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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_years" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_years"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Early years</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_years-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Cold_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Cold_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>The Cold War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Cold_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-After_the_Cold_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#After_the_Cold_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>After the Cold War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-After_the_Cold_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Current_flight_operations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Current_flight_operations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Current flight operations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Current_flight_operations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Antarctica" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antarctica"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Antarctica</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Antarctica-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Operational_considerations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Operational_considerations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Operational considerations</span> </div> </a> <ul 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href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polroute" title="Polroute – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Polroute" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruta_polar" title="Ruta polar – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ruta polar" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%B1_%D9%82%D8%B7%D8%A8%DB%8C" title="مسیر قطبی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مسیر قطبی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B6%81%EA%B7%B9_%ED%95%AD%EA%B3%B5%EB%A1%9C" title="북극 항공로 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="북극 항공로" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rute_kutub" title="Rute kutub – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Rute kutub" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A5%B5%E5%9C%8F%E8%88%AA%E8%B7%AF" title="極圏航路 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="極圏航路" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a 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class="mw-redirect" title="Flight path">aircraft route</a> across the uninhabited polar ice cap regions. The term "polar route" was originally applied to <a href="/wiki/Great_circle_navigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Great circle navigation">great circle navigation</a> routes between <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> and the west coast of <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a> in the 1950s.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Arctic">The Arctic</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Polar_route&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: The Arctic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_years">Early years</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Polar_route&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early years"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In August 1935, the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_people" title="Soviet people">Soviet</a> aviator <a href="/wiki/Sigizmund_Levanevsky" title="Sigizmund Levanevsky">Sigizmund Levanevsky</a> and his two crewmen attempted a transpolar flight from <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Russian SFSR</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> to <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco" title="San Francisco">San Francisco</a>, <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a>. The flight was aborted because of technical issues before they reached the North Pole.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In 1936, Levanevsky and navigator Victor Levchenko completed a more-than-19,000-kilometre (11,800 mi) multistage flight from <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles" title="Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a> to Moscow in a <a href="/wiki/Vultee_V-1" title="Vultee V-1">Vultee V-1A</a> floatplane, thus proving the possibility of an air route between the United States and the Soviet Union via the <a href="/wiki/Bering_Strait" title="Bering Strait">Bering Strait</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Another Soviet pilot <a href="/wiki/Valery_Chkalov" title="Valery Chkalov">Valery Chkalov</a> and his crew were the first to fly non-stop from Europe to the American Pacific Coast. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Transpolar_flight_of_Chkalov,_Baydukov_and_Belyakov&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Transpolar flight of Chkalov, Baydukov and Belyakov (page does not exist)">Their flight</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%91%D1%82_%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B2%D0%B0_%E2%80%94_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%81_%E2%80%94_%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80" class="extiw" title="ru:Беспосадочный перелёт Москва — Северный полюс — Ванкувер">ru</a>]</span> from Moscow to <a href="/wiki/Vancouver,_Washington" title="Vancouver, Washington">Vancouver, Washington</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, via the <a href="/wiki/North_Pole" title="North Pole">North Pole</a> on a <a href="/wiki/Tupolev_ANT-25" title="Tupolev ANT-25">Tupolev ANT-25</a> single-engine plane (June 18–20, 1937) took 63 hours to complete. The distance covered was 8,811 kilometres (5,475 mi).<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The following month, another Soviet crew led by <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gromov_(aviator)" title="Mikhail Gromov (aviator)">Mikhail Gromov</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Transpolar_flight_of_Gromov,_Yumashev_and_Danilin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Transpolar flight of Gromov, Yumashev and Danilin (page does not exist)">retraced the transpolar route</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%91%D1%82_%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B2%D0%B0_%E2%80%94_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%81_%E2%80%94_%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BD-%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BE" class="extiw" title="ru:Беспосадочный перелёт Москва — Северный полюс — Сан-Джасинто">ru</a>]</span>, extending the distance to the world record-breaking 10,148 kilometers (6,302 miles), landing near <a href="/wiki/San_Jacinto,_California" title="San Jacinto, California">San Jacinto</a>, California, in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In August of the same year, another Soviet crew led by Sigizmund Levanevsky started its <a href="/wiki/Sigizmund_Levanevsky#North_Pole_flights" title="Sigizmund Levanevsky">long distance transpolar flight</a> from Moscow to <a href="/wiki/Fairbanks" class="mw-redirect" title="Fairbanks">Fairbanks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a>; the radio communication with the aircraft broke off beyond the North Pole, and all subsequent search missions failed.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In October 1946, a modified <a href="/wiki/Boeing_B-29_Superfortress" title="Boeing B-29 Superfortress">B-29</a> flew 15,163 kilometres (9,422 mi) nonstop from <a href="/wiki/Oahu,_Hawaii" class="mw-redirect" title="Oahu, Hawaii">Oahu, Hawaii</a>, to <a href="/wiki/Cairo,_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Cairo, Egypt">Cairo, Egypt</a>, in less than 40 hours, further proving the capability of routing airlines over the polar icecap.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Cold_War">The Cold War</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Polar_route&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: The Cold War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:And-your-name-will-be-Leif-Viking-391772977037.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/And-your-name-will-be-Leif-Viking-391772977037.jpg/220px-And-your-name-will-be-Leif-Viking-391772977037.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/And-your-name-will-be-Leif-Viking-391772977037.jpg/330px-And-your-name-will-be-Leif-Viking-391772977037.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/And-your-name-will-be-Leif-Viking-391772977037.jpg/440px-And-your-name-will-be-Leif-Viking-391772977037.jpg 2x" data-file-width="956" data-file-height="704" /></a><figcaption><i>Leif Viking</i> (LN-LMP) from <a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_Airlines" title="Scandinavian Airlines">SAS</a> was the first airplane to use the polar route for regular flights. Here <i>Leif Viking</i> becomes christened by <a href="/wiki/Cyd_Charisse" title="Cyd Charisse">Cyd Charisse</a> on 18 November 1954.</figcaption></figure> <p>Of the commercial airlines, <a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_Airlines" title="Scandinavian Airlines">SAS</a> was first: their <a href="/wiki/Douglas_DC-6B" class="mw-redirect" title="Douglas DC-6B">Douglas DC-6B</a> flights between <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles" title="Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Copenhagen" title="Copenhagen">Copenhagen</a>, via <a href="/wiki/Kangerlussuaq_Airport" title="Kangerlussuaq Airport">Kangerlussuaq</a> and <a href="/wiki/Winnipeg_Airport" class="mw-redirect" title="Winnipeg Airport">Winnipeg</a>, started on November 15, 1954.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Pacific_Air_Lines" title="Canadian Pacific Air Lines">Canadian Pacific</a> <a href="/wiki/Douglas_DC-6" title="Douglas DC-6">DC-6Bs</a> started <a href="/wiki/Vancouver" title="Vancouver">Vancouver</a>–<a href="/wiki/Amsterdam" title="Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a> in 1955, then <a href="/wiki/Pan_American_World_Airways" class="mw-redirect" title="Pan American World Airways">Pan Am</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trans_World_Airlines" title="Trans World Airlines">TWA</a> started <a href="/wiki/West_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="West Coast of the United States">West Coast</a> to <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>/<a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a> in 1957. SAS was first again, flying Europe to <a href="/wiki/Tokyo" title="Tokyo">Tokyo</a> via <a href="/wiki/Anchorage,_Alaska" title="Anchorage, Alaska">Anchorage</a> with <a href="/wiki/Douglas_DC-7C" class="mw-redirect" title="Douglas DC-7C">Douglas DC-7Cs</a> in February 1957; <a href="/wiki/Air_France" title="Air France">Air France</a> <a href="/wiki/Lockheed_L-1649_Starliner" title="Lockheed L-1649 Starliner">Lockheed L-1649 Starliner</a> (which was the final version of the <a href="/wiki/Lockheed_Constellation" title="Lockheed Constellation">Lockheed Constellation</a>) and <a href="/wiki/KLM" title="KLM">KLM</a> <a href="/wiki/DC-7C" class="mw-redirect" title="DC-7C">DC-7C</a> aircraft followed in 1958.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Air France was the first to operate commercial jet service over the North Pole on the routing Tokyo – Anchorage – Hamburg – Paris on 18 February 1960 using Boeing 707-328 Intercontinental equipment. Based on delivery dates of Air France's 707s, the actual aircraft used for this historic flight was one of these four registrations: F-BHSA, F-BHSB, F-BHSC or F-BHSD.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>, the Arctic region was a buffer zone between the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> and North America. Civilian flights from Europe to the Asian <a href="/wiki/Far_East" title="Far East">Far East</a> were prohibited from crossing the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a> countries, Soviet Union or <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="Air France started to fly to Beijing from 1966, Swissair started flights to China in 1970s, and there are TWA flights from US cities to Shanghai in 1980s. (October 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>, and had to fly either via the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> or across Arctic North America and Greenland with a refueling stop in Anchorage. These Cold War tracks extended from the northern Alaskan coast across <a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a> to Europe. In 1978, <a href="/wiki/Korean_Air_Lines_Flight_902" title="Korean Air Lines Flight 902">Korean Air Lines Flight 902</a> operated with a <a href="/wiki/Boeing_707" title="Boeing 707">Boeing 707</a> was shot down over the USSR by a <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Air_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Air Force">Soviet Air Force</a> fighter aircraft after the flight crew made gross navigational errors attempting to fly the assigned polar route.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In April 1967 <a href="/wiki/Japan_Air_Lines" class="mw-redirect" title="Japan Air Lines">Japan Air Lines</a> (JAL) began an experimental service between Tokyo and Europe via Moscow across Siberia. This service used an <a href="/wiki/Aeroflot" title="Aeroflot">Aeroflot</a> <a href="/wiki/Tupolev_Tu-114" title="Tupolev Tu-114">Tupolev Tu-114</a>, with one JAL flight crew and mixed JAL and Aeroflot cabin crew. However, Japan Air Lines dropped the service in 1969.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>During the Cold War, <a href="/wiki/Anchorage_International_Airport" class="mw-redirect" title="Anchorage International Airport">Anchorage International Airport</a> (ANC) in <a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a> was a technical stop for a number of airlines flying the polar route between western <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tokyo" title="Tokyo">Tokyo</a>. According to the July 1, 1983 edition of the Worldwide <a href="/wiki/Official_Airline_Guide" class="mw-redirect" title="Official Airline Guide">Official Airline Guide</a> (OAG), <a href="/wiki/Air_France" title="Air France">Air France</a>, <a href="/wiki/British_Airways" title="British Airways">British Airways</a>, <a href="/wiki/Japan_Air_Lines" class="mw-redirect" title="Japan Air Lines">Japan Air Lines</a> (JAL), <a href="/wiki/KLM_Royal_Dutch_Airlines" class="mw-redirect" title="KLM Royal Dutch Airlines">KLM Royal Dutch Airlines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lufthansa" title="Lufthansa">Lufthansa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sabena" title="Sabena">Sabena</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_Airlines" title="Scandinavian Airlines">Scandinavian Airlines</a> (SAS) were all operating flights between <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> and western Europe which included a stop in Anchorage.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of these international airlines were operating earlier model <a href="/wiki/Boeing_747" title="Boeing 747">Boeing 747</a> aircraft on the route at this time, although Sabena and SAS were instead operating <a href="/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_DC-10-30" class="mw-redirect" title="McDonnell Douglas DC-10-30">McDonnell Douglas DC-10-30</a> aircraft on their respective polar route services via Anchorage. U.S. based air carrier <a href="/wiki/Western_Airlines" title="Western Airlines">Western Airlines</a> also flew a polar route during the early 1980s between <a href="/wiki/London_Gatwick_Airport" class="mw-redirect" title="London Gatwick Airport">London Gatwick Airport</a> and <a href="/wiki/Honolulu" title="Honolulu">Honolulu</a> using DC-10-30 aircraft, with these flights also making a stop in Anchorage.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The only airline that still flies this type of route between Europe and Anchorage is <a href="/wiki/Condor_Airlines" class="mw-redirect" title="Condor Airlines">Condor Airlines</a>, seasonal service between <a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_Airport" title="Frankfurt Airport">Frankfurt (EDDF)</a> and Anchorage.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This will soon be joined by a flight by <a href="/wiki/Eurowings" title="Eurowings">Eurowings</a>, also from Frankfurt, using an <a href="/wiki/Airbus_A330" title="Airbus A330">Airbus A330</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The date of the event predicted near this tag has passed. (August 2020)">needs update</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Finnair" title="Finnair">Finnair</a> was the first airline to fly non-stop via the polar route without a technical stop. This service began in 1983 and was flown with a <a href="/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_DC-10-30" class="mw-redirect" title="McDonnell Douglas DC-10-30">McDonnell Douglas DC-10-30</a>ER wide body jetliner between Tokyo and <a href="/wiki/Helsinki" title="Helsinki">Helsinki</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sunnuntaisivut_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sunnuntaisivut-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>United States <a href="/wiki/Boeing_B-52" class="mw-redirect" title="Boeing B-52">Boeing B-52</a> aircraft operated in the Arctic Ocean region almost continuously in the 1960s as part of <a href="/wiki/Operation_Chrome_Dome" title="Operation Chrome Dome">Operation Chrome Dome</a> and in later decades as part of readiness exercises. A number of Western reconnaissance aircraft also conducted missions regularly along the Soviet Union's northern coast. Russian <a href="/wiki/Long-Range_Aviation" title="Long-Range Aviation">Long-Range Aviation</a> now perform some of the same types of training flights, testing the readiness of <a href="/wiki/Alaskan_Command" title="Alaskan Command">Alaskan Command</a> and <a href="/wiki/Royal_Canadian_Air_Force" title="Royal Canadian Air Force">Royal Canadian Air Force</a> interceptors.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="After_the_Cold_War">After the Cold War</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Polar_route&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: After the Cold War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Starting 1 May 1992, Aeroflot began regular flights between Moscow and San Francisco via Anchorage in both directions. These flights were operated by IL-62 aircraft which didn't have long enough range to fly nonstop between Moscow and San Francisco.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Moscow-Anchorage and Anchorage-Moscow legs were, at the time, the scheduled passenger airline routes that came closest to the North Pole. Flights between Moscow and Los Angeles, also via Anchorage and operated by IL-62 aircraft, were added in 1994.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Anchorage stop was eliminated later in May 1994 when the IL-62 was replaced on this route by the longer-range IL-96.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Immediately after the Cold War, a number of direct southern routes had opened up between Europe and Asia over the Black Sea and southern former Soviet republics across Afghanistan, and by the mid-1990s, over China. In Russia's eastern and Arctic regions there were significant problems with lack of <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English-speaking</a> controllers, lack of radio facilities, poor radar coverage, poor ATC capacity, and a lack of funds. To solve these issues, <a href="/w/index.php?title=RACGAT&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="RACGAT (page does not exist)">RACGAT</a> (Russian-American Coordinating Group for Air Traffic) was formed in 1993. By summer 1998, the Russian government worked through these problems and gave permission to open four cross-polar routes, named Polar 1, 2, 3 and 4.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additional routes were opened in subsequent years. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Cathay_Pacific" title="Cathay Pacific">Cathay Pacific</a> Flight 889 from <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_International_Airport" title="John F. Kennedy International Airport">New York John F. Kennedy International Airport</a>, piloted by Captain Paul Horsting on 7 July 1998—the first arrival to the new <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_International_Airport" title="Hong Kong International Airport">Hong Kong International Airport</a> at Chek Lap Kok west of Hong Kong—appears to be the first non-stop flight over the Arctic polar region and over <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russian</a> airspace by a non-Russian airline. It was the world's first <a href="/wiki/Non-stop_flight" title="Non-stop flight">nonstop</a> transpolar flight from New York to Hong Kong, dubbed <i>Polar One</i>. It took 16 hours to complete, and it was and still is one of the longest flights that Cathay Pacific operates.<sup id="cite_ref-PolarOne_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PolarOne-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Current_flight_operations">Current flight operations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Polar_route&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Current flight operations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The American <a href="/wiki/Federal_Aviation_Administration" title="Federal Aviation Administration">Federal Aviation Administration</a> now defines the North Polar area of operations as the area north of 78° north latitude,<sup id="cite_ref-boeing.com_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-boeing.com-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which is north of <a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a> and most of Siberia. </p><p>Aircraft like the <a href="/wiki/Boeing_747-400" title="Boeing 747-400">Boeing 747-400</a>, <a href="/wiki/747-8" class="mw-redirect" title="747-8">747-8</a>, <a href="/wiki/777-200ER" class="mw-redirect" title="777-200ER">777-200ER</a>, <a href="/wiki/777-200LR" class="mw-redirect" title="777-200LR">777-200LR</a>, <a href="/wiki/777-300ER" class="mw-redirect" title="777-300ER">777-300ER</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boeing_777X" title="Boeing 777X">777X</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boeing_787_Dreamliner" title="Boeing 787 Dreamliner">787-8</a>, <a href="/wiki/787-9" class="mw-redirect" title="787-9">787-9</a>, and <a href="/wiki/787-10" class="mw-redirect" title="787-10">787-10</a>, as well as certain variants of the <a href="/wiki/Airbus_A330" title="Airbus A330">Airbus A330</a>, <a href="/wiki/Airbus_A340" title="Airbus A340">A340</a>, <a href="/wiki/Airbus_A350" title="Airbus A350">A350</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Airbus_A380" title="Airbus A380">A380</a>, with ranges of around 13,000 kilometres (8,100 mi; 7,000 nmi) or more, are required in order to travel the long distances nonstop between suitable airports.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Arctic polar routes are now common on airlines connecting Asian cities to North American cities. <a href="/wiki/Emirates_(airline)" title="Emirates (airline)">Emirates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qatar_Airways" title="Qatar Airways">Qatar Airways</a> fly nonstop from <a href="/wiki/Dubai_International_Airport" title="Dubai International Airport">Dubai</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hamad_International_Airport" title="Hamad International Airport">Doha</a> to the US West Coast (<a href="/wiki/San_Francisco_International_Airport" title="San Francisco International Airport">San Francisco</a>, <a href="/wiki/SeaTac_International_Airport" class="mw-redirect" title="SeaTac International Airport">Seattle</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_International_Airport" title="Los Angeles International Airport">Los Angeles</a>), coming within a few degrees of latitude of the North Pole.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2022, the <a href="/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russian invasion of Ukraine</a> has led countries such as the UK<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the US,<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as the entire EU,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to ban Russian airlines from entering their airspace; these countries received reciprocal bans from operating in Russian airspace. This has led airlines to avoid Russian airspace when flying to certain destinations, including Eastern Asian cities from the US and Europe and vice versa.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One instance includes <a href="/wiki/Japan_Airlines" title="Japan Airlines">Japan Airlines</a>, whose <a href="/wiki/Heathrow_Airport" title="Heathrow Airport">Heathrow Airport</a>-<a href="/wiki/Haneda_Airport" title="Haneda Airport">Haneda Airport</a> route now flies over the <a href="/wiki/Outer_Hebrides" title="Outer Hebrides">Outer Hebrides</a> of <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Arctic_Ocean" title="Arctic Ocean">Arctic Ocean</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a>, crossing the <a href="/wiki/International_Date_Line" title="International Date Line">International Date Line</a> in the process.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (An alternative route from London to Tokyo flies south of Russia and over <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a> and <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While this route uses a Boeing 777, which can cover the route without refuelling, its flight time increased by an additional four hours because of the longer new route.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The airspace bans also forced cargo airlines to change their course, with some changing their polar routes.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Antarctica">Antarctica</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Polar_route&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Antarctica"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Few airlines fly between cities having a great circle route over Antarctica. Hypothetically, flights between <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>, or between either Western Australia or Western <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a> and southern <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a>, would overfly Antarctica, but no airline currently operates such flights. </p><p>Flights between Australia and South America and between Australia and South Africa pass near the Antarctic coastline. Depending on the winds, the <a href="/wiki/Qantas" title="Qantas">Qantas</a> flight QFA63 from <a href="/wiki/Sydney_Airport" title="Sydney Airport">Sydney</a> to <a href="/wiki/O._R._Tambo_International_Airport" title="O. R. Tambo International Airport">Johannesburg – O. R. Tambo</a>, or the return flight QFA64, sometimes flies over the Antarctic Circle to 71° latitude as well and allowing views of the ice sheet.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="The link has no information this flight at 71° latitude. (September 2019)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> <a href="/wiki/Qantas" title="Qantas">Qantas</a> QFA27 and QFA28 and <a href="/wiki/LATAM" class="mw-redirect" title="LATAM">LATAM</a> LA809 and LA810 fly nonstop between <a href="/wiki/Sydney_Airport" title="Sydney Airport">Sydney</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arturo_Merino_Ben%C3%ADtez_International_Airport" title="Arturo Merino Benítez International Airport">Santiago de Chile</a>, the most southerly polar route. Depending on winds, this flight may reach 70° south latitude. From July 2012<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> until 2014, <a href="/wiki/Aerol%C3%ADneas_Argentinas" title="Aerolíneas Argentinas">Aerolíneas Argentinas</a> flew nonstop between <a href="/wiki/Sydney_Airport" title="Sydney Airport">Sydney</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ministro_Pistarini_International_Airport" title="Ministro Pistarini International Airport">Buenos Aires</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="The link is to a flight which no longer operates and only shows a great circle route, not actual flight path. (September 2014)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Previously, Qantas also operated QFA17 and QFA18 between Sydney and Buenos Aires. Nowadays, <a href="/wiki/LATAM" class="mw-redirect" title="LATAM">LATAM</a> operates LAN804 and LAN805 between Melbourne, Australia, and Santiago, Chile, and <a href="/wiki/Air_New_Zealand" title="Air New Zealand">Air New Zealand</a>, until 2020, operated ANZ30 and ANZ31 between Auckland and Buenos Aires all with similarly south-running routes.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The polar route across the remote southern Pacific Ocean between South America and Oceania was pioneered by <a href="/wiki/LAN_Chile" class="mw-redirect" title="LAN Chile">LAN Chile</a> (now <a href="/wiki/LATAM" class="mw-redirect" title="LATAM">LATAM</a>), with a special flight from Santiago to Sydney operated with a <a href="/wiki/Boeing_707" title="Boeing 707">Boeing 707</a> in 1974, with a stop in Punta Arenas (Chile). Commercial flights began with <a href="/wiki/Aerol%C3%ADneas_Argentinas" title="Aerolíneas Argentinas">Aerolíneas Argentinas</a>, with service from Buenos Aires via Rio Gallegos to Auckland in the 1980s flown with a <a href="/wiki/Boeing_747-200" class="mw-redirect" title="Boeing 747-200">Boeing 747-200</a> aircraft. Aerolíneas Argentinas later extended its service to Sydney via Auckland and Rio Gallegos with return flights to Buenos Aires not making a stop in Rio Gallegos,<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but then ended its flights to New Zealand and Australia in 2014. </p><p>Previously, because of <a href="/wiki/ETOPS" title="ETOPS">ETOPS</a> limitations on twin-engined aircraft — the maximum distance the aircraft can operate from an airport for emergency landings — only four-engined aircraft such as the <a href="/wiki/Boeing_747" title="Boeing 747">Boeing 747</a>, <a href="/wiki/Airbus_A340" title="Airbus A340">Airbus A340</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Airbus_A380" title="Airbus A380">Airbus A380</a> could operate routes near Antarctica. Twin-engined aircraft had to fly further north, closer to potential diversion airports; for example, when <a href="/wiki/Virgin_Australia" title="Virgin Australia">Virgin Australia</a> operated their VA 15 and VA 16 flights between Melbourne and Johannesburg on twin-engined Boeing 777 aircraft with a 180-minute ETOPS rating, the flight was two hours longer than a Qantas flight from Sydney to Johannesburg.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2015, government regulators approved <a href="/wiki/Air_New_Zealand" title="Air New Zealand">Air New Zealand</a>'s twin-engined Boeing 777-200ER aircraft for a 330-minute ETOPS rating (i.e. its 777 aircraft can fly a maximum 330 minutes away from the nearest diversion airport), an increase from its previous 240-minute ETOPS rating, to operate their new route between <a href="/wiki/Auckland_Airport" title="Auckland Airport">Auckland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ministro_Pistarini_International_Airport" title="Ministro Pistarini International Airport">Buenos Aires-Ezeiza</a> which ended in 2020.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/LATAM_Chile" class="mw-redirect" title="LATAM Chile">LATAM Airlines</a> began their LAN800 and LAN801 nonstop flights between <a href="/wiki/Arturo_Merino_Ben%C3%ADtez_International_Airport" title="Arturo Merino Benítez International Airport">Santiago de Chile</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sydney_Airport" title="Sydney Airport">Sydney</a> via <a href="/wiki/Auckland_Airport" title="Auckland Airport">Auckland</a> in April 2015 with twin-engined Boeing 787 aircraft with a 330-minute ETOPS rating.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> LATAM has announced a nonstop flight between Santiago de Chile and Melbourne (LAN804/LAN805) to begin in October 2017.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In late 2019, LATAM began direct flights between Santiago and Sydney (LA802/LAN803) competing with the existing Qantas (QFA27/QFA28) flights on the same route. </p><p>The southernmost flight route with plausible airports would be between <a href="/wiki/Ministro_Pistarini_International_Airport" title="Ministro Pistarini International Airport">Buenos Aires</a> and <a href="/wiki/Perth_Airport" title="Perth Airport">Perth</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With a 175° (S) <a href="/wiki/Course_(navigation)#Aircraft_heading" title="Course (navigation)">heading</a>, the route's <a href="/wiki/Great_circle" title="Great circle">great circle</a> exceeds 85° S and would be within 500 kilometres (310 mi) of the <a href="/wiki/South_Pole" title="South Pole">South Pole</a>. Currently, no commercial airline operates this 12,600-kilometre (7,800 mi; 6,800 nmi) route. However, in February 2018, it was stated that <a href="/wiki/Norwegian_Air_Argentina" title="Norwegian Air Argentina">Norwegian Air Argentina</a> is considering this "less than 15 hours" trans-polar flight between <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>, with a stop-over in Perth en route to <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They will not fly over the <a href="/wiki/South_Pole" title="South Pole">South Pole</a>, but around <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a> taking advantage of the strong winds which circle that continent in an easterly direction. Hence, the "westbound" flight from Buenos Aires would actually travel south-east south of <a href="/wiki/Cape_Town" title="Cape Town">Cape Town</a>, over the southern <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> and on to Perth, while the true "eastbound" flight would also head south-east south of <a href="/wiki/Tasmania" title="Tasmania">Tasmania</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>, over the <a href="/wiki/South_Seas" title="South Seas">South Pacific</a> and on to South America. If this route becomes operational, a Buenos Aires – Singapore return flight would possibly be the fastest <a href="/wiki/Circumnavigation" title="Circumnavigation">circumnavigation</a> available with commercial airliners, although Perth – Buenos Aires return would be faster but without passing the <a href="/wiki/Equator" title="Equator">Equator</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Operational_considerations">Operational considerations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Polar_route&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Operational considerations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The FAA's policy letter <i>Guidance for Polar Operations</i> (March 5, 2001) outlines a number of special requirements for polar flight, which includes two cold-weather suits, special communication capability, designation of Arctic <a href="/wiki/Diversion_airport" title="Diversion airport">diversion airports</a> and firm recovery plans for stranded passengers, and fuel freeze strategy and monitoring requirements.<sup id="cite_ref-boeing.com_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-boeing.com-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Jet_fuel" title="Jet fuel">Jet fuel</a> freeze temperatures range between −40 and −50 °C (−40 and −58 °F). These temperatures are frequently encountered at cruise altitude throughout the world with no effect since the fuel retains heat from lower elevations, but the intense cold and extended duration of polar flights may cause fuel temperature to approach its freezing point. Jet A grade with a maximum freeze point of −40 °C (−40 °F) is used in the U.S., while Jet A1 grade with a maximum freeze point of −47 °C (−53 °F) is used elsewhere.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern long-distance airliners are equipped to alert flight crew when fuel temperatures reach 3 °C (5.4 °F) above these levels. The crew must then change altitude, though in some cases due to the low <a href="/wiki/Stratosphere" title="Stratosphere">stratosphere</a> over polar regions and its inversion properties the air may actually be somewhat warmer at higher altitudes.<sup id="cite_ref-boeing.com_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-boeing.com-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The alerts are typically set at 3 °C (5.4 °F) above the specified maximum freeze point. This provides a 3 °C (5.4 °F) safety margin from the solidification temperature. However, fuels produced at the refineries are often better than the spec values; for example, it is not uncommon to find Jet A fuels that have measured freeze point better (colder) than the specified maximum of −40 °C (−40 °F). In that way, the safety margin is even larger than 3 °C (5.4 °F). On the other hand, the temperature probe that delivers fuel temperature information to the flight deck is not located in the coldest part of the fuel tanks. The difference between the recorded and the coldest fuel temperature varies depending on a variety of factors, especially the circulation of fuel in the tanks and duration of cold soak. It is, therefore, prudent to have a safety margin.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>For polar flights, FAA allows,<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> under certain conditions, the measured freeze point be used instead of assuming the spec value in ASTM D1655. This gives the airlines more flexibility in flight planning. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Polar_route&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Terra.png/28px-Terra.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Terra.png/42px-Terra.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Terra.png/56px-Terra.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Geography" title="Portal:Geography">Geography portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Longest_flights" title="Longest flights">Longest flights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_circle" title="Great circle">Great circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Polar_route&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For instance, Aviation Week 22 July 1957 p47 reports on "polar routes" from California to Europe granted to Pan Am and TWA.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMcCannon1998" class="citation book cs1">McCannon, John (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=u1OyKDItM5wC&pg=PA71"><i>Red Arctic : Polar Exploration and the Myth of the North in the Soviet Union, 1932–1939</i></a>. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 71. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-535420-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-535420-1"><bdi>978-0-19-535420-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Red+Arctic+%3A+Polar+Exploration+and+the+Myth+of+the+North+in+the+Soviet+Union%2C+1932%E2%80%931939&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=71&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-19-535420-1&rft.aulast=McCannon&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Du1OyKDItM5wC%26pg%3DPA71&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolar+route" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NSEDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA91">"Inside The Dreamboat."</a> <i>Popular Science</i>, December 1946 interview with crew about planning for flight.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170821050020/https://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1954/1954%20-%203146.html">"Archived copy"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-03-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.flightglobal.com%2Fpdfarchive%2Fview%2F1954%2F1954%2520-%25203146.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolar+route" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blog.klm.com/to-tokyo-with-a-dc-7-over-the-north-pole/">"To Tokyo with a DC-7 over the North Pole"</a>. <i>KLM Blog</i>. 23 November 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=KLM+Blog&rft.atitle=To+Tokyo+with+a+DC-7+over+the+North+Pole&rft.date=2014-11-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblog.klm.com%2Fto-tokyo-with-a-dc-7-over-the-north-pole%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolar+route" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.departedflights.com">http://www.departedflights.com</a>, July 1, 1983 Worldwide Official Airline Guide (OAG), Tokyo-Anchorage flight schedules</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.departedflights.com">http://www.departedflights.com</a>, March 1, 1981 Western Airlines system timetable</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation pressrelease cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aviationpros.com/airports/press-release/21150014/anc-condor-announces-2021-anchorage-flights">"StackPath (12 August 2020)"</a>. <i>www.aviationpros.com</i> (Press release)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 August</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=StackPath+%2812+August+2020%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aviationpros.com%2Fairports%2Fpress-release%2F21150014%2Fanc-condor-announces-2021-anchorage-flights&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolar+route" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.departedflights.com">http://www.departedflights.com</a>, July 1, 1983 Worldwide Official Airline Guide (OAG), Tokyo-Helsinki flight schedules</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sunnuntaisivut-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sunnuntaisivut_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuhtanen2014" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Huhtanen, Ann-Mari (7 September 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304071539/http://www.hs.fi/sunnuntai/a1409895098937">"Perhana, se tulee suoraan kohti. Jouluna 1987 Finnairin lento AY 915 oli matkalla Tokiosta Helsinkiin, kun Huippuvuorten kohdalla konetta lähestyi ohjus"</a> [‘Damn it, it's coming straight at us. At Christmas, 1987, Finnair flight AY 915 was en route from Tokyo to Helsinki, when a missile approached it over Svalbard’]. <i><a href="/wiki/Helsingin_Sanomat" title="Helsingin Sanomat">Helsingin Sanomat</a></i> (in Finnish). <a href="/wiki/Sanoma" title="Sanoma">Sanoma</a>: C 6–8. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hs.fi/sunnuntai/a1409895098937">the original</a> on 2016-03-04<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-09-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Helsingin+Sanomat&rft.atitle=Perhana%2C+se+tulee+suoraan+kohti.+Jouluna+1987+Finnairin+lento+AY+915+oli+matkalla+Tokiosta+Helsinkiin%2C+kun+Huippuvuorten+kohdalla+konetta+l%C3%A4hestyi+ohjus&rft.pages=C+6-8&rft.date=2014-09-07&rft.aulast=Huhtanen&rft.aufirst=Ann-Mari&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hs.fi%2Fsunnuntai%2Fa1409895098937&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolar+route" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.adn.com/alaska-news/military/2017/04/21/russian-military-planes-intercepted-off-alaska-for-4th-straight-night/">Russian military planes approach Alaska for 4th straight night</a>, Anchorage Daily News, Published April 21, 2017.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Aeroflot Worldwide Timetable, 29 March - 24 October 92</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 July</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Cathay+Pacific%27s+non-stop+New+York+flight+%27strengthens+Hong+Kong%27s+hub%27&rft.pub=Cathay+Pacific&rft.date=2004-06-11&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cathaypacific.com%2Fcpa%2Fen_HK%2Faboutus%2Fpressroomdetails%3FrefID%3Daa24e27ed1faa010VgnVCM22000022d21c39____&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolar+route" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-boeing.com-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-boeing.com_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-boeing.com_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-boeing.com_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.boeing.com/commercial/aeromagazine/aero_16/polar_story.html">"Aero 16 - Polar Route Operations"</a>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://australianaviation.com.au/2016/12/latam-to-serve-melbourne-santiago-nonstop-from-october-2017/">the original</a> on 21 March 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 March</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Australian+Aviation&rft.atitle=LATAM+to+serve+Melbourne-Santiago+nonstop+from+October+2017&rft.date=2016-12-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faustralianaviation.com.au%2F2016%2F12%2Flatam-to-serve-melbourne-santiago-nonstop-from-october-2017%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolar+route" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlynn2016" class="citation news cs1">Flynn, David (5 December 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ausbt.com.au/latam-to-fly-melbourne-santiago">"LATAM to fly Melbourne-Santiago from October 2017"</a>. <i>Australian Business Traveller</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 March</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Australian+Business+Traveller&rft.atitle=LATAM+to+fly+Melbourne-Santiago+from+October+2017&rft.date=2016-12-05&rft.aulast=Flynn&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ausbt.com.au%2Flatam-to-fly-melbourne-santiago&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolar+route" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.greatcirclemapper.net/en/great-circle-mapper.html?route=SAEZ-YPPH&aircraft=73&speed=">"Great Circle Mapper: EZE-PER"</a>. <i>Great Circle Mapper</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Great+Circle+Mapper&rft.atitle=Great+Circle+Mapper%3A+EZE-PER&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.greatcirclemapper.net%2Fen%2Fgreat-circle-mapper.html%3Froute%3DSAEZ-YPPH%26aircraft%3D73%26speed%3D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolar+route" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://thewest.com.au/travel/air-aviation/perth-stopover-on-world-first-flight-linking-south-america-and-asia-to-boost-wa-tourism-ng-b88751880z">"World-first South American flight to boost WA tourism"</a>. <i>The West Australian</i>. 25 February 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+West+Australian&rft.atitle=World-first+South+American+flight+to+boost+WA+tourism&rft.date=2018-02-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fthewest.com.au%2Ftravel%2Fair-aviation%2Fperth-stopover-on-world-first-flight-linking-south-america-and-asia-to-boost-wa-tourism-ng-b88751880z&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolar+route" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">[ASTM specification D1655]</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFederal_Aviation_Administration,_US_Department_of_Transportation2008" class="citation cs2">Federal Aviation Administration, US Department of Transportation (June 13, 2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130616090849/http://www.faa.gov/documentLibrary/media/Advisory_Circular/120-42B.pdf"><i>Extended Operations (ETOPS and Polar Operations)</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, AC 120-42B, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.faa.gov/documentLibrary/media/Advisory_Circular/120-42B.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on June 16, 2013</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Extended+Operations+%28ETOPS+and+Polar+Operations%29&rft.date=2008-06-13&rft.au=Federal+Aviation+Administration%2C+US+Department+of+Transportation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.faa.gov%2FdocumentLibrary%2Fmedia%2FAdvisory_Circular%2F120-42B.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolar+route" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Polar_route&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20020329000146/http://www.racgat.com/">RACGAT website</a> – archived in 2003</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.flightradar24.com/blog/flight-paths-and-great-circles-or-why-you-flew-over-greenland/">Flightradar24 blog page – Why you flew over Greenland</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Category:Arctic_research" title="Category:Arctic research">Arctic research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_whaling" title="History of whaling">History of whaling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Government_of_the_Arctic" title="Category:Government of the Arctic">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_Council" title="Arctic Council">Arctic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_cooperation_and_politics" title="Arctic cooperation and politics">Arctic cooperation and politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_Ocean_Conference" title="Arctic Ocean Conference">Arctic Ocean Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Directorate_of_the_Northern_Sea_Route" title="Chief Directorate of the Northern Sea Route">Chief Directorate of the Northern Sea Route</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilulissat_Declaration" title="Ilulissat Declaration">Ilulissat Declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inuit_Circumpolar_Council" title="Inuit Circumpolar Council">Inuit Circumpolar Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saami_Council" title="Saami Council">Saami Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territorial_claims_in_the_Arctic" title="Territorial claims in the Arctic">Territorial claims in the Arctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Convention_on_the_Law_of_the_Sea" title="United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea">United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Geography_of_the_Arctic" title="Category:Geography of the Arctic">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_Archipelago" title="Arctic Archipelago">Arctic Archipelago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_Circle" title="Arctic Circle">Arctic Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_Cordillera" title="Arctic Cordillera">Arctic Cordillera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_ecology" title="Arctic ecology">Arctic ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_Ocean" title="Arctic Ocean">Arctic Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polar_low" title="Polar low">Arctic Cyclone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenland_ice_sheet" title="Greenland ice sheet">Greenland ice sheet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Impact_craters_of_the_Arctic" title="Category:Impact craters of the Arctic">Impact craters of the Arctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innuitian_Region" title="Innuitian Region">Innuitian Region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordicity" title="Nordicity">Nordicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Pole" title="North Pole">North Pole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Populated_places_in_the_Arctic" title="Category:Populated places in the Arctic">Populated places in the Arctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tundra" title="Tundra">Tundra</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Geology_of_the_Arctic" title="Category:Geology of the Arctic">Geology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Arctic_Rift_System" title="Canadian Arctic Rift System">Canadian Arctic Rift System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurekan_orogeny" title="Eurekan orogeny">Eurekan orogeny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenland_Plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Greenland Plate">Greenland Plate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innuitian_orogeny" title="Innuitian orogeny">Innuitian orogeny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Elizabeth_Islands_Subplate" title="Queen Elizabeth Islands Subplate">Queen Elizabeth Islands Subplate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Bathurst_Fault_Zone" title="Southeast Bathurst Fault Zone">Southeast Bathurst Fault Zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ungava_Fault_Zone" title="Ungava Fault Zone">Ungava Fault Zone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Regions_of_the_Arctic" title="Category:Regions of the Arctic">Regions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_Alaska" title="Arctic Alaska">Arctic Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Arctic_Territories" title="British Arctic Territories">British Arctic Territories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Arctic_Archipelago" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian Arctic Archipelago">Canadian Arctic Archipelago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnmark" title="Finnmark">Finnmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inuvialuit_Settlement_Region" title="Inuvialuit Settlement Region">Inuvialuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karelia" title="Karelia">Karelia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Komi_Republic" title="Komi Republic">Komi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Canada" title="Northern Canada">Northern Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Territories" title="Northwest Territories">Northwest Territories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nunavik" title="Nunavik">Nunavik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nunavut" title="Nunavut">Nunavut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nunatsiavut" title="Nunatsiavut">Nunatsiavut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Far_North_(Russia)" title="Far North (Russia)">Russian Arctic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_North" title="Russian North">North</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakha_Republic" title="Sakha Republic">Sakha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A1pmi" title="Sápmi">Sápmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yukon" title="Yukon">Yukon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_American_Arctic" title="North American Arctic">North American Arctic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_the_Arctic" title="Climate of the Arctic">Climate</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_Climate_Impact_Assessment" title="Arctic Climate Impact Assessment">Arctic Climate Impact Assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_dipole_anomaly" title="Arctic dipole anomaly">Arctic dipole anomaly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_haze" title="Arctic haze">Arctic haze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_oscillation" title="Arctic oscillation">Arctic oscillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_ice_pack" title="Arctic ice pack">Arctic sea ice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_sea_ice_decline" title="Arctic sea ice decline">decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_sea_ice_ecology_and_history" title="Arctic sea ice ecology and history">ecology and history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_methane_emissions" title="Arctic methane emissions">Arctic methane emissions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Arctic" title="Climate change in the Arctic">Climate change in the Arctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_Alaska" title="Climate of Alaska">Climate of Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_global_warming_on_marine_mammals" class="mw-redirect" title="Effects of global warming on marine mammals">Effects of global warming on marine mammals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polar_climate" title="Polar climate">Polar climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polar_amplification" title="Polar amplification">Polar amplification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polar_vortex" title="Polar vortex">Polar vortex</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Fauna_of_the_Arctic" title="Category:Fauna of the Arctic">Fauna</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_fox" title="Arctic fox">Arctic fox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beluga_whale" title="Beluga whale">Beluga whale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bowhead_whale" title="Bowhead whale">Bowhead whale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemming" title="Lemming">Lemming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muskox" title="Muskox">Muskox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narwhal" title="Narwhal">Narwhal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polar_bear" title="Polar bear">Polar bear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reindeer" title="Reindeer">Reindeer</a></li> <li>Seal <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bearded_seal" title="Bearded seal">bearded</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harp_seal" title="Harp seal">harp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hooded_seal" title="Hooded seal">hooded</a></li> <li><a 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class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circumpolar_peoples" title="Circumpolar peoples">Arctic peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Subarctic" title="Indigenous peoples of the Subarctic">Subarctic peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chukchi_people" title="Chukchi people">Chukchi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chukotka_Autonomous_Okrug" title="Chukotka Autonomous Okrug">Chukotka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evenks" class="mw-redirect" title="Evenks">Evenks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karelians" title="Karelians">Karelians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Komi_peoples" title="Komi peoples">Komi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Icelandic people">Icelandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inuit" title="Inuit">Inuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gwich%27in" class="mw-redirect" title="Gwich'in">Gwich'in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khanty" title="Khanty">Khanty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koryaks" title="Koryaks">Koryaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nenets_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Nenets people">Nenets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_small-numbered_peoples_of_the_North,_Siberia_and_the_Far_East" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous small-numbered peoples of the North, Siberia and the Far East">Northern indigenous Russian peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sami_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Sami people">Sami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selkup_people" title="Selkup people">Selkup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakuts" title="Yakuts">Yakuts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yukaghir_people" title="Yukaghir people">Yukaghir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_Winter_Games" title="Arctic Winter Games">Arctic Winter Games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quviasukvik" title="Quviasukvik">Quviasukvik <span style="font-size:85%;">(New Year's Day)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" 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