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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1979–1984" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1979–1984"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 1979–1984 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1979–1984-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1984–1993" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1984–1993"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 1984–1993 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1984–1993-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1993–2005" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1993–2005"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 1993–2005 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1993–2005-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-2005–2012" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#2005–2012"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5 2005–2012 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-2005–2012-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-2012–2020" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#2012–2020"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6 2012–2020 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-2012–2020-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-2020–present" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#2020–present"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.7 2020–present </div> </a> <ul id="toc-2020–present-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ideologies_of_the_reforms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ideologies_of_the_reforms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Ideologies of the reforms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ideologies_of_the_reforms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_of_the_reforms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_of_the_reforms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Effects of the reforms </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Effects_of_the_reforms-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Effects of the reforms subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Effects_of_the_reforms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Economic_performance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_performance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Economic performance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_performance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impact_on_world_growth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impact_on_world_growth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Impact on world growth </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Impact_on_world_growth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effect_on_inequality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effect_on_inequality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Effect on inequality </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effect_on_inequality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reforms_in_specific_sectors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reforms_in_specific_sectors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Reforms in specific sectors </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Reforms_in_specific_sectors-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Reforms in specific sectors subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Reforms_in_specific_sectors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Agriculture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agriculture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Agriculture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Agriculture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Industry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Industry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Industry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Industry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trade_and_foreign_investment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trade_and_foreign_investment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Trade and foreign investment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trade_and_foreign_investment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Services" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Services"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Services </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Services-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Government_finances" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Government_finances"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Government finances </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Government_finances-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Academic_studies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Academic_studies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Academic studies </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Academic_studies-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Academic studies subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Academic_studies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Reasons_for_success" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reasons_for_success"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Reasons for success </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reasons_for_success-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comparison_to_other_developing_economies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparison_to_other_developing_economies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Comparison to other developing economies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparison_to_other_developing_economies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism_and_development_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism_and_development_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Criticism and development issues </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism_and_development_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_and_cited_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_and_cited_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 General and cited sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_and_cited_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Reform and opening up</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 34 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-34" aria-hidden="true" > 34 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%B5%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AD_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%AA%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A" title="الإصلاح الاقتصادي الصيني – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الإصلاح الاقتصادي الصيني" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A1i-kek_khai-h%C3%B2ng" title="Kái-kek khai-hòng – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Kái-kek khai-hòng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B8_%D0%B8_%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82" title="Политика на реформи и откритост – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Политика на реформи и откритост" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reforma_econ%C3%B2mica_xinesa" title="Reforma econòmica xinesa – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Reforma econòmica xinesa" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otev%C5%99en%C3%AD_%C4%8C%C3%ADny_sv%C4%9Btu" title="Otevření Číny světu – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Otevření Číny světu" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reform-_und_%C3%96ffnungspolitik" title="Reform- und Öffnungspolitik – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Reform- und Öffnungspolitik" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%B5%CE%B6%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%BF%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%BC%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%81%CF%81%CF%8D%CE%B8%CE%BC%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%B7" title="Κινεζική οικονομική μεταρρύθμιση – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κινεζική οικονομική μεταρρύθμιση" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reforma_econ%C3%B3mica_china" title="Reforma económica china – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Reforma económica china" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformo_kaj_Malfermo_en_%C4%88inio" title="Reformo kaj Malfermo en Ĉinio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Reformo kaj Malfermo en Ĉinio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B5%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%AA%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%AF%DB%8C_%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86" title="اصلاحات اقتصادی چین – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اصلاحات اقتصادی چین" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9forme_%C3%A9conomique_chinoise" title="Réforme économique chinoise – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Réforme économique chinoise" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B0%9C%ED%98%81%EA%B0%9C%EB%B0%A9" title="개혁개방 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="개혁개방" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%89%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%AB_%D5%BF%D5%B6%D5%BF%D5%A5%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%A2%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A5%D6%83%D5%B8%D5%AD%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Չինաստանի տնտեսական բարեփոխումներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Չինաստանի տնտեսական բարեփոխումներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformasi_ekonomi_Tiongkok" title="Reformasi ekonomi Tiongkok – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Reformasi ekonomi Tiongkok" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riforma_economica_cinese" title="Riforma economica cinese – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Riforma economica cinese" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A8%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%9E%D7%94_%D7%91%D7%9B%D7%9C%D7%9B%D7%9C%D7%AA_%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%9F" title="הרפורמה בכלכלת סין – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הרפורמה בכלכלת סין" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C4%81i-g%C3%A1ik_K%C4%83i-hu%C3%B3ng" title="Gāi-gáik Kăi-huóng – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Gāi-gáik Kăi-huóng" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%94%B9%E9%9D%A9%E9%96%8B%E6%94%BE" title="改革開放 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="改革開放" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reform_og_%C3%A5pning" title="Reform og åpning – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Reform og åpning" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xitoy_iqtisodiy_islohoti" title="Xitoy iqtisodiy islohoti – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Xitoy iqtisodiy islohoti" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%AA%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D8%B5%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AD_(%D8%B3%D9%85%D9%88%D9%86)" title="چينايي اقتصادي اصلاح (سمون) – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="چينايي اقتصادي اصلاح (سمون)" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abertura_econ%C3%B4mica_da_China" title="Abertura econômica da China – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Abertura econômica da China" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC_%D0%B8_%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BA%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8" title="Политика реформ и открытости – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Политика реформ и открытости" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_economic_reform" title="Chinese economic reform – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Chinese economic reform" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%8F%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%9B%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%90%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%99" title="การปฏิรูปเศรษฐกิจจีน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การปฏิรูปเศรษฐกิจจีน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87in_ekonomik_reformu" title="Çin ekonomik reformu – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Çin ekonomik reformu" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC_%D1%96_%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%96" title="Політика реформ і відкритості – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Політика реформ і відкритості" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%D9%89%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%DA%BE%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A6%DB%90%DA%86%D9%89%DB%8B%DB%90%D8%AA%D9%89%D8%B4" title="ئىسلاھات ئېچىۋېتىش – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="ئىسلاھات ئېچىۋېتىش" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaijgwz_hailangh" 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.infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="color: #202122;background-color:#b0c4de">Reform and opening up</th></tr><tr style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data">改革开放</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data">改革開放</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Literal meaning</th><td class="infobox-data">"Reform and Opening-Up"</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Gǎigé kāifàng</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Kai3-ko2 k'ai1-fang4</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">[kàɪkɤ̌ kʰáɪfâŋ]</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Yue: Cantonese</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Yale_romanization_of_Cantonese" title="Yale romanization of Cantonese">Yale Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Góigaak hōifong</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jyutping" title="Jyutping">Jyutping</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Goi2-gaak3 hoi1-fong3</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" 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.sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1222630338">.mw-parser-output .prc-body{max-width:20em}.mw-parser-output .prc-title{font-size:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .prc-title a{white-space:normal}.mw-parser-output .prc-emblem{padding-bottom:1em}.mw-parser-output .prc-heading{border-top:thin solid #707070;border-bottom:thin solid #707070;background-color:white;font-size:1em}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks prc-body hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title prc-title"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="History of the People's Republic of China">History of the People's Republic of China</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image prc-emblem"><a href="/wiki/File:National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(2).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="National emblem of the People's Republic of China"><img alt="National emblem of the People's Republic of China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_%282%29.svg/120px-National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_%282%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="85" height="92" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_%282%29.svg/250px-National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_%282%29.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="976" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title prc-heading" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(1949%E2%80%931976)" title="History of the People's Republic of China (1949–1976)">1949–1976: Mao era</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_Reform_Movement" title="Land Reform Movement">Land Reform Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Proclamation of the People's Republic of China">Proclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_to_Suppress_Counterrevolutionaries" title="Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries">Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-anti_and_Five-anti_Campaigns" title="Three-anti and Five-anti Campaigns">Three-anti and Five-anti Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_five-year_plan_(China)" title="First five-year plan (China)">First five-year plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Principles_of_Peaceful_Coexistence" title="Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence">Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bandung_Conference" title="Bandung Conference">Bandung Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufan_movement" title="Sufan movement">Sufan movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Flowers_Campaign" title="Hundred Flowers Campaign">Hundred Flowers Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Rightist_Campaign" title="Anti-Rightist Campaign">Anti-Rightist Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canton_Fair" title="Canton Fair">Canton Fair</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Leap_Forward" title="Great Leap Forward">Great Leap Forward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Chinese_Famine" title="Great Chinese Famine">Great Chinese Famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Right_Deviation_Struggle" title="Anti-Right Deviation Struggle">Anti-Right Deviation Struggle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_Bombs,_One_Satellite" title="Two Bombs, One Satellite">Two Bombs, One Satellite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Thousand_Cadres_Conference" title="Seven Thousand Cadres Conference">Seven Thousand Cadres Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Education_Movement" title="Socialist Education Movement">Socialist Education Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Front_(China)" title="Third Front (China)">Third Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UN_General_Assembly_Resolution_2758" class="mw-redirect" title="UN General Assembly Resolution 2758">UN representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1972_visit_by_Richard_Nixon_to_China" title="1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China">Richard Nixon visit</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title prc-heading" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(1976%E2%80%931989)" title="History of the People's Republic of China (1976–1989)">1976–1989: Hua & Deng era</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gang_of_Four" title="Gang of Four">Gang of Four</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boluan_Fanzheng" title="Boluan Fanzheng">Boluan Fanzheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1978_Truth_Criterion_Controversy" title="1978 Truth Criterion Controversy">1978 Truth Criterion Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Enlightenment_(China)" title="New Enlightenment (China)">New Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Reform and opening up</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Special_economic_zones_of_China" title="Special economic zones of China">Special economic zones</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="China–United States relations">China–United States relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Three_Communiqu%C3%A9s" title="Three Communiqués">Three Communiqués</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Modernizations" title="Four Modernizations">Four Modernizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Vietnamese_War" title="Sino-Vietnamese War">Sino-Vietnamese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beijing_Spring" title="Beijing Spring">Beijing Spring</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Strike_Hard_Against_Crime_Campaign_(1983)" title="Strike Hard Against Crime Campaign (1983)">Strike Hard Against Crime Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-British_Joint_Declaration" title="Sino-British Joint Declaration">Sino-British Joint Declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_against_spiritual_pollution" title="Campaign against spiritual pollution">Campaign against spiritual pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bourgeois_liberalization" title="Bourgeois liberalization">Bourgeois liberalization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-bourgeois_liberalization" title="Anti-bourgeois liberalization">Opposition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/863_Program" title="863 Program">863 Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1986_Chinese_student_demonstrations" title="1986 Chinese student demonstrations">1986 Chinese student demonstrations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Portuguese_Joint_Declaration" title="Sino-Portuguese Joint Declaration">Sino-Portuguese Joint Declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests_and_massacre" title="1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre">1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title prc-heading" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(1989%E2%80%932002)" title="History of the People's Republic of China (1989–2002)">1989–2002: Jiang era</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Stock_Exchange" title="Shanghai Stock Exchange">Shanghai Stock Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pudong_New_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Pudong New District">Pudong New District</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping%27s_southern_tour" title="Deng Xiaoping's southern tour">Deng's southern tour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1992_consensus" class="mw-redirect" title="1992 consensus">1992 consensus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_country,_two_systems" title="One country, two systems">One country, two systems</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Handover_of_Hong_Kong" title="Handover of Hong Kong">Handover of Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Handover_of_Macau" title="Handover of Macau">Handover of Macau</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1998_China_floods" title="1998 China floods">1998 floods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/US_bombing_of_the_Chinese_embassy_in_Belgrade" class="mw-redirect" title="US bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade">US bombing of the Belgrade embassy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Falun_Gong" title="Persecution of Falun Gong">Persecution of Falun Gong</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/China_Western_Development" title="China Western Development">China Western Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hainan_Island_incident" title="Hainan Island incident">Hainan Island incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/APEC_China_2001" title="APEC China 2001">APEC China 2001</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_and_the_World_Trade_Organization" title="China and the World Trade Organization">Accession to the WTO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_on_China%E2%80%93Africa_Cooperation" title="Forum on China–Africa Cooperation">Forum on China–Africa Cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Cooperation_Organisation" title="Shanghai Cooperation Organisation">Shanghai Cooperation Organisation</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title prc-heading" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(2002%E2%80%93present)" title="History of the People's Republic of China (2002–present)">2002–2012: Hu era</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2002%E2%80%932004_SARS_outbreak" title="2002–2004 SARS outbreak">2002–2004 SARS outbreak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shenzhou_5" title="Shenzhou 5">Shenzhou 5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2005_Pan%E2%80%93Blue_visits_to_mainland_China" class="mw-redirect" title="2005 Pan–Blue visits to mainland China">Visit of Lien Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South%E2%80%93North_Water_Transfer_Project" title="South–North Water Transfer Project">South–North Water Transfer Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qinghai%E2%80%93Tibet_railway" title="Qinghai–Tibet railway">Qinghai–Tibet railway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_Sichuan_earthquake" title="2008 Sichuan earthquake">2008 Sichuan earthquake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Links" title="Three Links">Three Links with Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_Summer_Olympics" title="2008 Summer Olympics">2008 Summer Olympics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expo_2010" title="Expo 2010">Expo 2010</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BRICS" title="BRICS">BRICS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Gorges_Dam" title="Three Gorges Dam">Three Gorges Dam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West%E2%80%93East_Gas_Pipeline" title="West–East Gas Pipeline">West–East Gas Pipeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-speed_rail_in_China" title="High-speed rail in China">High-speed rail</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title prc-heading" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(2002%E2%80%93present)" title="History of the People's Republic of China (2002–present)">2012–present: Xi era</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-corruption_campaign_under_Xi_Jinping" title="Anti-corruption campaign under Xi Jinping">Anti-corruption campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chang%27e_3" title="Chang'e 3">Chang'e 3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supercomputing_in_China" title="Supercomputing in China">Supercomputing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma-Xi_Meeting" class="mw-redirect" title="Ma-Xi Meeting">Meeting with Ma Ying-Jeou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiong%27an" title="Xiong'an">Xiong'an</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Uyghurs_in_China" title="Persecution of Uyghurs in China">Persecution of Uyghurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_internment_camps" title="Xinjiang internment camps">Xinjiang internment camps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China%E2%80%93United_States_trade_war" title="China–United States trade war">China–United States trade war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiangong_space_station" title="Tiangong space station">Tiangong space station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019%E2%80%932020_Hong_Kong_protests" title="2019–2020 Hong Kong protests">2019–2020 Hong Kong protests</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2020_Hong_Kong_national_security_law" title="2020 Hong Kong national security law">2020 Hong Kong national security law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_mainland_China" title="COVID-19 pandemic in mainland China">COVID-19 pandemic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zero-COVID" title="Zero-COVID">Zero-COVID</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020%E2%80%932021_Xi_Jinping_Administration_reform_spree" title="2020–2021 Xi Jinping Administration reform spree">2020–2021 reform spree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_Winter_Olympics" title="2022 Winter Olympics">2022 Winter Olympics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_COVID-19_protests_in_China" title="2022 COVID-19 protests in China">2022 COVID-19 protests in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_Intelligence_Cold_War" title="Artificial Intelligence Cold War">Artificial Intelligence Cold War</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belt_and_Road_Initiative" title="Belt and Road Initiative">Belt and Road Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/APEC_China_2014" title="APEC China 2014">APEC China 2014</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2016_G20_Hangzhou_summit" title="2016 G20 Hangzhou summit">2016 G20 Hangzhou summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/9th_BRICS_summit" title="9th BRICS summit">9th BRICS summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_International_Import_Expo" title="China International Import Expo">China International Import Expo</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_history_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Constitutional history of the People's Republic of China">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Beijing" title="History of Beijing">Beijing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Shanghai" title="History of Shanghai">Shanghai</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="border-top:1px solid #707070;padding:0.3em 0.3em 0.5em;font-weight:bold;border-bottom:1px solid #707070;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Culture of the People's Republic of China">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_China" title="Economy of China">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_China" title="Education in China">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_China" title="Geography of China">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_China" title="Politics of China">Politics</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" 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href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Templates_for_discussion/Log/2025_March_12#Template:Neoauthoritarianism_in_China" title="Wikipedia:Templates for discussion/Log/2025 March 12">considered for deletion</a>. ›</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="border: 4px double #154E9D; border-spacing:0.2em 0;color: var(--color-base, #000);"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Conservatism_in_China" title="Category:Conservatism in China">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#154e9d; padding-top:0.25em; font-size:160%; font-weight:normal; color:white; line-height:1em;"><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_China#Neoauthoritarianism" title="Conservatism in China"> Neoauthoritarianism in China</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(2).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_%282%29.svg/120px-National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_%282%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="87" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_%282%29.svg/250px-National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_%282%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="976" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Principles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_culture" title="Chinese culture">Chinese culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Culture of the People's Republic of China">PRC</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Dream" title="Chinese Dream">Chinese Dream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_centralism#People's_Republic_of_China" title="Democratic centralism">Democratic centralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmentalism" title="Developmentalism">Developmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight_Honors_and_Eight_Shames" title="Eight Honors and Eight Shames">Eight Honors and Eight Shames</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Cardinal_Principles" title="Four Cardinal Principles">Four Cardinal Principles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Modernizations" title="Four Modernizations">Four Modernizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_imperialism" title="Chinese imperialism">Imperialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_irredentism" title="Chinese irredentism">Irredentism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_order_(politics)" title="Law and order (politics)">Law and order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_market_economy" title="Socialist market economy">Market economy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dirigisme" title="Dirigisme">Dirigisme</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/One_country,_two_systems" title="One country, two systems">One country, two systems</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_patriotism" title="Socialist patriotism">Patriotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-communism" title="Post-communism">Post-communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionism_(Marxism)" title="Revisionism (Marxism)">Revisionism (Marxism)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_order" title="Social order">Social order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statism" title="Statism">Statism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syncretic_politics" title="Syncretic politics">Syncretic politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Stricts_and_Three_Honests" title="Three Stricts and Three Honests">Three Stricts and Three Honests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_unification" title="Chinese unification">Unification</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/One_China" title="One China">One China</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unified_power" title="Unified power">Unified power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unitary_state" title="Unitary state">Unitary state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whole-process_people%27s_democracy" title="Whole-process people's democracy">Whole-process people's democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhonghua_minzu" title="Zhonghua minzu">Zhonghua minzu</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">History</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests_and_massacre" title="1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre">1989 Tiananmen Square massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1992_Consensus" title="1992 Consensus">1992 Consensus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_Hong_Kong_national_security_law" title="2020 Hong Kong national security law">2020 Hong Kong national security law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-corruption_campaign_under_Xi_Jinping" title="Anti-corruption campaign under Xi Jinping">Anti-corruption campaign under Xi Jinping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Secession_Law" title="Anti-Secession Law">Anti-Secession Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belt_and_Road_Initiative" title="Belt and Road Initiative">Belt and Road Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boluan_Fanzheng" title="Boluan Fanzheng">Boluan Fanzheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_against_spiritual_pollution" title="Campaign against spiritual pollution">Campaign against spiritual pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Basic_Law_Article_23" title="Hong Kong Basic Law Article 23">Hong Kong Basic Law Article 23</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macau_national_security_law" title="Macau national security law">Macau national security law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Falun_Gong" title="Persecution of Falun Gong">Persecution of Falun Gong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Uyghurs_in_China" title="Persecution of Uyghurs in China">Persecution of Uyghurs in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_Law_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Property Law of the People's Republic of China">Property Law</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Reform and opening up</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinicization_of_Tibet" title="Sinicization of Tibet">Sinicization of Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Credit_System" title="Social Credit System">Social Credit System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strike_Hard_Against_Crime_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Strike Hard Against Crime Campaign">Strike Hard Against Crime Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territorial_disputes_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Territorial disputes of the People's Republic of China">Territorial disputes of the PRC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolf_warrior_diplomacy" title="Wolf warrior diplomacy">Wolf warrior diplomacy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Intellectuals</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_A._Bell" title="Daniel A. Bell">Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deng_Liqun" title="Deng Liqun">Deng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gan_Yang" title="Gan Yang">Gan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hu_Xijin" title="Hu Xijin">Hu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiang_Qing_(Confucian)" title="Jiang Qing (Confucian)">Jiang (Qing)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiang_Shigong" title="Jiang Shigong">Jiang (Shigong)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_Canrong" title="Jin Canrong">Jin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_X._Li" title="Eric X. Li">Li</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tam_Yiu-chung" title="Tam Yiu-chung">Tam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tan_Sitong" title="Tan Sitong">Tan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Huning" title="Wang Huning">Wang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu_Jiaxiang" title="Wu Jiaxiang">Wu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiao_Gongqin" title="Xiao Gongqin">Xiao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yan_Xuetong" title="Yan Xuetong">Yan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Weiwei_(professor)" title="Zhang Weiwei (professor)">Zhang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zheng_Yongnian" title="Zheng Yongnian">Zheng</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Politicians</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> Mainland China <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chen_Kuiyuan" title="Chen Kuiyuan">Chen (Kuiyuan)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chen_Yun" title="Chen Yun">Chen (Yun)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping" title="Deng Xiaoping">Deng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hu_Jintao" title="Hu Jintao">Hu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huang_Kunming" title="Huang Kunming">Huang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiang_Zemin" title="Jiang Zemin">Jiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Peng" title="Li Peng">Li (Peng)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Xiannian" title="Li Xiannian">Li (Xiannian)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peng_Zhen" title="Peng Zhen">Peng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Huning" title="Wang Huning">Wang (Huning)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Qishan" title="Wang Qishan">Wang (Qishan)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu_Bangguo" title="Wu Bangguo">Wu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xi_Jinping" title="Xi Jinping">Xi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yang_Shangkun" title="Yang Shangkun">Yang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhou_Yongkang" title="Zhou Yongkang">Zhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhu_Rongji" title="Zhu Rongji">Zhu</a></li></ul> <hr /> Hong Kong (pro-Beijing) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gary_Chan" title="Gary Chan">Chan (Gary)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joephy_Chan" title="Joephy Chan">Chan (Joephy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holden_Chow" title="Holden Chow">Chow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Fok" title="Kenneth Fok">Fok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Junius_Ho" title="Junius Ho">Ho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ip_Kwok-him" title="Ip Kwok-him">Ip (Kwok-him)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regina_Ip" title="Regina Ip">Ip (Regina)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwok_Wai-keung" title="Kwok Wai-keung">Kwok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrie_Lam" title="Carrie Lam">Lam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominic_Lee" title="Dominic Lee">Lee (Dominic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lee_Ka-chiu" title="John Lee Ka-chiu">Lee (John)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starry_Lee" title="Starry Lee">Lee (Starry)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leung_Chun-ying" title="Leung Chun-ying">Leung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Liao" title="Martin Liao">Liao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Quat" title="Elizabeth Quat">Quat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Tsang" title="Donald Tsang">Tsang (Donald)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsang_Yok-sing" class="mw-redirect" title="Tsang Yok-sing">Tsang (Yok-sing)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tung_Chee-hwa" title="Tung Chee-hwa">Tung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eunice_Yung" title="Eunice Yung">Yung</a></li></ul> <hr /> Macau (pro-Beijing) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fernando_Chui" title="Fernando Chui">Chui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Ho" title="Edmund Ho">Ho (Edmund)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ho_Iat_Seng" title="Ho Iat Seng">Ho (Iat Seng)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Hou_Fai" title="Sam Hou Fai">Sam</a></li></ul> <hr /> Republic of China (Taiwan, pro-Beijing) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chang_An-lo" title="Chang An-lo">Chang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chou_Ching-chun" title="Chou Ching-chun">Chou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiu_Yi" title="Chiu Yi">Chiu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hung_Hsiu-chu" title="Hung Hsiu-chu">Hung</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Extant parties</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> Mainland China <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a> (factions)</li></ul> <hr /> Hong Kong (pro-Beijing) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_and_Professionals_Alliance_for_Hong_Kong" title="Business and Professionals Alliance for Hong Kong">Business and Professionals Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Force" title="Civil Force">Civil Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Alliance_for_the_Betterment_and_Progress_of_Hong_Kong" title="Democratic Alliance for the Betterment and Progress of Hong Kong">Democratic Alliance for the Betterment and Progress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federation_of_Public_Housing_Estates" title="Federation of Public Housing Estates">Federation of Public Housing Estates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Federation_of_Education_Workers" title="Hong Kong Federation of Education Workers">Hong Kong Federation of Education Workers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Federation_of_Trade_Unions" title="Hong Kong Federation of Trade Unions">Hong Kong Federation of Trade Unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kowloon_West_New_Dynamic" title="Kowloon West New Dynamic">Kowloon West New Dynamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_(Hong_Kong)" title="Liberal Party (Hong Kong)">Liberal Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Century_Forum" title="New Century Forum">New Century Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_People%27s_Party" title="New People's Party">New People's Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Prospect_for_Hong_Kong" title="New Prospect for Hong Kong">New Prospect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Territories_Association_of_Societies" title="New Territories Association of Societies">New Territories Association of Societies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politihk_Social_Strategic" title="Politihk Social Strategic">Politihk Social Strategic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roundtable_(Hong_Kong)" title="Roundtable (Hong Kong)">Roundtable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_Majority_for_Hong_Kong" title="Silent Majority for Hong Kong">Silent Majority</a></li></ul> <hr /> Macau (pro-Beijing) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_for_Change_(Macau)" title="Alliance for Change (Macau)">Alliance for Change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macau-Guangdong_Union" title="Macau-Guangdong Union">Macau-Guangdong Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Macau_Development_Union" title="New Macau Development Union">New Macau Development Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macau_United_Citizens_Association" title="Macau United Citizens Association">United Citizens Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_for_Development" title="Union for Development">Union for Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_General_Association_of_Macau" title="Women's General Association of Macau">Women's Association</a></li></ul> <hr /> Republic of China (Taiwan, pro-Beijing) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Unification_Promotion_Party" title="Chinese Unification Promotion Party">Chinese Unification Promotion Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/For_Public_Good_Party" title="For Public Good Party">For Public Good Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_Party_(Taiwan)" title="Labor Party (Taiwan)">Labor Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriot_Alliance_Association" title="Patriot Alliance Association">Patriot Alliance Association</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Historical parties</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> Hong Kong (pro-Beijing) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federation_for_the_Stability_of_Hong_Kong" title="Federation for the Stability of Hong Kong">Federation for the Stability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Alliance_of_Chinese_and_Expatriates" title="Hong Kong Alliance of Chinese and Expatriates">Hong Kong Alliance of Chinese and Expatriates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Progressive_Alliance" title="Hong Kong Progressive Alliance">Hong Kong Progressive Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Democratic_Federation_of_Hong_Kong" title="Liberal Democratic Federation of Hong Kong">Liberal Democratic Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Hong_Kong_Alliance" title="New Hong Kong Alliance">New Hong Kong Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_Forum" title="Professional Forum">Professional Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Hong_Kong_Society" title="Progressive Hong Kong Society">Progressive Hong Kong Society</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Alliances</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li>Pro-Beijing camp <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pro-Beijing_camp_(Hong_Kong)" title="Pro-Beijing camp (Hong Kong)">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pro-Beijing_camp_(Macau)" title="Pro-Beijing camp (Macau)">Macau</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_front_(China)" title="United front (China)">United front</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_front_in_Hong_Kong" title="United front in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_front_in_Taiwan" title="United front in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Literature</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/America_Against_America" title="America Against America">America Against America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_China_Wave:_Rise_of_a_Civilizational_State" title="The China Wave: Rise of a Civilizational State">The China Wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farewell_to_Revolution" title="Farewell to Revolution">Farewell to Revolution</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Organisations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confucius_Institute" title="Confucius Institute">Confucius Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_of_89" title="Group of 89">Group of 89</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triad_(organized_crime)#Chinese_government_connections" title="Triad (organized crime)">Triad § Chinese government connections</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Media</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> Mainland China <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beijing_Daily" title="Beijing Daily">Beijing Daily</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Times" title="Global Times">Global Times</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guancha" title="Guancha">Guancha</a></li></ul> <hr /> Hong Kong (pro-Beijing) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Headline_Daily" title="Headline Daily">Headline 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class="sidebar-below plainlist"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg/14px-DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg/21px-DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg/28px-DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="249" data-file-height="268" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Conservatism" title="Portal:Conservatism">Conservatism portal</a></li> <li><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/17px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/26px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/34px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Neoauthoritarianism_in_China" title="Template:Neoauthoritarianism in China"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Neoauthoritarianism_in_China" title="Template talk:Neoauthoritarianism in China"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Neoauthoritarianism_in_China" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Neoauthoritarianism in China"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Reform and opening-up (<a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Chinese</a>: 改革开放; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: Gǎigé kāifàng), also known as the Chinese economic reform or Chinese economic miracle,<a href="#cite_note-:28-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-:29-2">[2]</a> refers to a variety of <a href="/wiki/Microeconomic_reform" title="Microeconomic reform">economic reforms</a> termed <a href="/wiki/Socialism_with_Chinese_characteristics" title="Socialism with Chinese characteristics">socialism with Chinese characteristics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Socialist_market_economy" title="Socialist market economy">socialist market economy</a> in the People's Republic of China (PRC) that began in the late 20th century, after <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a>'s death in 1976. Guided by <a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping" title="Deng Xiaoping">Deng Xiaoping</a>, who is often credited as the "General Architect", the reforms were launched by <a href="/wiki/Reformism" title="Reformism">reformists</a> within the ruling <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a> (CCP) on December 18, 1978, during the <a href="/wiki/Boluan_Fanzheng" title="Boluan Fanzheng">Boluan Fanzheng</a> period.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China#Political_reforms" title="History of the People's Republic of China">A parallel set of political reforms</a> were launched by Deng and his allies in the 1980s, but eventually ended in 1989 due to the crackdown on the <a href="/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests_and_massacre" title="1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre">Tiananmen Square protests</a>, halting further political liberalization.<a href="#cite_note-:30-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> The economic reforms were revived after <a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping%27s_southern_tour" title="Deng Xiaoping's southern tour">Deng Xiaoping's southern tour</a> in 1992.<a href="#cite_note-:31-9">[9]</a> The reforms led to significant economic growth for China within the successive decades; this phenomenon has since been seen as an "economic miracle".<a href="#cite_note-:28-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-:29-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> In 2010, China overtook Japan as the <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(nominal)" title="List of countries by GDP (nominal)">world's second-largest economy</a> by <a href="/wiki/Nominal_GDP" class="mw-redirect" title="Nominal GDP">nominal GDP</a>,<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> before overtaking the United States in 2016 as the <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(PPP)" title="List of countries by GDP (PPP)">world's largest economy</a> by <a href="/wiki/GDP_(PPP)" class="mw-redirect" title="GDP (PPP)">GDP (PPP)</a>.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_the_reforms">History of the reforms</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reform_and_opening_up&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History of the reforms">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a> (CCP) carried out the market reforms in two stages. The first stage, in the late 1970s and early 1980s, involved the de-<a href="/wiki/Collective_farming" title="Collective farming">collectivization of agriculture</a>, the opening up of the country to <a href="/wiki/Foreign_direct_investment" title="Foreign direct investment">foreign investment</a>, and permission for entrepreneurs to start businesses. However, a large percentage of industries remained state-owned. The second stage of reform, in the late 1980s and 1990s, involved the <a href="/wiki/Privatization" title="Privatization">privatization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chengbao_system" title="Chengbao system">contracting out</a> of much state-owned industry. The 1985 lifting of <a href="/wiki/Price_controls" title="Price controls">price controls</a> was a major reform,<a href="#cite_note-longworth01-15">[15]</a> and the lifting of <a href="/wiki/Protectionism" title="Protectionism">protectionist</a> policies and regulations soon followed, although <a href="/wiki/State_monopolies" class="mw-redirect" title="State monopolies">state monopolies</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Commanding_heights_of_the_economy" title="Commanding heights of the economy">commanding heights of the economy</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Banking_in_China" title="Banking in China">banking</a> and <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_China" title="Petroleum industry in China">petroleum</a> remained. In 2001, <a href="/wiki/China_and_the_World_Trade_Organization" title="China and the World Trade Organization">China joined</a> the <a href="/wiki/World_Trade_Organization" title="World Trade Organization">World Trade Organization</a> (WTO). Not long after, the <a href="/wiki/Private_sector" title="Private sector">private sector</a> grew remarkably, accounting for as much as 70 percent of <a href="/wiki/Historical_GDP_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical GDP of the People's Republic of China">China's gross domestic product</a> (GDP) by 2005.<a href="#cite_note-Businessweek-16">[16]</a> From 1978 until 2013, unprecedented growth occurred, with the economy increasing by 9.5% a year. <a href="/wiki/Hu_Jintao" title="Hu Jintao">Hu Jintao</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wen_Jiabao" title="Wen Jiabao">Wen Jiabao</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Hu%E2%80%93Wen_Administration" title="Hu–Wen Administration">administration</a> took a more conservative approach towards reforms, regulated and controlled the economy more heavily after 2005, reversing some reforms.<a href="#cite_note-scissors-17">[17]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origin">Origin</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reform_and_opening_up&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Origin">edit</a>]</div> Before Deng Xiaoping's reforms, China's economy suffered due to centrally planned policies, such as the <a href="/wiki/Great_Leap_Forward" title="Great Leap Forward">Great Leap Forward</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a>, resulting in stagnation, inefficiency, and poverty.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> Prior to the reforms, the Chinese economy was dominated by <a href="/wiki/State_ownership" title="State ownership">state ownership</a> and central planning. From 1950 to 1973, Chinese real GDP per capita grew at a rate of 2.9% per year on average, albeit with major fluctuations.<a href="#cite_note-:1-19">[19]</a> This placed it near the middle of the Asian nations during the same period,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalder2015321-20">[20]</a> with neighboring countries such as Japan, South Korea, Singapore and then rival <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a>'s Republic of China (ROC) outstripping mainland China's rate of growth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrandt20088-21">[21]</a> Starting in 1970, the economy entered into a period of stagnation,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalder2015322-22">[22]</a> and after the death of <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a>, the CCP leadership decided to abandon <a href="/wiki/Maoism" title="Maoism">Maoism</a> and turn to market-oriented reforms to salvage the stagnant economy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrandt20087–8-23">[23]</a> In September 1976, <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a> died, and in October, <a href="/wiki/Hua_Guofeng" title="Hua Guofeng">Hua Guofeng</a> together with <a href="/wiki/Ye_Jianying" title="Ye Jianying">Ye Jianying</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wang_Dongxing" title="Wang Dongxing">Wang Dongxing</a> arrested the <a href="/wiki/Gang_of_Four" title="Gang of Four">Gang of Four</a>, putting an end to the <a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a>. Hua's break with Cultural Revolution era economic policies were consistent with the 1975 reform agenda of <a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping" title="Deng Xiaoping">Deng Xiaoping</a>.<a href="#cite_note-guofeng-24">[24]</a> Hua made national economic development a matter of the highest priority and emphasized the need to achieve "liberation of productive forces".<a href="#cite_note-guofeng-24">[24]</a> He "combined <a href="/wiki/Industrialization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Industrialization in the Soviet Union">Soviet-style big push industrialization</a> with an opening up to the capitalist world" and under his leadership, China opened its first <a href="/wiki/Special_economic_zones_of_China" title="Special economic zones of China">Special Economic Zone</a> and launched major efforts to attract foreign direct investment.<a href="#cite_note-guofeng-24">[24]</a> Economic reforms began in earnest during the "<a href="/wiki/Boluan_Fanzheng" title="Boluan Fanzheng">Boluan Fanzheng</a>" period, especially after Deng and his reformist allies rose to power with Deng replacing Hua Guofeng as the <a href="/wiki/Paramount_leader" title="Paramount leader">paramount leader</a> in December 1978. By the time Deng took power, there was widespread support among the elite for economic reforms.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> From 1978 to 1992, Deng described reform and opening up as a "large scale experiment" requiring thorough "experimentation in practice" instead of textbook knowledge.<a href="#cite_note-:42-26">[26]</a>: 65  As the de facto leader, Deng's policies faced <a href="/wiki/1978_Truth_Criterion_Controversy" title="1978 Truth Criterion Controversy">opposition from party conservatives</a> but were extremely successful in increasing the country's wealth. Major reforms (including rural decollectivization, SOE reform, and rural health care reform) almost always began first as decentralized local experiments subject to intervention from high level Communist Party officials before they were more widely adopted.<a href="#cite_note-:42-26">[26]</a>: 6  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1979–1984">1979–1984</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reform_and_opening_up&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: 1979–1984">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China#Political_reforms" title="History of the People's Republic of China">History of the People's Republic of China § Political reforms</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%B7%B1%E5%9C%B3%E9%82%93%E5%B0%8F%E5%B9%B3%E7%94%BB%E5%83%8F.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/%E6%B7%B1%E5%9C%B3%E9%82%93%E5%B0%8F%E5%B9%B3%E7%94%BB%E5%83%8F.jpg/250px-%E6%B7%B1%E5%9C%B3%E9%82%93%E5%B0%8F%E5%B9%B3%E7%94%BB%E5%83%8F.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/%E6%B7%B1%E5%9C%B3%E9%82%93%E5%B0%8F%E5%B9%B3%E7%94%BB%E5%83%8F.jpg/375px-%E6%B7%B1%E5%9C%B3%E9%82%93%E5%B0%8F%E5%B9%B3%E7%94%BB%E5%83%8F.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/%E6%B7%B1%E5%9C%B3%E9%82%93%E5%B0%8F%E5%B9%B3%E7%94%BB%E5%83%8F.jpg/500px-%E6%B7%B1%E5%9C%B3%E9%82%93%E5%B0%8F%E5%B9%B3%E7%94%BB%E5%83%8F.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1443" /></a><figcaption>The image of Deng Xiaoping in <a href="/wiki/Shenzhen,_Guangdong" class="mw-redirect" title="Shenzhen, Guangdong">Shenzhen, Guangdong</a>, one of the first <a href="/wiki/Special_economic_zones_of_China" title="Special economic zones of China">special economic zones</a> approved by Deng in 1979 </figcaption></figure> In 1979, Deng Xiaoping emphasized the goal of "<a href="/wiki/Four_Modernizations" title="Four Modernizations">Four Modernizations</a>" and further proposed the idea of "<a href="/wiki/Xiaokang" class="mw-redirect" title="Xiaokang">xiaokang</a>", or "<a href="/wiki/Moderately_prosperous_society" title="Moderately prosperous society">moderately prosperous society</a>".<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> The achievements of <a href="/wiki/Lee_Kuan_Yew" title="Lee Kuan Yew">Lee Kuan Yew</a> to create an economic success in <a href="/wiki/History_of_Singapore" title="History of Singapore">Singapore</a> had a profound effect on the CCP leadership in China. Leaders in China made a major effort, especially under Deng Xiaoping, to emulate his policies of economic growth, entrepreneurship, and subtle suppression of dissent. Over the years, more than 22,000 Chinese officials were sent to Singapore to study its methods.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> Generally, reforms in this period started with local experiments that were adopted and expanded elsewhere once their success had been demonstrated.<a href="#cite_note-:0242-31">[31]</a>: 127  Officials generally faced few penalties for experimenting and failing and those who developed successful programs received nation-wide praise and recognition.<a href="#cite_note-:0242-31">[31]</a>: 127  The bottom-up approach of the reforms promoted by Deng, in contrast to the top-down approach of the <a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">Perestroika</a> in the Soviet Union, is considered an important factor contributing to the success of China's economic transition.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> The first reforms <a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="History of agriculture in the People's Republic of China">began in agriculture</a>. By the late 1970s, food supplies and production had become so deficient that government officials were warning that China was about to repeat the "<a href="/wiki/Great_Chinese_Famine" title="Great Chinese Famine">disaster of 1959</a>", the famines which killed tens of millions during the <a href="/wiki/Great_Leap_Forward" title="Great Leap Forward">Great Leap Forward</a>.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> Deng responded by decollectivizing agriculture and emphasizing the <a href="/wiki/Household-responsibility_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Household-responsibility system">household-responsibility system</a>, which divided the land of the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_commune" title="People's commune">People's communes</a> into private plots. Under the new policy, peasants were able to exercise formal control of their land as long as they sold a contracted portion of their crops to the government.<a href="#cite_note-auto-34">[34]</a> This move increased agricultural production by 25 percent between 1975 and 1985, setting a precedent for privatizing other parts of the economy.<a href="#cite_note-auto-34">[34]</a> Reforms were also implemented in urban industry to increase productivity. A dual-price system was introduced, in which (State-owned enterprise reform 1979) state-owned industries were allowed to sell any production above the plan quota, and commodities were sold at both plan and market prices, allowing citizens to avoid the <a href="/wiki/Shortages" class="mw-redirect" title="Shortages">shortages</a> of the Maoist era. Moreover, the adoption of Industrial Responsibility System 1980s further promote the development of state-owned enterprise by allowing individuals or groups to manage the enterprise by contract. Private businesses were allowed to operate for the first time since the CCP takeover, and they gradually began to make up a greater percentage of industrial output.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> Price flexibility was also increased, expanding the service sector.<a href="#cite_note-Loren_11-36">[36]</a> At the same time, in December 1978, Deng announced a new policy, the <a href="/wiki/Open_Door_Policy" title="Open Door Policy">Open Door Policy</a>, to open the door to foreign businesses that wanted to set up in China.<a href="#cite_note-bbc-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> For the first time since the <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a> era, the country was opened to <a href="/wiki/Foreign_direct_investment" title="Foreign direct investment">foreign investment</a>. Deng created a series of <a href="/wiki/Special_Economic_Zones_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Special Economic Zones of the People's Republic of China">Special Economic Zones</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Shenzhen" title="Shenzhen">Shenzhen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zhuhai" title="Zhuhai">Zhuhai</a> and <a href="/wiki/Xiamen" title="Xiamen">Xiamen</a>, for foreign investment that were relatively free of the bureaucratic regulations and interventions that hampered economic growth. These regions became engines of growth for the national economy.<a href="#cite_note-Loren_11-36">[36]</a> On January 31, 1979, the <a href="/wiki/Shekou" title="Shekou">Shekou Industrial Zone</a> of Shenzhen was founded, becoming the first experimental area in China to "open up".<a href="#cite_note-:11-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> In July 1979, China adopted its first Law on Joint Venture Using Chinese and Foreign Investment.<a href="#cite_note-:21-41">[41]</a> This law was effective in helping to attract and absorb foreign technology and capital from advanced countries like the United States, facilitated China's exports to such countries, and thereby contributed to China's subsequent rapid economic growth.<a href="#cite_note-:21-41">[41]</a> Under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Yuan_Geng" title="Yuan Geng">Yuan Geng</a>, the "Shekou model" of development was gradually formed, embodied in its famous slogan <a href="/wiki/Time_is_Money,_Efficiency_is_Life" title="Time is Money, Efficiency is Life">Time is Money, Efficiency is Life</a>, which then widely spread to other parts of China.<a href="#cite_note-:11-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> In January 1984, Deng Xiaoping made his first inspection tour to Shenzhen and Zhuhai, praising the "<a href="/wiki/Shenzhen_speed" title="Shenzhen speed">Shenzhen speed</a>" of development as well as the success of the special economics zones.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hu_Yaobang_Bronze_statue_at_Yaobang_Cemetery.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Hu_Yaobang_Bronze_statue_at_Yaobang_Cemetery.jpg/200px-Hu_Yaobang_Bronze_statue_at_Yaobang_Cemetery.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Hu_Yaobang_Bronze_statue_at_Yaobang_Cemetery.jpg/300px-Hu_Yaobang_Bronze_statue_at_Yaobang_Cemetery.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Hu_Yaobang_Bronze_statue_at_Yaobang_Cemetery.jpg/400px-Hu_Yaobang_Bronze_statue_at_Yaobang_Cemetery.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hu_Yaobang" title="Hu Yaobang">Hu Yaobang</a>, then <a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_Chinese_Communist_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="General Secretary of Chinese Communist Party">General Secretary of CCP</a>, played an important role in implementing the reforms together with <a href="/wiki/Zhao_Ziyang" title="Zhao Ziyang">Zhao Ziyang</a>, then <a href="/wiki/Premier_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Premier of the People's Republic of China">Premier of China</a>.</figcaption></figure> Besides Deng Xiaoping himself, important high-ranking reformists who helped carry out the reforms include <a href="/wiki/Hu_Yaobang" title="Hu Yaobang">Hu Yaobang</a>, then <a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_Chinese_Communist_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="General Secretary of Chinese Communist Party">General Secretary of Chinese Communist Party</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Zhao_Ziyang" title="Zhao Ziyang">Zhao Ziyang</a>, then <a href="/wiki/Premier_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Premier of the People's Republic of China">Premier of the People's Republic of China</a>.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> Other leaders who favored Deng's reforms include <a href="/wiki/Xi_Zhongxun" title="Xi Zhongxun">Xi Zhongxun</a> (the father of <a href="/wiki/Xi_Jinping" title="Xi Jinping">Xi Jinping</a>), <a href="/wiki/Wan_Li" title="Wan Li">Wan Li</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hu_Qili" title="Hu Qili">Hu Qili</a> and others.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> Another influential leader was <a href="/wiki/Chen_Yun" title="Chen Yun">Chen Yun</a>, regarded by some as the second most powerful person in China after Deng with more conservative ideology of the reforms.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-:8-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-:10-52">[52]</a> Though Deng Xiaoping is credited as the architect of modern China's economic reforms, Chen was more directly involved in the details of its planning and construction, and led a force that opposed many of the reforms from Deng's side.<a href="#cite_note-:8-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-:12-53">[53]</a> The two sides struggled over the general direction of the reforms until Chen died in 1995.<a href="#cite_note-:8-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-:10-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-:12-53">[53]</a> A key feature of Chen's ideas was to use the market to allocate resources, within the scope of an overall plan. Some reforms of the early 1980s were, in effect, the implementation of a program that Chen had outlined in the mid-1950s. Chen called this the "birdcage economy (鸟笼经济/鳥籠經濟)".<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-:9-55">[55]</a> According to Chen, "the cage is the plan, and it may be large or small. But within the cage the bird [the economy] is free to fly as he wishes."<a href="#cite_note-:8-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-:9-55">[55]</a> Chen and some other conservative leaders including <a href="/wiki/Li_Xiannian" title="Li Xiannian">Li Xiannian</a> never visited Shenzhen, the leading special economic zone championed by Deng.<a href="#cite_note-:9-55">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1984–1993">1984–1993</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reform_and_opening_up&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: 1984–1993">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/1986_Chinese_student_demonstrations" title="1986 Chinese student demonstrations">1986 Chinese student demonstrations</a>, <a href="/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests_and_massacre" title="1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre">1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping%27s_southern_tour" title="Deng Xiaoping's southern tour">Deng Xiaoping's southern tour</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Light_Show_of_Shenzhen_in_May_2019_(1).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Light_Show_of_Shenzhen_in_May_2019_%281%29.jpg/250px-Light_Show_of_Shenzhen_in_May_2019_%281%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Light_Show_of_Shenzhen_in_May_2019_%281%29.jpg/375px-Light_Show_of_Shenzhen_in_May_2019_%281%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Light_Show_of_Shenzhen_in_May_2019_%281%29.jpg/500px-Light_Show_of_Shenzhen_in_May_2019_%281%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4656" data-file-height="3492" /></a><figcaption>Shenzhen, one of the first <a href="/wiki/Special_economic_zones_of_China" title="Special economic zones of China">special economic zones of China</a> and the "Silicon Valley of China".<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> Notable high-tech companies such as <a href="/wiki/Huawei" title="Huawei">Huawei</a>, <a href="/wiki/ZTE" title="ZTE">ZTE</a> and <a href="/wiki/Konka_Group" title="Konka Group">Konka</a> were all founded in Shenzhen in the 1980s.</figcaption></figure> In October 1984, the Party adopted its Decision on the Reform of the Economic System, marking a major shift in the thinking of Chinese policymakers with regard to market mechanisms.<a href="#cite_note-:32-60">[60]</a>: 39–40  The Decision acknowledged that a planned economy was not the only way to develop socialism and that prior policies restricting the commodity economy had hindered socialist development.<a href="#cite_note-:32-60">[60]</a>: 40  After the Decision, reform focused on building a socialist planned commodity economy with Chinese characteristics.<a href="#cite_note-:32-60">[60]</a>: 40  Controls on private businesses and government intervention continued to decrease, notably in the agrifood sector which saw relaxation of <a href="/wiki/Price_controls" title="Price controls">price controls</a> in 1985<a href="#cite_note-longworth01-15">[15]</a> and the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Household_responsibility_system" title="Household responsibility system">household responsibility system</a>, and there was small-scale privatization of state enterprises which had become unviable. A notable development was the <a href="/wiki/Decentralization" title="Decentralization">decentralization</a> of state control, leaving local provincial leaders to experiment with ways to increase economic growth and privatize the state sector.<a href="#cite_note-Loren_17-18-61">[61]</a> <a href="/wiki/Township_and_village_enterprises" class="mw-redirect" title="Township and village enterprises">Township and village enterprises</a>, firms nominally owned by local governments but effectively private, began to gain market share at the expense of the state sector.<a href="#cite_note-Rawski_573-62">[62]</a> With the help of <a href="/wiki/Yuan_Geng" title="Yuan Geng">Yuan Geng</a>, the first <a href="/wiki/Joint-stock_company" title="Joint-stock company">joint-stock</a> <a href="/wiki/Commercial_bank" title="Commercial bank">commercial bank</a> in China, the <a href="/wiki/China_Merchants_Bank" title="China Merchants Bank">China Merchants Bank</a>, and the first joint-stock insurance company in China, the <a href="/wiki/Ping_An_Insurance" title="Ping An Insurance">Ping An Insurance</a>, were both established in <a href="/wiki/Shekou" title="Shekou">Shekou</a>. In May 1984, fourteen coastal cities in China including Shanghai, <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tianjin" title="Tianjin">Tianjin</a> were named "<a href="/wiki/Special_economic_zones_of_China#List_of_the_SEZs_and_Open_Coastal_Cities" title="Special economic zones of China">Open Coastal Cities</a> (沿海开放城市)".<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> A significant economic debate during this period concerned the approach to price liberalization and whether China should adopt an approach consistent with <a href="/wiki/Shock_therapy_(economics)" title="Shock therapy (economics)">shock therapy</a>—sudden price liberalization – or a more gradual approach.<a href="#cite_note-guofeng-24">[24]</a> But in 1986, the latter approach won out.<a href="#cite_note-:20-65">[65]</a> "Confronted with the diverse, authoritative warnings about the unforeseeable risks of imposing the shock of price reform and the uncertainty about its benefits," Premier <a href="/wiki/Zhao_Ziyang" title="Zhao Ziyang">Zhao Ziyang</a> and the leadership ultimately rejected shock price reform.<a href="#cite_note-:20-65">[65]</a> Zhao had accepted the argument that the basic concern in economic reform was energizing enterprises.<a href="#cite_note-:20-65">[65]</a> By late summer, what started under the rubric of "coordinated comprehensive package reform" had been diluted to an adjustment in the price of steel (although its price was both important had carried symbolic weight) as well as partial tax and financial reform.<a href="#cite_note-:20-65">[65]</a> Radical price reform again became a focus in 1988, and this time led to spiraling inflation (the first time it had done so since the 1940s) as well as a backlash that included local protests, bank runs, and panic buying.<a href="#cite_note-guofeng-24">[24]</a> The Chinese leadership halted these price liberalization plans in fall 1988 and instead focused on austerity, price reform, and retrenchment.<a href="#cite_note-guofeng-24">[24]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Time_is_money,_Efficiency_is_life.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Time_is_money%2C_Efficiency_is_life.jpg/200px-Time_is_money%2C_Efficiency_is_life.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Time_is_money%2C_Efficiency_is_life.jpg/300px-Time_is_money%2C_Efficiency_is_life.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Time_is_money%2C_Efficiency_is_life.jpg/400px-Time_is_money%2C_Efficiency_is_life.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2448" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>The slogan "<a href="/wiki/Time_is_Money,_Efficiency_is_Life" title="Time is Money, Efficiency is Life">Time is Money, Efficiency is Life</a>" from <a href="/wiki/Shekou,_Shenzhen" class="mw-redirect" title="Shekou, Shenzhen">Shekou, Shenzhen</a>, representing the "<a href="/wiki/Shenzhen_speed" title="Shenzhen speed">Shenzhen speed</a>"</figcaption></figure> Corruption and increased inflation increased discontent, contributing to the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre and a conservative backlash after that event which ousted several key reformers and threatened to reverse many of Deng's reforms.<a href="#cite_note-Naughton,_Barry_2008,_105-66">[66]</a> The events of 1988 and 1989 led to the imprisonment or exile of many reformist officials.<a href="#cite_note-guofeng-24">[24]</a> However, Deng stood by his reforms and in 1992, he affirmed the need to continue reforms in his <a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping%27s_Southern_Tour" class="mw-redirect" title="Deng Xiaoping's Southern Tour">southern tour</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Naughton_114-67">[67]</a> Thanks to his encouragement, in November 1990 the <a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Stock_Exchange" title="Shanghai Stock Exchange">Shanghai Stock Exchange</a> was reopened after being closed by Mao 40 years earlier, while the <a href="/wiki/Shenzhen_Stock_Exchange" title="Shenzhen Stock Exchange">Shenzhen Stock Exchange</a> was also founded in December 1990.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> In contrast to the approach of Deng, conservative elders led by <a href="/wiki/Chen_Yun" title="Chen Yun">Chen Yun</a> called to strike a balance between too much laissez-faire market economy and retaining state control over key areas of the economy. Chen Yun helped preserve the economy by preventing policies that would have damaged the interests of special interest groups in the government bureaucracy.<a href="#cite_note-Naughton_114-67">[67]</a> Although the economy grew quickly during this period, economic troubles in the inefficient <a href="/wiki/State_sector" class="mw-redirect" title="State sector">state sector</a> increased. Heavy losses had to be made up by state revenues and acted as a drain upon the economy.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> Inflation became problematic in 1985, 1988 and 1992.<a href="#cite_note-Naughton,_Barry_2008,_105-66">[66]</a> Privatizations began to accelerate after 1992, and the <a href="/wiki/Private_sector" title="Private sector">private sector</a> grew as a percentage of GDP. China's government slowly expanded recognition of the private economy, first as a "complement" to the state sector (1988) and then as an "important component" (1999) of the <a href="/wiki/Socialist_market_economy" title="Socialist market economy">socialist market economy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1993–2005">1993–2005</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reform_and_opening_up&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: 1993–2005">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shanghai_Skyline,_Dec2014.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Shanghai_Skyline%2C_Dec2014.jpg/250px-Shanghai_Skyline%2C_Dec2014.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Shanghai_Skyline%2C_Dec2014.jpg/500px-Shanghai_Skyline%2C_Dec2014.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="1890" data-file-height="1260" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Lujiazui" title="Lujiazui">Lujiazui</a> financial district of <a href="/wiki/Pudong" title="Pudong">Pudong</a>, Shanghai, the financial and commercial hub of modern China</figcaption></figure>In the 1990s, Deng allowed many radical reforms to be carried out. Deng also elevated reformer <a href="/wiki/Zhu_Rongji" title="Zhu Rongji">Zhu Rongji</a> from Party secretary of Shanghai to Vice Premier in 1991, and later into <a href="/wiki/Politburo_Standing_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="Politburo Standing Committee">Politburo Standing Committee</a> in 1992. In 1993, the <a href="/wiki/National_People%27s_Congress" title="National People's Congress">National People's Congress</a> adopted the landmark Corporation Law.<a href="#cite_note-:02-72">[72]</a> It provides that in <a href="/wiki/State-owned_enterprise" title="State-owned enterprise">state owned enterprises</a>, the state is no more than an investor and controller of stock and assets.<a href="#cite_note-:02-72">[72]</a> Pursuant to the Corporation Law, private and foreign investment in such enterprises must be below 49%.<a href="#cite_note-:02-72">[72]</a> The law also permitted state firms to declare bankruptcy in the event of business failure.<a href="#cite_note-:02-72">[72]</a> In the beginning, Chen supported Deng, carried out and implemented many of the influential reforms that made a generation of Chinese richer. But later, Chen realized that the state still needed an active iron hand involvement in the market to prevent the private sector from becoming untamable. Chen's criticism of Deng's later economic reforms was widely influential within the CCP and was reflected in the policies of China's leaders after Deng. Chen's theories supported the efforts of <a href="/wiki/Jiang_Zemin" title="Jiang Zemin">Jiang Zemin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hu_Jintao" title="Hu Jintao">Hu Jintao</a> to use state power to provide boundaries for the operation of the market, and to mediate the damage that capitalism can do to those who find it difficult to benefit from the free market. Chen's notion of the CPC as a "ruling party" was central to the redefinition of the role of the Party in Jiang Zemin's <a href="/wiki/Three_Represents" title="Three Represents">Three Represents</a>. In 2005, on the occasion of the hundredth anniversary of Chen's birth, the Party press published, over the course of several weeks, the proceedings of a symposium discussing Chen's contributions to CCP history, theory and practice.<a href="#cite_note-Naughton_114-67">[67]</a> Although Deng died in 1997, reforms continued under his handpicked successors, <a href="/wiki/Jiang_Zemin" title="Jiang Zemin">Jiang Zemin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zhu_Rongji" title="Zhu Rongji">Zhu Rongji</a>, who were ardent reformers who also abided by Chen Yun advice to keep the reforms steady and keep the state still in charge of key areas. In 1997 and 1998, large-scale <a href="/wiki/Privatization" title="Privatization">privatization</a> occurred, in which all state enterprises, except a few large monopolies, were liquidated and their assets sold to private investors. Between 2001 and 2004, the number of state-owned enterprises decreased by 48 percent.<a href="#cite_note-Rawski_573-62">[62]</a> During the same period, Jiang and Zhu also reduced <a href="/wiki/Tariffs" class="mw-redirect" title="Tariffs">tariffs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trade_barriers" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade barriers">trade barriers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Regulations" class="mw-redirect" title="Regulations">regulations</a>; reformed the banking system; dismantled much of the Mao-era social welfare system; forced the Chinese army (PLA) to divest itself of military-run businesses;<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> reduced inflation; and joined the <a href="/wiki/World_Trade_Organization" title="World Trade Organization">World Trade Organization</a>. These moves invoked discontent among some groups, especially laid-off workers of state enterprises that had been privatized.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> The domestic private sector first exceeded 50% of GDP in 2005 and has further expanded since. Also in 1999, China was able to surpass <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Japan" title="Economy of Japan">Japan</a> as the largest economy in Asia by <a href="/wiki/Purchasing_power_parity" title="Purchasing power parity">purchasing power parity</a> (PPP) values.<a href="#cite_note-8km-75">[75]</a> However, some state monopolies still remained, such as in petroleum and banking.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="2005–2012">2005–2012</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reform_and_opening_up&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: 2005–2012">edit</a>]</div> CCP general secretary <a href="/wiki/Hu_Jintao" title="Hu Jintao">Hu Jintao</a> and premier <a href="/wiki/Wen_Jiabao" title="Wen Jiabao">Wen Jiabao</a> took a more conservative approach towards reforms, and began to reverse some of Deng Xiaoping's reforms in 2005. Observers note that the government adopted more egalitarian and populist policies.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> It increased subsidies and control over the health care sector,<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> increased funding for education, halted privatization,<a href="#cite_note-scissors-17">[17]</a> and adopted a loose monetary policy, which led to the formation of a U.S.-style property bubble in which property prices tripled.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> The privileged state sector was the primary recipient of government investment, which, under the new administration, promoted the rise of large "national champions" which could compete with large foreign corporations.<a href="#cite_note-scissors-17">[17]</a> Nevertheless, the share of SOEs in the total number of companies have continued to fall, dropping to 5%, though their share of total output remained at 26%. Exchange rates for the yuan were also liberalized and the peg to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar">U.S. dollar</a> was broken, leading the yuan to rise by 31% against the dollar from 2005 to 2012.<a href="#cite_note-:27-80">[80]</a> China's economic growth has averaged around 10% under Hu, while the economy surpassed the United Kingdom, France, Germany and Japan.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-:27-80">[80]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="2012–2020">2012–2020</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reform_and_opening_up&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: 2012–2020">edit</a>]</div> Under CCP general secretary <a href="/wiki/Xi_Jinping" title="Xi Jinping">Xi Jinping</a> and his <a href="/wiki/Xi_Jinping_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Xi Jinping Administration">administration</a>, the CCP has sought numerous reforms, with the Third Plenum of the <a href="/wiki/18th_Central_Committee_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="18th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party">18th Central Committee</a> announcing that "market forces" would begin to play a "decisive" role in allocating resources.<a href="#cite_note-brook2-82">[82]</a> Xi launched the <a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Free-Trade_Zone" title="Shanghai Free-Trade Zone">Shanghai Free-Trade Zone</a> in August 2013, seen as part of the reforms.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> He has additionally voiced support for SOEs,<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-Whyte-2021-85">[85]</a> and under him, at least 288 firms have revised their corporate charters by 2017 to allow the CCP greater influence in corporate management, and to reflect the party line.<a href="#cite_note-:0-86">[86]</a> This trend also includes Hong Kong listed firms, who have traditionally downplayed their party links, but are now "redrafting bylaws to formally establish party committees that previously existed only at the group level."<a href="#cite_note-JOE-87">[87]</a> In other dimensions, according to <a href="/wiki/Ray_Dalio" title="Ray Dalio">Ray Dalio</a>, the Xi era has also been marked by economic opening, greater market-oriented decision-making and discontinuation of support for poorly managed state-owned enterprises.<a href="#cite_note-:7-88">[88]</a> Xi has increased the power of CCP bodies in economic decision-making, decreasing the influence of the State Council and the premier.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> His administration made it easier for banks to issue <a href="/wiki/Mortgage_loan" class="mw-redirect" title="Mortgage loan">mortgages</a>, increased foreign participation in the bond market, and increased the national currency <a href="/wiki/Renminbi" title="Renminbi">renminbi</a>'s global role, helping it to join <a href="/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund" title="International Monetary Fund">IMF's</a> basket of <a href="/wiki/Special_drawing_rights" title="Special drawing rights">special drawing right</a>.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> His administration has also pursued a debt-deleveraging campaign, seeking to slow and cut the unsustainable amount of debt China has accrued during its economic growth.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> Xi's administration has also reoriented the economy to increase self-reliance, and accordingly launched two campaigns; <a href="/wiki/Made_in_China_2025" title="Made in China 2025">Made in China 2025</a> and China Standards 2035, which have sought to scale up and displace US dominance in various high-tech sectors,<a href="#cite_note-:7-88">[88]</a> though publicly China de-emphasized these plans due to the outbreak of a <a href="/wiki/China%E2%80%93United_States_trade_war" title="China–United States trade war">trade war</a> with the U.S in 2018.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> This is alongside more aggressive pursuit of trade policies, in line with an outlook that sees China move towards taking a more active role in writing the rules of trade. Some analysts have also added that the reform era has been scaled down significantly during the leadership of Xi when the reformists lost power,<a href="#cite_note-:22-93">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-:23-94">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-:24-95">[95]</a> citing that Xi has reasserted state control over different aspects of Chinese society,<a href="#cite_note-:25-96">[96]</a> including the economy.<a href="#cite_note-:1-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-97">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-:26-98">[98]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="2020–present">2020–present</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reform_and_opening_up&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: 2020–present">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/2020%E2%80%932021_Xi_Jinping_Administration_reform_spree" title="2020–2021 Xi Jinping Administration reform spree">2020–2021 Xi Jinping Administration reform spree</a></div> Xi has circulated a policy called <a href="/wiki/Dual_circulation" title="Dual circulation">dual circulation</a>, meaning reorienting the economy towards domestic consumption while remaining open to foreign trade and investment.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> Since 2021, his administration has formulated the <a href="/wiki/Three_red_lines" title="Three red lines">three red lines</a> policy that aimed to deleverage the heavily indebted property sector.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> In September 2020, the CCP announced that it would strengthen United Front work in the private sector by establishing more party committees in the regional federations of industry and commerce (FIC), and by arranging a special liaison between FIC and the CCP.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> Since 2021, Xi has promoted the term <a href="/wiki/Common_prosperity" title="Common prosperity">common prosperity</a>, a term which he defined as an "essential requirement of socialism", described as affluence for all and said entailed reasonable adjustments to excess incomes.<a href="#cite_note-Caixin_Global-2021-102">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> Common prosperity has been used as the justification for <a href="/wiki/2020%E2%80%932021_Xi_Jinping_Administration_reform_spree" title="2020–2021 Xi Jinping Administration reform spree">large-scale crackdowns and regulations</a> towards the perceived "excesses" of several sectors, most prominently tech and tutoring industries.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ideologies_of_the_reforms">Ideologies of the reforms</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reform_and_opening_up&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Ideologies of the reforms">edit</a>]</div> During the <a href="/wiki/Boluan_Fanzheng" title="Boluan Fanzheng">Boluan Fanzheng</a> period, <a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping" title="Deng Xiaoping">Deng Xiaoping</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hu_Yaobang" title="Hu Yaobang">Hu Yaobang</a> launched the large-scale <a href="/wiki/1978_Truth_Criterion_Controversy" title="1978 Truth Criterion Controversy">1978 Truth Criterion Discussion</a> and endorsed the ideology of "practice is the sole criterion for testing truth".<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> The truth criterion discussion successfully helped Deng's reformist ideology win against <a href="/wiki/Hua_Guofeng" title="Hua Guofeng">Hua Guofeng</a>'s governing philosophy <a href="/wiki/Two_Whatevers" title="Two Whatevers">Two Whatevers</a> ("Whatever <a href="/wiki/Chairman_Mao" class="mw-redirect" title="Chairman Mao">Chairman Mao</a> said, we will say and whatever Chairman Mao did, we will do"), and as a result Deng replaced Hua as the new paramount leader of China at the <a href="/wiki/3rd_plenary_session_of_the_11th_Central_Committee_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="3rd plenary session of the 11th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party">3rd plenary session of the 11th Central Committee of the CCP</a> in December 1978, when the "Reform and Opening" of China officially began.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-:022-107">[107]</a> At the same time, the truth criterion discussion also triggered the <a href="/wiki/New_Enlightenment_(China)" title="New Enlightenment (China)">New Enlightenment movement</a> in mainland China which lasted over a decade, promoting <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democracy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">humanism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Universal_value" title="Universal value">universal values</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a> and <a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">freedom</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:110-108">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-:43-109">[109]</a> The "thought liberation" encouraged by the Chinese government, though bounded by the <a href="/wiki/Four_Cardinal_Principles" title="Four Cardinal Principles">Four Cardinal Principles</a> proposed by Deng in 1979, subsequently became the bedrock for the reforms.<a href="#cite_note-:43-109">[109]</a> <a href="/wiki/Planned_economy" title="Planned economy">Planned economy</a> as well as the Maoist policies imposed during the <a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a> were gradually dismantled, and the theory of a <a href="/wiki/Primary_stage_of_socialism" title="Primary stage of socialism">primary stage of socialism</a> was proposed as the theoretical basis of the political report to the <a href="/wiki/13th_National_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="13th National Congress of the Communist Party of China">13th National Congress of the CCP</a> held in 1987.<a href="#cite_note-Schram-1988-110">[110]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Silk_Road_1992_(4367437041)_Market_in_Xinjiang,_1992.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Silk_Road_1992_%284367437041%29_Market_in_Xinjiang%2C_1992.jpg/250px-Silk_Road_1992_%284367437041%29_Market_in_Xinjiang%2C_1992.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Silk_Road_1992_%284367437041%29_Market_in_Xinjiang%2C_1992.jpg/330px-Silk_Road_1992_%284367437041%29_Market_in_Xinjiang%2C_1992.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Silk_Road_1992_%284367437041%29_Market_in_Xinjiang%2C_1992.jpg/500px-Silk_Road_1992_%284367437041%29_Market_in_Xinjiang%2C_1992.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1799" data-file-height="1181" /></a><figcaption>A market in <a href="/wiki/Kashgar,_Xinjiang" class="mw-redirect" title="Kashgar, Xinjiang">Kashgar, Xinjiang</a> in 1992, with a slogan on the left saying "adhere to Reform and Opening" and a slogan on the right saying "uphold the <a href="/wiki/Four_Cardinal_Principles" title="Four Cardinal Principles">Four Cardinal Principles</a>".</figcaption></figure>However, the <a href="/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests_and_massacre" title="1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre">1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre</a> ended both the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China#Political_reforms" title="History of the People's Republic of China">political reforms</a> and the <a href="/wiki/New_Enlightenment_(China)" title="New Enlightenment (China)">New Enlightenment movement</a> in China, sending the overall "Reform and Opening" program into stagnation.<a href="#cite_note-:30-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-:43-109">[109]</a> Between 1989 and 1991, there were fears and concerns within the CCP that further reforms may turn China into a <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalist</a> country, and the CCP new leadership under general secretary <a href="/wiki/Jiang_Zemin" title="Jiang Zemin">Jiang Zemin</a> shifted its focus to preventing the <a href="/wiki/Peaceful_Evolution_theory" title="Peaceful Evolution theory">Peaceful Evolution</a> from <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">the West</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:31-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-:182-111">[111]</a> This was especially true after the <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">Revolutions of 1989</a> in <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> and around the time of the <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">dissolution of the Soviet Union</a> in 1991.<a href="#cite_note-:182-111">[111]</a> In early 1992, then retired paramount leader Deng Xiaoping embarked on <a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping%27s_southern_tour" title="Deng Xiaoping's southern tour">his celebrated southern tour</a>, during which he, with strong support from the Chinese military, ordered that "those who do not promote reform should be brought down from their leadership positions".<a href="#cite_note-:31-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-:182-111">[111]</a> Deng dissuaded people from debating over whether China was on a capitalist or socialist path, calling that "development is of overriding importance"; his pragmatic remarks reignited people's enthusiasm for economic reforms in mainland China, therefore resuming the "Reform and Opening" program.<a href="#cite_note-:182-111">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-:210-112">[112]</a> Subsequently, Deng's <a href="/wiki/Cat_theory_(Deng_Xiaoping)" title="Cat theory (Deng Xiaoping)">cat theory</a> ("I don't care if the cat is black or white, so long as it catches mice") became an underlying ideology guiding the economic reforms, as a cornerstone of the <a href="/wiki/Socialism_with_Chinese_characteristics" title="Socialism with Chinese characteristics">socialism with Chinese characteristics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping_Theory" title="Deng Xiaoping Theory">Deng Xiaoping Theory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:210-112">[112]</a> Globally, China's reforms directly influenced the reform policies in <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a> (<a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BB%95i_M%E1%BB%9Bi" title="Đổi Mới">Đổi Mới</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Laos" title="Laos">Laos</a>,<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> whereas <a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a> saw China's reforms as a source of political instability and social unrest, accusing China of following a <a href="/wiki/Revisionism_(Marxism)" title="Revisionism (Marxism)">revisionist path</a>.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> Meanwhile, the New Enlightenment in the 1980s did not proceed, as the academia and intellectual circle in mainland China became divided in the 1990s, forming two major <a href="/wiki/School_of_thought" title="School of thought">schools of thought</a>: the <a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_China" title="Liberalism in China">Liberalism</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_New_Left" title="Chinese New Left">New Left</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:402-116">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-:392-117">[117]</a> The Liberalism school argued that China should continue its reform and opening, further developing <a href="/wiki/Market_economy" title="Market economy">market economy</a> while pushing forward political reforms for human rights, freedom, democracy, <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">rule of law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">constitutionalism</a>; high-ranking Chinese officials including <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Premier" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Premier">Chinese Premier</a> <a href="/wiki/Zhu_Rongji" title="Zhu Rongji">Zhu Rongji</a> and Premier <a href="/wiki/Wen_Jiabao" title="Wen Jiabao">Wen Jiabao</a> have expressed various degree of support over this view.<a href="#cite_note-:402-116">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-:392-117">[117]</a> On the other hand, the New Left argued that capitalism had become prevalent in mainland China with worsening <a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_China" title="Corruption in China">corruption</a> and widening <a href="/wiki/Economic_inequality" title="Economic inequality">economic inequality</a>, which were common issues in the development of western capitalism, and therefore the New Left criticizes <a href="/wiki/Market_mechanism" title="Market mechanism">market mechanism</a> and calls for <a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">social justice</a> as well as equality, defending some of <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a>'s policies during the Cultural Revolution.<a href="#cite_note-:402-116">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-:392-117">[117]</a> Other schools of thought such as the <a href="/wiki/Neoauthoritarianism_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Neoauthoritarianism (China)">neoauthoritarianism</a> also exist,<a href="#cite_note-:392-117">[117]</a> and some scholars have also proposed the "<a href="/wiki/China_model" class="mw-redirect" title="China model">China Model</a>" of development.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects_of_the_reforms">Effects of the reforms</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reform_and_opening_up&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Effects of the reforms">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_performance">Economic performance</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reform_and_opening_up&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Economic performance">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Prc1952-2005gdp.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Prc1952-2005gdp.gif/250px-Prc1952-2005gdp.gif" decoding="async" width="250" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Prc1952-2005gdp.gif/375px-Prc1952-2005gdp.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Prc1952-2005gdp.gif/500px-Prc1952-2005gdp.gif 2x" data-file-width="1161" data-file-height="675" /></a><figcaption>China's nominal GDP trend from 1952 to 2015. Note the rapid increase since reform in the late 1970s.</figcaption></figure> The success of China's economic policies and the manner of their implementation resulted in immense changes in Chinese society in the last 40 years, including greatly decreased poverty while both average incomes and <a href="/wiki/Income_inequality_in_China" title="Income inequality in China">income inequality</a> have increased, leading to a backlash led by the more ideologically pure <a href="/wiki/Chinese_New_Left" title="Chinese New Left">New Left</a>. Scholars have debated the reason for the success of the Chinese <a href="/wiki/Dual-track_economy" title="Dual-track economy">"dual-track" economy</a>, and have compared it to attempts to reform socialism in the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a> and the Soviet Union; as well as to the growth of other developing economies. Additionally, these series of reforms have led to China's status as a <a href="/wiki/Great_power" title="Great power">great power</a> and a shift of international <a href="/wiki/Geopolitics" title="Geopolitics">geopolitical</a> interests towards China, especially in matters relating to the ambiguous <a href="/wiki/Political_status_of_Taiwan" title="Political status of Taiwan">political status of Taiwan</a>. Some analysts have also added that the reform era has been scaled down significantly during the <a href="/wiki/Xi_Jinping_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Xi Jinping Administration">leadership</a> of current <a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party">CCP General Secretary</a> <a href="/wiki/Xi_Jinping" title="Xi Jinping">Xi Jinping</a> when the reformists lost power,<a href="#cite_note-:22-93">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-:23-94">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-:24-95">[95]</a> citing that Xi has reasserted state control over different aspects of Chinese society,<a href="#cite_note-:25-96">[96]</a> including the economy.<a href="#cite_note-:1-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-97">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-:26-98">[98]</a> After three decades of reform, China's economy experienced one of the world's biggest booms. Agriculture and light industry have largely been privatized, while the state still retains control over some heavy industries. Despite the dominance of state ownership in finance, telecommunications, petroleum and other important sectors of the economy, private entrepreneurs continue to expand into sectors formerly reserved for public enterprise. Prices have also been liberalized.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> China's economic growth since the reform has been very rapid, exceeding the <a href="/wiki/Four_Asian_Tigers" title="Four Asian Tigers">East Asian Tigers</a>. Since the beginning of Deng Xiaoping's reforms, China's GDP has risen tenfold.<a href="#cite_note-People's_Daily_Online_2005-120">[120]</a> The increase in <a href="/wiki/Total_factor_productivity" title="Total factor productivity">total factor productivity</a> (TFP) was the most important factor, with productivity accounting for 40.1% of the GDP increase, compared with a decline of 13.2% for the period 1957 to 1978—the height of Maoist policies. For the period 1978–2005, Chinese GDP per capita increased from 2.7% to 15.7% of U.S. GDP per capita, and from 53.7% to 188.5% of Indian GDP per capita. Per capita incomes grew at 6.6% a year.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> Average wages rose sixfold between 1978 and 2005,<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> while absolute poverty declined from 41% of the population to 5% from 1978 to 2001.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> Some scholars believed that China's economic growth has been understated, due to large sectors of the economy not being counted.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Impact_on_world_growth">Impact on world growth</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reform_and_opening_up&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Impact on world growth">edit</a>]</div> China is widely seen as an engine of world and regional growth.<a href="#cite_note-Branstetter_668-125">[125]</a> Surges in Chinese demand account for 50, 44 and 66 percent of export growth of the Hong Kong SAR of China, Japan and Taiwan respectively, and China's trade deficit with the rest of East Asia helped to revive the economies of Japan and Southeast Asia.<a href="#cite_note-Branstetter_668-125">[125]</a> Asian leaders view China's economic growth as an "engine of growth for all Asia".<a href="#cite_note-Branstetter_669-126">[126]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effect_on_inequality">Effect on inequality</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reform_and_opening_up&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Effect on inequality">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Social_welfare_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Social welfare in China">Social welfare in China</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gini_Coefficient_World_CIA_Report_2009.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Gini_Coefficient_World_CIA_Report_2009.png/500px-Gini_Coefficient_World_CIA_Report_2009.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Gini_Coefficient_World_CIA_Report_2009.png/960px-Gini_Coefficient_World_CIA_Report_2009.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1425" data-file-height="625" /></a><figcaption> Gini-coefficient of national income distribution around the world (dark green: <0.25, red: >0.60)</figcaption></figure> Although the economic reforms has caused significant economic growth in China, it has also caused increased inequality, resulting in backlash and an attempt at pushing back the reforms by the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_New_Left" title="Chinese New Left">Chinese New Left</a> faction. Despite rapid economic growth which has virtually eliminated poverty in urban China and reduced it greatly in rural regions and the fact that living standards for everyone in China have drastically increased in comparison to the pre-reform era, the <a href="/wiki/Gini_coefficient" title="Gini coefficient">Gini coefficient</a> of China is estimated to be above 0.45, comparable to some Latin American countries such as Argentina and Mexico as well as the United States.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> Increased inequality is attributed to the gradual withdrawal of the <a href="/wiki/Welfare_state" title="Welfare state">welfare state</a> system in China and differences between coastal and interior provinces, the latter being burdened by a larger state sector.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> Some Western scholars have suggested that reviving the welfare state and instituting a re-distributive <a href="/wiki/Income_tax" title="Income tax">income tax</a> system is needed to relieve inequality,<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> while some Chinese economists have suggested that privatizing state monopolies and distributing the proceeds to the population can reduce inequality.<a href="#cite_note-Weiyin_Zhang-130">[130]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reforms_in_specific_sectors">Reforms in specific sectors</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reform_and_opening_up&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Reforms in specific sectors">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Agriculture">Agriculture</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reform_and_opening_up&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Agriculture">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:China-wheat-prod.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/China-wheat-prod.png/300px-China-wheat-prod.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/China-wheat-prod.png/450px-China-wheat-prod.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/China-wheat-prod.png/600px-China-wheat-prod.png 2x" data-file-width="711" data-file-height="426" /></a><figcaption>Production of wheat from 1961 to 2004. Data from <a href="/wiki/FAO" class="mw-redirect" title="FAO">FAO</a>, year 2005. Y-axis: Production in metric ton.</figcaption></figure> During the pre-reform period, Chinese agricultural performance was extremely poor and food shortages were common.<a href="#cite_note-Huang_478-131">[131]</a> After Deng Xiaoping implemented the <a href="/wiki/Household_responsibility_system" title="Household responsibility system">household responsibility system</a>, agricultural output increased by 8.2% a year, compared with 2.7% in the pre-reform period, despite a decrease in the area of land used.<a href="#cite_note-Huang_478-131">[131]</a> <a href="/wiki/Food_prices" title="Food prices">Food prices</a> fell nearly 50%, while agricultural incomes rose.<a href="#cite_note-Huang_480-132">[132]</a> <a href="/wiki/Zhao_Ziyang" title="Zhao Ziyang">Zhao Ziyang</a> wrote in his memoirs that in the years following the household contracting system, "the energy that was unleashed … was magical, beyond what anyone could have imagined. A problem thought to be unsolvable had worked itself out in just a few years time … [B]y 1984, farmers actually had more grain than they could sell. The state grain storehouses were stacked full from the annual procurement program."<a href="#cite_note-guofeng-24">[24]</a> A fundamental transformation was the economy's growing adoption of <a href="/wiki/Cash_crop" title="Cash crop">cash crops</a> instead of just growing rice and grain.<a href="#cite_note-Huang_480-132">[132]</a> Vegetable and meat production increased to the point that Chinese agricultural production was adding the equivalent of California's vegetable industry every two years. Growth in the sector slowed after 1984, with agriculture falling from 40% of GDP to 16%; however, increases in agricultural productivity allowed workers to be released for work in industry and services, while simultaneously increasing agricultural production.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> Trade in agriculture was also liberalized and China became an exporter of food, a great contrast to its previous famines and shortages.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Industry">Industry</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reform_and_opening_up&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Industry">edit</a>]</div> In the pre-reform period, industry was largely stagnant and the socialist system presented few incentives for improvements in quality and productivity. With the introduction of the dual-price system and greater autonomy for enterprise managers, productivity increased greatly in the early 1980s.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> Foreign enterprises and newly formed <a href="/wiki/Township_and_Village_Enterprises" title="Township and Village Enterprises">Township and Village Enterprises</a>, owned by local government and often de facto private firms, competed successfully with state-owned enterprises. By the 1990s, large-scale privatizations reduced the market share of both the Township and Village Enterprises and state-owned enterprises and increased the private sector's market share. The state sector's share of industrial output dropped from 81% in 1980 to 15% in 2005.<a href="#cite_note-Perkins_862-136">[136]</a> Foreign capital controls much of Chinese industry and plays an important role.<a href="#cite_note-Rawski_573-62">[62]</a> From virtually an industrial backwater in 1978, China is now the world's biggest producer of concrete, steel, ships and textiles, and has the world's largest <a href="/wiki/Automobile_industry_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Automobile industry in China">automobile market</a>. Chinese steel output quadrupled between 1980 and 2000, and from 2000 to 2006 rose from 128.5 million tons to 418.8 million tons, one-third of global production.<a href="#cite_note-Rawski,_G._Thomas_2008-137">[137]</a> Labor productivity at some Chinese steel firms exceeds Western productivity.<a href="#cite_note-Rawski,_G._Thomas_2008-137">[137]</a> From 1975 to 1992, China's automobile production rose from 139,800 to 1.1 million, rising to 9.35 million in 2008.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> Light industries such as textiles saw an even greater increase, due to reduced government interference. <a href="/wiki/Textile_industry_in_China" title="Textile industry in China">Chinese textile</a> exports increased from 4.6% of world exports in 1980 to 24.1% in 2005. Textile output increased 18-fold over the same period.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> This increase in production is largely the result of the removal of barriers to entry and increased competition; the number of industrial firms rose from 377,300 in 1980 to nearly 8 million in 1990 and 1996; the 2004 economic census, which excluded enterprises with annual sales below RMB 5 million, counted 1.33 million manufacturing firms, with <a href="/wiki/Jiangsu" title="Jiangsu">Jiangsu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zhejiang" title="Zhejiang">Zhejiang</a> reporting more firms than the nationwide total for 1980.<a href="#cite_note-Loren_13-140">[140]</a> Compared to other East Asian industrial growth spurts, China's industrial performance exceeded Japan's but remained behind South Korea and Taiwan's economies.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trade_and_foreign_investment">Trade and foreign investment</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reform_and_opening_up&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Trade and foreign investment">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Update plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Update" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg/60px-Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="42" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg/120px-Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="290" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs to be updated. The reason given is: <a href="/wiki/China%E2%80%93United_States_trade_war" title="China–United States trade war">China–United States trade war</a>. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (October 2020)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2006Chinese_exports.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/2006Chinese_exports.PNG/300px-2006Chinese_exports.PNG" decoding="async" width="300" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/2006Chinese_exports.PNG/450px-2006Chinese_exports.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/2006Chinese_exports.PNG/600px-2006Chinese_exports.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1425" data-file-height="625" /></a><figcaption>Global distribution of Chinese exports in 2006 as a percentage of the top market</figcaption></figure> Some scholars assert that China has maintained a high degree of openness that is unusual among the other large and populous nations,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute">dubious</a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Reform_and_opening_up#Dubious" title="Talk:Reform and opening up">discuss</a>] with competition from foreign goods in almost every sector of the economy. Foreign investment helped to greatly increase quality, knowledge and standards, especially in heavy industry. China's experience supports the assertion that <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a> greatly increases wealth for poor countries.<a href="#cite_note-Loren_13-140">[140]</a> Throughout the reform period, the government reduced tariffs and other trade barriers, with the overall tariff rate falling from 56% to 15%. By 2001, less than 40% of imports were subject to tariffs and only 9 percent of import were subject to licensing and import quotas. Even during the early reform era, protectionist policies were often circumvented by smuggling.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> When China joined the WTO, it agreed to considerably harsher conditions than other developing countries.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> Trade has increased from under 10% of GDP to 64% of GDP over the same period.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> China is considered the most open large country; by 2005, China's average statutory tariff on industrial products was 8.9%. The average was 30.9% for Argentina, 27.0% for Brazil, 32.4% for India, and 36.9% for Indonesia.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> China's trade surplus is considered by some in the United States as threatening American jobs. In the 2000s, the Bush administration pursued protectionist policies such as tariffs and quotas to limit the import of Chinese goods. Some scholars argue that China's growing trade surplus is the result of industries in more developed Asian countries moving to China, and not a new phenomenon.<a href="#cite_note-Branstetter_669-126">[126]</a> China's trade policy, which allows producers to avoid paying the <a href="/wiki/Value_Added_Tax" class="mw-redirect" title="Value Added Tax">Value Added Tax</a> (VAT) for exports and undervaluation of the currency since 2002, has resulted in an overdeveloped export sector and distortion of the economy overall, a result that could hamper future growth.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> Foreign investment was also liberalized upon Deng's ascension. <a href="/wiki/Special_Economic_Zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Special Economic Zone">Special Economic Zones</a> (SEZs) were created in the early 1980s to attract foreign capital by exempting them from taxes and regulations. This experiment was successful and SEZs were expanded to cover the whole Chinese coast. Although FDI fell briefly after the 1989 student protests, it increased again to 160 billion by 2004.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Services">Services</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reform_and_opening_up&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Services">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shanghaistockexchange.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Shanghaistockexchange.jpg/220px-Shanghaistockexchange.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Shanghaistockexchange.jpg/330px-Shanghaistockexchange.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Shanghaistockexchange.jpg/440px-Shanghaistockexchange.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Stock_Exchange" title="Shanghai Stock Exchange">Shanghai Stock Exchange</a> </figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shenzhen_stock_exchange_2018_(40984942355).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Shenzhen_stock_exchange_2018_%2840984942355%29.jpg/220px-Shenzhen_stock_exchange_2018_%2840984942355%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Shenzhen_stock_exchange_2018_%2840984942355%29.jpg/330px-Shenzhen_stock_exchange_2018_%2840984942355%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Shenzhen_stock_exchange_2018_%2840984942355%29.jpg/440px-Shenzhen_stock_exchange_2018_%2840984942355%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3024" data-file-height="4032" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Shenzhen_Stock_Exchange" title="Shenzhen Stock Exchange">Shenzhen Stock Exchange</a></figcaption></figure> In the 1990s, the financial sector was liberalized.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> After China joined the <a href="/wiki/World_Trade_Organization" title="World Trade Organization">World Trade Organization</a> (WTO), the service sector was considerably liberalized and foreign investment was allowed; restrictions on retail, wholesale and distribution ended.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> Banking, financial services, insurance and telecommunications were also opened up to foreign investment.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> China's banking sector is dominated by four large state-owned banks, which are largely inefficient and monopolistic.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> China's largest bank, <a href="/wiki/Industrial_and_Commercial_Bank_of_China" title="Industrial and Commercial Bank of China">ICBC</a>, is the largest bank in the world. The financial sector is widely seen as a drag on the economy due to the inefficient state management.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> Non-performing loans, mostly made to local governments and unprofitable state-owned enterprises for political purposes,<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> especially the political goal of keeping unemployment low, are a big drain on the financial system and economy, reaching over 22% of GDP by 2000, with a drop to 6.3% by 2006 due to government recapitalization of these banks. In 2006, the total amount of <a href="/wiki/Non-performing_loan" title="Non-performing loan">non-performing loans</a> was estimated at $160 billion.<a href="#cite_note-Allen_528-154">[154]</a> Observers recommend privatization of the banking system to solve this problem, a move that was partially carried out when the four banks were floated on the stock market.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> China's financial markets, the <a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Stock_Exchange" title="Shanghai Stock Exchange">Shanghai Stock Exchange</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shenzhen_Stock_Exchange" title="Shenzhen Stock Exchange">Shenzhen Stock Exchange</a>, are relatively ineffective at raising capital, as they comprise only 11% of GDP.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> Due to the weakness of the banks, firms raise most of their capital through an informal, nonstandard financial sector developed during the 1980s and 1990s, consisting largely of underground businesses and private banks.<a href="#cite_note-Allen_556-157">[157]</a> Internal finance is the most important method successful firms use to fund their activities.<a href="#cite_note-Allen_556-157">[157]</a> By the 1980s much emphasis was placed on the role of advertising in meeting the modernization goals being promoted by Deng. Lip service was still paid to old Maoist ideals of egalitarianism, but it did not inhibit the growth of consumerism.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Government_finances">Government finances</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reform_and_opening_up&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Government finances">edit</a>]</div> In the pre-reform era, government was funded by profits from <a href="/wiki/State-owned_enterprises" class="mw-redirect" title="State-owned enterprises">state-owned enterprises</a>, much like the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>.<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> As the state sector fell in importance and profitability, government revenues, especially that of the central government in Beijing, fell substantially and the government relied on a confused system of inventory taxes. Government revenues fell from 35% of GDP to 11% of GDP in the mid-1990s, excluding revenue from state-owned enterprises, with the central government's budget at just 3% of GDP.<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> The tax system was reformed in 1994 when inventory taxes were unified into a single VAT of 17% on all manufacturing, repair, and assembly activities and an <a href="/wiki/Excise_tax" class="mw-redirect" title="Excise tax">excise tax</a> on 11 items, with the VAT becoming the main income source, accounting for half of government revenue. The 1994 reform also increased the central government's share of revenues, increasing it to 9% of GDP.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Academic_studies">Academic studies</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reform_and_opening_up&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Academic studies">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reasons_for_success">Reasons for success</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reform_and_opening_up&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Reasons for success">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Foreign_aid_to_China" title="Foreign aid to China">Foreign aid to China</a> and <a href="/wiki/China_model" class="mw-redirect" title="China model">China model</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinas_Next_Global_Agenda_Panel_World_Economic_Forum_2013_(2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Chinas_Next_Global_Agenda_Panel_World_Economic_Forum_2013_%282%29.jpg/330px-Chinas_Next_Global_Agenda_Panel_World_Economic_Forum_2013_%282%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="275" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Chinas_Next_Global_Agenda_Panel_World_Economic_Forum_2013_%282%29.jpg/500px-Chinas_Next_Global_Agenda_Panel_World_Economic_Forum_2013_%282%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Chinas_Next_Global_Agenda_Panel_World_Economic_Forum_2013_%282%29.jpg/960px-Chinas_Next_Global_Agenda_Panel_World_Economic_Forum_2013_%282%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5136" data-file-height="2282" /></a><figcaption>Discussion of "China's Next Global Agenda" during the <a href="/wiki/World_Economic_Forum" title="World Economic Forum">World Economic Forum</a> (2013)</figcaption></figure> Scholars have proposed a number of theories to explain China's successful transition from a planned to a socialist market economy. This occurred despite unfavorable factors such as the troublesome legacies of socialism, considerable erosion of the work ethic, decades of anti-market propaganda, and the "lost generation" whose education disintegrated amid the disruption of the Cultural Revolution.<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> One notable theory is that decentralization of state authority allowed local leaders to experiment with various ways to privatize the state sector and energize the economy.<a href="#cite_note-Loren_17-18-61">[61]</a> Although Deng was not the originator of many of the reforms, he approved them. Another theory focuses on internal incentives within the Chinese government, in which officials presiding over areas of high economic growth were more likely to be promoted. This made local and provincial governments "hungry for investment," who competed to reduce regulations and <a href="/wiki/Market_barrier" class="mw-redirect" title="Market barrier">barriers</a> to investment to boost both economic growth and their careers. Such reforms were possible because Deng cultivated pro-market followers in the government.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> <a href="/wiki/Herman_Kahn" title="Herman Kahn">Herman Kahn</a> argued that <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian ethic</a> was playing a "similar but more spectacular role in the modernization of East Asia than the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_work_ethic" title="Protestant work ethic">Protestant ethic</a> played in Europe".<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> Taken together, <a href="/wiki/Yuen_Yuen_Ang" title="Yuen Yuen Ang">Yuen Yuen Ang</a> argues in Foreign Affairs that political reforms took place with economic reforms under Deng, except the former did not take Western forms. She writes, "To be sure, Deng's reforms emphasized brute <a href="/wiki/Capital_accumulation" title="Capital accumulation">capital accumulation</a> rather than holistic development, which led to environmental degradation, inequality, and other social problems. Still they undoubtedly kicked China's growth machine into gear by making the bureaucracy results oriented, fiercely competitive, and responsive to business needs, qualities that are normally associated with democracies." But this only applies to the Deng era. Ang notes that since 2012, when Xi Jinping took over, the new leader has reversed Deng's political reforms and limits to power, "just as political freedoms have become imperative for continued economic growth."<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Director-General_Roberto_Azev%C3%AAdo_met_with_China%E2%80%99s_Minister_of_Commerce_Gao_Hucheng_in_Qingdao.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Director-General_Roberto_Azev%C3%AAdo_met_with_China%E2%80%99s_Minister_of_Commerce_Gao_Hucheng_in_Qingdao.jpg/220px-Director-General_Roberto_Azev%C3%AAdo_met_with_China%E2%80%99s_Minister_of_Commerce_Gao_Hucheng_in_Qingdao.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Director-General_Roberto_Azev%C3%AAdo_met_with_China%E2%80%99s_Minister_of_Commerce_Gao_Hucheng_in_Qingdao.jpg/330px-Director-General_Roberto_Azev%C3%AAdo_met_with_China%E2%80%99s_Minister_of_Commerce_Gao_Hucheng_in_Qingdao.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Director-General_Roberto_Azev%C3%AAdo_met_with_China%E2%80%99s_Minister_of_Commerce_Gao_Hucheng_in_Qingdao.jpg/440px-Director-General_Roberto_Azev%C3%AAdo_met_with_China%E2%80%99s_Minister_of_Commerce_Gao_Hucheng_in_Qingdao.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1166" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Roberto_Azev%C3%AAdo" title="Roberto Azevêdo">Roberto Azevêdo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Director-General_of_the_World_Trade_Organization" title="Director-General of the World Trade Organization">Director-General of WTO</a>, met with China's Minister of Commerce <a href="/wiki/Gao_Hucheng" title="Gao Hucheng">Gao Hucheng</a> in <a href="/wiki/Qingdao" title="Qingdao">Qingdao</a> (2014).</figcaption></figure> China's success is also due to the <a href="/wiki/Export-led_growth" class="mw-redirect" title="Export-led growth">export-led growth</a> strategy used successfully by the Four Asian Tigers beginning with <a href="/wiki/Japanese_post-war_economic_miracle" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese post-war economic miracle">Japan in the 1960s–1970s</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Newly_industrialized_country" title="Newly industrialized country">newly industrialized countries</a>.<a href="#cite_note-sharma-166">[166]</a> In 2001, China joined the World Trade Organization (WTO).<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> As of 2006, over 400 of the <a href="/wiki/Fortune_500_companies" class="mw-redirect" title="Fortune 500 companies">Fortune 500 companies</a> had entered the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_market" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese market">Chinese market</a>, while at the same time a considerable number of Chinese companies had <a href="/wiki/Go_Out_policy" title="Go Out policy">opened their markets outside of China</a>.<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> Foreign aids to China, including those from Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan, also played an important role.<a href="#cite_note-:3-169">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-:5-170">[170]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-171">[171]</a> Since the beginning of opening, China has received <a href="/wiki/Foreign_aid_to_China" title="Foreign aid to China">a significant amount of aid</a> from major <a href="/wiki/Developed_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Developed countries">developed countries</a> such as the United States, Japan, Germany, France and the United Kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-:3-169">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-:5-170">[170]</a> For instance, through its <a href="/wiki/Official_Development_Assistance_(Japan)" title="Official Development Assistance (Japan)">Official Development Assistance</a> (ODA), Japan had offered China various forms of assistance worth 3.65 trillion <a href="/wiki/Japanese_yen" title="Japanese yen">Yen</a> as of 2018.<a href="#cite_note-:3-169">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> On the other hand, the assistance from the U.S. reached a total of US$556 million as of 2012, and has "helped <a href="/wiki/Tibet_Autonomous_Region" title="Tibet Autonomous Region">Tibetan</a> communities improve livelihoods, promote sustainable development and environmental conservation, and preserve cultural traditions...also supports targeted programs that strengthen cooperation on combatting the spread of <a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS" title="HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS</a> and other pandemic and emerging diseases as well as <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">rule of law</a> programs."<a href="#cite_note-:3-169">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-171">[171]</a> In contrast to the neoliberal view which emphasizes benefits from decentralization, increased privatization, and globalization, Professor Lin Chun concludes that studies have demonstrated pre-reform period factors that are at least as compelling factors in China's success.<a href="#cite_note-:20-65">[65]</a> Those factors include strong "human capital" accumulated through decades of state investments in basic needs including health care and public education, state and rural collective ownership of land, the <a href="/wiki/Public_sector" title="Public sector">public sector</a>'s retaining of strategic industries, government sponsorship of trade and technology transfers, and public spending.<a href="#cite_note-:20-65">[65]</a> The collapse of the Soviet Bloc and centrally planned economies in 1989 provided renewed impetus for China to further reform its economy through different policies to avoid a similar fate.<a href="#cite_note-jdorn-173">[173]</a> China also wanted to avoid the Russian ad-hoc experiments with market capitalism under Boris Yeltsin resulting in the rise of powerful oligarchs, corruption, and the loss of state revenue which exacerbated economic <a href="/wiki/Economic_inequality" title="Economic inequality">disparity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-remnick-174">[174]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a> contributed to China's economic growth in long run. According to <a href="/wiki/Mancur_Olson" title="Mancur Olson">Mancur Olson</a>, the Cultural Revolution attacked the very administrators and managers on which Chinese economy depended, and the immediate result was instability and administrative chaos in short run. A longer-run result was that there were not nearly as many well-entrenched <a href="/wiki/Interest_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Interest group">interest groups</a> as in the Soviet Union and the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a>, so when <a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping" title="Deng Xiaoping">Deng Xiaoping</a> and the other pragmatists took power, few interest groups remained whose lobbying could undermine Deng's market-oriented reforms, because the Cultural Revolution had destroyed the narrowly entrenched interests with a stake in the status quo.<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Comparison_to_other_developing_economies">Comparison to other developing economies</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reform_and_opening_up&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Comparison to other developing economies">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GDP_per_capita_of_China_and_India.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/GDP_per_capita_of_China_and_India.svg/220px-GDP_per_capita_of_China_and_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/GDP_per_capita_of_China_and_India.svg/330px-GDP_per_capita_of_China_and_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/GDP_per_capita_of_China_and_India.svg/440px-GDP_per_capita_of_China_and_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="560" /></a><figcaption>Development trends of Chinese and <a href="/wiki/Hindu_rate_of_growth" title="Hindu rate of growth">Indian GDP</a> (1950–2010)</figcaption></figure> China's transition from a <a href="/wiki/Planned_economy" title="Planned economy">planned economy</a> to a socialist market economy has often been compared with economies in Eastern Europe that are undergoing a similar transition. China's performance has been praised for avoiding the major shocks and inflation that plagued the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a>.<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a> The Eastern bloc economies saw declines varying from 13% to 65% in GDP at the beginning of reforms, while Chinese growth has been very strong since the beginning of reform.<a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a> China also managed to avoid the hyperinflation of 200 to 1,000% that Eastern Europe experienced.<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a> This success is attributed to the gradualist and decentralized approach of the Chinese government, which allowed market institutions to develop to the point where they could replace state planning. This contrasts with the <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989#Economic_reforms" title="Revolutions of 1989">"big bang" approach</a> of Eastern Europe, where the state-owned sector was rapidly privatized with employee buyouts, but retained much of the earlier, inefficient management.<a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a> Other factors thought to account for the differences are the greater urbanization of the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States" title="Commonwealth of Independent States">CIS</a> economies and differences in social welfare and other institutions.<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a> Another argument is that, in the Eastern European economies, political change is sometimes seen to have made gradualist reforms impossible, so the shocks and inflation were unavoidable.<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> China's economic growth has been compared with other developing countries, such as Brazil, Mexico, and India. GDP growth in China outstrips all other developing countries, with only India after 1990 coming close to China's experience.<a href="#cite_note-Heston_37-182">[182]</a> Scholars believe that high rates of investments, especially increases in capital invested per worker, have contributed to China's superior economic performance.<a href="#cite_note-Heston_37-182">[182]</a> China's relatively free economy, with less government intervention and regulation, is cited by scholars as an important factor in China's superior performance compared to other <a href="/wiki/Developing_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Developing countries">developing countries</a>.<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Criticism_and_development_issues">Criticism and development issues</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reform_and_opening_up&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Criticism and development issues">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E8%BF%9C%E7%9C%BA%E9%99%86%E5%AE%B6%E5%98%B4-%E9%9B%BE%E9%9C%BE_Lujiazui_in_the_haze_-_panoramio.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/%E8%BF%9C%E7%9C%BA%E9%99%86%E5%AE%B6%E5%98%B4-%E9%9B%BE%E9%9C%BE_Lujiazui_in_the_haze_-_panoramio.jpg/220px-%E8%BF%9C%E7%9C%BA%E9%99%86%E5%AE%B6%E5%98%B4-%E9%9B%BE%E9%9C%BE_Lujiazui_in_the_haze_-_panoramio.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/%E8%BF%9C%E7%9C%BA%E9%99%86%E5%AE%B6%E5%98%B4-%E9%9B%BE%E9%9C%BE_Lujiazui_in_the_haze_-_panoramio.jpg/330px-%E8%BF%9C%E7%9C%BA%E9%99%86%E5%AE%B6%E5%98%B4-%E9%9B%BE%E9%9C%BE_Lujiazui_in_the_haze_-_panoramio.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/%E8%BF%9C%E7%9C%BA%E9%99%86%E5%AE%B6%E5%98%B4-%E9%9B%BE%E9%9C%BE_Lujiazui_in_the_haze_-_panoramio.jpg/440px-%E8%BF%9C%E7%9C%BA%E9%99%86%E5%AE%B6%E5%98%B4-%E9%9B%BE%E9%9C%BE_Lujiazui_in_the_haze_-_panoramio.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4320" data-file-height="3240" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pollution_in_China" title="Pollution in China">Air pollution</a> has become a major environmental issue in China resulting from the economic development. (The picture shows thick <a href="/wiki/Haze" title="Haze">haze</a> in <a href="/wiki/Lujiazui" title="Lujiazui">Lujiazui</a> of Shanghai in 2011.)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CO2_emission_pie_chart.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/CO2_emission_pie_chart.svg/220px-CO2_emission_pie_chart.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/CO2_emission_pie_chart.svg/330px-CO2_emission_pie_chart.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/CO2_emission_pie_chart.svg/440px-CO2_emission_pie_chart.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption>Global <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">CO2 gas</a> emissions by country (2015)</figcaption></figure> The government retains monopolies in several sectors, such as petroleum and banking. The recent reversal of some reforms have left some observers dubbing 2008 the "third anniversary of the end of reforms".<a href="#cite_note-scissors-17">[17]</a> Nevertheless, observers[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">who?</a>] believe that China's economy can continue growing at rates of 6–8 percent until 2025,<a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a> though a reduction in state intervention is considered by some to be necessary for sustained growth.<a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a> It has been reported, including by the <a href="/wiki/National_Bureau_of_Statistics_of_China" title="National Bureau of Statistics of China">National Bureau of Statistics</a>, that over the years that the GDP figures and other economic data from local Chinese governments may be inflated or manipulated otherwise.<a href="#cite_note-:15-186">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-:16-187">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-:17-188">[188]</a><a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a><a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a> Officials from central government have said that local government officials sometimes falsify economic data to meet the economic growth targets or for personal promotions.<a href="#cite_note-:15-186">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a> Despite reducing poverty and increasing China's wealth, Deng's reforms have been criticized by the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_New_Left" title="Chinese New Left">Chinese New Left</a> for increasing inequality and allowing private entrepreneurs to purchase state assets at reduced prices. These accusations were especially intense during the <a href="/wiki/Lang%E2%80%93Gu_dispute" title="Lang–Gu dispute">Lang–Gu dispute</a>, in which New Left academic <a href="/wiki/Larry_Hsien_Ping_Lang" title="Larry Hsien Ping Lang">Larry Hsien Ping Lang</a> accused entrepreneur Gu Sujung of usurping state assets, after which Gu was imprisoned.<a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Hu%E2%80%93Wen_Administration" title="Hu–Wen Administration">Hu–Wen Administration</a> adopted some New Left policies, such as halting privatizations and increasing the state sector's importance in the economy, and <a href="/wiki/Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesian policies</a> that have been criticized by some Chinese economists such as <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Weiying" title="Zhang Weiying">Zhang Weiying</a>, who advocate a policy of deregulation, tax cuts and privatization.<a href="#cite_note-Weiyin_Zhang-130">[130]</a> Other criticisms focus on the effects of rapid industrialization on public health and the environment. For instance, China is the <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions" title="List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions">largest CO2 emitter in the world</a>.<a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a> However, scholars believe that public health issues are unlikely to become major obstacles to the growth of China's economy during the coming decades, and studies have shown that air quality and other environmental measures in China are better than those in developed countries, such as the United States and Japan, at the same level of development.<a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a> Air pollution reached its peak in the early 2010s, and has declined significantly since then.<a href="#cite_note-195">[195]</a><a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a> Some scholars have also contested the claims that the reform has led to as dramatic reduction in poverty as reported. The dramatic reduction reported relies on the use of the <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a> poverty line of $1.90 per day, which some have argued is an inaccurate means of measuring poverty in <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(1949-1976)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the People's Republic of China (1949-1976)">pre-reform China</a>, as during the Mao era and the decade after its end, an effective and <a href="/wiki/Iron_rice_bowl" title="Iron rice bowl">far-reaching system of public provision</a> existed in China which kept prices low, and a food rationing system which (except during the <a href="/wiki/Great_Chinese_Famine" title="Great Chinese Famine">Great Chinese Famine</a> years) effectively guaranteed the vast majority of China's population with access to food.<a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a> Using China's "Basic Needs Poverty Line", calculated based on <a href="/wiki/OECD" title="OECD">OECD</a> datasets, the proportion of Chinese people unable to afford a "subsistence basket" (basic needs) has increased since the increasing pace of reforms in the late 1980s and 1990s.<a href="#cite_note-198">[198]</a><a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a> The economic reforms were initially accompanied with a series of <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China#Political_reforms" title="History of the People's Republic of China">political reforms</a> in the 1980s, supported by Deng Xiaoping. However, many of the planned political reforms ended after the <a href="/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests_and_massacre" title="1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre">1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre</a>.<a href="#cite_note-200">[200]</a> Lack of political reform contributed to the serious <a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_China" title="Corruption in China">corruption issue in China</a>.<a href="#cite_note-201">[201]</a> Additionally, China's economic growth has led to the rise of a <a href="/wiki/Chinese_property_bubble_(2005%E2%80%932011)" title="Chinese property bubble (2005–2011)">real estate bubble</a> from 2005 to 2011 and a <a href="/wiki/Chinese_property_sector_crisis_(2020%E2%80%93present)" title="Chinese property sector crisis (2020–present)">property sector crisis</a> since 2020.<a href="#cite_note-wsj_11594908517-202">[202]</a> Since the late 1970s, Deng and other senior leaders including Chen Yun and Li Xiannian supported the "<a href="/wiki/One-child_policy" title="One-child policy">one-child policy</a>" to cope with the <a href="/wiki/Human_overpopulation" title="Human overpopulation">overpopulation crisis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-203">[203]</a> However, the <a href="/wiki/2010_Chinese_census" title="2010 Chinese census">2010 census data</a> showed that the population growth rate dropped to low levels.<a href="#cite_note-204">[204]</a> Due to the financial pressure and other factors, many young couples increasingly choose to delay or even abandon the plan of raising a second child even after the Chinese government largely relaxed the one-child policy in late 2015.<a href="#cite_note-205">[205]</a><a href="#cite_note-:14-206">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a> This has led to the aging of the Chinese population, which economists have said could potentially harm the economy in the future.<a href="#cite_note-:14-206">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-208">[208]</a><a href="#cite_note-:13-209">[209]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reform_and_opening_up&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beijing_Consensus" title="Beijing Consensus">Beijing Consensus</a> (China model)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping_Theory" title="Deng Xiaoping Theory">Deng Xiaoping Theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Go_Out_policy" title="Go Out policy">Go Out policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China#Political_reforms" title="History of the People's Republic of China">China's political reforms in 1980s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_economic_miracle" title="Japanese economic miracle">Japanese economic miracle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khrushchev_Thaw" title="Khrushchev Thaw">Khrushchev Thaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoauthoritarianism_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Neoauthoritarianism (China)">Neoauthoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiger_economy" title="Tiger economy">Tiger economy</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reform_and_opening_up&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reform_and_opening_up&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:28-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:28_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:28_1-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px 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Shirk in The Political Logic of Economic Reform in China, University of California, Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1993. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-07706-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-07706-7">0-520-07706-7</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrandt2008">Brandt 2008</a>, p. 8 </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-34">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_34-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_34-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHunt2004" class="citation book cs1">Hunt, Michael H. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worldtransformed0000hunt/page/n5/mode/1up">The World Transformed: 1945 to the Present</a>. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's. p. 355. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780312245832" title="Special:BookSources/9780312245832"><bdi>9780312245832</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2003101700">2003101700</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1151774819">1151774819</a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL3695802M">3695802M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+World+Transformed%3A+1945+to+the+Present&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=355&rft.pub=Bedford%2FSt.+Martin%27s&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1151774819&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2003101700&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL3695802M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=9780312245832&rft.aulast=Hunt&rft.aufirst=Michael+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fworldtransformed0000hunt%2Fpage%2Fn5%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReform+and+opening+up" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrandt2008">Brandt 2008</a>, p. 10 </li> <li id="cite_note-Loren_11-36">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Loren_11_36-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Loren_11_36-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrandt2008">Brandt 2008</a>, p. 11 </li> <li id="cite_note-bbc-37"><a href="#cite_ref-bbc_37-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/spl/hi/asia_pac/02/china_party_congress/china_ruling_party/key_people_events/html/open_door_policy.stm">"Open Door Policy"</a>. 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Stanford, California: <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University_Press" title="Stanford University Press">Stanford University Press</a>. pp. 54–55. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5036-3415-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5036-3415-2"><bdi>978-1-5036-3415-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1332788951">1332788951</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+dragon+roars+back+%3A+transformational+leaders+and+dynamics+of+Chinese+foreign+policy&rft.place=Stanford%2C+California&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E54-%3C%2Fspan%3E55&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1332788951&rft.isbn=978-1-5036-3415-2&rft.aulast=Zhao&rft.aufirst=Suisheng&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1332788951&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReform+and+opening+up" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCheong2018" class="citation web cs1">Cheong, Danson (2018-12-07). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/east-asia/shenzhen-birthplace-of-chinas-reforms">"Shenzhen – from village to city of opportunities"</a>. 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Retrieved 2021-05-05.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=South+China+Morning+Post&rft.atitle=Could+China%27s+population+crisis+be+reaching+a+point+of+no+return%3F&rft.date=2021-03-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scmp.com%2Fcomment%2Fopinion%2Farticle%2F3126752%2Fcould-chinas-population-crisis-be-reaching-point-no-return&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReform+and+opening+up" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_and_cited_sources">General and cited sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reform_and_opening_up&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: General and cited sources">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about Reform and opening up <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Reform+and+opening+up">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Reform+and+opening+up&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAllen2008" class="citation cs2">Allen, Franklin; et al. (2008), "China's Financial system: Past, present and future", in Brandt, Loren; Rawski, G. Thomas (eds.), China's Great Transformation, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=China%27s+Financial+system%3A+Past%2C+present+and+future&rft.btitle=China%27s+Great+Transformation&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+England&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=Franklin&rft.au=%3CPlease+add+first+missing+authors+to+populate+metadata.%3E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReform+and+opening+up" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCardenalAraújo2011" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Juan_Pablo_Cardenal" title="Juan Pablo Cardenal">Cardenal, Juan Pablo</a>; <a href="/wiki/Heriberto_Ara%C3%BAjo" title="Heriberto Araújo">Araújo, Heriberto</a> (2011), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jQ2fvBVpQpYC">La silenciosa conquista china</a> (in Spanish), Barcelona: Crítica, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788498922578" title="Special:BookSources/9788498922578"><bdi>9788498922578</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+silenciosa+conquista+china&rft.place=Barcelona&rft.pub=Cr%C3%ADtica&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9788498922578&rft.aulast=Cardenal&rft.aufirst=Juan+Pablo&rft.au=Ara%C3%BAjo%2C+Heriberto&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjQ2fvBVpQpYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReform+and+opening+up" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBenjamin2008" class="citation cs2">Benjamin, Dwayne; et al. 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Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-05815-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-05815-6"><bdi>978-0-674-05815-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+Under+Mao&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-674-05815-6&rft.aulast=Walder&rft.aufirst=Andrew+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyMLFCQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReform+and+opening+up" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWong2008" class="citation cs2">Wong, P.W. Christine; et al. (2008), "China's Fiscal system: a work in progress", in Brandt, Loren; Rawski, G. Thomas (eds.), China's Great Transformation, Cambridge: Cambridge university press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=China%27s+Fiscal+system%3A+a+work+in+progress&rft.btitle=China%27s+Great+Transformation&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+university+press&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Wong&rft.aufirst=P.W.+Christine&rft.au=%3CPlease+add+first+missing+authors+to+populate+metadata.%3E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReform+and+opening+up" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFZhaoRussell_W._Belk2008" class="citation journal cs1">Zhao, Xin; Russell W. Belk (August 2008). "Politicizing Consumer Culture: Advertising's Appropriation of Political Ideology in China's Social Transition". Journal of Consumer Research. 35 (2): 231–244. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F588747">10.1086/588747</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0093-5301">0093-5301</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Consumer+Research&rft.atitle=Politicizing+Consumer+Culture%3A+Advertising%27s+Appropriation+of+Political+Ideology+in+China%27s+Social+Transition&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E231-%3C%2Fspan%3E244&rft.date=2008-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F588747&rft.issn=0093-5301&rft.aulast=Zhao&rft.aufirst=Xin&rft.au=Russell+W.+Belk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReform+and+opening+up" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reform_and_opening_up&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Gewirtz, Julian. 2022. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674241848">Never Turn Back: China and the Forbidden History of the 1980s</a>. Belknap Press of <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Reform_and_opening_up&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/13px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/20px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/27px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a> Quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Reform_and_opening_up" class="extiw" 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wirtschaftswunder" title="Wirtschaftswunder">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_economic_miracle" title="Belgian economic miracle">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trente_Glorieuses" title="Trente Glorieuses">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_economic_miracle" title="Greek economic miracle">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Asian_Tigers" title="Four Asian Tigers">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_economic_miracle" title="Italian economic miracle">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_economic_miracle" title="Japanese economic miracle">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_miracle" title="Mexican miracle">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Asian_Tigers" title="Four Asian Tigers">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracle_on_the_Han_River" title="Miracle on the Han River">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_miracle" title="Spanish miracle">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Record_years" title="Record years">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_Miracle" title="Taiwan Miracle">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wirtschaftswunder" title="Wirtschaftswunder">West Germany</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Later years</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brazilian_Miracle" title="Brazilian Miracle">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracle_of_Chile" title="Miracle of Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_Tiger" title="Baltic Tiger">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_development_in_India" title="Economic development in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiger_Cub_Economies" title="Tiger Cub Economies">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Tiger" title="Celtic Tiger">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_Tiger" title="Baltic Tiger">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_Tiger" title="Baltic Tiger">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiger_Cub_Economies" title="Tiger Cub Economies">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiger_Cub_Economies" title="Tiger Cub Economies">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatra_Tiger" title="Tatra Tiger">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiger_Cub_Economies" title="Tiger Cub Economies">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_economic_boom_of_the_2000s" class="mw-redirect" title="Turkish economic boom of the 2000s">Turkey</a></li> <li>United Arab Emirates <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Tiger" title="Gulf Tiger">Dubai</a></li></ul></li> <li>United States <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Miracle" title="Massachusetts Miracle">Massachusetts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BB%95i_M%E1%BB%9Bi" title="Đổi Mới">Vietnam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div 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Five-anti Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Leap_Forward" title="Great Leap Forward">Great Leap Forward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Modernizations" title="Four Modernizations">Four Modernizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_market_economy" title="Socialist market economy">Socialist market economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping%27s_southern_tour" title="Deng Xiaoping's southern tour">Deng Xiaoping's southern tour</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Grasping_the_large,_letting_go_of_the_small" title="Grasping the large, letting go of the small">Grasping the large, letting go of the small</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Outlook_on_Development" title="Scientific Outlook on Development">Scientific Outlook on Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_GDP_of_China" title="Historical GDP of China">Historical GDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_China" title="Population history of China">Population history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_reform_in_China,_1949%E2%80%931976" title="Wage reform in China, 1949–1976">1949–1976 wage reform</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:linen;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Industry_in_China" title="Category:Industry in China">Industries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Industry_of_China" title="Industry of China">Industry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Technological_and_industrial_history_of_China" title="Technological and industrial history of China">history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_materials_industry_in_China" title="Advanced materials industry in China">Advanced materials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquaculture_in_China" title="Aquaculture in China">Aquaculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_China" title="Automotive industry in China">Automotive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_aviation_in_China" title="Civil aviation in China">Aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_Industry_Corporation_of_China" title="Aviation Industry Corporation of China">Aircraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Aerospace_Science_and_Technology_Corporation" title="China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation">Aerospace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beer_in_China" title="Beer in China">Beer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology_industry_in_China" title="Biotechnology industry in China">Biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_process_outsourcing_in_China" title="Business process outsourcing in China">Business process outsourcing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cement_industry_in_China" title="Cement industry in China">Cement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coffee_production_in_China" title="Coffee production in China">Coffee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Container_industry_in_China" title="Container industry in China">Container</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Cotton_Association" title="China Cotton Association">Cotton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_motor_manufacturing_industry_in_China" title="Electric motor manufacturing industry in China">Electric motor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electricity_sector_in_China" title="Electricity sector in China">Electric power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronics_industry_in_China" title="Electronics industry in China">Electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_China" title="Cinema of China">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_industry_in_China" title="Fishing industry in China">Fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambling_in_China" title="Gambling in China">Gambling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hedge_fund_industry_in_China" title="Hedge fund industry in China">Hedge fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_in_China" title="Internet in China">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_China" title="Mass media in China">Media</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Mining_in_China" title="Category:Mining in China">Mining</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gold_mining_in_China" title="Gold mining in China">gold mining</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_phone_industry_in_China" title="Mobile phone industry in China">Mobile phone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Online_gaming_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Online gaming in China">Online gaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pearl_farming_industry_in_China" title="Pearl farming industry in China">Pearl farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_industry_in_China" title="Pharmaceutical industry in China">Pharmaceuticals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pharmacy_in_China" title="Pharmacy in China">pharmacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Publishing_industry_in_China" title="Publishing industry in China">Publishing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Academic_publishing_in_China" title="Academic publishing in China">academic publishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_in_China" title="Radio in China">Radio</a></li> <li>Railway <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Railway_equipment_industry_in_China" title="Railway equipment industry in China">equipment industry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rare_earth_industry_in_China" title="Rare earth industry in China">Rare earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_estate_in_China" title="Real estate in China">Real estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_China" title="Renewable energy in China">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Securities_industry_in_China" title="Securities industry in China">Securities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_toy_industry_in_China" title="Sex toy industry in China">Sex toys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipping_industry_of_China" title="Shipping industry of China">Shipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silk_industry_in_China" title="Silk industry in China">Silk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_industry_in_China" title="Software industry in China">Software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_China" title="Steel industry in China">Steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_industry_in_China" title="Telecommunications industry in China">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_China" title="Television in China">Television</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_China" title="Television in China">digital</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_China" title="Tourism in China">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textile_industry_in_China" title="Textile industry in China">Textiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_gaming_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Video gaming in China">Video gaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wine_in_China" title="Wine in China">Wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:linen;"><a href="/wiki/National_Economic_and_Technological_Development_Zones" title="National Economic and Technological Development Zones">Development Zones</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dalian_Software_Park" title="Dalian Software Park">Dalian Software Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megalopolises_in_China" title="Megalopolises in China">Megalopolises in China </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_economic_zones_of_China" title="Special economic zones of China">Special Economic Zones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suzhou_Industrial_Park" title="Suzhou Industrial Park">Suzhou Industrial Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhangjiang_Hi-Tech_Park" title="Zhangjiang Hi-Tech Park">Zhangjiang Hi-Tech Park</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:linen;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Energy_in_China" title="Category:Energy in China">Energy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_China" title="Energy policy of China">Energy policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coal_in_China" title="Coal in China">Coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_China" title="Petroleum industry in China">Oil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oil_shale_in_China" title="Oil shale in China">Oil shale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_refineries_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil refineries in China">Oil refineries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_China" title="Nuclear power in China">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_China" title="Renewable energy in China">Renewable</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power_in_China" title="Wind power in China">Wind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_China" title="Solar power in China">Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_China" title="Geothermal power in China">Geothermal</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:linen;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Trade_in_China" title="Category:Trade in China">Trade</a> and <a href="/wiki/Category:Infrastructure_in_China" title="Category:Infrastructure in China">infrastructure</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_trade_for_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="History of trade for the People's Republic of China">Trade history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_China_World_Trade_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="The China World Trade Center">World Trade Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_China" title="Transport in China">Transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_China" title="Telecommunications in China">Communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_China" title="Postage stamps and postal history of China">Postal history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_China" title="Tourism in China">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_shipping" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese shipping">Shipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_China" title="Illegal drug trade in China">Illegal drug trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Trade_Development_Council" title="Hong Kong Trade Development Council">Hong Kong Trade Development Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ports_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Ports of China">Ports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_China" title="Water supply and sanitation in China">Water supply and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exports_of_China" title="List of exports of China">Exports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_the_largest_trading_partners_of_China" title="List of the largest trading partners of China">Trading partners</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:linen;">Law and regulations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_China" title="Taxation in China">Tax system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_Contract_Law_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Labour Contract Law of the People's Republic of China">Labor contract law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_relations_in_China" title="Labor relations in China">Labor relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety_in_China" title="Food safety in China">Food safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property_in_China" title="Intellectual property in China">Intellectual property</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:linen;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Finance_in_China" title="Category:Finance in China">Finance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Category:Banking_in_China" title="Category:Banking in China">banking</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Accounting_in_China" title="Category:Accounting in China">Accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_China" title="Banking in China">Banking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_banking_in_China" title="History of banking in China">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Bank_of_China" title="People's Bank of China">Central bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_banks_in_China" title="List of banks in China">Other banks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beijing_Financial_Street" title="Beijing Financial Street">Beijing Financial Street</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_financial_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese financial system">Financial system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Banknote_Printing_and_Minting_Corporation" title="China Banknote Printing and Minting Corporation">China Banknote Printing and Minting Corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Chengtong_Holdings_Group" title="China Chengtong Holdings Group">China Chengtong Holdings Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Government_Guidance_Fund" title="China Government Guidance Fund">China Government Guidance Fund</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/China-Africa_Development_Fund" title="China-Africa Development Fund">China-Africa Development Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Integrated_Circuit_Industry_Investment_Fund" title="China Integrated Circuit Industry Investment Fund">China Integrated Circuit Industry Investment Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Internet_Investment_Fund" title="China Internet Investment Fund">China Internet Investment Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Reform_Holdings_Corporation" title="China Reform Holdings Corporation">China Reform Holdings Corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Fund_for_Technology_Transfer_and_Commercialisation" title="National Fund for Technology Transfer and Commercialisation">National Fund for Technology Transfer and Commercialisation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Investment_Corporation" title="China Investment Corporation">China Investment Corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CITIC_Group" title="CITIC Group">CITIC Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_services_in_China" title="Financial services in China">Financial services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renminbi" title="Renminbi">Renminbi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_exchange_reserves_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign exchange reserves of China">Foreign exchange reserve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hedge_fund_industry_in_China" title="Hedge fund industry in China">Hedge fund industry</a></li> <li>Stock Exchanges <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dalian_Commodity_Exchange" title="Dalian Commodity Exchange">Dalian Commodity Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Equities_Exchange_and_Quotations" title="National Equities Exchange and Quotations">National Equities Exchange and Quotations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beijing_Stock_Exchange" title="Beijing Stock Exchange">Beijing Stock Exchange</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Stock_Exchange" title="Shanghai Stock Exchange">Shanghai Stock Exchange</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/SSE_Composite_Index" title="SSE Composite Index">SSE Composite Index</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Metal_Exchange" class="mw-redirect" title="Shanghai Metal Exchange">Shanghai Metal Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stock_Exchange_Executive_Council" title="Stock Exchange Executive Council">Stock Exchange Executive Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shenzhen_Stock_Exchange" title="Shenzhen Stock Exchange">Shenzhen Stock Exchange</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/SZSE_Component_Index" title="SZSE Component Index">SZSE Component Index</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhengzhou_Commodity_Exchange" title="Zhengzhou Commodity Exchange">Zhengzhou Commodity Exchange</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:linen;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Economy_of_China" title="Category:Economy of China">Government institutions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/All-China_Federation_of_Industry_and_Commerce" title="All-China Federation of Industry and Commerce">All-China Federation of Industry and Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/All-China_Federation_of_Trade_Unions" title="All-China Federation of Trade Unions">All-China Federation of Trade Unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Council_for_the_Promotion_of_International_Trade" title="China Council for the Promotion of International Trade">China Council for the Promotion of International Trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Securities_Regulatory_Commission" title="China Securities Regulatory Commission">China Securities Regulatory Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Administration_of_Customs" title="General Administration of Customs">General Administration of Customs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Commerce_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of Commerce of the People's Republic of China">Ministry of Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Finance_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of Finance of the People's Republic of China">Ministry of Finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Industry_and_Information_Technology" title="Ministry of Industry and Information Technology">Ministry of Industry and Information Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Financial_Regulatory_Administration_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="National Financial Regulatory Administration (China)">National Financial Regulatory Administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Bureau_of_Statistics_of_China" title="National Bureau of Statistics of China">National Bureau of Statistics of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Development_and_Reform_Commission" title="National Development and Reform Commission">National Development and Reform Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Energy_Commission" title="National Energy Commission">National Energy Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-owned_Assets_Supervision_and_Administration_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="State-owned Assets Supervision and Administration Commission">State-owned Assets Supervision and Administration Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Administration_for_Market_Regulation" title="State Administration for Market Regulation">State Administration for Market Regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Administration_of_Foreign_Exchange" title="State Administration of Foreign Exchange">State Administration of Foreign Exchange</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/SAFE_Investment_Company" title="SAFE Investment Company">SAFE Investment Company</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Administration_of_Taxation" class="mw-redirect" title="State Administration of Taxation">State Administration of Taxation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:linen;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Economic_development_in_China" title="Category:Economic development in China">Development</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_rankings_of_China" title="International rankings of China">International rankings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_provincial-level_divisions_by_GDP" title="List of Chinese provincial-level divisions by GDP">Provinces by GDP</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_provincial-level_divisions_by_GDP_per_capita" title="List of Chinese provincial-level divisions by GDP per capita">per capita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_welfare_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Social welfare in China">Social welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_China" title="Poverty in China">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_China" title="Corruption in China">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_inequality_in_China" title="Income inequality in China">Income inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_China" title="Standard of living in China">Standard of living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_aid_to_China" title="Foreign aid to China">Foreign aid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization_in_China" title="Urbanization in China">Urbanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_in_China" title="Migration in China">Internal migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_emigration" title="Chinese emigration">Emigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_credit_cooperative" title="Rural credit cooperative">Rural credit cooperative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:linen;">National economic initiatives</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beijing_Consensus" title="Beijing Consensus">Beijing Consensus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belt_and_Road_Initiative" title="Belt and Road Initiative">Belt and Road Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_prosperity" title="Common prosperity">Common prosperity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_circulation" title="Dual circulation">Dual circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Go_Out_policy" title="Go Out policy">Go Out policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Made_in_China_2025" title="Made in China 2025">Made in China 2025</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Youth_Business_China" title="Youth Business China">Youth Business China</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:linen;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_of_China" title="List of regions of China">Regional economic initiatives</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asian_Infrastructure_Investment_Bank" title="Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank">Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beibu_Gulf_Economic_Rim" title="Beibu Gulf Economic Rim">Beibu Gulf Economic Rim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bohai_Economic_Rim" title="Bohai Economic Rim">Bohai Economic Rim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Western_Development" title="China Western Development">China Western Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guangdong%E2%80%93Hong_Kong%E2%80%93Macau_Greater_Bay_Area" class="mw-redirect" title="Guangdong–Hong Kong–Macau Greater Bay Area">Guangdong–Hong Kong–Macau Greater Bay Area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mainland_and_Hong_Kong_Closer_Economic_Partnership_Arrangement" title="Mainland and Hong Kong Closer Economic Partnership Arrangement">Mainland and Hong Kong Closer Economic Partnership Arrangement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mainland_and_Macau_Closer_Economic_Partnership_Arrangement" title="Mainland and Macau Closer Economic Partnership Arrangement">Mainland and Macau Closer Economic Partnership Arrangement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_China_Revitalization" class="mw-redirect" title="Northeast China Revitalization">Northeast China Revitalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pearl_River_Delta_Economic_Zone" title="Pearl River Delta Economic Zone">Pearl River Delta Economic Zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_Comprehensive_Economic_Partnership" title="Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership">Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_Central_China_Plan" title="Rise of Central China Plan">Rise of Central China Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Taiwan_Straits_Economic_Zone" title="Western Taiwan Straits Economic Zone">Western Taiwan Straits Economic Zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangtze_River_Delta_Economic_Zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Yangtze River Delta Economic Zone">Yangtze River Delta Economic Zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhongyuan_Economic_Zone" title="Zhongyuan Economic Zone">Zhongyuan Economic Zone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:linen;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Economic_history_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Category:Economic history of the People's Republic of China">Events</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_property_bubble_(2005%E2%80%932011)" title="Chinese property bubble (2005–2011)">2005–2011 property bubble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2007_Chinese_export_recalls" title="2007 Chinese export recalls">2007 export</a> / <a href="/wiki/2007_pet_food_recalls" title="2007 pet food recalls">pet food recalls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_stock_bubble_of_2007" title="Chinese stock bubble of 2007">2007 stock bubble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2007_Chinese_slave_scandal" title="2007 Chinese slave scandal">2007 slave scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_economic_stimulus_program" title="Chinese economic stimulus program">2008–2009 economic stimulus plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expo_2010" title="Expo 2010">2010 Expo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015%E2%80%9316_Chinese_stock_market_turbulence" class="mw-redirect" title="2015–16 Chinese stock market turbulence">2015–16 stock market turbulence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_protein_export_contamination" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese protein export contamination">Protein export contamination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China%E2%80%93United_States_trade_war" title="China–United States trade war">China–United States trade war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020%E2%80%932021_Xi_Jinping_Administration_reform_spree" title="2020–2021 Xi Jinping Administration reform spree">2020–2021 reform spree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canada%E2%80%93China_trade_war" title="Canada–China trade war">Canada–China trade war</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:linen;"><a href="/wiki/Category:China" title="Category:China">Related topics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_China" title="Agriculture in China">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bankruptcy_in_China" title="Bankruptcy in China">Bankruptcy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_China" title="List of companies of China">Companies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_Chinese_companies" title="List of largest Chinese companies">Largest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Top_500_Enterprises_of_China" title="Top 500 Enterprises of China">Top 500</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_State-owned_enterprises_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="List of State-owned enterprises in China">Largest SOEs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Hongs" class="mw-redirect" title="The Hongs">The Hongs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_China" title="Demographics of China">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization_in_China" title="Globalization in China">Globalization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Globalization_and_women_in_China" title="Globalization and women in China">Globalization and women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Standards_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="National Standards of the People's Republic of China">National Standards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Compulsory_Certificate" title="China Compulsory Certificate">China Compulsory Certificate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Made_in_China" title="Made in China">Made in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mingong" title="Mingong">Mingong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_by_net_worth" title="List of Chinese by net worth">List of Chinese by net worth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Chinese_economists" title="Category:Chinese economists">Chinese economists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_China" title="Science and technology in China">Science and technology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>See also: <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Economy_of_China" title="Category:Economy of China">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_China" title="Outline of China">Outline of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_East_Asia" title="Economy of East Asia">Economy of East Asia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reform_and_opening_up&oldid=1281845976">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reform_and_opening_up&oldid=1281845976</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Reform_and_opening_up" title="Category:Reform and opening up">Reform and opening up</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Chinese_economic_policy" title="Category:Chinese economic policy">Chinese economic policy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Cold_War_history_of_China" title="Category:Cold War history of China">Cold War history of 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[\"CITEREFDalio\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDenmark\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDenyer2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDorn2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEisenman\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEngardio2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFaison1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFifield2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGeneral_Office_of_the_CCP_Central_Committee\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreenhalgh2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaggard2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarrisonPalumbo2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHass2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHe2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeilmann2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeston2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHornby2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHuang2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHunt2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJayaramKayMurtaugh2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJin2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnstonTrautwein2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKahn1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKerkvlietChanUnger1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKroeber2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLee1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLei2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLi2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLin2006\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFLinCaiLi2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLinHaleHudson2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiu2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLongworthBrownWaldron2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarquisQiao2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMitchell2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMitterJohnson2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMyersWuFu2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNaughton2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNaughton2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNayar2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOlson2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOrlik2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPak2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPerkins2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPham2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRawski2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRay2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRemnick1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRivers2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSang-Hun2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchoenhals1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchoenleber2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchram1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScissors2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSharma2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShenRanganathan2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSullivan1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSullivanMoatsosHickel2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSvejnar2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTiezzi2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTong2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTran2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWalder2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWalter2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWang\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWangLeng2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWatts2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeber2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWei2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWestcottLee2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhyte2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWong1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWong2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWu2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWudunn1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWàn2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFXiao2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYang1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYifan_XieBird2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYouwei2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYuan\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYuan2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYun-Wing_Sung1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhangLiu2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhao2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhao2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhaoRussell_W._Belk2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhou2018\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 8,\n [\"Citation\"] = 17,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 21,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 22,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 37,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 50,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Economic Reform In The People's Republic Of China\"] = 1,\n [\"Dubious\"] = 1,\n [\"Economic miracle and tiger economy\"] = 1,\n [\"Economy of China\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 63,\n [\"History of the People's Republic of China\"] = 1,\n [\"IPAc-cmn\"] = 1,\n [\"IPAc-yue\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox Chinese\"] = 1,\n [\"Library resources box\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 1,\n [\"Neoconservatism in China\"] = 1,\n [\"Portalbar\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Rp\"] = 7,\n [\"See also\"] = 4,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 4,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sic\"] = 1,\n [\"Update\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 4,\n [\"Who\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikiquote-inline\"] = 1,\n [\"Zh\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 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