America" title="Liberalism and conservatism in Latin America">Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Albania" title="Liberalism in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Armenia" title="Liberalism in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Australia" title="Liberalism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Austria" title="Liberalism in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Belgium" title="Liberalism in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Bolivia" title="Liberalism in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Brazil" title="Liberalism in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Bulgaria" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Canada" title="Liberalism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Chile" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_China" title="Liberalism in China">China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Hong_Kong" title="Liberalism in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Colombia" title="Liberalism in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Costa_Rica" title="Liberalism in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Croatia" title="Liberalism in Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Cuba" title="Liberalism in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Cyprus" title="Liberalism in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Czechia" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberalism in Czechia">Czechia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Denmark" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Ecuador" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Egypt" title="Liberalism in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_centrism_in_Estonia" title="Liberalism and centrism in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_centrism_in_Finland" title="Liberalism and centrism in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_France" title="Liberalism and radicalism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Georgia" title="Liberalism in Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Germany" title="Liberalism in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Greece" title="Liberalism in Greece">Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Venizelism" title="Venizelism">Venizelism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Honduras" title="Liberalism in Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Hungary" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_India" title="Liberalism in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Iran" title="Liberalism in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Israel" title="Liberalism in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Italy" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Italy">Italy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberism" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberism">Liberism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Japan" title="Liberalism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Latvia" title="Liberalism in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Lithuania" title="Liberalism in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Luxembourg" title="Liberalism in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Mexico" title="Liberalism in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Moldova" title="Liberalism in Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Montenegro" title="Liberalism in Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_the_Netherlands" title="Liberalism in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historic_liberalism_in_New_Zealand" title="Historic liberalism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Nicaragua" title="Liberalism in Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Nigeria" title="Liberalism in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_North_Macedonia" title="Liberalism in North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Norway" title="Liberalism in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Panama" title="Liberalism in Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Paraguay" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Peru" title="Liberalism in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_the_Philippines" title="Liberalism in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Poland" title="Liberalism in Poland">Poland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w_School_of_Economics" title="Kraków School of Economics">Cracovian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Portugal" title="Liberalism in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Romania" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Russia" title="Liberalism in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Senegal" title="Liberalism in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Serbia" title="Liberalism in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Slovakia" title="Liberalism in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Slovenia" title="Liberalism in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_South_Africa" title="Liberalism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_South_Korea" title="Liberalism in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Spain" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_centrism_in_Sweden" title="Liberalism and centrism in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Switzerland" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism_in_Taiwan" title="Progressivism in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Thailand" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberalism in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Tunisia" title="Liberalism in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Turkey" title="Liberalism in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Ukraine" title="Liberalism in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Liberalism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cobdenism" title="Cobdenism">Cobdenism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gladstonian_liberalism" title="Gladstonian liberalism">Gladstonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchester_Liberalism" title="Manchester Liberalism">Manchester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whiggism" title="Whiggism">Whiggism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_the_United_States" title="Liberalism in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_liberalism" title="Neoclassical liberalism">Arizona School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_in_the_United_States" title="Libertarianism in the United States">Classical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jeffersonian_democracy" title="Jeffersonian democracy">Jeffersonian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_liberalism_in_the_United_States" title="Modern liberalism in the United States">Modern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Uruguay" title="Liberalism in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_(Venezuela)" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberal Party (Venezuela)">Venezuela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Zimbabwe" title="Liberalism in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #C5C12B; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-authoritarianism" title="Anti-authoritarianism">Anti-authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communism" title="Anti-communism">Anti-communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_views_of_American_academics" title="Political views of American academics">Bias in American academia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias" title="Media bias">Bias in the media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_capitalism" title="Democratic capitalism">Democratic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrism" title="Centrism">Centrism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radical_centrism" title="Radical centrism">Radical centrism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_freedom" title="Economic freedom">Economic freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Individualist_Anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Individualist Anarchism">Anarchist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_value_tax" title="Land value tax">Land value tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left-libertarianism" title="Left-libertarianism">Left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-libertarianism" title="Right-libertarianism">Right</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pirate_Party" title="Pirate Party">Pirate Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">Progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-positive_feminism" title="Sex-positive feminism">Sexually liberal feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #C5C12B; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Schools</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_liberalism" title="Conservative liberalism">Conservative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_liberalism" title="Cultural liberalism">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_feminism" title="Liberal feminism">Feminist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equity_feminism" title="Equity feminism">Equity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_liberalism" title="Green liberalism">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_internationalism" title="Liberal internationalism">Internationalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscular_liberalism" title="Muscular liberalism">Muscular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_liberalism" title="National liberalism">National</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_liberalism" title="Neoclassical liberalism">Neoclassical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoliberalism" title="Neoliberalism">Neo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordoliberalism" title="Ordoliberalism">Ordo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_radicalism" title="Classical radicalism">Radical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_liberalism" title="Religious liberalism">Religious</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Christianity" title="Liberal Christianity">Christian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Catholicism" title="Liberal Catholicism">Catholic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_progressivism_within_Islam" title="Liberalism and progressivism within Islam">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Jewish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_liberalism" title="Secular liberalism">Secular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_liberalism" title="Social liberalism">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technoliberalism" title="Technoliberalism">Techno</a></li> <li><a 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class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/16px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/24px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/32px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Liberalism_sidebar" title="Template:Liberalism sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Liberalism_sidebar" title="Template talk:Liberalism sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Liberalism_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Liberalism sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Broadly speaking, welfare states are either universal, with provisions that cover everybody; or selective, with provisions covering only those deemed most needy. In his 1990 book, <i>The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism</i>, Danish sociologist <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B8sta_Esping-Andersen" title="Gøsta Esping-Andersen">Gøsta Esping-Andersen</a> further identified three subtypes of welfare state models; liberal, social-democratic, and conservative.<sup id="cite_ref-Bo_Rothstein_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bo_Rothstein-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Esping-Anderson development of the three subtypes of welfare regimes were categorized under three dimensions: 1) state and market relations or the relationship between the state and market, 2) stratification or social relations and relationships, 3) social citizenship rights or whether or not an individual is dependent on the labor market.<sup id="cite_ref-Esping-Andersen2_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Esping-Andersen2-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since the building of the decommodification index is limited<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the typology is debatable, these 18 countries could be ranked from most purely social-democratic (Sweden) to the most liberal (the United States).<sup id="cite_ref-FS_regime_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FS_regime-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 597">: 597 </span></sup> Ireland represents a near-hybrid model whereby two streams of unemployment benefit exist: contributory and means-tested. However, payments can begin immediately and are theoretically available to all Irish citizens even if they have never worked, provided they are habitually resident.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Social stigma varies across the three conceptual welfare states. Particularly, it is highest in liberal states, and lowest in social democratic states.<sup id="cite_ref-Esping-Andersen_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Esping-Andersen-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Esping-Andersen proposes that the universalist nature of social democratic states eliminate the duality between beneficiaries and non-recipients, whereas in means-tested liberal states there is resentment towards redistribution efforts. That is to say, the lower the percent of GDP spent on welfare, the higher the stigma of the welfare state.<sup id="cite_ref-Esping-Andersen_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Esping-Andersen-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Esping-Andersen also argues that welfare states set the stage for post-industrial employment evolution in terms of employment growth, structure, and stratification. He uses Germany, Sweden, and the United States to provide examples of the differing results of each of the three welfare states.<sup id="cite_ref-Esping-Andersen_55-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Esping-Andersen-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Evelyne Huber and John Stephens, different types of welfare states emerged as a result of prolonged government by different parties. They distinguish between social democratic welfare states, Christian democratic welfare states, and "wage earner" states.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to the Swedish political scientist <a href="/wiki/Bo_Rothstein" title="Bo Rothstein">Bo Rothstein</a>, in non-universal welfare states, the state is primarily concerned with directing resources to "the people most in need". This requires tight bureaucratic control in order to determine who is eligible for assistance and who is not. Under universal models such as Sweden, on the other hand, the state distributes welfare to all people who fulfill easily established criteria (e.g. having children, receiving medical treatment, etc.) with as little bureaucratic interference as possible. This, however, requires higher taxation due to the scale of services provided. This model was constructed by the Scandinavian ministers <a href="/wiki/Karl_Kristian_Steincke" title="Karl Kristian Steincke">Karl Kristian Steincke</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gustav_M%C3%B6ller" title="Gustav Möller">Gustav Möller</a> in the 1930s and is dominant in Scandinavia.<sup id="cite_ref-Bo_Rothstein_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bo_Rothstein-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sociologist <a href="/wiki/Lane_Kenworthy" title="Lane Kenworthy">Lane Kenworthy</a> argues that the Nordic experience demonstrates that the modern social democratic model can "promote economic security, expand opportunity, and ensure rising living standards for all ... while facilitating freedom, flexibility and market dynamism."<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>American political scientist <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Radcliff" title="Benjamin Radcliff">Benjamin Radcliff</a> has also argued that the universality and generosity of the welfare state (i.e. the extent of <a href="/wiki/Decommodification" title="Decommodification">decommodification</a>) is the single most important societal-level structural factor affecting the quality of human life, based on the analysis of time serial data across both the industrial democracies and the American States. He maintains that the welfare state improves life for everyone, regardless of social class (as do similar institutions, such as pro-worker labor market regulations and strong labor unions).<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gender_and_welfare">Gender and welfare</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welfare_state&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Gender and welfare"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Esping-Andersen's welfare typology is often criticized by feminists for being gender blind.<sup id="cite_ref-Nakray-2021_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nakray-2021-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Keerty Nakray, Esping-Andersen's three types of dimensions (state and market relations, stratification, and social citizenship rights) does not acknowledge unpaid care-work done by women within the household economy. This failure of recognizing unpaid work is due to the fact that welfare states are focused on the male-breadwinner concept.<sup id="cite_ref-Nakray-2021_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nakray-2021-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because Esping-Andersen argued that the welfare state set the stage for employment evolution, the lack of gender analysis creates an unintended emphasis on male employment. </p><p>Sociologist <a href="/wiki/Ann_Shola_Orloff" title="Ann Shola Orloff">Ann Shola Orloff</a> reframes the three dimensions with a gendered lens. As she reframes, Orloff incorporates gender and expands the decommodification index within three dimensions: 1) focus on families and the welfare states in state and market relations, 2) including the relationship between gender and labor in stratifications on social provisions, 3) how men and women are dependent on the labor market and the effect of welfare on decommodification for both genders.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Reframing the decommodification index with a gendered lens ensures women doing care-work don't get left behind within the welfare state. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="UBI_as_a_replacement_for_the_welfare_state">UBI as a replacement for the welfare state</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welfare_state&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: UBI as a replacement for the welfare state"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Universal_basic_income" title="Universal basic income">Universal basic income</a> (UBI) has been proposed as a replacement for the traditional welfare state where social protection schemes are also <a href="/wiki/Social_policy" title="Social policy">social policies</a> with a precise aim that can be regarded as <a href="/wiki/Social_engineering_(political_science)" title="Social engineering (political science)">social engineering</a>. The focus of the UBI is granting individuals more <a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">freedom</a> in determining life choices by providing a lifetime of financial security regardless of one's career preferences or lifepath.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to statements of <a href="/wiki/American_Enterprise_Institute" title="American Enterprise Institute">American Enterprise Institute</a>-affiliated Libertarian/conservative scholar <a href="/wiki/Charles_Murray_(political_scientist)" title="Charles Murray (political scientist)">Charles Murray</a>, recalled and sanctioned by the George Gibbs Chair in Political Economy and Senior Research Fellow at the <a href="/wiki/Mercatus_Center" title="Mercatus Center">Mercatus Center</a> at George Mason University and nationally syndicated columnist<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Veronique de Rugy, as of 2014, the annual cost of a UBI in the US would have been about $200 billion cheaper than the US system put in place at that date.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 2020, it would have been nearly a trillion dollars cheaper.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="By_country_or_region">By country or region <span class="anchor" id="By_country"></span></h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welfare_state&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: By country or region"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Welfare#By_country" class="mw-redirect" title="Welfare">Welfare § By country</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Australia">Australia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welfare_state&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Australia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Social_security_in_Australia" title="Social security in Australia">Social security in Australia</a></div> <p>Prior to 1900 in Australia, charitable assistance from benevolent societies, sometimes with financial contributions from the authorities, was the primary means of relief for people not able to support themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-abs-1988_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-abs-1988-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 1890s economic depression and the rise of the trade unions and the <a href="/wiki/Australian_Labor_Party#History" title="Australian Labor Party">Labor parties</a> during this period led to a movement for welfare reform.<sup id="cite_ref-dict-syd-2008_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dict-syd-2008-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1900, New South Wales and Victoria enacted legislation introducing non-contributory pensions for those aged 65 and over. Queensland legislated a similar system in 1907 before the <a href="/wiki/Deakin_government_(1905%E2%80%931908)" title="Deakin government (1905–1908)">Deakin government</a> introduced a national aged pension under the <i>Invalid and Old-Aged Pensions Act 1908</i>. A national invalid disability pension was started in 1910, and a national maternity allowance was introduced by the <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Fisher" title="Andrew Fisher">Fisher government</a> in 1912.<sup id="cite_ref-abs-1988_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-abs-1988-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-australia-wr-2000_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-australia-wr-2000-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 1920s and 1930s, detailed proposals were developed for <a href="/wiki/National_Insurance_(Australia)" title="National Insurance (Australia)">a comprehensive national insurance scheme</a> covering medical, disability, unemployment and pension benefits. Multiple royal commissions were held on the subject and the scheme was legislated as the <i><a href="/wiki/National_Health_and_Pensions_Insurance_Act_1938" class="mw-redirect" title="National Health and Pensions Insurance Act 1938">National Health and Pensions Insurance Act 1938</a></i>. However, the scheme was ultimately abandoned for cost reasons in the lead-up to the Second World War.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the Second World War, the federal government created a welfare state by enacting national schemes for: child endowment in 1941; a widows' pension in 1942; a wife's allowance in 1943; additional allowances for the children of pensioners in 1943; and unemployment, sickness, and special benefits in 1945.<sup id="cite_ref-abs-1988_67-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-abs-1988-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-australia-wr-2000_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-australia-wr-2000-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Medicare_(Australia)" title="Medicare (Australia)">Medicare</a> is Australia's publicly funded universal health care insurance scheme. Initially created in 1975 by the <a href="/wiki/Whitlam" class="mw-redirect" title="Whitlam">Whitlam</a> Labor government under the name "Medibank". The Fraser Liberal government made significant changes to it from 1976 leading to its abolition in late 1981. The Hawke government reinstated universal health care in 1984 under the name "Medicare". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Canada">Canada</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welfare_state&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Canada"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Canada's <a href="/wiki/Social_programs_in_Canada" title="Social programs in Canada">welfare programs</a><sup id="cite_ref-Canada_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Canada-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are funded and administered at all levels of government (with 13 different<sup id="cite_ref-Canada_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Canada-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> provincial/territorial systems), and include health and medical care, public education (through graduate school), social housing and social services. Social support is given through programs including Social Assistance, Guaranteed Income Supplement, Child Tax Benefit, Old Age Security, Employment Insurance, Workers' Compensation, and the Canada/Quebec Pension Plans.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="France">France</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welfare_state&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: France"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Health_care_in_France" title="Health care in France">Health care in France</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_protection_in_France" title="Social protection in France">Social protection in France</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Social_security_in_France" title="Social security in France">Social security in France</a></div> <p>After 1830, French <a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">liberalism</a> and economic modernization were key goals. While liberalism was individualistic and laissez-faire in the United Kingdom and the United States, in France liberalism was based instead on a solidaristic conception of society, following the theme of the French Revolution, <i><a href="/wiki/Libert%C3%A9,_%C3%A9galit%C3%A9,_fraternit%C3%A9" title="Liberté, égalité, fraternité">Liberté, égalité, fraternité</a></i> ("liberty, equality, fraternity"). In the Third Republic, especially between 1895 and 1914 "Solidarité" ["solidarism"] was the guiding concept of a liberal social policy, whose chief champions were the prime ministers <a href="/wiki/Leon_Bourgeois" class="mw-redirect" title="Leon Bourgeois">Leon Bourgeois</a> (1895–96) and <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Waldeck-Rousseau" title="Pierre Waldeck-Rousseau">Pierre Waldeck-Rousseau</a> (1899–1902).<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The French welfare state expanded when it tried to follow some of Bismarck's policies.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Poor relief was the starting point.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More attention was paid to industrial labour in the 1930s during a short period of socialist political ascendency, with the <a href="/wiki/Matignon_Accords_(1936)" class="mw-redirect" title="Matignon Accords (1936)">Matignon Accords</a> and the reforms of the <a href="/wiki/Popular_Front_(France)" title="Popular Front (France)">Popular Front</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Paxton points out these reforms were paralleled and even exceeded by measures taken by the <a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy regime</a> in the 1940s. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Germany">Germany</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welfare_state&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Germany"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Welfare_in_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Welfare in Germany">Welfare in Germany</a></div> <p>Some policies enacted to enhance social welfare in Germany were Health Insurance 1883, Accident Insurance 1884, Old Age Pensions 1889 and National Unemployment Insurance 1927. <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Otto von Bismarck</a>, the powerful <a href="/wiki/Chancellor_of_Germany" title="Chancellor of Germany">Chancellor of Germany</a> (in office 1871–90), developed the first modern welfare state by building on a tradition of welfare programs in <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saxony" title="Saxony">Saxony</a> that had begun as early as in the 1840s. The measures that Bismarck introduced – old-age <a href="/wiki/Pension" title="Pension">pensions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Accidental_death_and_dismemberment_insurance" title="Accidental death and dismemberment insurance">accident insurance</a>, and employee health insurance – formed the basis of the modern European welfare state. His paternalistic programs aimed to forestall social unrest and to undercut the appeal of the new <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany#German_Empire_(1863–1918)" title="History of the Social Democratic Party of Germany">Social Democratic Party</a>, and to secure the support of the <a href="/wiki/Working_class" title="Working class">working classes</a> for the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a>, as well as to reduce emigration to the United States, where wages were higher but welfare did not exist.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bismarck further won the support of both industry and skilled workers through his high-<a href="/wiki/Tariff" title="Tariff">tariff</a> policies, which protected profits and wages from American competition, although they alienated the <a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalism" title="Economic liberalism">liberal</a> intellectuals who wanted <a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">free trade</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the 12 years of rule by <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a>, the welfare state established by previous German governments was maintained, but it was restructured so as to help only <a href="/wiki/Aryan_race" title="Aryan race">Aryan</a> individuals considered worthy of assistance, excluding "alcoholics, tramps, homosexuals, prostitutes, the 'work-shy' or the 'asocial', habitual criminals, the hereditarily ill (a widely defined category) and members of races other than the Aryan."<sup id="cite_ref-Evans_47-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Evans-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, even with these limitations, over 17 million German citizens received assistance under the auspices of the <a href="/wiki/Nationalsozialistische_Volkswohlfahrt" class="mw-redirect" title="Nationalsozialistische Volkswohlfahrt">Nationalsozialistische Volkswohlfahrt</a> (NSV) by 1939.<sup id="cite_ref-Evans_47-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Evans-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The agency projected a powerful image of caring and support for those who were seen as full members of the German racial community, but it also inspired fear through its intrusive questioning and the threat of opening investigations on those who did not fulfill the criteria for support.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="India_2">India</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welfare_state&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: India"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Social_security_in_India" title="Social security in India">Social security in India</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Directive_Principles_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Directive Principles of India">Directive Principles of State Policy</a>, enshrined in Part IV of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Constitution">Indian Constitution</a> reflects that India is a welfare state. Food security to all Indians is guaranteed under the <a href="/wiki/National_Food_Security_Act,_2013" title="National Food Security Act, 2013">National Food Security Act, 2013</a> where the government provides food grains to people at a very subsidised rate. </p><p>Since 2001, India has developed a strong welfare state with continuous increase in government expenditure on the social sector over the years. The general government's expenditure on social security and welfare which includes health insurances and public hospitals, education, grants for housing, financial transfers to the poor, free bus or metro tickets, unemployment benefits and a variety of social pensions was approximately <span class="nowrap"><span style="white-space: nowrap">₹</span>7,164,000 crore</span> (US$860 billion) in 2022, representing 8.4 percent of gross domestic product (GDP).<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Latin_America">Latin America</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welfare_state&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Latin America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Welfare states in <a href="/wiki/Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin America</a> have been considered as "welfare states in transition",<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or "emerging welfare states".<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Welfare states in Latin America have been described as "truncated": generous benefits for formal-sector workers, regressive subsidies and informal barriers for the poor to obtain benefits.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mesa-Lago has classified the countries taking into account the historical experience of their welfare systems.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The pioneers were Uruguay, Chile and Argentina, as they started to develop the first welfare programs in the 1920s following a bismarckian model. Other countries such as Costa Rica developed a more universal welfare system (1960s–1970s) with social security programs based on the Beveridge model.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Researchers such as Martinez-Franzoni<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Barba-Solano<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have examined and identified several welfare regime models based on the typology of Esping-Andersen. Other scholars such as Riesco<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Cruz-Martinez<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have examined the welfare state development in the region. </p><p>About welfare states in Latin America, Alex Segura-Ubiergo wrote: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Latin American countries can be unequivocally divided into two groups depending on their 'welfare effort' levels. The first group, which for convenience we may call welfare states, includes Uruguay, Argentina, Chile, Costa Rica, and Brazil. Within this group, average social spending per capita in the 1973–2000 period was around $532, while as a percentage of GDP and as a share of the budget, social spending reached 51.6 and 12.6 percent, respectively. In addition, between approximately 50 and 75 percent of the population is covered by the public health and pension social security system. In contrast, the second group of countries, which we call non-welfare states, has welfare-effort indices that range from 37 to 88. Within this second group, social spending per capita averaged $96.6, while social spending as a percentage of GDP and as a percentage of the budget averaged 5.2 and 34.7 percent, respectively. In terms of the percentage of the population actually covered, the percentage of the active population covered under some social security scheme does not even reach 10 percent.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_East">Middle East</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welfare_state&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Middle East"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Welfare_state&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2022</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Kuwait" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a><sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are examples of welfare states in the Middle East. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nordic_countries">Nordic countries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welfare_state&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Nordic countries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nordic_model" title="Nordic model">Nordic model</a></div> <p>The Nordic welfare model refers to the welfare <a href="/wiki/Social_policy" title="Social policy">policies</a> of the Nordic countries, which also tie into their labor market policies. The Nordic model of welfare is distinguished from other types of welfare states by its emphasis on maximizing labor force participation, promoting <a href="/wiki/Gender_equality" title="Gender equality">gender equality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">egalitarian</a> and extensive benefit levels, the large magnitude of income redistribution and liberal use of the expansionary fiscal policy.<sup id="cite_ref-Esping-Andersen_55-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Esping-Andersen-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While there are differences among the Nordic countries, they all share a broad commitment to social cohesion, a universal nature of welfare provision in order to safeguard individualism by providing protection for vulnerable individuals and groups in society and maximizing public participation in social decision-making. It is characterized by flexibility and openness to innovation in the provision of welfare. The Nordic welfare systems are mainly funded through <a href="/wiki/Taxation" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxation">taxation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Nordic_Council_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Nordic_Council-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="People's_Republic_of_China"><span id="People.27s_Republic_of_China"></span>People's Republic of China</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welfare_state&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: People's Republic of China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Social_welfare_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Social welfare in China">Social welfare in China</a></div> <p>China traditionally relied on the extended family to provide welfare services.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/One-child_policy" title="One-child policy">one-child policy</a> introduced in 1978 has made that unrealistic, and new models have emerged since the 1980s as China has rapidly become richer and more urban. Much discussion is underway regarding China's proposed path toward a welfare state.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chinese policies have been incremental and fragmented in terms of social insurance, privatization, and targeting. In the cities, where the rapid economic development has centered, lines of cleavage have developed between state-sector and non-state-sector employees, and between labor-market insiders and outsiders.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sri_Lanka">Sri Lanka</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welfare_state&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Sri Lanka"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1995, the government started the Samurdhi (Prosperity) program aimed at reducing poverty, having replaced the <a href="/wiki/Janasaviya" title="Janasaviya">Jana Saviya</a> poverty alleviation programme that was in place at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Singapore">Singapore</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welfare_state&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Singapore"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>, the government provides financial and social support through a variety of social assistance schemes for lower and middle-income Singaporeans. The <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Social_and_Family_Development" title="Ministry of Social and Family Development">Ministry of Social and Family Development</a> runs ComCare, a program which provides income support for low-income citizen households through various schemes for short-to-medium term assistance, long-term assistance, child support, and urgent financial needs.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Community_Development_Council" title="Community Development Council">Community Development Councils</a> also run various local assistance schemes within their districts.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Manpower_(Singapore)" title="Ministry of Manpower (Singapore)">Ministry of Manpower</a> runs a Silver Support Scheme which provides additional financial support for low-income elderly with no family support.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meanwhile, the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Health_(Singapore)" title="Ministry of Health (Singapore)">Ministry of Health</a> also runs MediFund to assist anyone on their behalf to pay off the rest of their medical bills after initial government subsidies, <a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Singapore" title="Healthcare in Singapore">other health financing schemes</a> as well as funds from the <a href="/wiki/Central_Provident_Fund" title="Central Provident Fund">Central Provident Fund</a> has been used.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2012, the Community Health Assist Scheme (CHAS) was introduced. It is a medical card that provides extended subsidies exclusively for Singaporean citizens usually from lower-to-middle income households, as well as the older generations, where they could receive treatment for common illnesses, chronic health problems and specific dental issues at private clinics for free. The intentions behind the scheme were to encourage Singaporeans to use such a card and tap into the private healthcare sector for common or minor chronic illnesses, as well as dental care, to reduce the strain at public community hospitals. Originally, only a blue and orange card existed, depending on their household income.<sup id="cite_ref-CHAS_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CHAS-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The CHAS scheme was further expanded in 2019 to include a new green card that provides for all Singaporeans no matter their household income. As a result, all Singaporeans became covered for chronic and common illnesses as well as dentistry at privately owned clinics. Subsidies for complex chronic conditions was also increased.<sup id="cite_ref-CHAS_113-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CHAS-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition, the <a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Social_Service" title="National Council of Social Service">National Council of Social Service</a> coordinates a range of 450 non-government <a href="/wiki/Voluntary_welfare_organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Voluntary welfare organisation">voluntary welfare organisations</a> to provide social services, while raising funds through <a href="/wiki/The_Community_Chest_of_Singapore" class="mw-redirect" title="The Community Chest of Singapore">The Community Chest of Singapore</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Taking the <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Poverty_threshold" title="Poverty threshold">International Poverty Line</a> (IPL)'s <a href="/wiki/Poverty_threshold" title="Poverty threshold">poverty threshold</a> into account, the population of Singaporeans living below the poverty line is virtually non-existent.<sup id="cite_ref-StatSG_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StatSG-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Singapore also has one of the highest housing ownership rates in the world – over 90 percent – owing to the government's policy of constructing extensive and quality public housing throughout the country and providing extensive subsidies for its citizens to obtain them.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welfare_state&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: United Kingdom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Welfare_state_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Welfare state in the United Kingdom">Welfare state in the United Kingdom</a></div> <p>About the British welfare state, historian Derek Fraser wrote: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p> It germinated in the social thought of late Victorian liberalism, reached its infancy in the collectivism of the pre-and post-Great War <a href="/wiki/Statism" title="Statism">statism</a>, matured in the universalism of the 1940s and flowered in full bloom in the consensus and affluence of the 1950s and 1960s. By the 1970s it was in decline, like the faded rose of autumn. Both UK and US governments are pursuing in the 1980s monetarist policies <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/inimical#Adjective" class="extiw" title="wikt:inimical">inimical</a> to welfare.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The modern welfare state in the United Kingdom began operations with the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_welfare_reforms" title="Liberal welfare reforms">Liberal welfare reforms of 1906–1914</a> under <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_(UK)" title="Liberal Party (UK)">Liberal</a> Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/H._H._Asquith" title="H. H. Asquith">H. H. Asquith</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These included the passing of the <a href="/wiki/Old_Age_Pensions_Act_1908" title="Old Age Pensions Act 1908">Old Age Pensions Act 1908</a>, the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Free_school_meal" class="mw-redirect" title="Free school meal">free school meals</a> in 1909, the <a href="/wiki/Labour_Exchanges_Act_1909" title="Labour Exchanges Act 1909">Labour Exchanges Act 1909</a>, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Development_and_Road_Improvement_Funds_Act_1909&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Development and Road Improvement Funds Act 1909 (page does not exist)">Development and Road Improvement Funds Act 1909</a>, which heralded greater <a href="/wiki/Government_intervention" class="mw-redirect" title="Government intervention">government intervention</a> in <a href="/wiki/Economic_development" title="Economic development">economic development</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/National_Insurance_Act_1911" title="National Insurance Act 1911">National Insurance Act 1911</a> setting up a <a href="/wiki/National_insurance_contribution" class="mw-redirect" title="National insurance contribution">national insurance contribution</a> for unemployment and health benefits from work.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Budget" title="People's Budget">People's Budget</a> was introduced by the <a href="/wiki/Chancellor_of_the_Exchequer" title="Chancellor of the Exchequer">Chancellor of the Exchequer</a>, David Lloyd George, in 1909 to fund the welfare reforms. After much opposition, it was passed by the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords" title="House of Lords">House of Lords</a> on 29 April 1910.<sup id="cite_ref-liberalhistory_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-liberalhistory-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_minimum_wage#United_Kingdom" title="History of the minimum wage">minimum wage was introduced in the United Kingdom in 1909</a> for certain low-wage industries and expanded to numerous industries, including farm labour, by 1920. However, by the 1920s, a new perspective was offered by reformers to emphasize the usefulness of <a href="/wiki/Family_allowance" class="mw-redirect" title="Family allowance">family allowance</a> targeted at low-income families as the alternative to relieving poverty without distorting the labour market.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The trade unions and the Labour Party adopted this view. In 1945, family allowances were introduced; minimum wages faded from view. Talk resumed in the 1970s, but in the 1980s the Thatcher administration made it clear it would not accept a national minimum wage. Finally, with the return of Labour, the <a href="/wiki/National_Minimum_Wage_Act_1998" title="National Minimum Wage Act 1998">National Minimum Wage Act 1998</a> set a minimum of £3.60 per hour, with lower rates for younger workers. It largely affected workers in high-turnover service industries such as fast-food restaurants, and members of ethnic minorities.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>December 1942 saw the publication of the <i>Report of the Inter-Departmental Committee on Social Insurance and Allied Services</i>, commonly known as the <a href="/wiki/Beveridge_Report" title="Beveridge Report">Beveridge Report</a> after its chairman, Sir <a href="/wiki/William_Beveridge" title="William Beveridge">William Beveridge</a>. The Beveridge Report proposed a series of measures to aid those who were in need of help, or in poverty and recommended that the government find ways of tackling what the report called "the five giants": Want, Disease, Ignorance, Squalor, and Idleness. It urged the government to take steps to provide citizens with adequate income, adequate health care, adequate education, adequate housing, and adequate employment, proposing that "[a]ll people of working age should pay a weekly <a href="/wiki/National_Insurance" title="National Insurance">National Insurance</a> contribution. In return, benefits would be paid to people who were sick, unemployed, retired, or widowed." The Beveridge Report assumed that the <a href="/wiki/National_Health_Service" title="National Health Service">National Health Service</a> would provide free health care to all citizens and that a Universal Child Benefit would give benefits to parents, encouraging people to have children by enabling them to feed and support a family. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_(UK)" title="Liberal Party (UK)">Liberal Party</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Conservative_Party_(UK)" title="Conservative Party (UK)">Conservative Party</a>, and then the <a href="/wiki/Labour_Party_(UK)" title="Labour Party (UK)">Labour Party</a> all adopted the Beveridge Report's recommendations.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the Labour election victory in the <a href="/wiki/1945_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1945 United Kingdom general election">1945 general election</a> many of Beveridge's reforms were implemented through a series of Acts of Parliament. On 5 July 1948, the <a href="/wiki/National_Insurance_Act_1946" title="National Insurance Act 1946">National Insurance Act</a>, <a href="/wiki/National_Assistance_Act_1948" title="National Assistance Act 1948">National Assistance Act</a> and <a href="/wiki/National_Health_Service_Act_1946" title="National Health Service Act 1946">National Health Service Act</a> came into force, forming the key planks of the modern UK welfare state. In 1949, the <a href="/wiki/Legal_Aid_and_Advice_Act_1949" title="Legal Aid and Advice Act 1949">Legal Aid and Advice Act</a> was passed, providing the "fourth pillar"<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of the modern welfare state, access to advice for legal redress for all. </p><p>Before 1939, most health care had to be paid for through non-government organisations – through a vast network of friendly societies, trade unions, and other insurance companies, which counted the vast majority of the UK working population as members. These organizations provided insurance for sickness, unemployment, and disability, providing an income to people when they were unable to work. As part of the reforms,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="Which reforms? (December 2023)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a> also closed down its voluntary relief networks and passed the ownership of thousands of church schools, hospitals and other bodies to the state.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Welfare systems continued to develop over the following decades. By the end of the 20th century parts of the welfare system had been restructured, with some provision channelled through <a href="/wiki/Non-governmental_organization" title="Non-governmental organization">non-governmental organizations</a> which became important providers of social services.<sup id="cite_ref-globall_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-globall-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welfare_state&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Social_Security_in_the_United_States" title="History of Social Security in the United States">History of Social Security in the United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_programs_in_the_United_States" title="Social programs in the United States">Social programs in the United States</a></div> <p>The United States developed a limited welfare state in the 1930s.<sup id="cite_ref-Walter_I._Trattner_2007_15_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walter_I._Trattner_2007_15-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest and most comprehensive philosophical justification for the welfare state was produced by an American, the sociologist <a href="/wiki/Lester_Frank_Ward" title="Lester Frank Ward">Lester Frank Ward</a> (1841–1913), whom the historian <a href="/wiki/Henry_Steele_Commager" title="Henry Steele Commager">Henry Steele Commager</a> called "the father of the modern welfare state". </p><p>Ward saw social phenomena as amenable to human control. "It is only through the artificial control of natural phenomena that science is made to minister to human needs" he wrote, "and if social laws are really analogous to physical laws, there is no reason why social science should not receive practical application such as have been given to physical science."<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ward wrote: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The charge of paternalism is chiefly made by the class that enjoys the largest share of government protection. Those who denounce it are those who most frequently and successfully invoke it. Nothing is more obvious today than the single inability of capital and private enterprise to take care of themselves unaided by the state; and while they are incessantly denouncing "paternalism," by which they mean the claim of the defenceless laborer and artisan to a share in this lavish state protection, they are all the while besieging legislatures for relief from their own incompetency, and "pleading the baby act" through a trained body of lawyers and lobbyists. The dispensing of national pap to this class should rather be called "maternalism," to which a square, open, and dignified paternalism would be infinitely preferable.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Ward's theories centred around his belief that a universal and <a href="/wiki/Comprehensive_school" title="Comprehensive school">comprehensive</a> system of education was necessary if a democratic government was to function successfully. His writings profoundly influenced younger generations of <a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">progressive</a> thinkers such as <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Dewey" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Dewey">Thomas Dewey</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Frances_Perkins" title="Frances Perkins">Frances Perkins</a> (1880–1965), among others.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The United States was the only industrialized country that went into the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> of the 1930s with no social insurance policies in place. In 1935 <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a>'s <a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a> instituted significant social insurance policies. In 1938 Congress passed the <a href="/wiki/Fair_Labor_Standards_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Fair Labor Standards Act">Fair Labor Standards Act</a>, limiting the work week to 40 hours and banning child labor for children under 16, over stiff congressional opposition from the low-wage South.<sup id="cite_ref-Walter_I._Trattner_2007_15_130-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walter_I._Trattner_2007_15-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/History_of_Social_Security_in_the_United_States" title="History of Social Security in the United States">Social Security law</a> was very unpopular among many groups – especially farmers, who resented the additional taxes and feared they would never be made good. They lobbied hard for exclusion. Furthermore, the Treasury realized how difficult it would be to set up payroll deduction plans for farmers, for housekeepers who employed maids, and for non-profit groups; therefore, they were excluded. State employees were excluded for constitutional reasons (the federal government in the United States cannot tax state governments). Federal employees were also excluded. </p><p>By 2013, the U.S. remained the only major industrial state without a uniform national sickness program. American <a href="/wiki/Health_care_finance_in_the_United_States" title="Health care finance in the United States">spending on health care</a> (as a percent of GDP) is the highest in the world, but it is a complex mix of federal, state, philanthropic, employer and individual funding. The US spent 16% of its GDP on health care in 2008, compared to 11% in France in second place.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some scholars, such as Gerard Friedman, argue that <a href="/wiki/Labor_unions_in_the_United_States" title="Labor unions in the United States">labor-union</a> weakness in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">Southern United States</a> undermined unionization and social reform throughout the United States as a whole, and is largely responsible for the anemic U.S. welfare state.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sociologists <a href="/wiki/Lo%C3%AFc_Wacquant" title="Loïc Wacquant">Loïc Wacquant</a> and John L. Campbell contend that since the rise of <a href="/wiki/Neoliberalism" title="Neoliberalism">neoliberal</a> ideology in the late 1970s and early 1980s, an expanding carceral state, or government system of <a href="/wiki/Incarceration_in_the_United_States" title="Incarceration in the United States">mass incarceration</a>, has largely supplanted the increasingly retrenched social welfare state, which has been justified by its proponents with the argument that the citizenry must take on personal responsibility.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scholars assert that this transformation of the welfare state to a post-welfare punitive state, along with neoliberal structural adjustment policies and the globalization of the U.S. economy, have created more extreme forms of "destitute poverty" in the U.S. which must be contained and controlled by expanding the criminal justice system into every aspect of the lives of the poor.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other scholars such as Esping-Andersen argue that the welfare state in the United States has been characterized by private provision because such a state would better reflect the racial and sexual biases within the private sector. The disproportionate number of racial and sexual minorities in private sector jobs with weaker benefits, he argues, is evidence that the American welfare state is not necessarily intended to improve the economic situation of such groups.<sup id="cite_ref-Esping-Andersen_55-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Esping-Andersen-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects">Effects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welfare_state&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Welfare#Effects" class="mw-redirect" title="Welfare">Welfare § Effects</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effects_of_welfare_on_poverty">Effects of welfare on poverty</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welfare_state&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Effects of welfare on poverty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Welfare%27s_effect_on_poverty" title="Welfare's effect on poverty">Welfare's effect on poverty</a></div> <p>Empirical evidence suggests that taxes and transfers considerably reduce poverty in most Western countries whose welfare states constitute at least a fifth of GDP.<sup id="cite_ref-Kenworthy_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kenworthy-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bradley_et_al._141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bradley_et_al.-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="sortable wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Country </th> <th colspan="2">Absolute poverty rate (1960–1991)<br />(threshold set at 40% of U.S. median household income)<sup id="cite_ref-Kenworthy_140-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kenworthy-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <th colspan="2">Relative poverty rate (1970–1997)<sup id="cite_ref-Bradley_et_al._141-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bradley_et_al.-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th></tr> <tr> <th>Pre-welfare </th> <th>Post-welfare </th> <th>Pre-welfare </th> <th>Post-welfare </th></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/23px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/35px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/46px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1000" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a></td> <td>23.7</td> <td>5.8</td> <td>14.8</td> <td>4.8 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg/21px-Flag_of_Norway.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg/32px-Flag_of_Norway.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg/41px-Flag_of_Norway.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="372" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a></td> <td>9.2</td> <td>1.7</td> <td>12.4</td> <td>4.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a></td> <td>22.1</td> <td>7.3</td> <td>18.5</td> <td>11.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Finland.svg/23px-Flag_of_Finland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Finland.svg/35px-Flag_of_Finland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Finland.svg/46px-Flag_of_Finland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1100" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a></td> <td>11.9</td> <td>3.7</td> <td>12.4</td> <td>3.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/20px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/31px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/40px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="387" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a></td> <td>26.4</td> <td>5.9</td> <td>17.4</td> <td>4.8 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/35px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/46px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a></td> <td>15.2</td> <td>4.3</td> <td>9.7</td> <td>5.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg/16px-Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg/24px-Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg/32px-Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span>  </span><a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a></td> <td>12.5</td> <td>3.8</td> <td>10.9</td> <td>9.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a></td> <td>22.5</td> <td>6.5</td> <td>17.1</td> <td>11.9 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a></td> <td>36.1</td> <td>9.8</td> <td>21.8</td> <td>6.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a></td> <td>26.8</td> <td>6.0</td> <td>19.5</td> <td>4.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="640" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a></td> <td>23.3</td> <td>11.9</td> <td>16.2</td> <td>9.2 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></td> <td>16.8</td> <td>8.7</td> <td>16.4</td> <td>8.2 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></td> <td>21.0</td> <td>11.7</td> <td>17.2</td> <td>15.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/35px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/45px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a></td> <td>30.7</td> <td>14.3</td> <td>19.7</td> <td>9.1 </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effects_of_social_expenditure_on_economic_growth,_public_debt_and_education"><span id="Effects_of_social_expenditure_on_economic_growth.2C_public_debt_and_education"></span>Effects of social expenditure on economic growth, public debt and education</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welfare_state&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Effects of social expenditure on economic growth, public debt and education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_social_welfare_spending" title="List of countries by social welfare spending">List of countries by social welfare spending</a></div> <p>Researchers have found very little correlation between economic performance and social expenditure.<sup id="cite_ref-atkinson1995_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atkinson1995-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They also see little evidence that social expenditures contribute to losses in productivity; economist Peter Lindert of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Davis" title="University of California, Davis">University of California, Davis</a> attributes this to policy innovations such as the implementation of "pro-growth" tax policies in real-world welfare states.<sup id="cite_ref-lindert2004_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lindert2004-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Social expenses have also not contributed significantly to public debt. Martin Eiermann wrote: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>According to the <a href="/wiki/Organisation_for_Economic_Co-operation_and_Development" class="mw-redirect" title="Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development">OECD</a>, social expenditures in its 34 member countries rose steadily between 1980 and 2007, but the increase in costs was almost completely offset by GDP growth. More money was spent on welfare because more money circulated in the economy and because government revenues increased. In 1980, the OECD averaged social expenditures equal to 16 percent of GDP. In 2007, just before the financial crisis kicked into full gear, they had risen to 19 percent – a manageable increase.<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>A Norwegian study covering the period 1980 to 2003 found welfare state spending correlated negatively with student achievement.<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, many of the top-ranking OECD countries on the 2009 <a href="/wiki/Programme_for_International_Student_Assessment" title="Programme for International Student Assessment">PISA</a> tests are considered welfare states.<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism_and_response">Criticism and response</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welfare_state&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Criticism and response"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_welfare" title="Criticism of welfare">Criticism of welfare</a></div> <p>Early conservatives, under the influence of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Malthus" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Malthus">Thomas Malthus</a> (1766–1834), opposed every form of social insurance "root and branch". Malthus believed that the poor needed to learn the hard way to practice frugality, self-control and chastity. Traditional conservatives also protested that the effect of social insurance would be to weaken private charity and loosen traditional social bonds of family, friends, religious and non-governmental welfare organisations.<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the other hand, <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> opposed piecemeal reforms advanced by middle-class reformers out of a sense of duty. In his <i>Address of the Central Committee to the Communist League</i>, written after the failed revolution of 1848, he warned that measures designed to increase wages, improve working conditions and provide social insurance were merely bribes that would temporarily make the situation of working classes tolerable to weaken the revolutionary consciousness that was needed to achieve a socialist economy.<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, Marx also proclaimed that the Communists had to support the bourgeoisie wherever it acted as a revolutionary progressive class because "bourgeois liberties had first to be conquered and then criticised".<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 20th century, opponents of the welfare state have expressed apprehension about the creation of a large, possibly self-interested, bureaucracy required to administer it and the tax burden on the wealthier citizens that this entailed.<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Conservatism in the United States">Conservative</a> and <a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_in_the_United_States" title="Libertarianism in the United States">libertarian</a> groups such as <a href="/wiki/The_Heritage_Foundation" title="The Heritage Foundation">The Heritage Foundation</a><sup id="cite_ref-Confronting_the_Unsustainable_Growth_of_Welfare_Entitlements_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Confronting_the_Unsustainable_Growth_of_Welfare_Entitlements-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Cato_Institute" title="Cato Institute">Cato Institute</a><sup id="cite_ref-Welfare_and_the_Culture_of_Poverty_153-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Welfare_and_the_Culture_of_Poverty-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> argue that welfare creates dependence, a disincentive to work and reduces the opportunity of individuals to manage their own lives.<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This dependence is called a "<a href="/wiki/Culture_of_poverty" title="Culture of poverty">culture of poverty</a>", which is said to undermine people from finding meaningful work.<sup id="cite_ref-Welfare_and_the_Culture_of_Poverty_153-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Welfare_and_the_Culture_of_Poverty-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of these groups also point to the large budget used to maintain these programs and assert that it is wasteful.<sup id="cite_ref-Confronting_the_Unsustainable_Growth_of_Welfare_Entitlements_152-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Confronting_the_Unsustainable_Growth_of_Welfare_Entitlements-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the book <i>Losing Ground</i>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Murray_(political_scientist)" title="Charles Murray (political scientist)">Charles Murray</a> argues that welfare not only increases poverty, but also increases other problems such as <a href="/wiki/Single-parent_household" class="mw-redirect" title="Single-parent household">single-parent households</a>, and crime.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2012, political historian <a href="/wiki/Alan_Ryan" title="Alan Ryan">Alan Ryan</a> pointed out that the modern welfare state stops short of being an "advance in the direction of socialism. [...] [I]ts egalitarian elements are more minimal than either its defenders or its critics think". It does not entail advocacy for <a href="/wiki/Social_ownership" title="Social ownership">social ownership</a> of industry. Ryan further wrote: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The modern welfare state, does not set out to make the poor richer and the rich poorer, which is a central element in socialism, but to help people to provide for themselves in sickness while they enjoy good health, to put money aside to cover unemployment while they are in work, and to have adults provide for the education of their own and other people's children, expecting those children's future taxes to pay in due course for the pensions of their parents' generation. These are devices for shifting income across different stages in life, not for shifting income across classes. Another distinct difference is that social insurance does not aim to transform work and working relations; employers and employees pay taxes at a level they would not have done in the nineteenth century, but owners are not expropriated, profits are not illegitimate, cooperativism does not replace hierarchical management.<sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In 2017, historian <a href="/wiki/Walter_Scheidel" title="Walter Scheidel">Walter Scheidel</a> argued that the establishment of welfare states in the West in the early 20th century could be partly a reaction by elites to the <a href="/wiki/Bolshevik_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolshevik Revolution">Bolshevik Revolution</a> and its violence against the bourgeoisie, which feared violent revolution in its own backyard. They were diminished decades later as the perceived threat receded. Scheidel spoke to <i><a href="/wiki/Vice_(magazine)" title="Vice (magazine)">Vice</a></i>'s Matt Taylor in an interview: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>It's a little tricky because the US never really had any strong leftist movement. But if you look at Europe, after 1917 people were really scared about communism in all the Western European countries. <i>You have all these poor people, they might rise up and kill us and take our stuff.</i> That wasn't just a fantasy because it was happening next door. And that, we can show, did trigger steps in the direction of having more welfare programs and a rudimentary safety net in response to fear of communism. Not that they [the communists] would invade, but that there would be homegrown movements of this sort. American populism is a little different because it's more detached from that. But it happens roughly at the same time, and people in America are worried about communism, too – not necessarily very reasonably. But that was always in the background. And people have only begun to study systematically to what extent the threat, real or imagined, of this type of radical regime really influenced policy changes in Western democracies. You don't necessarily even have to go out and kill rich people – if there was some plausible alternative out there, it would arguably have an impact on policy making at home. That's certainly there in the 20s, 30s, 40s, 50s, and 60s. And there's a debate, right, because it becomes clear that the Soviet Union is really not in very good shape, and people don't really like to be there, and all these movements lost their appeal. That's a contributing factor, arguably, that the end of the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> coincides roughly with the time when inequality really starts going up again, because elites are much more relaxed about the possibility of credible alternatives or threats being out there.<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_welfare_queen">The welfare queen</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welfare_state&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: The welfare queen"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some argue that the public opinion on welfare in the US is in part a product of racist and classist political and ideological campaigns.<sup id="cite_ref-Foster-2008_158-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Foster-2008-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The popular myth of the <a href="/wiki/Welfare_queen" title="Welfare queen">welfare queen</a>, a person taking advantage of the welfare system, came to be as a result of one such effort. In 1980, <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan_1980_presidential_campaign" title="Ronald Reagan 1980 presidential campaign">Ronald Reagan's presidential campaign</a> relied on anti-poor tactics and the anti-black strategy of putting down the black vote in order to win the favor of the white populace. Thus, racist stereotypes and polarizing <a href="/wiki/Dog_whistle_(politics)" title="Dog whistle (politics)">dog-whistles</a> of this era gave birth to this fictitious character.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Journal_of_Blacks_in_Higher_Education-2007_159-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Journal_of_Blacks_in_Higher_Education-2007-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Covert-2019_160-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Covert-2019-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first version of the welfare queen was a lazy and selfish woman, living off of state benefits and having many children to obtain as much financial support as possible. In another case, it was a man buying T-bone steaks with <a href="/wiki/Supplemental_Nutrition_Assistance_Program" title="Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program">food stamps</a>, while the rest of the country struggled to put food on the table. While never stated directly, it was presumed by the public that both characters were, of course, black people, who were lazily exploiting the system and lived lavishly, while the regular hard-working middle-class American, imagined by the public to be white, had to foot the bill.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Journal_of_Blacks_in_Higher_Education-2007_159-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Journal_of_Blacks_in_Higher_Education-2007-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In "The Welfare Queen: Race, Gender, Class, and Public Opinion", Carly Hayden Foster analyzes Martin Gilens' writing in "Why Americans Hate Welfare" and argues that race interacts with <a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">gender</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_United_States" title="Social class in the United States">class</a>. These aspects together are then key determinants in whether or not there is public support for welfare. According to her analysis, survey respondents are more likely to support welfare spending if the mother reliant on welfare is described as white, while a black welfare mother fares significantly less support.<sup id="cite_ref-Foster-2008_158-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Foster-2008-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is argued that this is in part because of the idea that the black mother would then have an incentive to have more black babies, but is in general interrelated with the perceived reproductive behavior of the mother,<sup id="cite_ref-Foster-2008_158-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Foster-2008-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which in this case is affected by the enduring <a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_African_Americans" title="Stereotypes of African Americans">Jezebel stereotype</a> that presents black women as inherently sexually promiscuous.<sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, public support of welfare is unlikely in the case of poor single mothers. </p><p>The widespread assumption that welfare recipients are fraudulent and lazy apparently guides public opinion. In "The Crime of Survival" Jullily Kohler-Hausmann defends the position that anti-fraud campaigns as it relates to welfare worsen public perception of welfare recipients and frame them as criminals.<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He goes on to cite Martin Gilens who in "Why Americans Hate Welfare" argues: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>[A] large majority of Americans agree that government should provide monetary support to those who are unable to support themselves. But the perception of welfare abuse is widespread. Indeed, as the survey evidence … suggests, it would be hard to exaggerate the level of cynicism toward welfare recipients held by the American public. This perception of welfare recipients' dishonesty and freeloading is at the core of Americans' conviction that welfare spending should be cut.<sup id="cite_ref-Foster-2008_158-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Foster-2008-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gilens-1999_163-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gilens-1999-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>This sentiment was perpetrated by the Reagan administration and he himself addressed the supposed fraud in public programs in his first inaugural address. During his presidency, welfare spending tighetened and the anti-fraud rhetoric was used to justify big cuts to welfare programs.<sup id="cite_ref-Covert-2019_160-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Covert-2019-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Regarding this period, Martin Gilens cites Julius Wilson, who writes: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>As the economic situation worsened, Ronald Reagan was able to convince many working- and middle-class Americans that the decline in their living standards was attributable to expensive programs for the poor…</p></blockquote> <p>Martin Gilens argues that economic circumstance is a deciding factor in the public opinion on welfare. He says that during the period of growing economy, people are willing to share their profits with the less fortunate, but this generosity disappears in times of economic turmoil, as people are primarily preoccupied with their own well-being and are less willing to provide for the poor because their own situation takes precedence.<sup id="cite_ref-Gilens-1999_163-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gilens-1999-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>He cites Michael Katz, who claims that the <a href="/wiki/1973%E2%80%931975_recession" title="1973–1975 recession">stagflation</a> following the <a href="/wiki/1973_oil_crisis" title="1973 oil crisis">1973 energy crisis</a> caused the public opinion to shift toward a negative attitude toward the expansion of the social welfare state, as people who worried for their financial future were in search of a scape-goat for their economic losses, in this case welfare recipients.<sup id="cite_ref-Gilens-1999_163-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gilens-1999-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welfare_state&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_economics" title="Constitutional economics">Constitutional economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_welfare" title="Corporate welfare">Corporate welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_security" title="Economic security">Economic security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flexicurity" title="Flexicurity">Flexicurity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_rider_problem" class="mw-redirect" title="Free rider problem">Free rider problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Happiness_economics" title="Happiness economics">Happiness economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hidden_welfare_state" title="Hidden welfare state">Hidden welfare state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Involuntary_unemployment" title="Involuntary unemployment">Involuntary unemployment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guaranteed_minimum_income" title="Guaranteed minimum income">Guaranteed minimum income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanny_state" title="Nanny state">Nanny state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_policy" title="Social policy">Social policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_protection" title="Social protection">Social protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">Social stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Socialism_(Germany)" title="State Socialism (Germany)">State Socialism (Germany)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_capitalism" title="Welfare capitalism">Welfare capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_economics" title="Welfare economics">Welfare economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_reform" title="Welfare reform">Welfare reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_state_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Welfare state in the United Kingdom">Welfare state in the United Kingdom</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Models</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_social_model" title="European social model">European social model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_model" title="Nordic model">Nordic model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_programs_in_the_United_States" title="Social programs in the United States">Social programs in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Transfer of wealth</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cloward%E2%80%93Piven_strategy" title="Cloward–Piven strategy">Cloward–Piven strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfer_payment" title="Transfer payment">Transfer payment</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Housing</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Council_house" title="Council house">Council house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_estate" title="Housing estate">Housing estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_housing" title="Public housing">Public housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsidized_housing" title="Subsidized housing">Subsidized housing</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welfare_state&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">According to the French sociologist <a href="/wiki/Georges_Menahem" title="Georges Menahem">Georges Menahem</a>, Esping-Andersen's "decommodification index" aggregates both qualitative and quantitative variables for "sets of dimensions" which fluid, and pertain to three very different areas. These characters involve similar limits of the validity of the index and of its potential for replication. Cf. <a href="#CITEREFMenahem2007">Menahem 2007</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See also <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://benjaminradcliff.com/scholarly-articles/">"this collection of full-text peer-reviewed scholarly articles on this subject"</a> by Radcliff and colleagues (such as "Social Forces," "The Journal of Politics," and "Perspectives on Politics," among others)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"However, the democratic petty bourgeois want better wages and security for the workers, and hope to achieve this by an extension of state employment and by welfare measures; in short, they hope to bribe the workers with a more or less disguised form of alms and to break their revolutionary strength by temporarily rendering their situation tolerable."<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welfare_state&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-britannica-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-britannica_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/639266/welfare-state">"Welfare state"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Britannica_Online_Encyclopedia" class="mw-redirect" title="Britannica Online Encyclopedia">Britannica Online Encyclopedia</a></i>. 18 November 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Welfare+state&rft.btitle=Britannica+Online+Encyclopedia&rft.date=2023-11-18&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F639266%2Fwelfare-state&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWelfare+state" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Béland-2021a-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Béland-2021a_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Béland-2021a_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Béland-2021a_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBélandMorganObingerPierson2021" class="citation cs2">Béland, Daniel; Morgan, Kimberly J.; Obinger, Herbert; Pierson, Christopher (2021), Béland, Daniel; Leibfried, Stephan; Morgan, Kimberly J.; Obinger, Herbert (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198828389.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780198828389-e-1">"Introduction"</a>, <i>The Oxford Handbook of the Welfare State</i>, Oxford University Press, pp. xxx–20, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780198828389.013.1">10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198828389.013.1</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-882838-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-882838-9"><bdi>978-0-19-882838-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+the+Welfare+State&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.pages=xxx-20&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780198828389.013.1&rft.isbn=978-0-19-882838-9&rft.aulast=B%C3%A9land&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft.au=Morgan%2C+Kimberly+J.&rft.au=Obinger%2C+Herbert&rft.au=Pierson%2C+Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foxfordhandbooks.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780198828389.001.0001%2Foxfordhb-9780198828389-e-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWelfare+state" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Béland-2021b-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Béland-2021b_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Béland-2021b_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span 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Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674717664" title="Special:BookSources/9780674717664"><bdi>9780674717664</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Routledge. p. 1245. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-24187-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-24187-8"><bdi>978-0-415-24187-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Welfare+state&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Political+Economy&rft.pages=1245&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-415-24187-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWelfare+state" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsping-Andersen1990108-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEsping-Andersen1990108_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEsping-Andersen1990">Esping-Andersen 1990</a>, p. 108.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcDonagh2015" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eileen_McDonagh" title="Eileen McDonagh">McDonagh, Eileen</a> (December 2015). 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Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-35646-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-35646-9"><bdi>0-226-35646-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/45276711">45276711</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Development+and+crisis+of+the+welfare+state+%3A+parties+and+policies+in+global+markets&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=The+University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F45276711&rft.isbn=0-226-35646-9&rft.aulast=Huber&rft.aufirst=Evelyne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F45276711&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWelfare+state" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Lane_Kenworthy" title="Lane Kenworthy">Kenworthy, Lane</a> (2014). <i>Social Democratic America</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0199322511" title="Special:BookSources/0199322511">0199322511</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eVTSAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA9">p. 9</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRadcliff2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Radcliff" title="Benjamin Radcliff">Radcliff, Benjamin</a> (2013). <i>The Political Economy of Human Happiness</i>. 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Parliament of Australia. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141223134852/http://www.peeep.us/2cbb82ee">Archived</a> from the original on 23 December 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 December</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Welfare+Review&rft.pub=Parliament+of+Australia&rft.date=2000-09&rft.aulast=Yeend&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aph.gov.au%2FAbout_Parliament%2FParliamentary_Departments%2FParliamentary_Library%2FPublications_Archive%2Farchive%2Fwelfarebrief&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWelfare+state" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGillespie1991" class="citation book cs1">Gillespie, James (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/49638492"><i>The Price of Health: Australian Governments and Medical Politics 1910–1960</i></a>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 91–99. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521523226" title="Special:BookSources/9780521523226"><bdi>9780521523226</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/49638492">49638492</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Price+of+Health%3A+Australian+Governments+and+Medical+Politics+1910%E2%80%931960&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=91-99&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F49638492&rft.isbn=9780521523226&rft.aulast=Gillespie&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F49638492&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWelfare+state" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Canada-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Canada_71-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Canada_71-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.canada.ca/en/employment-social-development/programs/communities/reports/welfare-income-2009/chapter1.html">Chapter 1: What is Welfare?</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190306044624/https://www.canada.ca/en/employment-social-development/programs/communities/reports/welfare-income-2009/chapter1.html">Archived</a> 6 March 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Retrieved: 4 March 2019.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/welfare-state">Welfare State.</a> Retrieved: 4 March 2019.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHayward1961" class="citation journal cs1">Hayward, J. E. S. (1961). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0020859000001759">"The Official Social Philosophy of the French Third Republic: Léon Bourgeois and Solidarism"</a>. <i>International Review of Social History</i>. <b>6</b> (1): 19–48. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0020859000001759">10.1017/S0020859000001759</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44581447">44581447</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Review+of+Social+History&rft.atitle=The+Official+Social+Philosophy+of+the+French+Third+Republic%3A+L%C3%A9on+Bourgeois+and+Solidarism&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=19-48&rft.date=1961&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0020859000001759&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44581447%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Hayward&rft.aufirst=J.+E.+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252FS0020859000001759&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWelfare+state" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJack_Hayward2007" class="citation book cs1">Jack Hayward (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-ZgSDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA44"><i>Fragmented France: Two Centuries of Disputed Identity</i></a>. Oxford UP. p. 44. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199216314" title="Special:BookSources/9780199216314"><bdi>9780199216314</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fragmented+France%3A+Two+Centuries+of+Disputed+Identity&rft.pages=44&rft.pub=Oxford+UP&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780199216314&rft.au=Jack+Hayward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-ZgSDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA44&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWelfare+state" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allan Mitchell, <i>The Divided Path: The German Influence on Social Reform in France After 1870</i> (1991) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/library/99372318/the-divided-path-the-german-influence-on-social-reform">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190414012952/https://www.questia.com/library/99372318/the-divided-path-the-german-influence-on-social-reform">Archived</a> 14 April 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNord1994" class="citation journal cs1">Nord, Philip (1994). 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"Origins of the French Welfare State: Poor Relief in the Third Republic, 1871-1914". <i>French Historical Studies</i>. <b>13</b> (1): 47–78. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F286593">10.2307/286593</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/286593">286593</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=French+Historical+Studies&rft.atitle=Origins+of+the+French+Welfare+State%3A+Poor+Relief+in+the+Third+Republic%2C+1871-1914&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=47-78&rft.date=1983&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F286593&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F286593%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Weiss&rft.aufirst=John+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWelfare+state" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDutton2002" class="citation book cs1">Dutton, Paul V. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 December</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=God+in+austerity+Britain&rft.date=2011-12-10&rft.au=Bagehot&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fnode%2F21541399&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWelfare+state" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-globall-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-globall_129-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pawel Zaleski <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scribd.com/document/77295298/2006-Global-Nongovernmental-Administrative-System"><i>Global Non-governmental Administrative System: Geosociology of the Third Sector</i></a>, [in:] Gawin, Dariusz & Glinski, Piotr [ed.]: "Civil Society in the Making", IFiS Publishers, Warszawa 2006</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Walter_I._Trattner_2007_15-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Walter_I._Trattner_2007_15_130-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Walter_I._Trattner_2007_15_130-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrattner2007" class="citation book cs1">Trattner, Walter I. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=r0PZdo5fXfgC&pg=PR15"><i>From Poor Law to Welfare State: A History of Social Welfare in America</i></a> (6th ed.). 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A Cross-National Assessment"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Social Forces</i>. <b>77</b> (3): 1119–1139. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3005973">10.2307/3005973</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3005973">3005973</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130810134045/http://www.lisdatacenter.org/wps/liswps/188.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 10 August 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Forces&rft.atitle=Do+Social-Welfare+Policies+Reduce+Poverty%3F+A+Cross-National+Assessment&rft.volume=77&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=1119-1139&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3005973&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3005973%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Kenworthy&rft.aufirst=Lane&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lisdatacenter.org%2Fwps%2Fliswps%2F188.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWelfare+state" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bradley_et_al.-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bradley_et_al._141-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bradley_et_al._141-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMollerHuberStephensBradley2003" class="citation journal cs1">Moller, Stephanie; Huber, Evelyne; Stephens, John D.; Bradley, David; Nielsen, François (2003). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 March</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+Republic&rft.atitle=The+Myth+of+the+Welfare+Queen&rft.date=2019-07-02&rft.issn=0028-6583&rft.aulast=Covert&rft.aufirst=Bryce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnewrepublic.com%2Farticle%2F154404%2Fmyth-welfare-queen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWelfare+state" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://jimcrowmuseum.ferris.edu/jezebel/index.htm">"The Jezebel Stereotype – Anti-black Imagery – Jim Crow Museum"</a>. <i>jimcrowmuseum.ferris.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 March</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=jimcrowmuseum.ferris.edu&rft.atitle=The+Jezebel+Stereotype+%E2%80%93+Anti-black+Imagery+%E2%80%93+Jim+Crow+Museum&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjimcrowmuseum.ferris.edu%2Fjezebel%2Findex.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWelfare+state" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKohler-Hausmann2007" class="citation journal cs1">Kohler-Hausmann, Julilly (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25096482">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"The Crime of Survival": Fraud Prosecutions, Community Surveillance, and the Original "Welfare Queen"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>Journal of Social History</i>. <b>41</b> (2): 329–354. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjsh.2008.0002">10.1353/jsh.2008.0002</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-4529">0022-4529</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25096482">25096482</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Social+History&rft.atitle=%22The+Crime+of+Survival%22%3A+Fraud+Prosecutions%2C+Community+Surveillance%2C+and+the+Original+%22Welfare+Queen%22&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=329-354&rft.date=2007&rft.issn=0022-4529&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25096482%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fjsh.2008.0002&rft.aulast=Kohler-Hausmann&rft.aufirst=Julilly&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25096482&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWelfare+state" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gilens-1999-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gilens-1999_163-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gilens-1999_163-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gilens-1999_163-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGilens1999" class="citation book cs1">Gilens, Martin (1999). <i>Why Americans hate welfare: race, media and the politics of antipoverty policy</i>. Studies in communication, media, and public opinion. Chicago (Ill.): University Press of Chicago. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-29364-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-29364-6"><bdi>978-0-226-29364-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Why+Americans+hate+welfare%3A+race%2C+media+and+the+politics+of+antipoverty+policy&rft.place=Chicago+%28Ill.%29&rft.series=Studies+in+communication%2C+media%2C+and+public+opinion&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Chicago&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-226-29364-6&rft.aulast=Gilens&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWelfare+state" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welfare_state&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArtsGelissen2002" class="citation journal cs1">Arts, Wil; Gelissen, John (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/258136528">"Three worlds of welfare capitalism or more? A state-of-the-art report"</a>. <i>Journal of European Social Policy</i>. <b>12</b> (2): 137–158. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0952872002012002114">10.1177/0952872002012002114</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154811175">154811175</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+European+Social+Policy&rft.atitle=Three+worlds+of+welfare+capitalism+or+more%3F+A+state-of-the-art+report&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=137-158&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0952872002012002114&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154811175%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Arts&rft.aufirst=Wil&rft.au=Gelissen%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F258136528&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWelfare+state" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBartholomew2015" class="citation book cs1">Bartholomew, James (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bitebackpublishing.com/books/the-welfare-of-nations"><i>The Welfare of Nations</i></a>. Biteback. p. 448. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1849548304" title="Special:BookSources/978-1849548304"><bdi>978-1849548304</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Welfare+of+Nations&rft.pages=448&rft.pub=Biteback&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1849548304&rft.aulast=Bartholomew&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bitebackpublishing.com%2Fbooks%2Fthe-welfare-of-nations&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWelfare+state" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCastles,_Francis_G.2010" class="citation book cs1">Castles, Francis G.; et al. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lLawRZJhlqAC&pg=PA67"><i>The Oxford Handbook of the Welfare State</i></a>. Oxford Handbooks Online. p. 67. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199579396" title="Special:BookSources/9780199579396"><bdi>9780199579396</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+the+Welfare+State&rft.pages=67&rft.pub=Oxford+Handbooks+Online&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780199579396&rft.au=Castles%2C+Francis+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlLawRZJhlqAC%26pg%3DPA67&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWelfare+state" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B8sta_Esping-Andersen" title="Gøsta Esping-Andersen">Esping-Andersen, Gøsta</a>; Politics against markets, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press (1985).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEsping-Andersen1990" class="citation book cs1">Esping-Andersen, Gøsta (1990). <a href="/wiki/The_Three_Worlds_of_Welfare_Capitalism" title="The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism"><i>The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism</i></a>. Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0069028573" title="Special:BookSources/978-0069028573"><bdi>978-0069028573</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Three+Worlds+of+Welfare+Capitalism&rft.place=Princeton+NJ&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0069028573&rft.aulast=Esping-Andersen&rft.aufirst=G%C3%B8sta&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWelfare+state" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Ferre, Juan Cruz (2023). "Welfare regimes in twenty-first-century Latin America". <i>Journal of International and Comparative Social Policy</i> 39 (2): 101–127.</li> <li>Huddie, Paul, and Amy Carney. "Military welfare history: what is it and why should it be considered?." <i>War & Society</i> 42.4 (2023): 305–316. on welfare for soldiers and their families; also impact of warfare on welfare state <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/07292473.2023.2245252">online</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lane_Kenworthy" title="Lane Kenworthy">Kenworthy, Lane</a>. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://global.oup.com/academic/product/social-democratic-america-9780199322510?cc=us&lang=en&#">Social Democratic America</a>.</i> <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a> (2014). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0199322511" title="Special:BookSources/0199322511">0199322511</a></li> <li>Korpi, Walter; "The Democratic Class Struggle"; London: Routledge (1983).</li> <li>Koehler, Gabriele and Deepta Chopra; "Development and Welfare Policy in South Asia"; London: Routledge (2014).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuhnle2000" class="citation journal cs1">Kuhnle, Stein (2000). "The Scandinavian welfare state in the 1990s: Challenged but viable". <i>West European Politics</i>. <b>23</b> (2): 209–228. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01402380008425373">10.1080/01402380008425373</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:153443503">153443503</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=West+European+Politics&rft.atitle=The+Scandinavian+welfare+state+in+the+1990s%3A+Challenged+but+viable&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=209-228&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F01402380008425373&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A153443503%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Kuhnle&rft.aufirst=Stein&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWelfare+state" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Kuhnle, Stein. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4yEAp_BdfGkC">Survival of the European Welfare State</a></i> 2000 Routledge <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/041521291X" title="Special:BookSources/041521291X">041521291X</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMenahem2007" class="citation journal cs1">Menahem, Georges (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00198398/file/ISSR-2007-4-TheDSRatoolforassessing.pdf">"The decommodified security ratio: A tool for assessing European social protection systems"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>International Social Security Review</i>. <b>60</b> (4): 69–103. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-246X.2007.00281.x">10.1111/j.1468-246X.2007.00281.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:64361693">64361693</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180720193922/https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00198398/file/ISSR-2007-4-TheDSRatoolforassessing.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 20 July 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Social+Security+Review&rft.atitle=The+decommodified+security+ratio%3A+A+tool+for+assessing+European+social+protection+systems&rft.volume=60&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=69-103&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1468-246X.2007.00281.x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A64361693%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Menahem&rft.aufirst=Georges&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhalshs.archives-ouvertes.fr%2Fhalshs-00198398%2Ffile%2FISSR-2007-4-TheDSRatoolforassessing.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWelfare+state" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Obinger, Herbert, Klaus Petersen, and Peter Starke, eds. <i>Warfare and welfare: Military conflict and welfare state development in western countries</i> (Oxford University Press, 2018) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=pWhiDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=%22military+welfare&ots=HpV1SJJtHh&sig=6xkZrA9o1cZM08hg1bOJVCW6q7Q">online</a>.</li> <li>Pierson, P. (1994). <i>Dismantling the Welfare State?: Reagan, Thatcher and the Politics of Retrenchment</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPierson1996" class="citation journal cs1">Pierson, Paul (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170414160715/http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~iversen/PDFfiles/Pierson1996.pdf">"The New Politics of the Welfare State"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>World Politics</i>. <b>48</b> (2): 143–179. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fwp.1996.0004">10.1353/wp.1996.0004</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25053959">25053959</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:55860810">55860810</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~iversen/PDFfiles/Pierson1996.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 14 April 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=World+Politics&rft.atitle=The+New+Politics+of+the+Welfare+State&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=143-179&rft.date=1996&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A55860810%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25053959%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fwp.1996.0004&rft.aulast=Pierson&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.people.fas.harvard.edu%2F~iversen%2FPDFfiles%2FPierson1996.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWelfare+state" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bo_Rothstein" title="Bo Rothstein">Rothstein, Bo</a>. <i>Just institutions matter: the moral and political logic of the universal welfare state</i> (Cambridge University Press, 1998)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Radcliff" title="Benjamin Radcliff">Radcliff, Benjamin</a> (2013) <i>The Political Economy of Human Happiness</i> (New York: Cambridge University Press).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReevesMcIvor2014" class="citation journal cs1">Reeves, Rachel; McIvor, Martin (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200806100153/https://www.lwbooks.co.uk/renewal/22-3-4/clement-attlee-and-foundations-british-welfare-state">"Clement Attlee and the foundations of the British welfare state"</a>. <i>Renewal</i>. <b>22</b> (3–4): 42–59. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lwbooks.co.uk/renewal/22-3-4/clement-attlee-and-foundations-british-welfare-state">the original</a> on 6 August 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 January</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Renewal&rft.atitle=Clement+Attlee+and+the+foundations+of+the+British+welfare+state&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=3%E2%80%934&rft.pages=42-59&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Reeves&rft.aufirst=Rachel&rft.au=McIvor%2C+Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lwbooks.co.uk%2Frenewal%2F22-3-4%2Fclement-attlee-and-foundations-british-welfare-state&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWelfare+state" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Van Kersbergen, K. <i>Social Capitalism</i> (London: Routledge, 1995).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVrooman2012" class="citation journal cs1">Vrooman, J Cok (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236972021">"Regimes and cultures of social security: Comparing institutional models through nonlinear PCA"</a>. <i>International Journal of Comparative Sociology</i>. <b>53</b> (5–6): 444–477. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0020715212469512">10.1177/0020715212469512</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154903810">154903810</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Comparative+Sociology&rft.atitle=Regimes+and+cultures+of+social+security%3A+Comparing+institutional+models+through+nonlinear+PCA&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=5%E2%80%936&rft.pages=444-477&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0020715212469512&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154903810%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Vrooman&rft.aufirst=J+Cok&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F236972021&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWelfare+state" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welfare_state&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media 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data-file-height="355" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Welfare_state" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Welfare state">Welfare state</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Data_and_statistics">Data and statistics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Welfare_state&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Data and statistics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>OECD <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oecd.org/department/0,2688,en_2649_33929_1_1_1_1_1,00.html">Health Policy and Data: Health Division</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oecd.org/els/social/expenditure">OECD – Social Expenditure database (SOCX)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oecd.org/els/socialpoliciesanddata/benefitsandwagescountryspecificinformation.htm">Figures on wages and benefit systems in various OECD member states</a></li></ul></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130620195520/http://aei.pitt.edu/view/euar/Development_of_the_Social_Situation.html">Contains information on social security developments in various EC member states from 1957 to 1978</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130620195548/http://aei.pitt.edu/view/euar/Social_Developments.html">Contains information on social security developments in various EC member states from 1979 to 1989</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140116101718/http://aei.pitt.edu/31986/1/COM_(93)_531_final.pdf">Contains information on social assistance programmes in various EC member states in 1993</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/sofia/08711.pdf">Contains detailed information on the welfare systems in the former Yugoslav republics</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jrf.org.uk/sites/files/jrf/2194-benefits-taxation-poverty.pdf">The impact of benefit and tax uprating on incomes and poverty (UK)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130514220327/http://www.jrf.org.uk/sites/files/jrf/2194-benefits-taxation-poverty.pdf">Archived</a> 14 May 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Welfare state</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Welfare+state">Resources in your library</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 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style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192451#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span 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href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007553638905171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Social_democracy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Social_democracy" title="Template:Social democracy"><abbr title="View this 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Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_Declaration" title="Frankfurt Declaration">Frankfurt Declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Godesberg_Program" title="Godesberg Program">Godesberg Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internationalist%E2%80%93defencist_schism" title="Internationalist–defencist schism">Internationalist–defencist schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_movement" title="Labour movement">Labor movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Marxism" title="Orthodox Marxism">Orthodox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionism_(Marxism)" title="Revisionism (Marxism)">Revisionist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_model" title="Nordic model">Nordic model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy#Second_International_era_and_reform_or_revolution_dispute_(1889–1914)" title="Social democracy">Reformist–revolutionary dispute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_socialism" title="History of socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopian_socialism" title="Utopian socialism">Utopian socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_capitalism" title="Welfare capitalism">Welfare capitalism</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px;padding: 0.5em;"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Rose_(symbolism)#Socialism_and_social_democracy" title="Rose (symbolism)"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Red_rose_02.svg/75px-Red_rose_02.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="71" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Red_rose_02.svg/113px-Red_rose_02.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Red_rose_02.svg/150px-Red_rose_02.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="611" data-file-height="579" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">Civil liberties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_democracy" title="Economic democracy">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_democracy" title="Industrial democracy">Industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Representative_democracy" title="Representative democracy">Representative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_Marxism" title="Democracy in Marxism">Marxist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dirigisme" title="Dirigisme">Dirigisme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_protection" title="Environmental protection">Environmental protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fair_trade" title="Fair trade">Fair trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gradualism" title="Gradualism">Gradualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internationalism_(politics)#Socialism" title="Internationalism (politics)">Internationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_reform" title="Land reform">Land reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_rights" title="Labor rights">Labor rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_nationalism" title="Left-wing nationalism">Left-wing nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_economy" title="Mixed economy">Mixed economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalization" title="Nationalization">Nationalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_and_positive_rights" title="Negative and positive rights">Negative and positive rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">Progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformism" title="Reformism">Reformism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformist_Left" class="mw-redirect" title="Reformist Left">Left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformism" title="Reformism">Socialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_socialism" title="Revolutionary socialism">Revolutionary socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_corporatism" title="Social corporatism">Social corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_market_economy" title="Social market economy">Social market economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_state" title="Socialist state">Socialist state</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_capitalism" title="State capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_socialism" title="State socialism">Socialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_union" title="Trade union">Trade union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripartisme" title="Tripartisme">Tripartisme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Welfare">Welfare</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Welfare state</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span style="vertical-align:1px;">Variants</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_socialism" title="Democratic socialism">Democratic socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_socialism" title="Ethical socialism">Ethical socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein#Opinions" title="Eduard Bernstein">Evolutionary socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_socialism" title="Liberal socialism">Liberal socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_of_the_21st_century" title="Socialism of the 21st century">Socialism of the 21st century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span style="vertical-align:1px;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_social_democrats" title="List of social democrats">People</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvador_Allende" title="Salvador Allende">Allende</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacinda_Ardern" title="Jacinda Ardern">Ardern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clement_Attlee" title="Clement Attlee">Attlee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obafemi_Awolowo" title="Obafemi Awolowo">Awolowo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Batlle_y_Ord%C3%B3%C3%B1ez" title="José Batlle y Ordóñez">Batlle y Ordóñez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_Bebel" title="August Bebel">Bebel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Ben-Gurion" title="David Ben-Gurion">Ben-Gurion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein" title="Eduard Bernstein">Bernstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%B3mulo_Betancourt" title="Rómulo Betancourt">Betancourt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zulfikar_Ali_Bhutto" title="Zulfikar Ali Bhutto">Bhutto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tony_Blair" title="Tony Blair">Blair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Blanc" title="Louis Blanc">Blanc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willy_Brandt" title="Willy Brandt">Brandt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hjalmar_Branting" title="Hjalmar Branting">Branting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Brown" title="Gordon Brown">Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Callaghan" title="James Callaghan">Callaghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A1zaro_C%C3%A1rdenas" title="Lázaro Cárdenas">Cárdenas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Ch%C3%A1vez" title="Hugo Chávez">Chávez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helen_Clark" title="Helen Clark">Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bettino_Craxi" title="Bettino Craxi">Craxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Crosland" title="Anthony Crosland">Crosland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Corbyn" title="Jeremy Corbyn">Corbyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Curtin" title="John Curtin">Curtin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignacy_Daszy%C5%84ski" title="Ignacy Daszyński">Daszyński</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_V._Debs" title="Eugene V. Debs">Debs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tommy_Douglas" title="Tommy Douglas">Douglas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willem_Drees" title="Willem Drees">Drees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Ebert" title="Friedrich Ebert">Ebert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%BClent_Ecevit" title="Bülent Ecevit">Ecevit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Fraser" title="Peter Fraser">Fraser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Gaitskell" title="Hugh Gaitskell">Gaitskell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indira_Gandhi" title="Indira Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felipe_Gonz%C3%A1lez" title="Felipe González">González</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_Goulart" title="João Goulart">Goulart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keir_Hardie" title="Keir Hardie">Hardie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Hilferding" title="Rudolf Hilferding">Hilferding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Jaur%C3%A8s" title="Jean Jaurès">Jaurès</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Jenkins" title="Roy Jenkins">Jenkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carsun_Chang" title="Carsun Chang">Junmai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetsu_Katayama" title="Tetsu Katayama">Katayama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Kautsky" title="Karl Kautsky">Kautsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Kerensky" title="Alexander Kerensky">Kerensky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anna_K%C3%A9thly" title="Anna Kéthly">Kéthly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Kirk" title="Norman Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ricardo_Lagos" title="Ricardo Lagos">Lagos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Lassalle" title="Ferdinand Lassalle">Lassalle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Layton" title="Jack Layton">Layton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_L%C3%A9vesque" title="René Lévesque">Lévesque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Liebknecht" title="Wilhelm Liebknecht">Liebknecht (father)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Liebknecht" title="Karl Liebknecht">Liebknecht (son)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Luxemburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramsay_MacDonald" title="Ramsay MacDonald">MacDonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Mandela" title="Nelson Mandela">Mandela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evo_Morales" title="Evo Morales">Morales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alva_Myrdal" title="Alva Myrdal">Myrdal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru" title="Jawaharlal Nehru">Nehru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olof_Palme" title="Olof Palme">Palme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgi_Plekhanov" title="Georgi Plekhanov">Plekhanov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano_Prodi" title="Romano Prodi">Prodi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernie_Sanders" title="Bernie Sanders">Sanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Joseph_Savage" title="Michael Joseph Savage">Savage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorvald_Stauning" title="Thorvald Stauning">Stauning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Thomas" title="Norman Thomas">Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joop_den_Uyl" title="Joop den Uyl">Den Uyl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidney_Webb,_1st_Baron_Passfield" title="Sidney Webb, 1st Baron Passfield">Webb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gough_Whitlam" title="Gough Whitlam">Whitlam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Wilson" title="Harold Wilson">Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._S._Woodsworth" title="J. S. Woodsworth">Woodsworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noe_Zhordania" title="Noe Zhordania">Zhordania</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span style="vertical-align:1px;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_social_democratic_parties" title="List of social democratic parties">Organizations</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Trade_Union_Confederation" title="International Trade Union Confederation">International Trade Union Confederation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Union_of_Socialist_Youth" title="International Union of Socialist Youth">International Union of Socialist Youth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Party_of_European_Socialists" title="Party of European Socialists">Party of European Socialists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Alliance" title="Progressive Alliance">Progressive Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_International" title="Socialist International">Socialist International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_European_Socialists" title="Young European Socialists">Young European Socialists</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Social_Democratic_Party_of_Austria" title="History of the Social Democratic Party of Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany" title="History of the Social Democratic Party of Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Social democracy in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td 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title="Christian democracy">Principles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_social_teaching" title="Catholic social teaching">Catholic social teaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_corporatism" title="Christian corporatism">Christian corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_conservatism" title="Liberal conservatism">Liberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_conservatism" title="Progressive conservatism">Progressive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_conservatism" title="Social conservatism">Social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consistent_life_ethic" title="Consistent life ethic">Consistent life ethic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_mandate" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural mandate">Cultural mandate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_life" title="Culture of life">Culture of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dignity_of_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Dignity of labor">Dignity of labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_progressivism" title="Economic progressivism">Economic progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Familialism" title="Familialism">Familialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_dignity" class="mw-redirect" title="Human dignity">Human dignity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Just_war_theory" title="Just war theory">Just war theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_liberalism" title="Conservative liberalism">Conservative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordoliberalism" title="Ordoliberalism">Ordo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_economy" title="Mixed economy">Mixed economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Calvinism" title="Neo-Calvinism">Neo-Calvinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Thomism" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Thomism">Neo-Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Option_for_the_poor" title="Option for the poor">Option for the poor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Person_Dignity_Theory" title="Person Dignity Theory">Person Dignity Theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popolarismo" title="Popolarismo">Popularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_morality" title="Public morality">Public morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_liberty" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious liberty">Religious liberty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state#Friendly_and_hostile_separation" title="Separation of church and state">Friendly separation of church and state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_pluralism" title="Religious pluralism">Religious pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Gospel" title="Social Gospel">Social Gospel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_market_economy" title="Social market economy">Social market economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity" title="Solidarity">Solidarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sphere_sovereignty" title="Sphere sovereignty">Sphere sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship_(theology)" title="Stewardship (theology)">Stewardship</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_protection" title="Environmental protection">Environmental protection</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsidiarity" title="Subsidiarity">Subsidiarity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Subsidiarity_(Catholicism)" title="Subsidiarity (Catholicism)">in Catholicism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Welfare">Welfare</a> <ul><li>State</li></ul></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Mar%C3%ADa_Arizmendiarrieta" title="José María Arizmendiarrieta">Arizmendiarrieta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Xaver_von_Baader" title="Franz Xaver von Baader">Baader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilaire_Belloc" title="Hilaire Belloc">Belloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eivind_Berggrav" title="Eivind Berggrav">Berggrav</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._K._Chesterton" title="G. K. Chesterton">Chesterton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Day" title="Dorothy Day">Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herman_Dooyeweerd" title="Herman Dooyeweerd">Dooyeweerd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Gebhardt" title="Stanisław Gebhardt">Gebhardt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Gilson" title="Étienne Gilson">Gilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_G%C3%B6rres" title="Joseph Görres">Görres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guillaume_Groen_van_Prinsterer" title="Guillaume Groen van Prinsterer">Groen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Habsburg" title="Otto von Habsburg">Habsburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II" title="Pope John Paul II">John Paul II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Emmanuel_von_Ketteler" title="Wilhelm Emmanuel von Ketteler">Ketteler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wojciech_Korfanty" title="Wojciech Korfanty">Korfanty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9licit%C3%A9_de_La_Mennais" title="Félicité de La Mennais">Lamennais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_XIII" title="Pope Leo XIII">Leo XIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._S._Lewis" title="C. S. Lewis">Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Maritain" title="Jacques Maritain">Maritain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Mounier" title="Emmanuel Mounier">Mounier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_von_Nell-Breuning" title="Oswald von Nell-Breuning">Nell-Breuning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Pesch" title="Heinrich Pesch">Pesch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_XI" title="Pope Pius XI">Pius XI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edith_Stein" title="Edith Stein">Stein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Sturzo" title="Luigi Sturzo">Sturzo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Tischner" title="Józef Tischner">Tischner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Freiherr_von_Vogelsang" title="Karl Freiherr von Vogelsang">Vogelsang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rowan_Williams" title="Rowan Williams">Williams</a></li></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Politicians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <li><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Adenauer" title="Konrad Adenauer">Adenauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giulio_Andreotti" title="Giulio Andreotti">Andreotti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Beel" title="Louis Beel">Beel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerzy_Buzek" title="Jerzy Buzek">Buzek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rafael_Caldera" title="Rafael Caldera">Caldera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcide_De_Gasperi" title="Alcide De Gasperi">De Gasperi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Erhard" title="Ludwig Erhard">Erhard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduardo_Frei_Montalva" title="Eduardo Frei Montalva">Frei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guillaume_Groen_van_Prinsterer" title="Guillaume Groen van Prinsterer">Groen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keith_Joseph" title="Keith Joseph">Joseph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Emmanuel_von_Ketteler" title="Wilhelm Emmanuel von Ketteler">Ketteler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helmut_Kohl" title="Helmut Kohl">Kohl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wojciech_Korfanty" title="Wojciech Korfanty">Korfanty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sebastian_Kurz" title="Sebastian Kurz">Kurz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Kuyper" title="Abraham Kuyper">Kuyper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Letta" title="Enrico Letta">Letta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilfried_Martens" title="Wilfried Martens">Martens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tadeusz_Mazowiecki" title="Tadeusz Mazowiecki">Mazowiecki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Merkel" title="Angela Merkel">Merkel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roberta_Metsola" title="Roberta Metsola">Metsola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Miko%C5%82ajczyk" title="Stanisław Mikołajczyk">Mikołajczyk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aldo_Moro" title="Aldo Moro">Moro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%A2nio_Quadros" title="Jânio Quadros">Quadros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_Pastrana_Arango" title="Andrés Pastrana Arango">Pastrana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewi_Pethrus" title="Lewi Pethrus">Pethrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Gert_P%C3%B6ttering" title="Hans-Gert Pöttering">Pöttering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano_Prodi" title="Romano Prodi">Prodi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Schuman" title="Robert Schuman">Schuman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Markus_S%C3%B6der" title="Markus Söder">Söder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Josef_Strauss" title="Franz Josef Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Sturzo" title="Luigi Sturzo">Sturzo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Tindemans" title="Leo Tindemans">Tindemans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Freiherr_von_Vogelsang" title="Karl Freiherr von Vogelsang">Vogelsang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ursula_von_der_Leyen" title="Ursula von der Leyen">von der Leyen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lech_Wa%C5%82%C4%99sa" title="Lech Wałęsa">Wałęsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manfred_Weber" title="Manfred Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Windthorst" title="Ludwig Windthorst">Windthorst</a></li></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Parties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Solidarity_Party" title="American Solidarity Party">American Solidarity Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_People%27s_Party" title="Austrian People's Party">Austrian People's Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Democracy_(Italy)" title="Christian Democracy (Italy)">Christian Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Appeal" title="Christian Democratic Appeal">Christian Democratic Appeal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Democratic_and_Flemish" title="Christian Democratic and Flemish">Christian Democratic and Flemish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian-Democratic_Rebirth_Party" title="Christian-Democratic Rebirth Party">Christian Democratic Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Democratic_People%27s_Party_(Hungary)" title="Christian Democratic People's Party (Hungary)">Christian Democratic People's Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Union_of_Germany" title="Christian Democratic Union of Germany">Christian Democratic Union of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Social_People%27s_Party" title="Christian Social People's Party">Christian Social People's Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Social_Union_in_Bavaria" title="Christian Social Union in Bavaria">Christian Social Union in Bavaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centre_Party_(Germany)" title="Centre Party (Germany)">Centre Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civic_Platform" title="Civic Platform">Civic Platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatian_Democratic_Union" title="Croatian Democratic Union">Croatian Democratic Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Rally" title="Democratic Rally">Democratic Rally</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fianna_F%C3%A1il" title="Fianna Fáil">Fianna Fáil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fine_Gael" title="Fine Gael">Fine Gael</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kataeb_Party" title="Kataeb Party">Kataeb Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Action_Party_(Mexico)" title="National Action Party (Mexico)">National Action Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Party_(Uruguay)" title="National Party (Uruguay)">National Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalist_Party_(Malta)" title="Nationalist Party (Malta)">Nationalist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Democracy_(Greece)" title="New Democracy (Greece)">New Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriotic_Union_(Liechtenstein)" title="Patriotic Union (Liechtenstein)">Patriotic Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Party_(Spain)" title="People's Party (Spain)">People's Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Party" title="Polish People's Party">Polish People's Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_Republican_Movement" title="Popular Republican Movement">Popular Republican Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VMRO-DPMNE" title="VMRO-DPMNE">VMRO-DPMNE</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_democratic_parties" title="List of Christian democratic parties">More</a></i></li></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Action" title="Catholic Action">Catholic Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrist_Democrat_International" title="Centrist Democrat International">Centrist Democrat International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Democrat_Organization_of_America" title="Christian Democrat Organization of America">Christian Democrat Organization of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_People%27s_Party" title="European People's Party">European People's Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Christian_Political_Movement" title="European Christian Political Movement">European Christian Political Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Adenauer_Foundation" title="Konrad Adenauer Foundation">Konrad Adenauer Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Christian_Fellowship" title="Conservative Christian Fellowship">Conservative Christian Fellowship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilfried_Martens_Centre_for_European_Studies" title="Wilfried Martens Centre for European Studies">Centre for European Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Ideas_Network" title="European Ideas Network">European Ideas Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Schuman_Foundation_(European_People%27s_Party)" title="Robert Schuman Foundation (European People's Party)">Schuman Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_Public_Justice" title="Center for Public Justice">Center for Public Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paneuropean_Union" title="Paneuropean Union">Paneuropean Union</a></li></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Documents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rerum_novarum" title="Rerum novarum">Rerum novarum</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Populorum_progressio" title="Populorum progressio">Populorum progressio</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Graves_de_communi_re" title="Graves de communi re">Graves de communi re</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Quadragesimo_anno" title="Quadragesimo anno">Quadragesimo anno</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Laborem_exercens" title="Laborem exercens">Laborem exercens</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sollicitudo_rei_socialis" title="Sollicitudo rei socialis">Sollicitudo rei socialis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Centesimus_annus" title="Centesimus annus">Centesimus annus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Laudato_si%27" title="Laudato si'">Laudato si'</a></i></li></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_politics" title="Catholic Church and politics">Catholic Church and politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_left" title="Christian left">Christian left</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_anarchism" title="Christian anarchism">Christian anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_communism" title="Christian communism">Christian communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_socialism" title="Christian socialism">Christian socialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_right" title="Christian right">Christian right</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_libertarianism" title="Christian libertarianism">Christian libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_nationalism" title="Christian nationalism">Christian nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoconservatism" class="mw-redirect" title="Theoconservatism">Theoconservatism</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Clerical_philosophers" title="Clerical philosophers">Clerical philosophers</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_socialism" title="Ethical socialism">Ethical socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integralism" title="Integralism">Integralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illiberal_democracy" title="Illiberal democracy">Illiberal democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_democracy" title="Religious democracy">Religious democracy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_democracy" title="Buddhism and democracy">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_democracy" title="Islam and democracy">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_and_democratic_state" title="Jewish and democratic state">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodemocracy" title="Theodemocracy">Mormon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_Catholicism" title="Traditionalist Catholicism">Traditionalist Catholicism</a></li></div></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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