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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Risks_and_limitations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Risks_and_limitations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Risks and limitations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Risks_and_limitations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Direct-to-consumer_genetic_testing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Direct-to-consumer_genetic_testing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Direct-to-consumer genetic testing</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Direct-to-consumer_genetic_testing-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Direct-to-consumer genetic testing subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Direct-to-consumer_genetic_testing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Controversy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Controversy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Controversy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Controversy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Governmental_genetic_testing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Governmental_genetic_testing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Governmental genetic testing</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Governmental_genetic_testing-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Governmental genetic testing subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Governmental_genetic_testing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In_Estonia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_Estonia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>In Estonia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_Estonia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Genographic_Project" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Genographic_Project"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>The Genographic Project</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Genographic_Project-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Government_regulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Government_regulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Government regulation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Government_regulation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Government regulation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Government_regulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In_the_United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_the_United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>In the United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_the_United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_the_European_Union" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_the_European_Union"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>In the European Union</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_the_European_Union-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_Germany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_Germany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>In Germany</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_Germany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>In France</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_Russia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_Russia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>In Russia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_Russia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_UAE" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_UAE"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.6</span> <span>In UAE</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_UAE-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_Israel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_Israel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.7</span> <span>In Israel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_Israel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Children_and_religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Children_and_religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Children and religion</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Children_and_religion-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Children and religion subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Children_and_religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pediatric_genetic_testing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pediatric_genetic_testing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Pediatric genetic testing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pediatric_genetic_testing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Israel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Israel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Israel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Israel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Costs_and_time" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Costs_and_time"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Costs and time</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Costs_and_time-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Genetic testing</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 29 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-29" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">29 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%AD%D8%B5_%D8%AC%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A" title="فحص جيني – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فحص جيني" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneti%C4%8Dko_testiranje" title="Genetičko testiranje – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Genetičko testiranje" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prova_gen%C3%A8tica" title="Prova genètica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Prova genètica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gentest" title="Gentest – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Gentest" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA-Analyse" title="DNA-Analyse – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="DNA-Analyse" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B5%CE%BD%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82_%CE%AD%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%B3%CF%87%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Γενετικός έλεγχος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γενετικός έλεγχος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Examen_gen%C3%A9tico" title="Examen genético – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Examen genético" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azterketa_genetiko" title="Azterketa genetiko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Azterketa genetiko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%B2%D9%85%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B4_%DA%98%D9%86%D8%AA%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="آزمایش ژنتیک – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="آزمایش ژنتیک" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analyse_g%C3%A9n%C3%A9tique" title="Analyse génétique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Analyse génétique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9C%A0%EC%A0%84%EC%9E%90_%EA%B2%80%EC%82%AC" title="유전자 검사 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="유전자 검사" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA-exploro" title="DNA-exploro – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="DNA-exploro" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pengujian_DNA" title="Pengujian DNA – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pengujian DNA" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%93%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%A1%D7%A7%D7%A8_%D7%92%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA" title="בדיקות סקר גנטיות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="בדיקות סקר גנטיות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BA_%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7" title="Генетикалык анализ – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Генетикалык анализ" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%9A%D0%B5" title="Генетско тестирање – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Генетско тестирање" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9C%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%95_%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B6%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%A7%E0%B4%A8" title="ജനിതക പരിശോധന – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ജനിതക പരിശോധന" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ujian_genetik" title="Ujian genetik – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Ujian genetik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA-onderzoek" title="DNA-onderzoek – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="DNA-onderzoek" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%81%BA%E4%BC%9D%E5%AD%90%E8%A8%BA%E6%96%AD" title="遺伝子診断 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="遺伝子診断" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gentesting" title="Gentesting – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Gentesting" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exame_gen%C3%A9tico" title="Exame genético – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Exame genético" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testimi_gjenetik" title="Testimi gjenetik – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Testimi gjenetik" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneti%C4%8Dko_testiranje" title="Genetičko testiranje – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Genetičko testiranje" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA-diagnostiikka" title="DNA-diagnostiikka – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="DNA-diagnostiikka" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gendiagnostik" title="Gendiagnostik – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Gendiagnostik" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A1" title="การตรวจพันธุกรรม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การตรวจพันธุกรรม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/X%C3%A9t_nghi%E1%BB%87m_di_truy%E1%BB%81n" title="Xét nghiệm di truyền – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Xét nghiệm di truyền" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E5%9B%A0%E6%AA%A2%E6%B8%AC" title="基因檢測 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="基因檢測" data-language-autonym="中文" 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For use in genealogy and archaeology, see <a href="/wiki/Genealogical_DNA_test" title="Genealogical DNA test">genealogical DNA test</a>. 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:17em;border:2px solid #90db90"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#90db90;font-size:175%;font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg/150px-Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="74" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg/225px-Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg/300px-Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="225" data-file-height="111" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90db90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Key components</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">Chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">Genome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">Heredity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">Nucleotide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_variation" title="Genetic variation">Genetic variation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allele" title="Allele">Allele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">Amino acid</a></li></ul></div></div> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_genetics" title="Outline of genetics">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_genetics_articles" title="Index of genetics articles">Index</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90db90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">History and topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_genetics" title="Introduction to genetics">Introduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_genetics" title="History of genetics">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a> (<a href="/wiki/Molecular_evolution" title="Molecular evolution">molecular</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance" title="Mendelian inheritance">Mendelian inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_genetics" title="Quantitative genetics">Quantitative genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">Molecular genetics</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90db90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Research</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geneticist" title="Geneticist">Geneticist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">DNA sequencing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic engineering</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a> (<span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Template"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/12px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/18px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/24px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Template:Genomics" title="Template:Genomics">template</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_genetics" title="Medical genetics">Medical genetics</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_genetics#Branches_of_genetics" title="Outline of genetics">Branches of genetics</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90db90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Fields</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_genetics" title="Classical genetics">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_genetics" title="Conservation genetics">Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunogenetics" title="Immunogenetics">Immunogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_genetics" title="Microbial genetics">Microbial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">Molecular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_genetics" title="Quantitative genetics">Quantitative</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90db90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Personalized medicine</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Personalized_medicine" title="Personalized medicine">Personalized medicine</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Genetics" title="Category:Genetics">Category</a></span></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Genetics_sidebar" title="Template:Genetics sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Genetics_sidebar" title="Template talk:Genetics sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Genetics_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Genetics sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Genetic testing</b>, also known as <b>DNA testing</b>, is used to identify changes in <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> sequence or <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosome</a> structure. Genetic testing can also include measuring the results of genetic changes, such as <a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a> analysis as an output of <a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">gene expression</a>, or through <a href="/wiki/Biochemical_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Biochemical analysis">biochemical analysis</a> to measure specific <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a> output.<sup id="cite_ref-AMA_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AMA-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a medical setting, genetic testing can be used to diagnose or rule out suspected <a href="/wiki/Genetic_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic disorders">genetic disorders</a>, <a href="/wiki/Predictive_medicine" title="Predictive medicine">predict risks</a> for specific conditions, or gain information that can be used to customize medical treatments based on an individual's genetic makeup.<sup id="cite_ref-AMA_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AMA-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Genetic testing can also be used to determine biological relatives, such as a child's <a href="/wiki/Biological_parentage" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological parentage">biological parentage</a> (genetic mother and father) through <a href="/wiki/DNA_paternity_testing" title="DNA paternity testing">DNA paternity testing</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or be used to broadly predict an individual's <a href="/wiki/Ancestry" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancestry">ancestry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Genetic testing of plants and animals can be used for similar reasons as in humans (e.g. to assess relatedness/ancestry or predict/diagnose genetic disorders),<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to gain information used for <a href="/wiki/Selective_breeding" title="Selective breeding">selective breeding</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or for efforts to boost <a href="/wiki/Genetic_diversity" title="Genetic diversity">genetic diversity</a> in endangered populations.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The variety of genetic tests has expanded throughout the years. Early forms of genetic testing which began in the 1950s involved counting the number of chromosomes per cell. Deviations from the expected number of chromosomes (46 in humans) could lead to a diagnosis of certain genetic conditions such as trisomy 21 (<a href="/wiki/Down_syndrome" title="Down syndrome">Down syndrome</a>) or monosomy X (<a href="/wiki/Turner_syndrome" title="Turner syndrome">Turner syndrome</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Durmaz_2015_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Durmaz_2015-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1970s, a method to stain specific regions of chromosomes, called <a href="/wiki/G_banding" title="G banding">chromosome banding</a>, was developed that allowed more detailed <a href="/wiki/Karyotype" title="Karyotype">analysis</a> of chromosome structure and diagnosis of genetic disorders that involved large structural rearrangements.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to analyzing whole chromosomes (<a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">cytogenetics</a>), genetic testing has expanded to include the fields of <a href="/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">molecular genetics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">genomics</a> which can identify changes at the level of individual genes, parts of genes, or even single <a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">nucleotide</a> "letters" of DNA sequence.<sup id="cite_ref-Durmaz_2015_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Durmaz_2015-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the <a href="/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health" title="National Institutes of Health">National Institutes of Health</a>, there are tests available for more than 2,000 genetic conditions,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and one study estimated that as of 2018 there were more than 68,000 genetic tests on the market.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetic_testing&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Genetic testing is "the analysis of <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosomes</a> (<a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>), proteins, and certain <a href="/wiki/Metabolite" title="Metabolite">metabolites</a> in order to detect heritable disease-related <a href="/wiki/Genotype" title="Genotype">genotypes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phenotype" title="Phenotype">phenotypes</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Karyotype" title="Karyotype">karyotypes</a> for clinical purposes."<sup id="cite_ref-pmid9381169_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid9381169-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It can provide information about a <a href="/wiki/Person" title="Person">person</a>'s genes and chromosomes throughout life. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diagnostic_testing">Diagnostic testing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetic_testing&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Diagnostic testing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cell-free_fetal_DNA" title="Cell-free fetal DNA">Cell-free fetal DNA</a> (cffDNA) testing –  a non-invasive (for the fetus) test. It is performed on a sample of venous blood from the mother, and can provide information about the fetus early in pregnancy.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of 2015<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Genetic_testing&action=edit">[update]</a></sup> it is the most sensitive and specific screening test for <a href="/wiki/Down_syndrome" title="Down syndrome">Down syndrome</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-BMO15_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BMO15-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Phenylketonuria_testing.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Phenylketonuria_testing.jpg/220px-Phenylketonuria_testing.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Phenylketonuria_testing.jpg/330px-Phenylketonuria_testing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Phenylketonuria_testing.jpg/440px-Phenylketonuria_testing.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2823" data-file-height="1563" /></a><figcaption>Newborn heel-prick blood sample collection</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Newborn_screening" title="Newborn screening">Newborn screening</a> –  used just after birth to identify genetic disorders that can be treated early in life. A blood sample is collected with a heel prick from the newborn 24–48 hours after birth and sent to the lab for analysis. In the United States, newborn screening procedure varies state by state, but all states by law test for at least 21 disorders. If abnormal results are obtained, it does not necessarily mean the child has the disorder. Diagnostic tests must follow the initial screening to confirm the disease.<sup id="cite_ref-Newborn_Screening_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newborn_Screening-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The routine testing of infants for certain disorders is the most widespread use of genetic testing—millions of babies are tested each year in the United States. All states currently test infants for <a href="/wiki/Phenylketonuria" title="Phenylketonuria">phenylketonuria</a> (PKU, a genetic disorder that causes <a href="/wiki/Mental_illness" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental illness">mental illness</a> if left untreated) and <a href="/wiki/Congenital" class="mw-redirect" title="Congenital">congenital</a> <a href="/wiki/Hypothyroidism" title="Hypothyroidism">hypothyroidism</a> (a disorder of the <a href="/wiki/Thyroid" title="Thyroid">thyroid</a> gland). People with PKU do not have an enzyme needed to process the amino acid phenylalanine, which is responsible for normal growth in children and normal protein use throughout their lifetime. If there is a buildup of too much phenylalanine, brain tissue can be damaged, causing developmental delay. Newborn screening can detect the presence of PKU, allowing children to be placed on special diets to avoid the effects of the disorder.<sup id="cite_ref-Newborn_Screening_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newborn_Screening-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diagnostic_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Diagnostic testing">Diagnostic testing</a> –  used to diagnose or rule out a specific genetic or chromosomal condition. In many cases, genetic testing is used to confirm a diagnosis when a particular condition is suspected based on physical mutations and symptoms. Diagnostic testing can be performed at any time during a person's life, but is not available for all genes or all genetic conditions. The results of a diagnostic test can influence a person's choices about health care and the management of the disease. For example, people with a family history of polycystic kidney disease (PKD) who experience pain or tenderness in their abdomen, blood in their urine, frequent urination, pain in the sides, a urinary tract infection or kidney stones may decide to have their genes tested and the result could confirm the diagnosis of PKD.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite the several implications of genetic testing in conditions such as epilepsy or neurodevelopmental disorders, many patients (specially adults) do not have access to these modern diagnostic approaches, showing a relevant diagnostic gap.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrier_testing" title="Carrier testing">Carrier testing</a> –  used to identify people who carry one copy of a gene mutation that, when present in two copies, causes a genetic disorder. This type of testing is offered to individuals who have a family history of a genetic disorder and to people in ethnic groups with an increased risk of specific genetic conditions. If both parents are tested, the test can provide information about a couple's risk of having a child with a genetic condition like <a href="/wiki/Cystic_fibrosis" title="Cystic fibrosis">cystic fibrosis</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preimplantation_genetic_diagnosis" title="Preimplantation genetic diagnosis">Preimplantation genetic diagnosis</a> –  performed on <a href="/wiki/Human_embryo" class="mw-redirect" title="Human embryo">human embryos</a> prior to the implantation as part of an <a href="/wiki/In_vitro_fertilization" class="mw-redirect" title="In vitro fertilization">in vitro fertilization</a> procedure. Pre-implantation testing is used when individuals try to conceive a child through in vitro fertilization. Eggs from the woman and sperm from the man are removed and fertilized outside the body to create multiple embryos. The embryos are individually screened for abnormalities, and the ones without abnormalities are implanted in the uterus.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ChorionicVillus.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/ChorionicVillus.png/220px-ChorionicVillus.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/ChorionicVillus.png/330px-ChorionicVillus.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/ChorionicVillus.png/440px-ChorionicVillus.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>Small amounts of the chorionic villi are sampled during CVS</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Prenatal_diagnosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Prenatal diagnosis">Prenatal diagnosis</a> –  used to detect changes in a <a href="/wiki/Fetus" title="Fetus">fetus</a>'s genes or chromosomes before birth. This type of testing is offered to couples with an increased risk of having a baby with a genetic or chromosomal disorder. In some cases, prenatal testing can lessen a couple's uncertainty or help them decide whether to <a href="/wiki/Abortion" title="Abortion">abort</a> the pregnancy. It cannot identify all possible inherited disorders and <a href="/wiki/Birth_defect" title="Birth defect">birth defects</a>, however. One method of performing a prenatal genetic test involves an <a href="/wiki/Amniocentesis" title="Amniocentesis">amniocentesis</a>, which removes a sample of fluid from the mother's amniotic sac 15 to 20 or more weeks into pregnancy. The fluid is then tested for chromosomal abnormalities such as Down syndrome (trisomy 21) and trisomy 18, which can result in neonatal or fetal death. Test results can be retrieved within 7–14 days after the test is done. This method is 99.4% accurate at detecting and diagnosing fetal chromosome abnormalities. There is a slight risk of miscarriage with this test, about 1:400. Another method of prenatal testing is <a href="/wiki/Chorionic_villus_sampling" title="Chorionic villus sampling">chorionic villus sampling</a> (CVS). Chorionic villi are projections from the placenta that carry the same genetic makeup as the baby. During this method of prenatal testing, a sample of chorionic villi is removed from the placenta to be tested. This test is performed 10–13 weeks into pregnancy and results are ready 7–14 days after the test was done.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another test using blood taken from the fetal umbilical cord is <a href="/wiki/Percutaneous_umbilical_cord_blood_sampling" title="Percutaneous umbilical cord blood sampling">percutaneous umbilical cord blood sampling</a>.</li> <li>Predictive and presymptomatic testing –  used to detect gene mutations associated with disorders that appear after birth, often later in life. These tests can be helpful to people who have a family member with a genetic disorder, but who have no features of the disorder themselves at the time of testing. Predictive testing can identify mutations that increase a person's chances of developing disorders with a genetic basis, such as certain types of <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</a>. For example, an individual with a mutation in <i><a href="/wiki/BRCA1" title="BRCA1">BRCA1</a></i> has a 65% cumulative risk of <a href="/wiki/Breast_cancer" title="Breast cancer">breast cancer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hereditary breast cancer along with ovarian cancer syndrome are caused by gene alterations in the genes BRCA1 and BRCA2. Major cancer types related to mutations in these genes are female breast cancer, ovarian, prostate, pancreatic, and male breast cancer.<sup id="cite_ref-National_Institute_of_Health_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-National_Institute_of_Health-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Li-Fraumeni syndrome is caused by a gene alteration on the gene TP53. Cancer types associated with a mutation on this gene include breast cancer, soft tissue sarcoma, osteosarcoma (bone cancer), leukemia and brain tumors. In the Cowden syndrome there is a mutation on the PTEN gene, causing potential breast, thyroid or endometrial cancer.<sup id="cite_ref-National_Institute_of_Health_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-National_Institute_of_Health-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Presymptomatic testing can determine whether a person will develop a genetic disorder, such as <a href="/wiki/Hemochromatosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Hemochromatosis">hemochromatosis</a> (an iron overload disorder), before any signs or symptoms appear. The results of predictive and presymptomatic testing can provide information about a person's risk of developing a specific disorder, help with making decisions about medical care and provide a better prognosis.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacogenomics" title="Pharmacogenomics">Pharmacogenomics</a> –  determines the influence of genetic variation on drug response. When a person has a disease or health condition, pharmacogenomics can examine an individual's genetic makeup to determine what medicine and what dosage would be the safest and most beneficial to the patient. In the human population, there are approximately 11 million single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in people's genomes, making them the most common variations in the human genome. SNPs reveal information about an individual's response to certain drugs. This type of genetic testing can be used for cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A sample of the cancer tissue can be sent in for genetic analysis by a specialized lab. After analysis, information retrieved can identify mutations in the tumor which can be used to determine the best treatment option.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-diagnostic_testing">Non-diagnostic testing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetic_testing&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Non-diagnostic testing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_genetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Forensic genetics">Forensic testing</a> –  uses DNA sequences to identify an individual for legal purposes. Unlike the tests described above, forensic testing is not used to detect gene mutations associated with disease. This type of testing can identify crime or catastrophe victims, rule out or implicate a crime suspect, or establish biological relationships between people (for example, paternity).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_paternity_testing" title="DNA paternity testing">Paternity testing</a> –  uses special DNA markers to identify the same or similar inheritance patterns between related individuals. Based on the fact that we all inherit half of our DNA from the father, and half from the mother, DNA scientists test individuals to find the match of DNA sequences at some highly differential markers to draw the conclusion of relatedness.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genealogical_DNA_test" title="Genealogical DNA test">Genealogical DNA test</a> –  used to determine ancestry or ethnic heritage for <a href="/wiki/Genetic_genealogy" title="Genetic genealogy">genetic genealogy</a>.</li> <li>Research testing –  includes finding unknown genes, learning how genes work and advancing understanding of genetic conditions. The results of testing done as part of a research study are usually not available to patients or their healthcare providers.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Medical_procedure">Medical procedure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetic_testing&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Medical procedure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Genetic testing is often done as part of a genetic consultation and as of mid-2008 there were more than 1,200 clinically applicable genetic tests available.<sup id="cite_ref-A-Hawkins2008_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-A-Hawkins2008-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Once a person decides to proceed with genetic testing, a medical geneticist, genetic counselor, primary care doctor, or specialist can order the test after obtaining <a href="/wiki/Informed_consent" title="Informed consent">informed consent</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Genetic tests are performed on a sample of <a href="/wiki/Blood" title="Blood">blood</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hair" title="Hair">hair</a>, <a href="/wiki/Skin" title="Skin">skin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amniotic_fluid" title="Amniotic fluid">amniotic fluid</a> (the fluid that surrounds a fetus during pregnancy), or other tissue. For example, a <a href="/wiki/Medical_procedure" title="Medical procedure">medical procedure</a> called a <a href="/wiki/Buccal_smear" class="mw-redirect" title="Buccal smear">buccal smear</a> uses a small brush or cotton swab to collect a sample of cells from the inside surface of the cheek. Alternatively, a small amount of saline <a href="/wiki/Mouthwash" title="Mouthwash">mouthwash</a> may be swished in the mouth to collect the cells. The sample is sent to a laboratory where technicians look for specific changes in chromosomes, DNA, or proteins, depending on the suspected disorders, often using <a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">DNA sequencing</a>. The laboratory reports the test results in writing to a person's doctor or genetic counselor.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Routine <a href="/wiki/Newborn" class="mw-redirect" title="Newborn">newborn</a> screening tests are done on a small blood sample obtained by pricking the baby's heel with a <a href="/wiki/Blood_lancet" title="Blood lancet">lancet</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Risks_and_limitations">Risks and limitations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetic_testing&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Risks and limitations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The physical risks associated with most genetic tests are very small, particularly for those tests that require only a blood sample or buccal smear (a procedure that samples cells from the inside surface of the cheek). The procedures used for prenatal testing carry a small but non-negligible risk of losing the pregnancy (miscarriage) because they require a sample of amniotic fluid or tissue from around the fetus.<sup id="cite_ref-NIHrisks_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NIHrisks-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many of the risks associated with genetic testing involve the emotional, social, or financial consequences of the test results. People may feel angry, depressed, anxious, or guilty about their results. The potential negative impact of genetic testing has led to an increasing recognition of a "right not to know".<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some cases, genetic testing creates tension within a family because the results can reveal information about other family members in addition to the person who is tested.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The possibility of <a href="/wiki/Genetic_discrimination" title="Genetic discrimination">genetic discrimination</a> in employment or insurance is also a concern. Some individuals avoid genetic testing out of fear it will affect their ability to purchase insurance or find a job.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Health insurers do not currently require applicants for coverage to undergo genetic testing, and when insurers encounter genetic information, it is subject to the same confidentiality protections as any other sensitive health information.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the United States, the use of genetic information is governed by the <a href="/wiki/Genetic_Information_Nondiscrimination_Act" title="Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act">Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act</a> (GINA) (see discussion below in the section on government regulation). </p><p>Genetic testing can provide only limited information about an inherited condition. The test often can't determine if a person will show symptoms of a disorder, how severe the symptoms will be, or whether the disorder will progress over time. Another major limitation is the lack of treatment strategies for many genetic disorders once they are diagnosed.<sup id="cite_ref-NIHrisks_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NIHrisks-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another limitation to genetic testing for a hereditary linked cancer, is the variants of unknown clinical significance. Because the human genome has over 22,000 genes, there are 3.5 million variants in the average person's genome. These variants of unknown clinical significance means there is a change in the DNA sequence, however the increase for cancer is unclear because it is unknown if the change affects the gene's function.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A genetics professional can explain in detail the benefits, risks, and limitations of a particular test. It is important that any person who is considering genetic testing understand and weigh these factors before making a decision.<sup id="cite_ref-NIHrisks_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NIHrisks-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other risks include <a href="/wiki/Incidental_medical_findings" title="Incidental medical findings">incidental findings</a>—a discovery of some possible problem found while looking for something else.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2013 the American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics (ACMG) recommended that certain genes always be included any time a genomic sequencing was done, and that labs should report the results.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>DNA studies have been criticised for a range of methodological problems and providing misleading, interpretations on racial classifications.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Direct-to-consumer_genetic_testing">Direct-to-consumer genetic testing</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetic_testing&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Direct-to-consumer genetic testing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Direct-to-consumer_advertising" title="Direct-to-consumer advertising">Direct-to-consumer</a> (DTC) genetic testing (also called at-home genetic testing) is a type of genetic test that is accessible directly to the consumer without having to go through a health care professional. Usually, to obtain a genetic test, health care professionals such as physicians, nurse practitioners, or <a href="/wiki/Genetic_counseling" title="Genetic counseling">genetic counselors</a> acquire their patient's permission and then order the desired test, which may or may not be covered by health insurance. DTC genetic tests, however, allow consumers to bypass this process and purchase DNA tests themselves. DTC genetic testing can entail primarily genealogical/ancestry-related information, health and trait-related information, or both.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Genetic testing has been taken on by private companies, such as <a href="/wiki/23andMe" title="23andMe">23andMe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancestry.com" title="Ancestry.com">Ancestry.com</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Family_Tree_DNA" class="mw-redirect" title="Family Tree DNA">Family Tree DNA</a>. These companies will send the consumer a kit at their home address, with which they will provide a saliva sample for their lab to analyze. The company will then send back the consumer's results in a few weeks, which is a breakdown of their ancestral heritage and possible health risks that accompany it.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are a variety of DTC genetic tests, ranging from tests for breast cancer alleles to mutations linked to <a href="/wiki/Cystic_fibrosis" title="Cystic fibrosis">cystic fibrosis</a>. Possible benefits of DTC genetic testing are the accessibility of tests to consumers, promotion of proactive healthcare, and the <a href="/wiki/Genetic_privacy" title="Genetic privacy">privacy of genetic information</a>. Possible additional risks of DTC genetic testing are the lack of governmental regulation, the potential misinterpretation of genetic information, issues related to testing minors, <a href="/wiki/Data_privacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Data privacy">privacy of data</a>, and downstream expenses for the public health care system.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the United States, most DTC genetic test kits are not reviewed by the <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration (FDA)</a>, with the exception of a few tests offered by the company <a href="/wiki/23andMe" title="23andMe">23andMe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-CDER_2018_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CDER_2018-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of 2019, the tests that have received marketing authorization by the FDA include 23andMe's genetic health risk reports for select variants of <a href="/wiki/BRCA_mutation" title="BRCA mutation">BRCA1/BRCA2</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Pharmacogenomics" title="Pharmacogenomics">pharmacogenetic</a> reports that test for selected variants associated with metabolism of certain pharmaceutical compounds, a carrier screening test for <a href="/wiki/Bloom_syndrome" title="Bloom syndrome">Bloom syndrome</a>, and genetic health risk reports for a handful of other medical conditions, such as <a href="/wiki/Coeliac_disease" title="Coeliac disease">celiac disease</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease" title="Alzheimer's disease">late-onset Alzheimer's</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-CDER_2018_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CDER_2018-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Controversy">Controversy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetic_testing&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Controversy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>DTC genetic testing has been controversial due to outspoken opposition within the medical community. Critics of DTC genetic testing argue against the risks involved in several steps of the testing process, such as the unregulated advertising and <a href="/wiki/Marketing_claim" class="mw-redirect" title="Marketing claim">marketing claims</a>, the potential reselling of genetic data to third parties, and the overall lack of governmental oversight.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid18494080_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid18494080-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid18184955_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid18184955-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>DTC genetic testing involves many of the same risks associated with any genetic test. One of the more obvious and dangerous of these is the possibility of misreading of test results. Without professional guidance, consumers can potentially misinterpret genetic information, causing them to be deluded about their personal health. </p><p>Some advertising for DTC genetic testing has been criticized as conveying an exaggerated and inaccurate message about the connection between genetic information and disease risk, utilizing emotions as a selling factor. An advertisement for a <a href="/wiki/BRCA_mutation" title="BRCA mutation">BRCA</a>-predictive genetic test for breast cancer stated: "There is no stronger antidote for fear than information."<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Apart from rare diseases that are directly caused by specific, single-gene mutation, diseases "have complicated, multiple genetic links that interact strongly with personal environment, lifestyle, and behavior."<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ancestry.com" title="Ancestry.com">Ancestry.com</a>, a company providing DTC DNA tests for <a href="/wiki/Genealogy" title="Genealogy">genealogy</a> purposes, has reportedly allowed the <a href="/wiki/Warrantless_search" class="mw-redirect" title="Warrantless search">warrantless search</a> of their database by police investigating a murder.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The warrantless search led to a search warrant to force the gathering of a DNA sample from a New Orleans filmmaker; however he turned out not to be a match for the suspected killer.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Governmental_genetic_testing">Governmental genetic testing</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetic_testing&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Governmental genetic testing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_Estonia">In Estonia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetic_testing&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: In Estonia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As part of its healthcare system, Estonia is offering all of its residents genome-wide genotyping. This will be translated into personalized reports for use in everyday medical practice via the national e-health portal.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The aim is to minimise health problems by warning participants most at risk of conditions such as cardiovascular disease and diabetes. It is also hoped that participants who are given early warnings will adopt <a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">healthier lifestyles</a> or take <a href="/wiki/Medication" title="Medication">preventative drugs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Genographic_Project">The Genographic Project</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetic_testing&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: The Genographic Project"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Genographic_Project" title="Genographic Project">Genographic Project</a></div> <p>In 2005, National Geographic launched the "Genographic Project", which was a fifteen-year project that was discontinued in 2020. Over one million people participated in the DNA sampling from more than 140 countries, which made the project the largest of its kind ever conducted.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The project asked for DNA samples from indigenous people as well as the general public, which spurred political controversy among some indigenous groups, leading to the coining of the term "biocolonialism".<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Government_regulation">Government regulation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetic_testing&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Government regulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_the_United_States">In the United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetic_testing&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: In the United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>With regard to genetic testing and information in general, legislation in the United States called the <a href="/wiki/Genetic_Information_Nondiscrimination_Act" title="Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act">Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act</a> prohibits group health plans and health insurers from denying coverage to a healthy person or charging that person higher premiums based solely on a <a href="/wiki/Genetic_predisposition" title="Genetic predisposition">genetic predisposition</a> to developing a disease in the future. The legislation also bars employers from using genetic information when making <a href="/wiki/Recruitment" title="Recruitment">hiring</a>, <a href="/wiki/Termination_of_employment" title="Termination of employment">firing</a>, job placement, or <a href="/wiki/Promotion_(rank)" title="Promotion (rank)">promotion</a> decisions.<sup id="cite_ref-OMB_support_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OMB_support-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although GINA protects against genetic discrimination, Section 210 of the law states that once the disease has manifested, employers can use the medical information and not be in violation of the law, even if the condition has a genetic basis.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid34221431_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid34221431-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The legislation, the first of its kind in the United States,<sup id="cite_ref-tedkennedy_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tedkennedy-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was passed by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">United States Senate</a> on April 24, 2008, on a vote of 95–0, and was signed into law by President <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> on May 21, 2008.<sup id="cite_ref-Law_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Law-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It went into effect on November 21, 2009. </p><p>In June 2013 the US Supreme Court issued two rulings on human genetics. The Court struck down patents on human genes, opening up competition in the field of genetic testing.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Supreme Court also ruled that police were allowed to collect DNA from people arrested for serious offenses.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_the_European_Union">In the European Union</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetic_testing&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: In the European Union"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Effective as of 25 May 2018, companies that process genetic data must abide by the <a href="/wiki/General_Data_Protection_Regulation" title="General Data Protection Regulation">General Data Protection Regulation</a> (GDPR).<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-EC_2018_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EC_2018-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The GDPR is a set of rules/regulations that helps an individual take control of their data that is collected, used, and stored digitally or in a structured filing system on paper, and restricts a company's use of personal data.<sup id="cite_ref-EC_2018_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EC_2018-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The regulation also applies to companies that offer products/services outside the EU.<sup id="cite_ref-EC_2018_62-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EC_2018-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_Germany">In Germany</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetic_testing&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: In Germany"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Genetic testing in Germany is governed by the Genetic Diagnostics Act (GenDG),<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which mandates that health-related genetic tests can only be carried out under medical supervision to ensure the proper interpretation of results and informed decision-making. The law emphasizes genetic counseling and informed consent, protecting individuals from potential misuse or misunderstanding of their genetic data. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_France">In France</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetic_testing&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: In France"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The legal status of genetic testing in France is regulated under strict privacy and data protection laws, including the Bioethics Law.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Direct-to-consumer (DTC) genetic tests, especially those for health-related purposes, are prohibited unless conducted with medical oversight to ensure informed consent and appropriate counseling.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is due to concerns about the potential misuse of genetic data and privacy violations. While health-related genetic testing is allowed within a medical context, tests for non-medical purposes, such as ancestry or personal traits, also face legal restrictions, particularly regarding consumer access. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_Russia">In Russia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetic_testing&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: In Russia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Russian law<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> provides that the processing of special categories of personal data relating to race, nationality, political views, religious or philosophical beliefs, health status, intimate life is allowed if it is necessary in connection with the implementation of international agreements of the Russian Federation on readmission and is carried out in accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation on citizenship of the Russian Federation. Information characterizing the physiological and biological characteristics of a person, on the basis of which it is possible to establish his identity (biometric personal data), can be processed without the consent of the subject of personal data in connection with the implementation of international agreements of the Russian Federation on readmission, administration of justice and execution of judicial acts, compulsory state fingerprinting registration, as well as in cases stipulated by the legislation of the Russian Federation on defense, security, anti-terrorism, transport security, anti-corruption, operational investigative activities, public service, as well as in cases stipulated by the criminal-executive legislation of Russia, the legislation of Russia on the procedure for leaving the Russian Federation and entering the Russian Federation, citizenship of the Russian Federation and notaries. </p><p>Within the framework of this program, it is also planned to include the peoples of neighboring countries, which are the main source of migration, into the genogeographic study on the basis of existing collections.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_UAE">In UAE</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetic_testing&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: In UAE"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By the end of 2021, the UAE Genome Project will be in full swing, as part of the National Innovation Strategy, establishing strategic partnerships with top medical research centers, and making sustainable investments in healthcare services. The project aims to prevent genetic diseases through the use of genetic sciences and innovative modern techniques related to profiling and genetic sequencing, in order to identify the genetic footprint and prevent the most prevalent diseases in the country, such as obesity, diabetes, hypertension, cancer, and asthma. It aims to achieve personalized treatment for each patient based on genetic factors. Additionally, a study by Khalifa University has identified, for the first time, four genetic markers associated with type 2 diabetes among UAE citizens.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_Israel">In Israel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetic_testing&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: In Israel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Israeli <a href="/wiki/Knesset" title="Knesset">Knesset</a> passed the Genetic Information Law in 2000, becoming one of the first countries to establish a regulatory framework for the conducting of genetic testing and genetic counseling and for the handling and use identified genetic information. Under the law, genetic tests must be done in labs accredited by the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Health_(Israel)" title="Ministry of Health (Israel)">Ministry of Health</a>; however, genetic tests may be conducted outside Israel. The law also forbids discrimination for employment or insurance purposes based on genetic test results. Finally, the law takes a strict approach to genetic testing on minors, which is permitted only for the purpose of finding a genetic match with someone ill for the sake of medical treatment, or to see whether the minor carries a gene related to an illness that can be prevented or postponed.<sup id="cite_ref-Zlotogora_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zlotogora-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under the Genetic Information Law as of 2019, commercial DNA tests are not permitted to be sold directly to the public, but can be obtained with a court order, due to data privacy, reliability, and misinterpretation concerns.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Children_and_religion">Children and religion</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetic_testing&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Children and religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Three to five percent of the funding available for the <a href="/wiki/Human_Genome_Project" title="Human Genome Project">Human Genome Project</a> was set aside to study the many <a href="/wiki/ELSI" class="mw-redirect" title="ELSI">social, ethical, and legal implications</a> that will result from the better understanding of human heredity the rapid expansion of genetic risk assessment by genetic testing which would be facilitated by this project.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pediatric_genetic_testing">Pediatric genetic testing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetic_testing&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Pediatric genetic testing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Pediatrics" title="American Academy of Pediatrics">American Academy of Pediatrics</a> (AAP) and the <a href="/wiki/American_College_of_Medical_Genetics" class="mw-redirect" title="American College of Medical Genetics">American College of Medical Genetics</a> (ACMG) have provided new guidelines for the ethical issue of <a href="/wiki/Pediatrics" title="Pediatrics">pediatric</a> genetic testing and <a href="/wiki/Screening_(medicine)" title="Screening (medicine)">screening</a> of children in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-Time2013_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Time2013-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2013Policy_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2013Policy-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their guidelines state that performing pediatric genetic testing should be in the best interest of the child. AAP and ACMG recommend holding off on genetic testing for late-onset conditions until adulthood, unless diagnosing genetic disorders during childhood can reduce morbidity or mortality (e.g., to start early intervention). Testing asymptomatic children who are at risk of childhood onset conditions can also be warranted. Both AAP and ACMG discourage the use of <a href="/wiki/Direct-to-consumer" title="Direct-to-consumer">direct-to-consumer</a> and home kit genetic tests because of concerns regarding the accuracy, interpretation and oversight of test content. Guidelines also state that parents or guardians should be encouraged to inform their child of the results from the genetic test if the minor is of appropriate age. For ethical and legal reasons, health care providers should be cautious in providing minors with predictive genetic testing without the involvement of parents or guardians. Within the guidelines set by AAP and ACMG, health care providers have an obligation to inform parents or guardians on the implication of test results. AAP and ACMG state that any type of predictive genetic testing should be offered with <a href="/wiki/Genetic_counseling" title="Genetic counseling">genetic counseling</a> by <a href="/wiki/Clinical_genetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Clinical genetics">clinical genetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genetic_counselors" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic counselors">genetic counselors</a> or health care providers.<sup id="cite_ref-2013Policy_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2013Policy-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Israel">Israel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetic_testing&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Israel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Israel, DNA testing is used to determine if people are eligible for immigration. The policy where "many Jews from the former Soviet Union (FSU) are asked to provide DNA confirmation of their Jewish heritage in the form of paternity tests in order to immigrate as Jews and become citizens under Israel's <a href="/wiki/Law_of_Return" title="Law of Return">Law of Return</a>" has generated controversy.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Costs_and_time">Costs and time</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetic_testing&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Costs and time"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From the date that a sample is taken, results may take weeks to months, depending upon the complexity and extent of the tests being performed. Results for prenatal testing are usually available more quickly because time is an important consideration in making decisions about a pregnancy. Prior to the testing, the doctor or genetic counselor who is requesting a particular test can provide specific information about the cost and time frame associated with that test.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetic_testing&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biobank" title="Biobank">Biobank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_profiling" title="DNA profiling">DNA profiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Designer_baby" title="Designer baby">Designer baby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genographic_Project" title="Genographic Project">Genographic Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personalized_medicine" title="Personalized medicine">Personalized medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Designer_baby#Pre-implantation_genetic_diagnosis" title="Designer baby">Pre-implantation genetic diagnosis to avoid birth defects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elective_genetic_and_genomic_testing" title="Elective genetic and genomic testing">Elective genetic and genomic testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full_genome_sequencing" class="mw-redirect" title="Full genome sequencing">Full genome sequencing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exome_sequencing" title="Exome sequencing">Exome sequencing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_counseling" title="Genetic counseling">Genetic counseling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_genetic_disorders" title="List of genetic disorders">List of genetic disorders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_genetic_genealogy_topics" title="List of genetic genealogy topics">List of genetic genealogy topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michiei_Oto" title="Michiei Oto">Michiei Oto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-paternity_event" title="Non-paternity event">Non-paternity event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_eugenics" title="New eugenics">New eugenics</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetic_testing&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-AMA-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AMA_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AMA_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and 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(March 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1542%2Fpeds.2012-3680">"Ethical and policy issues in genetic testing and screening of children"</a>. <i>Pediatrics</i>. <b>131</b> (3): 620–622. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1542%2Fpeds.2012-3680">10.1542/peds.2012-3680</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23428972">23428972</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:42535260">42535260</a>. <q>All policy statements from the American Academy of Pediatrics automatically expire 5 years after publication unless reaffirmed, revised, or retired at or before that time</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pediatrics&rft.atitle=Ethical+and+policy+issues+in+genetic+testing+and+screening+of+children&rft.volume=131&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=620-622&rft.date=2013-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A42535260%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23428972&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1542%2Fpeds.2012-3680&rft.aulast=Fallat&rft.aufirst=ME&rft.au=Katz%2C+AL&rft.au=Mercurio%2C+MR&rft.au=Moon%2C+MR&rft.au=Okun%2C+AL&rft.au=Webb%2C+SA&rft.au=Weise%2C+KL&rft.au=Saul%2C+RA&rft.au=Braddock%2C+SR&rft.au=Chen%2C+E&rft.au=Freedenberg%2C+DL&rft.au=Jones%2C+MC&rft.au=Perrin%2C+JM&rft.au=Tarini%2C+BA&rft.au=David%2C+KL&rft.au=Bartoshesky%2C+LE&rft.au=Anderson%2C+RR&rft.au=Best%2C+RG&rft.au=Hoffman%2C+JD&rft.au=Ito%2C+M&rft.au=Lemke%2C+AA&rft.au=Murray%2C+ML&rft.au=Sharp%2C+RR&rft.au=Bhambhani%2C+V&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1542%252Fpeds.2012-3680&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetic+testing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGonigleHerman2015" class="citation journal cs1">McGonigle IV, Herman LW (July 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5034383">"Genetic citizenship: DNA testing and the Israeli Law of Return"</a>. <i>Journal of Law and the Biosciences</i>. <b>2</b> (2): 469–478. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjlb%2Flsv027">10.1093/jlb/lsv027</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5034383">5034383</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27774208">27774208</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Law+and+the+Biosciences&rft.atitle=Genetic+citizenship%3A+DNA+testing+and+the+Israeli+Law+of+Return&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=469-478&rft.date=2015-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5034383%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27774208&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjlb%2Flsv027&rft.aulast=McGonigle&rft.aufirst=IV&rft.au=Herman%2C+LW&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5034383&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetic+testing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a 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class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jpost.com/magazine/should-jewishness-be-determined-by-a-genetic-test-514968">"Should Jewishness be determined by a genetic test?"</a>. <i>The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com</i>. 25 November 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Jerusalem+Post+%26%23124%3B+JPost.com&rft.atitle=Should+Jewishness+be+determined+by+a+genetic+test%3F&rft.date=2017-11-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jpost.com%2Fmagazine%2Fshould-jewishness-be-determined-by-a-genetic-test-514968&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetic+testing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lawoffice.org.il/en/aliyah-to-israel-by-dna-test/">Is It Possible to Make Aliyah to Israel on the Basis of a DNA Test?</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/primer/testing/costresults">"What is the cost of genetic testing, and how long does it take to get the results?"</a>. <i>Genetics Home Reference</i>. Bethesda (MD): National Library of Medicine (US). November 15, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Genetics+Home+Reference&rft.atitle=What+is+the+cost+of+genetic+testing%2C+and+how+long+does+it+take+to+get+the+results%3F&rft.date=2016-11-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fghr.nlm.nih.gov%2Fprimer%2Ftesting%2Fcostresults&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetic+testing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <p><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Public Domain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /></span></span> This article incorporates <a href="/wiki/Copyright_status_of_works_by_the_federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Copyright status of works by the federal government of the United States">public domain material</a> from <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/primer/testing/riskslimitations"><i>What are the risks and limitations of genetic testing?</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services" title="United States Department of Health and Human Services">United States Department of Health and Human Services</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+are+the+risks+and+limitations+of+genetic+testing%3F&rft.pub=United+States+Department+of+Health+and+Human+Services&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fghr.nlm.nih.gov%2Fprimer%2Ftesting%2Friskslimitations&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetic+testing" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Public Domain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /></span></span> This article incorporates <a href="/wiki/Copyright_status_of_works_by_the_federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Copyright status of works by the federal government of the United States">public domain material</a> from <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/primer/testing/costresults"><i>What is the cost of genetic testing, and how long does it take to get the results?</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services" title="United States Department of Health and Human Services">United States Department of Health and Human Services</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+is+the+cost+of+genetic+testing%2C+and+how+long+does+it+take+to+get+the+results%3F&rft.pub=United+States+Department+of+Health+and+Human+Services&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fghr.nlm.nih.gov%2Fprimer%2Ftesting%2Fcostresults&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenetic+testing" class="Z3988"></span> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output 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<li><a href="/wiki/Human_genetic_variation" title="Human genetic variation">Human genetic variation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_linkage" title="Genetic linkage">Genetic linkage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-nucleotide_polymorphisms" class="mw-redirect" title="Single-nucleotide polymorphisms">Single-nucleotide polymorphisms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_by_descent" title="Identity by descent">Identity by descent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_disorder" title="Genetic disorder">Genetic disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Personalized_medicine" title="Personalized medicine">Personalized medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predictive_medicine" title="Predictive medicine">Predictive medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_epidemiology" title="Genetic epidemiology">Genetic epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacogenomics" title="Pharmacogenomics">Pharmacogenomics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Analysis techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Whole_genome_sequencing" title="Whole genome sequencing">Whole genome sequencing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genome-wide_association_study" title="Genome-wide association study">Genome-wide association study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SNP_array" title="SNP array">SNP array</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Genetic testing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major projects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_Genome_Project" title="Human Genome Project">Human Genome Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_HapMap_Project" title="International HapMap Project">International HapMap Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1000_Genomes_Project" title="1000 Genomes Project">1000 Genomes Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Genome_Diversity_Project" title="Human Genome Diversity Project">Human Genome Diversity Project</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Genetic_engineering" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Genetic_engineering" title="Template:Genetic engineering"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Genetic_engineering" title="Template talk:Genetic engineering"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Genetic_engineering" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Genetic engineering"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Genetic_engineering" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic engineering</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_organism" title="Genetically modified organism">Genetically <br />modified<br /> organisms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_crops" title="Genetically modified crops">Crops</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_maize" title="Genetically modified maize">Maize/corn</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/MON_810" title="MON 810">MON 810</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MON_863" title="MON 863">MON 863</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starlink_corn_recall#StarLink_corn" class="mw-redirect" title="Starlink corn recall">StarLink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_varieties_of_genetically_modified_maize" title="List of varieties of genetically modified maize">List of varieties of genetically modified maize/corn</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_potato" title="Genetically modified potato">Potato</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amflora" title="Amflora">Amflora</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_rice" title="Genetically modified rice">Rice</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Golden_rice" title="Golden rice">Golden rice</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_soybean" title="Genetically modified soybean">Soybean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roundup_ready_soybean" class="mw-redirect" title="Roundup ready soybean">Roundup ready soybean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vistive_Gold" title="Vistive Gold">Vistive Gold</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_tomato" title="Genetically modified tomato">Tomato</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flavr_Savr" title="Flavr Savr">Flavr Savr</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cotton#Genetic_modification" title="Cotton">Cotton</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bt_cotton" title="Bt cotton">Bt cotton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_wheat" title="Genetically modified wheat">Wheat</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HB4_Wheat" title="HB4 Wheat">HB4</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_Apples" title="Arctic Apples">Apple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabidopsis_thaliana" title="Arabidopsis thaliana">Arabidopsis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_brinjal" title="Genetically modified brinjal">Brinjal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_canola" title="Genetically modified canola">Canola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papaya#Genetically_engineered_cultivars" title="Papaya">Papaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_rose" title="Blue rose">Rose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SmartStax" title="SmartStax">SmartStax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_sugar_beet" title="Genetically modified sugar beet">Sugar beet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobacco#Genetic_modification" title="Tobacco">Tobacco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_tree" title="Genetically modified tree">Trees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DMH-11_Mustard" title="DMH-11 Mustard">Mustard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_animal" title="Genetically modified animal">Animals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_mammal" title="Genetically modified mammal">Mammals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_mouse" title="Genetically modified mouse">Mouse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Knockout_mouse" title="Knockout mouse">Knockout mouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oncomouse" title="Oncomouse">Oncomouse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enviropig" class="mw-redirect" title="Enviropig">Enviropig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herman_the_Bull" class="mw-redirect" title="Herman the Bull">Herman the Bull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knockout_rat" title="Knockout rat">Knockout rat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alba_(rabbit)" title="Alba (rabbit)">Rabbit</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other animals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_insect" title="Genetically modified insect">Insects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_fish" title="Genetically modified fish">Fish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/GloFish" title="GloFish">GloFish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_salmon" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetically modified salmon">Salmon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_bird" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetically modified bird">Birds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_organism#Frogs" title="Genetically modified organism">Frogs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_bacteria" title="Genetically modified bacteria">Bacteria</a><br /> and <a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_virus" title="Genetically modified virus">viruses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ice-minus_bacteria" title="Ice-minus bacteria">Ice-minus bacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_B_vaccine" title="Hepatitis B vaccine">Hepatitis B vaccine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oncolytic_virus" title="Oncolytic virus">Oncolytic virus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering_techniques" title="Genetic engineering techniques">Processes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Transformation_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transformation (genetics)">Inserting DNA</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrobacterium" title="Agrobacterium">Agrobacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_gun" title="Gene gun">Biolistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electroporation" title="Electroporation">Electroporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_transduction" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic transduction">Genetic transduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipofection" class="mw-redirect" title="Lipofection">Lipofection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microinjection" title="Microinjection">Microinjection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somatic_cell_nuclear_transfer" title="Somatic cell nuclear transfer">Somatic cell nuclear transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfection" title="Transfection">Transfection</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Recombinant_DNA" title="Recombinant DNA">Recombinant DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgenesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Transgenesis">Transgenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cisgenesis" title="Cisgenesis">Cisgenesis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Uses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In agriculture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_food" title="Genetically modified food">Genetically modified food</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies" title="Genetically modified food controversies">Controversies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharming_(genetics)" title="Pharming (genetics)">Pharming</a></li> <li>Companies <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BASF_Plant_Science" title="BASF Plant Science">BASF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayer#Bayer_CropScience" title="Bayer">Bayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dow_AgroSciences" title="Dow AgroSciences">Dow AgroSciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DuPont_Pioneer" class="mw-redirect" title="DuPont Pioneer">DuPont Pioneer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monsanto" title="Monsanto">Monsanto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syngenta" title="Syngenta">Syngenta</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In <a href="/wiki/Human_genetic_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Human genetic engineering">humans</a> and<br /> diagnostics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gene_therapy" title="Gene therapy">Gene therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_enhancement" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic enhancement">Genetic enhancement</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Genetic testing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In research</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gene_knockout" title="Gene knockout">Gene knockout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_knockdown" title="Gene knockdown">Gene knockdown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_targeting" title="Gene targeting">Gene targeting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related<br /> articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transgene" title="Transgene">Transgene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detection_of_genetically_modified_organisms" title="Detection of genetically modified organisms">Detection of genetically modified organisms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_pollution" title="Genetic pollution">Genetic pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetics_in_fiction" title="Genetics in fiction">Genetics in fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_enhancement" title="Human enhancement">Human enhancement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_transfection" title="Reverse transfection">Reverse transfection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transhumanism" title="Transhumanism">Transhumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_use_restriction_technology" title="Genetic use restriction technology">Genetic use restriction technology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Regulation_of_genetic_engineering" title="Regulation of genetic engineering">Regulation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartagena_Protocol_on_Biosafety" title="Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety">Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geography</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering_in_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic engineering in Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering_in_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic engineering in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering_in_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic engineering in Asia">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering_in_North_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic engineering in North America">North America</a> (<a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic engineering in the United States">US</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering_in_South_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic engineering in South America">South America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering_in_Oceania" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic engineering in Oceania">Oceania</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Similar fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div 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