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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Types of ploidy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Types_of_ploidy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Types of ploidy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Types_of_ploidy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Haploid_and_monoploid" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Haploid_and_monoploid"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Haploid and monoploid</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Haploid_and_monoploid-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diploid" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diploid"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Diploid</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diploid-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Polyploidy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Polyploidy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Polyploidy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Polyploidy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In_bacteria_and_archaea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_bacteria_and_archaea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>In bacteria and archaea</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_bacteria_and_archaea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Variable_or_indefinite_ploidy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Variable_or_indefinite_ploidy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Variable or indefinite ploidy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Variable_or_indefinite_ploidy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mixoploidy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mixoploidy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Mixoploidy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mixoploidy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dihaploidy_and_polyhaploidy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dihaploidy_and_polyhaploidy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Dihaploidy and polyhaploidy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dihaploidy_and_polyhaploidy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Euploidy_and_aneuploidy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Euploidy_and_aneuploidy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Euploidy and aneuploidy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Euploidy_and_aneuploidy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Homoploid" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Homoploid"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Homoploid</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Homoploid-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Zygoidy_and_azygoidy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Zygoidy_and_azygoidy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.9</span> <span>Zygoidy and azygoidy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Zygoidy_and_azygoidy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Special_cases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Special_cases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Special cases</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Special_cases-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Special cases subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Special_cases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-More_than_one_nucleus_per_cell" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#More_than_one_nucleus_per_cell"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>More than one nucleus per cell</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-More_than_one_nucleus_per_cell-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ancestral_ploidy_levels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancestral_ploidy_levels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Ancestral ploidy levels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancestral_ploidy_levels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Haplodiploidy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Haplodiploidy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Haplodiploidy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Haplodiploidy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tissue-specific_polyploidy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tissue-specific_polyploidy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Tissue-specific polyploidy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tissue-specific_polyploidy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adaptive_and_ecological_significance_of_variation_in_ploidy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adaptive_and_ecological_significance_of_variation_in_ploidy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Adaptive and ecological significance of variation in ploidy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adaptive_and_ecological_significance_of_variation_in_ploidy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Less_efficient_natural_selection_in_diploid_compared_to_haploid_tissue" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Less_efficient_natural_selection_in_diploid_compared_to_haploid_tissue"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Less efficient natural selection in diploid compared to haploid tissue</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Less_efficient_natural_selection_in_diploid_compared_to_haploid_tissue-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Glossary_of_ploidy_numbers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Glossary_of_ploidy_numbers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Glossary of ploidy numbers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Glossary_of_ploidy_numbers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Specific_examples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Specific_examples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Specific examples</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Specific_examples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Ploidy</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 52 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-52" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">52 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plo%C3%AFdie" title="Ploïdie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Ploïdie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%89%80%E1%88%98%E1%88%AD%E1%8A%90%E1%89%B5" title="ቀመርነት – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ቀመርነት" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D9%8A%D8%BA%D8%A9_%D8%B5%D8%A8%D8%BA%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="صيغة صبغية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="صيغة صبغية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A1" title="ডিপ্লয়েড – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ডিপ্লয়েড" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%86%D1%8C" title="Плоіднасць – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Плоіднасць" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Хаплоиден набор – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Хаплоиден набор" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ploidija" title="Ploidija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Ploidija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ploidie" title="Ploidie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Ploidie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ploidi" title="Ploidi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Ploidi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ploidiegrad" title="Ploidiegrad – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Ploidiegrad" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ploidsus" title="Ploidsus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Ploidsus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%B4%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Πλοειδία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πλοειδία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ploid%C3%ADa" title="Ploidía – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ploidía" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ploido" title="Ploido – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Ploido" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ploidia" title="Ploidia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ploidia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%84%D9%88%D8%A6%DB%8C%D8%AF%DB%8C" title="پلوئیدی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پلوئیدی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plo%C3%AFdie" title="Ploïdie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Ploïdie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ploid%C3%ADa" title="Ploidía – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Ploidía" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B0%B0%EC%88%98%EC%84%B1" title="배수성 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="배수성" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8A%D5%B8%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%BA%D5%AC%D5%B8%D5%AB%D5%A4%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Պոլիպլոիդիա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Պոլիպլոիդիա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ploido" title="Ploido – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Ploido" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ploidi" title="Ploidi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Ploidi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ploidia" title="Ploidia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Ploidia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%90%D7%99%D7%93%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA" title="פלואידיות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פלואידיות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%82%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA" title="Плоидтілік – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Плоидтілік" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ploidia" title="Ploidia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Ploidia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ploidia" title="Ploidia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Ploidia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82" title="Плоидност – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Плоидност" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%82_%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%96%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF" title="ക്രോമസോം സംഖ്യ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ക്രോമസോം സംഖ്യ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ploid" title="Ploid – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Ploid" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B8" title="Плоиди – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Плоиди" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plo%C3%AFdie" title="Ploïdie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Ploïdie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%80%8D%E6%95%B0%E6%80%A7" title="倍数性 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="倍数性" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ploiditet" title="Ploiditet – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Ploiditet" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ploiditet" title="Ploiditet – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Ploiditet" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uunkooma" title="Uunkooma – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Uunkooma" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ploidia" title="Ploidia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Ploidia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ploidia" title="Ploidia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Ploidia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Плоидность – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Плоидность" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ploidy" title="Ploidy – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Ploidy" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ploidia" title="Ploidia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Ploidia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Плоидија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Плоидија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ploidija" title="Ploidija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Ploidija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ploidia" title="Ploidia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Ploidia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ploiditet" title="Ploiditet – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Ploiditet" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%88" title="மடியநிலை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மடியநிலை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%87%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B5" title="พล็อยดี – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="พล็อยดี" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ploitlik" title="Ploitlik – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Ploitlik" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%97%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Плоїдність – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Плоїдність" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%DA%A9%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B1" title="تکریر – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="تکریر" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%E1%BB%A9c_b%E1%BB%99i_th%E1%BB%83" title="Mức bội thể – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Mức bội thể" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Haploid&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Haploid">Haploid</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Number of sets of chromosomes of a cell</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_organisms_by_chromosome_count" title="List of organisms by chromosome count">List of organisms by chromosome count</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chromosome#Number_in_various_organisms" title="Chromosome">Chromosome § Number in various organisms</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Haploid_vs_diploid.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Haploid_vs_diploid.svg/170px-Haploid_vs_diploid.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="399" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Haploid_vs_diploid.svg/255px-Haploid_vs_diploid.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Haploid_vs_diploid.svg/340px-Haploid_vs_diploid.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="1691" /></a><figcaption>A haploid set that consists of a single complete set of chromosomes (equal to the monoploid set), as shown in the picture above, must belong to a diploid species. If a haploid set consists of two sets, it must be of a tetraploid (four sets) species.<sup id="cite_ref-Hartl-2011_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hartl-2011-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Ploidy</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'p' in 'pie'">p</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/ɔɪ/: 'oi' in 'choice'">ɔɪ</span><span title="'d' in 'dye'">d</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span></span>/</a></span></span>) is the number of complete sets of <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosomes</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cell</a>, and hence the number of possible <a href="/wiki/Allele" title="Allele">alleles</a> for <a href="/wiki/Autosome" title="Autosome">autosomal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pseudoautosomal_region" title="Pseudoautosomal region">pseudoautosomal</a> <a href="/wiki/Genes" class="mw-redirect" title="Genes">genes</a>. Here <i>sets of chromosomes</i> refers to the number of maternal and paternal chromosome copies, respectively, in each homologous chromosome pair—the form in which chromosomes naturally exist. <a href="/wiki/Somatic_cell" title="Somatic cell">Somatic cells</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">tissues</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Individual#Biology" title="Individual">individual</a> organisms can be described according to the number of sets of chromosomes present (the "ploidy level"): <b>monoploid</b> (1 set), <b>diploid</b> (2 sets), <b>triploid</b> (3 sets), <b>tetraploid</b> (4 sets), <b>pentaploid</b> (5 sets), <b>hexaploid</b> (6 sets), <b>heptaploid</b><sup id="cite_ref-Murty-1973_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Murty-1973-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <b>septaploid</b><sup id="cite_ref-Tateoka-1975_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tateoka-1975-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (7 sets), etc. The generic term <a href="/wiki/Polyploidy" title="Polyploidy">polyploid</a> is often used to describe cells with three or more sets of chromosomes.<sup id="cite_ref-Rieger-1976_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rieger-1976-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Darlington-1937_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Darlington-1937-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Virtually all <a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">sexually reproducing</a> organisms are made up of somatic cells that are diploid or greater, but ploidy level may vary widely between different organisms, between different tissues within the same organism, and at different stages in an organism's life cycle. Half of all known plant genera contain polyploid species, and about two-thirds of all grasses are polyploid.<sup id="cite_ref-Snustad-2012_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Snustad-2012-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many animals are uniformly diploid, though polyploidy is common in invertebrates, reptiles, and amphibians. In some species, ploidy varies between individuals of the same species (as in the <a href="/wiki/Social_insect" class="mw-redirect" title="Social insect">social insects</a>), and in others entire tissues and organ systems may be polyploid despite the rest of the body being diploid (as in the mammalian <a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">liver</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>). For many organisms, especially plants and fungi, changes in ploidy level between generations are major drivers of <a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">speciation</a>. In mammals and birds, ploidy changes are typically fatal.<sup id="cite_ref-Otto-2007_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Otto-2007-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is, however, evidence of polyploidy in organisms now considered to be diploid, suggesting that polyploidy has contributed to evolutionary diversification in plants and animals through successive rounds of polyploidization and rediploidization.<sup id="cite_ref-Mable-2004_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mable-2004-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Madlung-2012_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Madlung-2012-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Humans are diploid organisms, normally carrying two complete sets of chromosomes in their somatic cells: one copy of paternal and maternal chromosomes, respectively, in each of the 23 homologous pairs of chromosomes that humans normally have. This results in two homologous pairs within each of the 23 homologous pairs, providing a full complement of 46 chromosomes. This total number of individual chromosomes (counting all complete sets) is called the <b>chromosome number</b> or <b>chromosome complement</b>. The number of chromosomes found in a single complete set of chromosomes is called the <b>monoploid number</b> (<i>x</i>). The <b>haploid number</b> (<i>n</i>) refers to the total number of chromosomes found in a <a href="/wiki/Gamete" title="Gamete">gamete</a> (a <a href="/wiki/Sperm" title="Sperm">sperm</a> or <a href="/wiki/Egg" title="Egg">egg</a> cell produced by <a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a> in preparation for sexual reproduction). Under normal conditions, the haploid number is exactly half the total number of chromosomes present in the organism's somatic cells, with one paternal and maternal copy in each chromosome pair. For diploid organisms, the monoploid number and haploid number are equal; in humans, both are equal to 23. When a human <a href="/wiki/Germ_cell" title="Germ cell">germ cell</a> undergoes meiosis, the diploid 46 chromosome complement is split in half to form haploid gametes. After fusion of a male and a female gamete (each containing 1 set of 23 chromosomes) during <a href="/wiki/Fertilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Fertilization">fertilization</a>, the resulting <a href="/wiki/Zygote" title="Zygote">zygote</a> again has the full complement of 46 chromosomes: 2 sets of 23 chromosomes. <a href="#Euploidy_and_aneuploidy">Euploidy and aneuploidy</a> describe having a number of chromosomes that is an exact multiple of the number of chromosomes in a normal gamete; and having any other number, respectively. For example, a person with <a href="/wiki/Turner_syndrome" title="Turner syndrome">Turner syndrome</a> may be missing one sex chromosome (X or Y), resulting in a (45,X) karyotype instead of the usual (46,XX) or (46,XY). This is a type of aneuploidy and cells from the person may be said to be aneuploid with a (diploid) chromosome complement of 45. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ploidy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term <i>ploidy</i> is a <a href="/wiki/Back-formation" title="Back-formation">back-formation</a> from <i>haploidy</i> and <i>diploidy</i>. "Ploid" is a combination of Ancient Greek -πλόος (-plóos, "-fold") and -ειδής (-<i>eidḗs</i>), from εἶδος (<i>eîdos</i>, "form, likeness").<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The principal meaning of the <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> word ᾰ̔πλόος (haplóos) is "single",<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> from ἁ- (ha-, "one, same").<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> διπλόος (<i>diplóos</i>) means "duplex" or "two-fold". Diploid therefore means "duplex-shaped" (compare "humanoid", "human-shaped"). </p><p>Polish-German botanist <a href="/wiki/Eduard_Strasburger" title="Eduard Strasburger">Eduard Strasburger</a> coined the terms <i>haploid</i> and <i>diploid</i> in 1905.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some authors suggest that Strasburger based the terms on <a href="/wiki/August_Weismann" title="August Weismann">August Weismann</a>'s conception of the id (or <a href="/wiki/Germ_plasm" title="Germ plasm">germ plasm</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> hence haplo-<i>id</i> and diplo-<i>id</i>. The two terms were brought into the English language from German through <a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Lang" title="William Henry Lang">William Henry Lang</a>'s 1908 translation of a 1906 textbook by Strasburger and colleagues.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_of_ploidy">Types of ploidy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ploidy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Types of ploidy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Haploid_and_monoploid">Haploid and monoploid</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ploidy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Haploid and monoploid"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Difference_of_Haploid_and_Diploid_Gene_Regulation_in_Mendelian_Genetics.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Difference_of_Haploid_and_Diploid_Gene_Regulation_in_Mendelian_Genetics.svg/220px-Difference_of_Haploid_and_Diploid_Gene_Regulation_in_Mendelian_Genetics.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="288" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Difference_of_Haploid_and_Diploid_Gene_Regulation_in_Mendelian_Genetics.svg/330px-Difference_of_Haploid_and_Diploid_Gene_Regulation_in_Mendelian_Genetics.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Difference_of_Haploid_and_Diploid_Gene_Regulation_in_Mendelian_Genetics.svg/440px-Difference_of_Haploid_and_Diploid_Gene_Regulation_in_Mendelian_Genetics.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="671" /></a><figcaption>A comparison of <a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">sexual reproduction</a> in predominantly haploid organisms and predominantly diploid organisms.<br /><br /><b>1)</b> A haploid organism is on the left and a diploid organism is on the right.<br /><b>2 and 3)</b> Haploid egg and sperm carrying the dominant purple gene and the recessive blue gene, respectively. These gametes are produced by simple mitosis of cells in the germ line.<br /><b>4 and 5)</b> Haploid sperm and egg carrying the recessive blue gene and the dominant purple gene, respectively. These gametes are produced by meiosis, which halves the number of chromosomes in the diploid germ cells.<br /><b>6)</b> The short-lived diploid state of haploid organisms, a zygote generated by the union of two haploid gametes during sex.<br /><b>7)</b> The diploid zygote which has just been fertilized by the union of haploid egg and sperm during sex.<br /><b>8)</b> Cells of the diploid structure quickly undergo meiosis to produce spores containing the meiotically halved number of chromosomes, restoring haploidy. These spores express either the mother's dominant gene or the father's recessive gene and proceed by mitotic division to build a new entirely haploid organism.<br /><b>9)</b> The diploid zygote proceeds by mitotic division to build a new entirely diploid organism. These cells possess both the purple and blue genes, but only the purple gene is expressed since it is dominant over the recessive blue gene.</figcaption></figure> <p>The term <b>haploid</b> is used with two distinct but related definitions. In the most generic sense, haploid refers to having the number of sets of chromosomes normally found in a <a href="/wiki/Gamete" title="Gamete">gamete</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because two gametes necessarily combine during sexual reproduction to form a single zygote from which somatic cells are generated, healthy gametes always possess exactly half the number of sets of chromosomes found in the somatic cells, and therefore "haploid" in this sense refers to having exactly half the number of sets of chromosomes found in a somatic cell. By this definition, an organism whose gametic cells contain a single copy of each chromosome (one set of chromosomes) may be considered haploid while the somatic cells, containing two copies of each chromosome (two sets of chromosomes), are diploid. This scheme of diploid somatic cells and haploid gametes is widely used in the animal kingdom and is the simplest to illustrate in diagrams of genetics concepts. But this definition also allows for haploid gametes with <i>more than one</i> set of chromosomes. As given above, gametes are by definition haploid, regardless of the actual number of sets of chromosomes they contain. An organism whose somatic cells are tetraploid (four sets of chromosomes), for example, will produce gametes by meiosis that contain two sets of chromosomes. These gametes might still be called haploid even though they are numerically diploid.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>An alternative usage defines "haploid" as having a single copy of each chromosome – that is, one and only one set of chromosomes.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this case, the nucleus of a <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotic</a> cell is said to be haploid only if it has a single set of <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosomes</a>, each one not being part of a pair. By extension a cell may be called haploid if its nucleus has one set of chromosomes, and an organism may be called haploid if its body cells (somatic cells) have one set of chromosomes per cell. By this definition haploid therefore would not be used to refer to the gametes produced by the tetraploid organism in the example above, since these gametes are numerically diploid. The term <b>monoploid</b> is often used as a less ambiguous way to describe a single set of chromosomes; by this second definition, haploid and monoploid are identical and can be used interchangeably.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Gamete" title="Gamete">Gametes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sperm" title="Sperm">sperm</a> and <a href="/wiki/Egg_cell" title="Egg cell">ova</a>) are haploid cells. The haploid gametes produced by most organisms combine to form a <a href="/wiki/Zygote" title="Zygote">zygote</a> with <i>n</i> pairs of chromosomes, i.e. 2<i>n</i> chromosomes in total. The chromosomes in each pair, one of which comes from the sperm and one from the egg, are said to be <a href="/wiki/Homologous_chromosomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Homologous chromosomes">homologous</a>. Cells and organisms with pairs of homologous chromosomes are called diploid. For example, most animals are diploid and produce haploid gametes. During <a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a>, sex cell precursors have their number of chromosomes halved by randomly "choosing" one member of each pair of chromosomes, resulting in haploid gametes. Because homologous chromosomes usually differ genetically, gametes usually differ genetically from one another.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>All <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a> and many <a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">fungi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alga" class="mw-redirect" title="Alga">algae</a> switch between a haploid and a diploid state, with one of the stages emphasized over the other. This is called <a href="/wiki/Alternation_of_generations" title="Alternation of generations">alternation of generations</a>. Most fungi and algae are haploid during the principal stage of their life cycle, as are some primitive plants like <a href="/wiki/Moss" title="Moss">mosses</a>. More recently evolved plants, like the <a href="/wiki/Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">gymnosperms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Angiosperm" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiosperm">angiosperms</a>, spend the majority of their life cycle in the diploid stage. Most animals are diploid, but male <a href="/wiki/Bees" class="mw-redirect" title="Bees">bees</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wasps" class="mw-redirect" title="Wasps">wasps</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ants" class="mw-redirect" title="Ants">ants</a> are haploid organisms because they develop from unfertilized, haploid eggs, while females (workers and queens) are diploid, making their system <a href="/wiki/Haplodiploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Haplodiploid">haplodiploid</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In some cases there is evidence that the <i>n</i> chromosomes in a haploid set have resulted from duplications of an originally smaller set of chromosomes. This "base" number – the number of apparently originally unique chromosomes in a haploid set – is called the <b>monoploid number</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> also known as <b>basic</b> or <b>cardinal number</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <b>fundamental number</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As an example, the chromosomes of <a href="/wiki/Common_wheat" title="Common wheat">common wheat</a> are believed to be derived from three different ancestral species, each of which had 7 chromosomes in its haploid gametes. The monoploid number is thus 7 and the haploid number is 3 × 7 = 21. In general <i>n</i> is a multiple of <i>x</i>. The somatic cells in a wheat plant have six sets of 7 chromosomes: three sets from the egg and three sets from the sperm which fused to form the plant, giving a total of 42 chromosomes. As a formula, for wheat 2<i>n</i> = 6<i>x</i> = 42, so that the haploid number <i>n</i> is 21 and the monoploid number <i>x</i> is 7. The gametes of common wheat are considered to be haploid, since they contain half the genetic information of somatic cells, but they are not monoploid, as they still contain three complete sets of chromosomes (<i>n</i> = 3<i>x</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the case of wheat, the origin of its haploid number of 21 chromosomes from three sets of 7 chromosomes can be demonstrated. In many other organisms, although the number of chromosomes may have originated in this way, this is no longer clear, and the monoploid number is regarded as the same as the haploid number. Thus in humans, <i>x</i> = <i>n</i> = 23. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diploid">Diploid</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ploidy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Diploid"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Diploid" redirects here. For the geometrical construct, see <a href="/wiki/Dyakis_dodecahedron" title="Dyakis dodecahedron">Dyakis dodecahedron</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png/220px-Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="364" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png/330px-Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png/440px-Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png 2x" data-file-width="9684" data-file-height="16008" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Karyotype" title="Karyotype">Karyogram</a> of a typical human cell, showing a diploid set of 22 <a href="/wiki/Homologous_chromosome" title="Homologous chromosome">homologous</a> <a href="/wiki/Autosomal" class="mw-redirect" title="Autosomal">autosomal</a> chromosome pairs. It also shows both the female (XX) and male (XY) versions of the two <a href="/wiki/Sex_chromosome" title="Sex chromosome">sex chromosomes</a> (at bottom right), as well as the <a href="/wiki/Human_mitochondrial_genetics" title="Human mitochondrial genetics">mitochondrial genome</a> (to scale at bottom left). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Karyotype" title="Karyotype">Karyotype</a></div></figcaption></figure> <p>Diploid describes a cell or nucleus which contains two copies of genetic material, or a complete set of chromosomes, paired with their homologs (chromosome carrying the same information from the other parent).<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <b>Diploid</b> cells have two <a href="/wiki/Homologous_chromosome" title="Homologous chromosome">homologous</a> copies of each <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosome</a>, usually one from the <a href="/wiki/Mother" title="Mother">mother</a> and one from the <a href="/wiki/Father" title="Father">father</a>. All or nearly all mammals are diploid organisms. The suspected tetraploid (possessing four-chromosome sets) plains viscacha rat (<i><a href="/wiki/Tympanoctomys_barrerae" class="mw-redirect" title="Tympanoctomys barrerae">Tympanoctomys barrerae</a></i>) and golden viscacha rat (<i><a href="/wiki/Pipanacoctomys_aureus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pipanacoctomys aureus">Pipanacoctomys aureus</a></i>)<sup id="cite_ref-Gallardo-2006_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gallardo-2006-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have been regarded as the only known exceptions (as of 2004).<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, some genetic studies have rejected any <a href="/wiki/Polyploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyploid">polyploidism</a> in mammals as unlikely, and suggest that amplification and dispersion of repetitive sequences best explain the large genome size of these two rodents.<sup id="cite_ref-Svartman-2005_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Svartman-2005-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All normal diploid individuals have some small fraction of cells that display <a href="/wiki/Polyploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyploid">polyploidy</a>. <a href="/wiki/Human_genome" title="Human genome">Human</a> diploid cells have 46 chromosomes (the <a href="/wiki/Somatic_(biology)" title="Somatic (biology)">somatic</a> number, <i>2n</i>) and human haploid <a href="/wiki/Gametes" class="mw-redirect" title="Gametes">gametes</a> (egg and sperm) have 23 chromosomes (<i>n</i>). <a href="/wiki/Retrovirus" title="Retrovirus">Retroviruses</a> that contain two copies of their RNA genome in each viral particle are also said to be diploid. Examples include <a href="/wiki/Human_foamy_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Human foamy virus">human foamy virus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Human_T-lymphotropic_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Human T-lymphotropic virus">human T-lymphotropic virus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/HIV" title="HIV">HIV</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Polyploidy">Polyploidy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ploidy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Polyploidy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Polyploidy" title="Polyploidy">Polyploidy</a></div> <p><b>Polyploidy</b> is the state where all cells have multiple sets of chromosomes beyond the basic set, usually 3 or more. Specific terms are <b>triploid</b> (3 sets), <b>tetraploid</b> (4 sets), pentaploid (5 sets), hexaploid (6 sets), heptaploid<sup id="cite_ref-Murty-1973_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Murty-1973-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or septaploid<sup id="cite_ref-Tateoka-1975_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tateoka-1975-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (7 sets), octoploid (8 sets), nonaploid (9 sets), decaploid (10 sets), undecaploid (11 sets), dodecaploid (12 sets), tridecaploid (13 sets), tetradecaploid (14 sets), etc.<sup id="cite_ref-Dierschke-2009_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dierschke-2009-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Renny-Byfield-2010_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Renny-Byfield-2010-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hummer-2009_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hummer-2009-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Talyshinskiĭ-1990_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Talyshinskiĭ-1990-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some higher ploidies include hexadecaploid (16 sets), dotriacontaploid (32 sets), and tetrahexacontaploid (64 sets),<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though Greek terminology may be set aside for readability in cases of higher ploidy (such as "16-ploid").<sup id="cite_ref-Hummer-2009_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hummer-2009-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Polytene_chromosomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Polytene chromosomes">Polytene chromosomes</a> of plants and fruit flies can be 1024-ploid.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ploidy of systems such as the <a href="/wiki/Salivary_gland" title="Salivary gland">salivary gland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elaiosome" title="Elaiosome">elaiosome</a>, <a href="/wiki/Endosperm" title="Endosperm">endosperm</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Trophoblast" title="Trophoblast">trophoblast</a> can exceed this, up to 1048576-ploid in the silk glands of the commercial silkworm <i><a href="/wiki/Bombyx_mori" title="Bombyx mori">Bombyx mori</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-D'Amato-2002_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-D'Amato-2002-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The chromosome sets may be from the same species or from closely related species. In the latter case, these are known as allopolyploids (or amphidiploids, which are allopolyploids that behave as if they were normal diploids). Allopolyploids are formed from the hybridization of two separate species. In plants, this probably most often occurs from the pairing of meiotically unreduced <a href="/wiki/Gametes" class="mw-redirect" title="Gametes">gametes</a>, and not by diploid–diploid hybridization followed by chromosome doubling.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The so-called <a href="/wiki/Triangle_of_U" title="Triangle of U"><i>Brassica</i> triangle</a> is an example of allopolyploidy, where three different parent species have hybridized in all possible pair combinations to produce three new species.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Polyploidy occurs commonly in plants, but rarely in animals. Even in diploid organisms, many <a href="/wiki/Somatic_cell" title="Somatic cell">somatic cells</a> are polyploid due to a process called <a href="/wiki/Endoreduplication" title="Endoreduplication">endoreduplication</a>, where duplication of the <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a> occurs without <a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">mitosis</a> (cell division). The extreme in polyploidy occurs in the <a href="/wiki/Fern" title="Fern">fern</a> genus <i><a href="/wiki/Ophioglossum" title="Ophioglossum">Ophioglossum</a></i>, the adder's-tongues, in which polyploidy results in chromosome counts in the hundreds, or, in at least one case, well over one thousand.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>It is possible for polyploid organisms to revert to lower ploidy by <a href="/wiki/Haploidisation" title="Haploidisation">haploidisation</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="In_bacteria_and_archaea">In bacteria and archaea</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ploidy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: In bacteria and archaea"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Polyploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyploid">Polyploidy</a> is a characteristic of the bacterium <i><a href="/wiki/Deinococcus_radiodurans" title="Deinococcus radiodurans">Deinococcus radiodurans</a></i> <sup id="cite_ref-Hansen-1978_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hansen-1978-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and of the <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaeon</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Halobacterium_salinarum" title="Halobacterium salinarum">Halobacterium salinarum</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Soppa-2011_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Soppa-2011-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These two species are highly resistant to <a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">ionizing radiation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Desiccation" title="Desiccation">desiccation</a>, conditions that induce <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> double-strand breaks.<sup id="cite_ref-Zahradka-2006_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zahradka-2006-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kottemann-2005_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kottemann-2005-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This resistance appears to be due to efficient <a href="/wiki/Homologous_recombination" title="Homologous recombination">homologous recombinational</a> repair. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Variable_or_indefinite_ploidy">Variable or indefinite ploidy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ploidy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Variable or indefinite ploidy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Depending on growth conditions, <a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">prokaryotes</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> may have a chromosome copy number of 1 to 4, and that number is commonly fractional, counting portions of the chromosome partly replicated at a given time. This is because under exponential growth conditions the cells are able to replicate their DNA faster than they can divide.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In ciliates, the macronucleus is called <b>ampliploid</b>, because only part of the genome is amplified.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mixoploidy">Mixoploidy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ploidy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Mixoploidy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Mixoploidy is the case where two cell lines, one diploid and one polyploid, <a href="/wiki/Chimera_(genetics)" title="Chimera (genetics)">coexist within the same organism</a>. Though polyploidy in humans is not viable, mixoploidy has been found in live adults and children.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are two types: diploid-triploid mixoploidy, in which some cells have 46 chromosomes and some have 69,<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and diploid-tetraploid mixoploidy, in which some cells have 46 and some have 92 chromosomes. It is a major topic of cytology. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dihaploidy_and_polyhaploidy">Dihaploidy and polyhaploidy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ploidy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Dihaploidy and polyhaploidy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Haplodiploid_sex-determination_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Haplodiploid sex-determination system">haplodiploidy</a> (where diploid and haploid individuals are different sexes).</div> <p>Dihaploid and polyhaploid cells are formed by <a href="/wiki/Haploidisation" title="Haploidisation">haploidisation</a> of polyploids, i.e., by halving the chromosome constitution.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Dihaploids (which are diploid) are important for selective breeding of tetraploid crop plants (notably potatoes), because selection is faster with diploids than with tetraploids. Tetraploids can be reconstituted from the diploids, for example by somatic fusion.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The term "dihaploid" was coined by Bender<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to combine in one word the number of genome copies (diploid) and their origin (haploid). The term is well established in this original sense,<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but it has also been used for doubled monoploids or <a href="/wiki/Doubled_haploidy" title="Doubled haploidy">doubled haploids</a>, which are homozygous and used for genetic research.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Euploidy_and_aneuploidy">Euploidy and aneuploidy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ploidy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Euploidy and aneuploidy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Euploidy</b> (<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> <i>eu</i>, "true" or "even") is the state of a cell or organism having one or more than one set of the same set of chromosomes, possibly excluding the <a href="/wiki/Sex_chromosome" title="Sex chromosome">sex-determining chromosomes</a>. For example, most human cells have 2 of each of the 23 homologous monoploid chromosomes, for a total of 46 chromosomes. A human cell with one extra set of the 23 normal chromosomes (functionally triploid) would be considered euploid. Euploid <a href="/wiki/Karyotype" title="Karyotype">karyotypes</a> would consequentially be a multiple of the <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Haploid_and_monoploid">haploid number</a>, which in humans is 23.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/Aneuploidy" title="Aneuploidy">Aneuploidy</a></b> is the state where one or more individual chromosomes of a normal set are absent or present in more than their usual number of copies (excluding the absence or presence of complete sets, which is considered euploidy). Unlike euploidy, aneuploid karyotypes will not be a multiple of the haploid number. In humans, examples of aneuploidy include having a single extra chromosome (as in <a href="/wiki/Down_syndrome" title="Down syndrome">Down syndrome</a>, where affected individuals have three copies of chromosome 21) or missing a chromosome (as in <a href="/wiki/Turner_syndrome" title="Turner syndrome">Turner syndrome</a>, where affected individuals have only one sex chromosome). Aneuploid <a href="/wiki/Karyotype" title="Karyotype">karyotypes</a> are given names with the suffix <i>-somy</i> (rather than <i>-ploidy</i>, used for euploid karyotypes), such as <a href="/wiki/Trisomy" title="Trisomy">trisomy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Monosomy" title="Monosomy">monosomy</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Homoploid">Homoploid</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ploidy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Homoploid"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Homoploid means "at the same ploidy level", i.e. having the same number of <a href="/wiki/Homologous_chromosome" title="Homologous chromosome">homologous chromosomes</a>. For example, homoploid <a href="/wiki/Hybrid_(biology)" title="Hybrid (biology)">hybridization</a> is hybridization where the offspring have the same ploidy level as the two parental species. This contrasts with a common situation in plants where chromosome doubling accompanies or occurs soon after hybridization. Similarly, homoploid speciation contrasts with <a href="/wiki/Polyploid_speciation" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyploid speciation">polyploid speciation</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Zygoidy_and_azygoidy">Zygoidy and azygoidy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ploidy&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Zygoidy and azygoidy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Zygoidy is the state in which the chromosomes are paired and can undergo meiosis. The zygoid state of a species may be diploid or polyploid.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cosín-2011_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cosín-2011-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the azygoid state the chromosomes are unpaired. It may be the natural state of some asexual species or may occur after meiosis. In diploid organisms the azygoid state is monoploid. (See below for dihaploidy.) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Special_cases">Special cases</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ploidy&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Special cases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="More_than_one_nucleus_per_cell">More than one nucleus per cell</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ploidy&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: More than one nucleus per cell"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the strictest sense, ploidy refers to the number of sets of chromosomes in a single <a href="/wiki/Nucleus_(cell)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleus (cell)">nucleus</a> rather than in the cell as a whole. Because in most situations there is only one nucleus per cell, it is commonplace to speak of the ploidy of a cell, but in cases in which there is more than one nucleus per cell, more specific definitions are required when ploidy is discussed. Authors may at times report the total combined ploidy of all nuclei present within the cell membrane of a <a href="/wiki/Syncytium" title="Syncytium">syncytium</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-D'Amato-2002_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-D'Amato-2002-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though usually the ploidy of each nucleus is described individually. For example, a fungal <a href="/wiki/Dikaryon" title="Dikaryon">dikaryon</a> with two separate haploid nuclei is distinguished from a diploid cell in which the chromosomes share a nucleus and can be shuffled together.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancestral_ploidy_levels">Ancestral ploidy levels</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ploidy&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Ancestral ploidy levels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It is possible on rare occasions for ploidy to increase in the <a href="/wiki/Germline" title="Germline">germline</a>, which can result in <a href="/wiki/Polyploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyploid">polyploid</a> offspring and ultimately polyploid species. This is an important evolutionary mechanism in both plants and animals and is known as a primary driver of <a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">speciation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Mable-2004_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mable-2004-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, it may become desirable to distinguish between the ploidy of a species or variety as it presently breeds and that of an ancestor. The number of chromosomes in the ancestral (non-homologous) set is called the <b>monoploid number</b> (<i>x</i>), and is distinct from the haploid number (<i>n</i>) in the organism as it now reproduces.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Common_wheat" title="Common wheat">Common wheat</a> (<i>Triticum aestivum</i>) is an organism in which <i>x</i> and <i>n</i> differ. Each plant has a total of six sets of chromosomes (with two sets likely having been obtained from each of three different diploid species that are its distant ancestors). The somatic cells are hexaploid, 2<i>n</i> = 6<i>x</i> = 42 (where the monoploid number <i>x</i> = 7 and the haploid number <i>n</i> = 21). The gametes are haploid for their own species, but triploid, with three sets of chromosomes, by comparison to a probable evolutionary ancestor, <a href="/wiki/Einkorn_wheat" class="mw-redirect" title="Einkorn wheat">einkorn wheat</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Tetraploidy" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetraploidy">Tetraploidy</a> (four sets of chromosomes, 2<i>n</i> = 4<i>x</i>) is common in many <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plant</a> species, and also occurs in <a href="/wiki/Amphibian" title="Amphibian">amphibians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reptile" title="Reptile">reptiles</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insects</a>. For example, species of <i><a href="/wiki/Xenopus" title="Xenopus">Xenopus</a></i> (African toads) form a <b>ploidy series</b>, featuring diploid (<i><a href="/wiki/Western_clawed_frog" title="Western clawed frog">X. tropicalis</a></i>, 2n=20), tetraploid (<i><a href="/wiki/African_clawed_frog" title="African clawed frog">X. laevis</a></i>, 4n=36), octaploid (<i><a href="/wiki/De_Witte%27s_clawed_frog" title="De Witte's clawed frog">X. wittei</a></i>, 8n=72), and dodecaploid (<i><a href="/wiki/Uganda_clawed_frog" title="Uganda clawed frog">X. ruwenzoriensis</a></i>, 12n=108) species.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Over evolutionary time scales in which <a href="/wiki/Chromosomal_polymorphism" title="Chromosomal polymorphism">chromosomal polymorphisms</a> accumulate, these changes become less apparent by <a href="/wiki/Karyotype" title="Karyotype">karyotype</a> – for example, humans are generally regarded as diploid, but the <a href="/wiki/2R_hypothesis" title="2R hypothesis">2R hypothesis</a> has confirmed two rounds of whole genome duplication in early vertebrate ancestors.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Haplodiploidy">Haplodiploidy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ploidy&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Haplodiploidy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Haplodiploidy" title="Haplodiploidy">Haplodiploidy</a></div> <p>Ploidy can also vary between individuals of the same species or at different stages of the <a href="/wiki/Biological_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">life cycle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some insects it differs by <a href="/wiki/Eusociality" title="Eusociality">caste</a>. In humans, only the gametes are haploid, but in many of the <a href="/wiki/Social_insect" class="mw-redirect" title="Social insect">social insects</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Ant" title="Ant">ants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bee" title="Bee">bees</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Termite" title="Termite">termites</a>, males develop from unfertilized eggs, making them haploid for their entire lives, even as adults.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In the Australian bulldog ant, <i><a href="/wiki/Myrmecia_pilosula" class="mw-redirect" title="Myrmecia pilosula">Myrmecia pilosula</a></i>, a haplodiploid species, haploid individuals of this species have a single chromosome and diploid individuals have two chromosomes.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <i><a href="/wiki/Entamoeba" title="Entamoeba">Entamoeba</a></i>, the ploidy level varies from 4<i>n</i> to 40<i>n</i> in a single population.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Alternation_of_generations" title="Alternation of generations">Alternation of generations</a> occurs in most plants, with individuals "alternating" ploidy level between different stages of their sexual life cycle.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tissue-specific_polyploidy">Tissue-specific polyploidy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ploidy&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Tissue-specific polyploidy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In large multicellular organisms, variations in ploidy level between different tissues, organs, or cell lineages are common. Because the chromosome number is generally reduced only by the specialized process of meiosis, the somatic cells of the body inherit and maintain the chromosome number of the zygote by mitosis. However, in many situations somatic cells double their copy number by means of <a href="/wiki/Endoreduplication" title="Endoreduplication">endoreduplication</a> as an aspect of <a href="/wiki/Cellular_differentiation" title="Cellular differentiation">cellular differentiation</a>. For example, the hearts of two-year-old human children contain 85% diploid and 15% tetraploid nuclei, but by 12 years of age the proportions become approximately equal, and adults examined contained 27% diploid, 71% tetraploid and 2% octaploid nuclei.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Adaptive_and_ecological_significance_of_variation_in_ploidy">Adaptive and ecological significance of variation in ploidy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ploidy&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Adaptive and ecological significance of variation in ploidy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There is continued study and debate regarding the fitness advantages or disadvantages conferred by different ploidy levels. A study comparing the <a href="/wiki/Karyotypes" class="mw-redirect" title="Karyotypes">karyotypes</a> of endangered or invasive plants with those of their relatives found that being polyploid as opposed to diploid is associated with a 14% lower risk of being endangered, and a 20% greater chance of being invasive.<sup id="cite_ref-Pandit-2011_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pandit-2011-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Polyploidy may be associated with increased vigor and adaptability.<sup id="cite_ref-Gilbert-2011_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gilbert-2011-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some studies suggest that selection is more likely to favor diploidy in host species and haploidy in parasite species.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, polyploidization is associated with an increase in <a href="/wiki/Transposable_element" title="Transposable element">transposable element</a> content<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and relaxed <a href="/wiki/Purifying_selection" class="mw-redirect" title="Purifying selection">purifying selection</a> on <a href="/wiki/Recessive" class="mw-redirect" title="Recessive">recessive</a> deleterious alleles.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When a germ cell with an uneven number of chromosomes undergoes meiosis, the chromosomes cannot be evenly divided between the daughter cells, resulting in <a href="/wiki/Aneuploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Aneuploid">aneuploid</a> gametes. Triploid organisms, for instance, are usually sterile. Because of this, triploidy is commonly exploited in agriculture to produce seedless fruit such as bananas and watermelons. If the fertilization of human gametes results in three sets of chromosomes, the condition is called <a href="/wiki/Triploid_syndrome" title="Triploid syndrome">triploid syndrome</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Unicellular_organism" title="Unicellular organism">unicellular organisms</a> the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ploidy_nutrient_limitation_hypothesis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ploidy nutrient limitation hypothesis (page does not exist)">ploidy nutrient limitation hypothesis</a> suggests that <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nutrient_limitation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nutrient limitation (page does not exist)">nutrient limitation</a> should encourage haploidy in preference to higher ploidies. This hypothesis is due to the higher <a href="/wiki/Surface-to-volume_ratio" class="mw-redirect" title="Surface-to-volume ratio">surface-to-volume ratio</a> of haploids, which eases nutrient uptake, thereby increasing the internal nutrient-to-demand ratio. Mable 2001 finds <i><a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces_cerevisiae" title="Saccharomyces cerevisiae">Saccharomyces cerevisiae</a></i> to be somewhat inconsistent with this hypothesis however, as haploid growth is faster than diploid under high nutrient conditions. The NLH is also tested in haploid, diploid, and polyploid fungi by Gerstein et al. 2017. This result is also more complex: On the one hand, under <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a> and other nutrient limitation, lower ploidy is selected as expected. However under normal nutrient levels or under limitation of only <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a>, higher ploidy was selected. Thus the NLH – and more generally, the idea that haploidy is selected by harsher conditions – is cast into doubt by these results.<sup id="cite_ref-Blischak-2018_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blischak-2018-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Older WGDs have also been investigated. Only as recently as 2015 was the ancient <a href="/wiki/Whole_genome_duplication" class="mw-redirect" title="Whole genome duplication">whole genome duplication</a> in <a href="/wiki/Baker%27s_yeast" title="Baker's yeast">Baker's yeast</a> proven to be <a href="/wiki/Allopolyploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Allopolyploid">allopolyploid</a>, by Marcet-Houben and Gabaldón 2015. It still remains to be explained why there are not more polyploid events in fungi, and the place of <a href="/wiki/Neopolyploidy" class="mw-redirect" title="Neopolyploidy">neopolyploidy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mesopolyploidy" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesopolyploidy">mesopolyploidy</a> in <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fungi" title="Evolution of fungi">fungal history</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Blischak-2018_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blischak-2018-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Less_efficient_natural_selection_in_diploid_compared_to_haploid_tissue">Less efficient natural selection in diploid compared to haploid tissue</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ploidy&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Less efficient natural selection in diploid compared to haploid tissue"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The concept that those <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a> of an organism that are expressed exclusively in the diploid stage are under less efficient <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a> than those genes expressed in the <a class="mw-selflink selflink">haploid</a> stage is referred to as the “masking theory”.<sup id="cite_ref-Cervantes-2023_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cervantes-2023-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Evidence in support of this masking theory has been reported in studies of the single-celled yeast <i><a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces_cerevisiae" title="Saccharomyces cerevisiae">Saccharomyces cerevisiae</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In further support of the masking theory, evidence of strong purifying selection in haploid tissue-specific genes has been reported for the plant <a href="/wiki/Pinus_sylvestris" title="Pinus sylvestris">Scots Pine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cervantes-2023_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cervantes-2023-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Glossary_of_ploidy_numbers">Glossary of ploidy numbers</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ploidy&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Glossary of ploidy numbers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th style="text-align:left">Term</th> <th style="text-align:left">Description </th></tr> <tr> <td><b>Ploidy number</b></td> <td>Number of chromosome sets </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Monoploid number</b> (<i>x</i>)</td> <td>Number of chromosomes found in a single complete set </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Chromosome number</b></td> <td>Total number of chromosomes in all sets combined </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Zygotic number</b></td> <td>Number of chromosomes in zygotic cells </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Haploid or gametic number</b> (<i>n</i>)</td> <td>Number of chromosomes found in gametes </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Diploid number</b></td> <td>Chromosome number of a diploid organism </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Tetraploid number</b></td> <td>Chromosome number of a tetraploid organism </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The common <a href="/wiki/Potato" title="Potato">potato</a> (<i>Solanum tuberosum</i>) is an example of a tetraploid organism, carrying four sets of chromosomes. During sexual reproduction, each potato plant inherits two sets of 12 chromosomes from the pollen parent, and two sets of 12 chromosomes from the ovule parent. The four sets combined provide a full complement of 48 chromosomes. The haploid number (half of 48) is 24. The monoploid number equals the total chromosome number divided by the ploidy level of the somatic cells: 48 chromosomes in total divided by a ploidy level of 4 equals a monoploid number of 12. Hence, the monoploid number (12) and haploid number (24) are distinct in this example.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>However, commercial potato crops (as well as many other crop plants) are commonly propagated <a href="/wiki/Vegetative_reproduction" title="Vegetative reproduction">vegetatively</a> (by asexual reproduction through mitosis),<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in which case new individuals are produced from a single parent, without the involvement of gametes and fertilization, and all the offspring are genetically identical to each other and to the parent, including in chromosome number. The parents of these vegetative clones may still be capable of producing haploid gametes in preparation for sexual reproduction, but these gametes are not used to create the vegetative offspring by this route. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Specific_examples">Specific examples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ploidy&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Specific examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <caption style="text-align:left">Examples of various ploidy levels in species with x=11 </caption> <tbody><tr> <th style="text-align:left">Species</th> <th style="text-align:left">Ploidy</th> <th style="text-align:left">Number of chromosomes </th></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Eucalyptus" title="Eucalyptus">Eucalyptus</a></i> spp.</td> <td>Diploid</td> <td>2<i>x</i> = 22 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Banana" title="Banana">Banana</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Musa_(genus)" title="Musa (genus)">Musa</a></i> spp.)</td> <td>Triploid</td> <td>3<i>x</i> = 33 </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Coffea_arabica" title="Coffea arabica">Coffea arabica</a></i></td> <td>Tetraploid</td> <td>4<i>x</i> = 44 </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Sequoia_sempervirens" title="Sequoia sempervirens">Sequoia sempervirens</a></i></td> <td>Hexaploid</td> <td>6<i>x</i> = 66 </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Opuntia_ficus-indica" title="Opuntia ficus-indica">Opuntia ficus-indica</a></i></td> <td>Octoploid</td> <td>8<i>x</i> = 88 </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption style="text-align:left">List of common organisms by chromosome count </caption> <tbody><tr> <th style="text-align:left">Species</th> <th style="text-align:left">Number of chromosomes</th> <th style="text-align:left">Ploidy number </th></tr> <tr> <td>Vinegar/fruit fly</td> <td>8</td> <td>2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Wheat</td> <td>14, 28 or 42</td> <td>2, 4 or 6 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Crocodilian</td> <td>32, 34, or 42</td> <td>2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Apple</td> <td>34, 51, or 68</td> <td>2, 3 or 4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Human</td> <td>46</td> <td>2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Horse</td> <td>64, 65, or 66</td> <td>2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Chicken</td> <td>78</td> <td>2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Gold fish</td> <td>100 or more</td> <td>2 or polyploid </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ploidy&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Compare the etymology of <a href="/wiki/Tuple" title="Tuple">tuple</a>, from the Latin for "-fold".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The original text in German is as follows: "Schließlich wäre es vielleicht erwünscht, wenn den Bezeichnungen Gametophyt und Sporophyt, die sich allein nur auf Pflanzen mit einfacher und mit doppelter Chromosomenzahl anwenden lassen, solche zur Seite gestellt würden, welche auch für das Tierreich passen. Ich erlaube mir zu diesem Zwecke die Worte Haploid und Diploid, bezw. haploidische und diploidische Generation vorzuschlagen."<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ploidy&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Hartl-2011-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hartl-2011_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFDaniel_Hartl2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Hartl" title="Daniel Hartl">Daniel Hartl</a> (2011). <i>Essential Genetics: A Genomics Perspective</i>. Jones & Bartlett Learning. p. 177. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7637-7364-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7637-7364-9"><bdi>978-0-7637-7364-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essential+Genetics%3A+A+Genomics+Perspective&rft.pages=177&rft.pub=Jones+%26+Bartlett+Learning&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-7637-7364-9&rft.au=Daniel+Hartl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APloidy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Murty-1973-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Murty-1973_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Murty-1973_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFU._R._Murty1973" class="citation journal cs1">U. R. Murty (1973). "Morphology of pachytene chromosomes and its bearing on the nature of polyploidy in the cytological races of Apluda mutica L.". <i>Genetica</i>. <b>44</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">234–</span>243. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fbf00119108">10.1007/bf00119108</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:45850598">45850598</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Genetica&rft.atitle=Morphology+of+pachytene+chromosomes+and+its+bearing+on+the+nature+of+polyploidy+in+the+cytological+races+of+Apluda+mutica+L.&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E234-%3C%2Fspan%3E243&rft.date=1973&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fbf00119108&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A45850598%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=U.+R.+Murty&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APloidy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tateoka-1975-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tateoka-1975_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tateoka-1975_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTuguo_Tateoka1975" class="citation journal cs1">Tuguo Tateoka (May 1975). "A contribution to the taxonomy of the <i>Agrostis mertensii</i>-<i>flaccida</i> complex (Poaceae) in Japan". <i>Journal of Plant Research</i>. <b>88</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">65–</span>87. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1975JPlR...88...65T">1975JPlR...88...65T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fbf02491243">10.1007/bf02491243</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:38029072">38029072</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Plant+Research&rft.atitle=A+contribution+to+the+taxonomy+of+the+Agrostis+mertensii-flaccida+complex+%28Poaceae%29+in+Japan&rft.volume=88&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E65-%3C%2Fspan%3E87&rft.date=1975-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A38029072%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fbf02491243&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1975JPlR...88...65T&rft.au=Tuguo+Tateoka&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APloidy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rieger-1976-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rieger-1976_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRieger,_R.Michaelis,_A.Green,_M.M.1976" class="citation book cs1">Rieger, R.; Michaelis, A.; Green, M.M. (1976). <i>Glossary of Genetics and Cytogenetics: Classical and Molecular</i> (4th ed.). Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag. p. 434. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-96327-8">10.1007/978-3-642-96327-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-07668-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-07668-1"><bdi>978-3-540-07668-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:10163081">10163081</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Glossary+of+Genetics+and+Cytogenetics%3A+Classical+and+Molecular&rft.place=Berlin%2FHeidelberg&rft.pages=434&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&rft.date=1976&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A10163081%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-642-96327-8&rft.isbn=978-3-540-07668-1&rft.au=Rieger%2C+R.&rft.au=Michaelis%2C+A.&rft.au=Green%2C+M.M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APloidy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Darlington-1937-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Darlington-1937_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDarlington,_C._D._(Cyril_Dean)1937" class="citation book cs1">Darlington, C. D. (Cyril Dean) (1937). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/recentadvancesin00darl"><i>Recent advances in cytology</i></a>. Philadelphia: P. Blakiston's son & co. p. 60.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Recent+advances+in+cytology&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pages=60&rft.pub=P.+Blakiston%27s+son+%26+co.&rft.date=1937&rft.au=Darlington%2C+C.+D.+%28Cyril+Dean%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frecentadvancesin00darl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APloidy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Snustad-2012-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Snustad-2012_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFD._Peter_SnustadMichael_J._Simmons2012" class="citation book cs1">D. Peter Snustad; Michael J. Simmons (2012). <i>Principles of Genetics, 6th edition</i>. 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"Haploids adapt faster than diploids across a range of environments". <i>J Evol Biol</i>. <b>24</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">531–</span>40. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1420-9101.2010.02188.x">10.1111/j.1420-9101.2010.02188.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21159002">21159002</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J+Evol+Biol&rft.atitle=Haploids+adapt+faster+than+diploids+across+a+range+of+environments&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E531-%3C%2Fspan%3E40&rft.date=2011-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1420-9101.2010.02188.x&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21159002&rft.aulast=Gerstein&rft.aufirst=AC&rft.au=Cleathero%2C+LA&rft.au=Mandegar%2C+MA&rft.au=Otto%2C+SP&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APloidy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.inspection.gc.ca/plants/plants-with-novel-traits/applicants/directive-94-08/biology-documents/solanum-tuberosum-l-/eng/1330982063974/1330982145930#a41">"The Biology of Solanum tuberosum (L.) 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H. Freeman, New York <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7167-3520-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-7167-3520-2">0-7167-3520-2</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ploidy&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some eukaryotic genome-scale or <a href="/wiki/Genome_size" title="Genome size">genome size</a> databases and other sources which may list the ploidy levels of many organisms: </p> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.genomesize.com/">Animal genome size database</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050901105257/http://www.rbgkew.org.uk/cval/homepage.html">Plant genome size database</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zbi.ee/fungal-genomesize/">Fungal genome size database</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://protists.ensembl.org/index.html">Protist genome-scale database</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ensembl_Genomes" title="Ensembl Genomes">Ensembl Genomes</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNuismer_S.Otto_S.P.2004" class="citation journal cs1">Nuismer S.; Otto S.P. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC503737">"Host-parasite interactions and the evolution of ploidy"</a>. <i>Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA</i>. <b>101</b> (30): <span class="nowrap">11036–</span>11039. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004PNAS..10111036N">2004PNAS..10111036N</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0403151101">10.1073/pnas.0403151101</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC503737">503737</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15252199">15252199</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proc.+Natl.+Acad.+Sci.+USA&rft.atitle=Host-parasite+interactions+and+the+evolution+of+ploidy&rft.volume=101&rft.issue=30&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E11036-%3C%2Fspan%3E11039&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC503737%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15252199&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0403151101&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2004PNAS..10111036N&rft.au=Nuismer+S.&rft.au=Otto+S.P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC503737&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APloidy" class="Z3988"></span> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pnas.org/content/suppl/2004/07/13/0403151101.DC1/03151DataSet1.pdf">Supporting Data Set</a>, with information on ploidy level and number of chromosomes of several protists)</li> 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id="Cytogenetics:_chromosomes103" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a>: <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosomes</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Basic<br />concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karyotype" title="Karyotype">Karyotype</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ploidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">Genetic material</a>/<a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">Genome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatin" title="Chromatin">Chromatin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Euchromatin" title="Euchromatin">Euchromatin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterochromatin" title="Heterochromatin">Heterochromatin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">Chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatid" title="Chromatid">Chromatid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleosome" title="Nucleosome">Nucleosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_organization" title="Nuclear organization">Nuclear organization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autosome" title="Autosome">Autosome</a>/<a href="/wiki/Sex-determination_system" title="Sex-determination system">Sex chromosome</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Sex_chromosome" title="Sex chromosome">allosome</a> or heterosome)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microchromosome" title="Microchromosome">Macrochromosome/Microchromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circular_bacterial_chromosome" class="mw-redirect" title="Circular bacterial chromosome">Circular chromosome</a>/<a href="/wiki/Linear_chromosome" title="Linear chromosome">Linear chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aneuploidy" title="Aneuploidy">Extra chromosome</a> (or accessory chromosome)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_supernumerary_marker_chromosome" title="Small supernumerary marker chromosome">Supernumerary chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B_chromosome" title="B chromosome">A chromosome/B chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lampbrush_chromosome" title="Lampbrush chromosome">Lampbrush chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytene_chromosome" title="Polytene chromosome">Polytene chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinokaryon" title="Dinokaryon">Dinoflagellate chromosomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homologous_chromosome" title="Homologous chromosome">Homologous chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isochromosome" title="Isochromosome">Isochromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_chromosome" title="Satellite chromosome">Satellite chromosome</a></li> <li><i>Centromere position</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centromere#Metacentric" title="Centromere">Metacentric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submetacentric" class="mw-redirect" title="Submetacentric">Submetacentric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telocentric" class="mw-redirect" title="Telocentric">Telocentric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acrocentric" class="mw-redirect" title="Acrocentric">Acrocentric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocentric_chromosome" title="Holocentric chromosome">Holocentric</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>Centromere number</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acentric_fragment" title="Acentric fragment">Acentric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monocentric" class="mw-redirect" title="Monocentric">Monocentric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dicentric_chromosome" title="Dicentric chromosome">Dicentric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polycentric_chromosome" title="Polycentric chromosome">Polycentric</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Processes<br />and evolution</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">Mitosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">Meiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_abnormality#Structural_abnormalities" title="Chromosome abnormality">Structural alterations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromosomal_inversion" title="Chromosomal inversion">Chromosomal inversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosomal_translocation" title="Chromosomal translocation">Chromosomal translocation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_abnormality#Numerical_disorders" title="Chromosome abnormality">Numerical alterations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aneuploidy" title="Aneuploidy">Aneuploidy</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Euploidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyploidy" title="Polyploidy">Polyploidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleopolyploidy" title="Paleopolyploidy">Paleopolyploidy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyploidization" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyploidization">Polyploidization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Structures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telomere" title="Telomere">Telomere</a>: <a href="/wiki/Telomere-binding_protein" title="Telomere-binding protein">Telomere-binding protein</a> (<a href="/wiki/TINF2" title="TINF2">TINF2</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protamine" title="Protamine">Protamine</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Histone" title="Histone">Histone</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Histone_H1" title="Histone H1">H1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histone_H2A" title="Histone H2A">H2A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histone_H2B" title="Histone H2B">H2B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histone_H3" title="Histone H3">H3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histone_H4" title="Histone H4">H4</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Centromere" title="Centromere">Centromere</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CENPA" title="CENPA">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centromere_protein_B" title="Centromere protein B">B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CENPC1" title="CENPC1">C1</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=CENPC2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="CENPC2 (page does not exist)">C2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centromere_protein_E" title="Centromere protein E">E</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CENPF" title="CENPF">F</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CENPH" title="CENPH">H</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CENPI" title="CENPI">I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CENPJ" title="CENPJ">J</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CENPK" title="CENPK">K</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CENPM" title="CENPM">M</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CENPN" title="CENPN">N</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CENPO" title="CENPO">O</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=CENPP&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="CENPP (page does not exist)">P</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=CENPQ&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="CENPQ (page does not exist)">Q</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CENPT" title="CENPT">T</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extrachromosomal_DNA" title="Extrachromosomal DNA">Extrachromosomal DNA</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plasmid" title="Plasmid">Plasmid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_organisms_by_chromosome_count" title="List of organisms by chromosome count">List of organisms by chromosome count</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sequenced_eukaryotic_genomes" title="List of sequenced eukaryotic genomes">List of sequenced genomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_System_for_Human_Cytogenetic_Nomenclature" class="mw-redirect" title="International System for Human Cytogenetic Nomenclature">International System for Human Cytogenetic Nomenclature</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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