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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oldest_Hebrew_inscriptions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Oldest Hebrew inscriptions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oldest_Hebrew_inscriptions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classical_Hebrew" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_Hebrew"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Classical Hebrew </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical_Hebrew-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Biblical_Hebrew" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biblical_Hebrew"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.1 Biblical Hebrew </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biblical_Hebrew-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_post-Biblical_Hebrew" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_post-Biblical_Hebrew"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.2 Early post-Biblical Hebrew </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_post-Biblical_Hebrew-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Displacement_by_Aramaic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Displacement_by_Aramaic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Displacement by Aramaic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Displacement_by_Aramaic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mishnah_and_Talmud" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mishnah_and_Talmud"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Mishnah and Talmud </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mishnah_and_Talmud-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_Hebrew" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_Hebrew"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Medieval Hebrew </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_Hebrew-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Revival" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Revival"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Revival </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Revival-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_Hebrew" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_Hebrew"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7 Modern Hebrew </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_Hebrew-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Current_status" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Current_status"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Current status </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Current_status-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Phonology </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Phonology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Consonants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consonants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Consonants </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consonants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Grammar </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Grammar subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Morphology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morphology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Morphology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syntax" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syntax"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Syntax </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syntax-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Writing_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Writing_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Writing system </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Writing_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Liturgical_use_in_Judaism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Liturgical_use_in_Judaism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Liturgical use in Judaism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Liturgical_use_in_Judaism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 External links </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-External_links-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle External links subsection </button> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Government </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_information" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_information"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 General information </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_information-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tutorials,_courses_and_dictionaries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tutorials,_courses_and_dictionaries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.3 Tutorials, courses and dictionaries </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tutorials,_courses_and_dictionaries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Hebrew language</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 200 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-200" aria-hidden="true" > 200 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbd mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82" title="Иврит – Kabardian" lang="kbd" hreflang="kbd" data-title="Иврит" data-language-autonym="Адыгэбзэ" data-language-local-name="Kabardian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Адыгэбзэ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ady mw-list-item"><a href="https://ady.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D1%83%D1%80%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%B1%D0%B7%D1%8D" title="Джуртыбзэ – Adyghe" lang="ady" hreflang="ady" data-title="Джуртыбзэ" data-language-autonym="Адыгабзэ" data-language-local-name="Adyghe" class="interlanguage-link-target">Адыгабзэ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebreeus" title="Hebreeus – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Hebreeus" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebr%C3%A4ische_Sprache" title="Hebräische Sprache – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Hebräische Sprache" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%95%E1%89%A5%E1%88%AB%E1%8B%AD%E1%88%B5%E1%8C%A5" title="ዕብራይስጥ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ዕብራይስጥ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%82_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="हिब्रू भाषा – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="हिब्रू भाषा" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebr%C4%93isc_spr%C7%A3c" title="Hebrēisc sprǣc – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Hebrēisc sprǣc" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ænglisc</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ab mw-list-item"><a href="https://ab.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B0_%D0%B1%D1%8B%D0%B7%D1%88%D3%99%D0%B0" title="Ауриа бызшәа – Abkhazian" lang="ab" hreflang="ab" data-title="Ауриа бызшәа" data-language-autonym="Аԥсшәа" data-language-local-name="Abkhazian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Аԥсшәа</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="اللغة العبرية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="اللغة العبرية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_hebreu" title="Idioma hebreu – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Idioma hebreu" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%A0%DC%AB%DC%A2%DC%90_%DC%A5%DC%92%DC%AA%DC%9D%DC%90" title="ܠܫܢܐ ܥܒܪܝܐ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܠܫܢܐ ܥܒܪܝܐ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target">ܐܪܡܝܐ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B5%D5%A2%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A7%D5%B6" title="Եբրայերէն – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Եբրայերէն" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A8br%C3%A8o" title="Hèbrèo – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Hèbrèo" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Arpetan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_hebr%C3%A9u" title="Idioma hebréu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Idioma hebréu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evr%C3%A9o_%C3%B1e%27%E1%BA%BD" title="Evréo ñe'ẽ – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Evréo ñe'ẽ" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0vrit_dili" title="İvrit dili – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İvrit dili" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%DB%8C%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C" title="عیبری دیلی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="عیبری دیلی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_Ibrani" title="Basa Ibrani – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Basa Ibrani" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Bali</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%81_%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE" title="হিব্রু ভাষা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="হিব্রু ভাষা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_Ibrani" title="Basa Ibrani – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Basa Ibrani" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Banjar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hi-pek-l%C3%A2i-g%C3%AD" title="Hi-pek-lâi-gí – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hi-pek-lâi-gí" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82" title="Иврит – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Иврит" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%9E%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%82" title="Іўрыт – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Іўрыт" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%9E%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%82" title="Іўрыт – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Іўрыт" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebreo" title="Hebreo – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Hebreo" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82" title="Иврит – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Иврит" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebr%C3%A4isch" title="Hebräisch – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Hebräisch" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrejski_jezik" title="Hebrejski jezik – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Hebrejski jezik" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebraeg" title="Hebraeg – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Hebraeg" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82" title="Иврит – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Иврит" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebreu" title="Hebreu – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Hebreu" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82" title="Иврит – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Иврит" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inebreo" title="Inebreo – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Inebreo" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrej%C5%A1tina" title="Hebrejština – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Hebrejština" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chihebheru" title="Chihebheru – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Chihebheru" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_ebraica" title="Lingua ebraica – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Lingua ebraica" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target">Corsu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebraeg" title="Hebraeg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Hebraeg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebraisk_(sprog)" title="Hebraisk (sprog) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Hebraisk (sprog)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="لعبرية – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="لعبرية" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebr%C3%A4ische_Sprache" title="Hebräische Sprache – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Hebräische Sprache" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrej%C5%A1%C4%87ina" title="Hebrejšćina – Lower Sorbian" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb" data-title="Hebrejšćina" data-language-autonym="Dolnoserbski" data-language-local-name="Lower Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dolnoserbski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heebrea_keel" title="Heebrea keel – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Heebrea keel" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CE%B2%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%8A%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B3%CE%BB%CF%8E%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1" title="Εβραϊκή γλώσσα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Εβραϊκή γλώσσα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebr%C3%A0ic" title="Ebràic – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Ebràic" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Emiliàn e rumagnòl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82" title="Иврит – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Иврит" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Эрзянь</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_hebreo" title="Idioma hebreo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Idioma hebreo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrea_lingvo" title="Hebrea lingvo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Hebrea lingvo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebreu" title="Ebreu – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Ebreu" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebreera" title="Hebreera – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Hebreera" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="زبان عبری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زبان عبری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_bhasa" title="Hebrew bhasa – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Hebrew bhasa" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebraiskt_m%C3%A1l" title="Hebraiskt mál – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Hebraiskt mál" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A9breu" title="Hébreu – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Hébreu" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebriuwsk" title="Hebriuwsk – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Hebriuwsk" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenghe_ebraiche" title="Lenghe ebraiche – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Lenghe ebraiche" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Eabhrais" title="An Eabhrais – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An Eabhrais" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ewnish" title="Ewnish – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Ewnish" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eabhra" title="Eabhra – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Eabhra" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_hebrea" title="Lingua hebrea – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Lingua hebrea" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D1%83%D0%B3%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%82" title="Жугтий мотт – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Жугтий мотт" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target">ГӀалгӀай</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E4%BC%AF%E4%BE%86%E8%AA%9E" title="希伯來語 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="希伯來語" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-got mw-list-item"><a href="https://got.wikipedia.org/wiki/%F0%90%8C%B7%F0%90%8C%B0%F0%90%8C%B1%F0%90%8D%82%F0%90%8C%B0%F0%90%8C%B9%F0%90%8C%B9%F0%90%8D%83%F0%90%8C%BA%F0%90%8C%B0_%F0%90%8D%82%F0%90%8C%B0%F0%90%8C%B6%F0%90%8C%B3%F0%90%8C%B0" title="𐌷𐌰𐌱𐍂𐌰𐌹𐌹𐍃𐌺𐌰 𐍂𐌰𐌶𐌳𐌰 – Gothic" lang="got" hreflang="got" data-title="𐌷𐌰𐌱𐍂𐌰𐌹𐌹𐍃𐌺𐌰 𐍂𐌰𐌶𐌳𐌰" data-language-autonym="𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺" data-language-local-name="Gothic" class="interlanguage-link-target">𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%AE-pak-l%C3%B2i-ng%C3%AE" title="Hî-pak-lòi-ngî – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Hî-pak-lòi-ngî" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%9E%88%EB%B8%8C%EB%A6%AC%EC%96%B4" title="히브리어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="히브리어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibrananci" title="Ibrananci – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Ibrananci" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-haw mw-list-item"><a href="https://haw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E2%80%98%C5%8Clelo_Hepela" title="‘Ōlelo Hepela – Hawaiian" lang="haw" hreflang="haw" data-title="‘Ōlelo Hepela" data-language-autonym="Hawaiʻi" data-language-local-name="Hawaiian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hawaiʻi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B5%D5%A2%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A5%D5%B6" title="Եբրայերեն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Եբրայերեն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%82_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="हिब्रू भाषा – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="हिब्रू भाषा" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrej%C5%A1%C4%87ina" title="Hebrejšćina – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Hebrejšćina" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hornjoserbsce</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrejski_jezik" title="Hebrejski jezik – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Hebrejski jezik" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrea_linguo" title="Hebrea linguo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Hebrea linguo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagsasao_a_Hebreo" title="Pagsasao a Hebreo – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Pagsasao a Hebreo" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Ibrani" title="Bahasa Ibrani – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Ibrani" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_hebree" title="Lingua hebree – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Lingua hebree" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82" title="Иврит – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Иврит" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/IsiHebheru" title="IsiHebheru – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="IsiHebheru" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiZulu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebreska" title="Hebreska – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Hebreska" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_ebraica" title="Lingua ebraica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingua ebraica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA" title="עברית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="עברית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_Ivri" title="Basa Ivri – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Basa Ivri" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C9%9Bbra_k%CA%8An%CA%8A%C5%8B" title="Hɛbra kʊnʊŋ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Hɛbra kʊnʊŋ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%87%E0%B2%B5%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D" title="ಇವ್ರಿತ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಇವ್ರಿತ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Am%C3%A1nung_Ebreyu" title="Amánung Ebreyu – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Amánung Ebreyu" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kapampangan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90" title="ებრაული ენა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ებრაული ენა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%B2%D9%86%D8%A0_%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86" title="عبرٲنؠ زبان – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="عبرٲنؠ زبان" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target">कॉशुर / کٲشُر</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb mw-list-item"><a href="https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrejsczi_j%C3%A3z%C3%ABk" title="Hebrejsczi jãzëk – Kashubian" lang="csb" hreflang="csb" data-title="Hebrejsczi jãzëk" data-language-autonym="Kaszëbsczi" data-language-local-name="Kashubian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kaszëbsczi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82_%D1%82%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%96" title="Иврит тілі – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Иврит тілі" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebrow" title="Ebrow – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Ebrow" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiebrania" title="Kiebrania – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Kiebrania" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kv mw-list-item"><a href="https://kv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82" title="Иврит – Komi" lang="kv" hreflang="kv" data-title="Иврит" data-language-autonym="Коми" data-language-local-name="Komi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Коми</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziman%C3%AA_%C3%AEbran%C3%AE" title="Zimanê îbranî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Zimanê îbranî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B9_%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Еврей тили – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Еврей тили" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_ebrea" title="Lingua ebrea – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Lingua ebrea" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_Hebraica" title="Lingua Hebraica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Lingua Hebraica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivrits" title="Ivrits – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Ivrits" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebr%C3%A4esch" title="Hebräesch – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Hebräesch" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D1%83%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%B4_%D1%87%D3%80%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Чувуд чӀал – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Чувуд чӀал" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebraj%C5%B3_kalba" title="Hebrajų kalba – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Hebrajų kalba" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengua_ebraica" title="Lengua ebraica – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Lengua ebraica" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebreeuws" title="Hebreeuws – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Hebreeuws" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li%C3%A9beleo" title="Liébeleo – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Liébeleo" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingála</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivri_(lingua)" title="Ivri (lingua) – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Ivri (lingua)" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengua_ebraica" title="Lengua ebraica – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Lengua ebraica" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A9ber_nyelv" title="Héber nyelv – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Héber nyelv" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="हिब्रु भाषा – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="हिब्रु भाषा" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target">मैथिली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B5%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%98%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Хебрејски јазик – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Хебрејски јазик" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiteny_hebreo" title="Fiteny hebreo – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Fiteny hebreo" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B9%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%81" title="ഹീബ്രു – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഹീബ്രു" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebrajk" title="Ebrajk – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Ebrajk" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mi mw-list-item"><a href="https://mi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reo_H%C4%ABperu" title="Reo Hīperu – Māori" lang="mi" hreflang="mi" data-title="Reo Hīperu" data-language-autonym="Māori" data-language-local-name="Māori" class="interlanguage-link-target">Māori</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%82_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="हिब्रू भाषा – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="हिब्रू भाषा" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90" title="ურიული ნინა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ურიული ნინა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%87" title="العبريه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="العبريه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="عبری – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="عبری" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Ibrani" title="Bahasa Ibrani – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bahasa Ibrani" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%8D%EA%AF%A4%EA%AF%95%EA%AF%AD%EA%AF%94%EA%AF%A8_%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A3%EA%AF%9F" title="ꯍꯤꯕ꯭ꯔꯨ ꯂꯣꯟ – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯍꯤꯕ꯭ꯔꯨ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahaso_Ibrani" title="Bahaso Ibrani – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Bahaso Ibrani" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C4%AD-b%C3%A1ik-l%C3%A0i-ng%E1%B9%B3%CC%84" title="Hĭ-báik-lài-ngṳ̄ – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Hĭ-báik-lài-ngṳ̄" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D0%BA%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Евреень кяль – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Евреень кяль" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target">Мокшень</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B9_%D1%85%D1%8D%D0%BB" title="Еврей хэл – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Еврей хэл" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9F%E1%80%B1%E1%80%97%E1%80%BC%E1%80%B2%E1%80%98%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AC%E1%80%85%E1%80%80%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8" title="ဟေဗြဲဘာသာစကား – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဟေဗြဲဘာသာစကား" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebreeuws" title="Hebreeuws – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Hebreeuws" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hibbrais" title="Hibbrais – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Hibbrais" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="हिब्रु भाषा – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="हिब्रु भाषा" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%82_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="हिब्रू भाषा – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="हिब्रू भाषा" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%98%E3%83%96%E3%83%A9%E3%82%A4%E8%AA%9E" title="ヘブライ語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ヘブライ語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%80%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%82" title="Ӏебархойн мотт – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Ӏебархойн мотт" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebreewsk_spriak" title="Hebreewsk spriak – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Hebreewsk spriak" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pih mw-list-item"><a href="https://pih.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiibruu" title="Hiibruu – Norfuk / Pitkern" lang="pih" hreflang="pih" data-title="Hiibruu" data-language-autonym="Norfuk / Pitkern" data-language-local-name="Norfuk / Pitkern" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norfuk / Pitkern</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebraisk" title="Hebraisk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Hebraisk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebraisk" title="Hebraisk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Hebraisk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebr%C3%A8u" title="Ebrèu – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Ebrèu" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivrit_tili" title="Ivrit tili – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Ivrit tili" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%87%E0%A8%AC%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%AD%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%BE" title="ਇਬਰਾਨੀ ਭਾਸ਼ਾ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਇਬਰਾਨੀ ਭਾਸ਼ਾ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="عبرانی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="عبرانی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A_%DA%98%D8%A8%D9%87" title="عبراني ژبه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="عبراني ژبه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-koi mw-list-item"><a href="https://koi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B9_%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%B2" title="Еврей кыв – Komi-Permyak" lang="koi" hreflang="koi" data-title="Еврей кыв" data-language-autonym="Перем коми" data-language-local-name="Komi-Permyak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Перем коми</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%A0%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%BA" title="ភាសាហេប្រឺ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ភាសាហេប្រឺ" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenga_ebr%C3%A9a_antica" title="Lenga ebréa antica – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Lenga ebréa antica" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pwn mw-list-item"><a href="https://pwn.wikipedia.org/wiki/hiniberayan" title="hiniberayan – Paiwan" lang="pwn" hreflang="pwn" data-title="hiniberayan" data-language-autonym="Pinayuanan" data-language-local-name="Paiwan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Pinayuanan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebr%C3%A4%C3%A4sche_Spraak" title="Hebrääsche Spraak – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Hebrääsche Spraak" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyk_hebrajski" title="Język hebrajski – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Język hebrajski" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADngua_hebraica" title="Língua hebraica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Língua hebraica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0brani_tili" title="İbrani tili – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="İbrani tili" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ksh mw-list-item"><a href="https://ksh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebr%C3%A4isch_(Sprooch)" title="Hebräisch (Sprooch) – Colognian" lang="ksh" hreflang="ksh" data-title="Hebräisch (Sprooch)" data-language-autonym="Ripoarisch" data-language-local-name="Colognian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ripoarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limba_ebraic%C4%83" title="Limba ebraică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Limba ebraică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iwriyu_simi" title="Iwriyu simi – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Iwriyu simi" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Гебрейскый язык – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Гебрейскый язык" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82" title="Иврит – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Иврит" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82" title="Иврит – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Иврит" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A6%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%B5%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%A9_%E1%B1%AF%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B9%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%A4" title="ᱦᱤᱵᱨᱩ ᱯᱟᱹᱨᱥᱤ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱦᱤᱵᱨᱩ ᱯᱟᱹᱨᱥᱤ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limba_ebrea" title="Limba ebrea – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Limba ebrea" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew" title="Hebrew – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Hebrew" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gjuha_hebreje" title="Gjuha hebreje – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Gjuha hebreje" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_ebbr%C3%A0ica" title="Lingua ebbràica – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Lingua ebbràica" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%84%E0%B7%93%E0%B6%B6%E0%B7%B2_%E0%B6%B7%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%82%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="හීබෲ භාෂාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="හීබෲ භාෂාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Hebrew language" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A_%D9%BB%D9%88%D9%84%D9%8A" title="عبراني ٻولي – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="عبراني ٻولي" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrej%C4%8Dina" title="Hebrejčina – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Hebrejčina" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrej%C5%A1%C4%8Dina" title="Hebrejščina – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Hebrejščina" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cu mw-list-item"><a href="https://cu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%84%D0%B2%D1%80%D1%94%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%8A_%D1%A9%EA%99%81%EA%99%91%D0%BA%D1%8A" title="Єврєискъ ѩꙁꙑкъ – Church Slavic" lang="cu" hreflang="cu" data-title="Єврєискъ ѩꙁꙑкъ" data-language-autonym="Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ" data-language-local-name="Church Slavic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Af-Hebrow" title="Af-Hebrow – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Af-Hebrow" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%B9%DB%8C%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="زمانی عیبری – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="زمانی عیبری" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B5%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%98%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Хебрејски језик – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Хебрејски језик" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrejski_jezik" title="Hebrejski jezik – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Hebrejski jezik" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heprea" title="Heprea – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Heprea" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebreiska" title="Hebreiska – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Hebreiska" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikang_Hebreo" title="Wikang Hebreo – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Wikang Hebreo" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%8E%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="எபிரேயம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="எபிரேயம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tutlayt_Tudayt" title="Tutlayt Tudayt – Tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Tutlayt Tudayt" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="Tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taclḥit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tutlayt_ta%C9%9Bebrit" title="Tutlayt taɛebrit – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tutlayt taɛebrit" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D2%BB%D2%AF%D0%B4_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5" title="Яһүд теле – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Яһүд теле" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B9%E0%B1%80%E0%B0%AC%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%82_%E0%B0%AD%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B7" title="హీబ్రూ భాష – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="హీబ్రూ భాష" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AE%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B9" title="ภาษาฮีบรู – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ภาษาฮีบรู" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ti mw-list-item"><a href="https://ti.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%89%8B%E1%8A%95%E1%89%8B_%E1%8A%A5%E1%89%A5%E1%88%AB%E1%8B%AD%E1%88%B5%E1%8C%A2" title="ቋንቋ እብራይስጢ – Tigrinya" lang="ti" hreflang="ti" data-title="ቋንቋ እብራይስጢ" data-language-autonym="ትግርኛ" data-language-local-name="Tigrinya" class="interlanguage-link-target">ትግርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%B8%D0%B1%D1%80%D3%A3" title="Забони ибрӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Забони ибрӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0branice" title="İbranice – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="İbranice" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iwrit_dili" title="Iwrit dili – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Iwrit dili" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%CC%B1biru_(a%CC%B1lyem)" title="A̱biru (a̱lyem) – Tyap" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="A̱biru (a̱lyem)" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="Tyap" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tyap</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82" title="Іврит – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Іврит" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a 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For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Hebrew (disambiguation)">Hebrew (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the Hebrew language in general. For the revived version as it is spoken in Israel, see <a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern Hebrew</a>.</div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Northwest Semitic language</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: #faecc8;">Hebrew</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #faecc8;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1241449095">.mw-parser-output .script-hebrew,.mw-parser-output .script-Hebr{font-family:"Ezra SIL SR","Ezra SIL","SBL Hebrew","Taamey Frank CLM","SBL BibLit","Taamey Ashkenaz","Frank Ruehl CLM","Keter Aram Tsova","Taamey David CLM","Keter YG","Shofar","David CLM","Hadasim CLM","Simple CLM","Nachlieli",Cardo,Alef,"Noto Serif Hebrew","Noto Sans Hebrew","David Libre",David,"Times New Roman",Gisha,Arial,FreeSerif,FreeSans}</style>עִבְרִית‎, Ivrit</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:1_QIsa_example_of_damage_col_12-13.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/1_QIsa_example_of_damage_col_12-13.jpg/200px-1_QIsa_example_of_damage_col_12-13.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/1_QIsa_example_of_damage_col_12-13.jpg/300px-1_QIsa_example_of_damage_col_12-13.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/1_QIsa_example_of_damage_col_12-13.jpg/400px-1_QIsa_example_of_damage_col_12-13.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1134" data-file-height="1242" /></a><div class="infobox-caption" style="padding:0.35em 0.35em 0.25em;line-height:1.25em;">Portion of the <a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Scroll" title="Isaiah Scroll">Isaiah Scroll</a>, a second-century BCE manuscript of the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Biblical</a> <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Isaiah" title="Book of Isaiah">Book of Isaiah</a> and one of the best-preserved of the <a href="/wiki/Dead_Sea_Scrolls" title="Dead Sea Scrolls">Dead Sea Scrolls</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Pronunciation</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern</a>: [ivˈʁit]<a href="#cite_note-1">[note 1]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tiberian_vocalization" title="Tiberian vocalization">Tiberian</a>: [ʕivˈriθ] <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical</a>: [ʕibˈrit]</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Native to</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Region</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Levant" title="Southern Levant">Southern Levant</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Extinct_language" title="Extinct language">Extinct</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Mishnaic Hebrew</a> extinct as a <a href="/wiki/First_language" title="First language">spoken language</a> by the 5th century CE, surviving as a <a href="/wiki/Liturgical_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Liturgical language">liturgical language</a> along with <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical Hebrew</a> for <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a><a href="#cite_note-ASB-2">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-e19-4">[3]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Language_revitalization" title="Language revitalization">Revival</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Revival_of_the_Hebrew_language" title="Revival of the Hebrew language">Revived in the late 19th century CE</a>. 9 million speakers of <a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern Hebrew</a>, of which 5 million are native speakers and 3.3 million are second language speakers (2018)<a href="#cite_note-eth-5">[4]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afro-Asiatic</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/West_Semitic_languages" title="West Semitic languages">West</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Semitic_languages" title="Central Semitic languages">Central</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Semitic_languages" title="Northwest Semitic languages">Northwest</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_languages" title="Canaanite languages">Canaanite</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_languages#South_Canaan" title="Canaanite languages">South</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li>Hebrew</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Early forms</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical Hebrew</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Mishnaic Hebrew</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:0.45em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Hebrew" title="Medieval Hebrew">Medieval Hebrew</a> </li></ul> </li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Standard forms</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Hebrew" title="Samaritan Hebrew">Samaritan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr class="plainlist"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Dialects</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Israelian_Hebrew" title="Israelian Hebrew">Israelian</a> <abbr title="Extinct" aria-label="Extinct" style="border: none; text-decoration: none; cursor: inherit; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal;">†</abbr></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew alphabet</a> <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Braille" title="Hebrew Braille">Hebrew Braille</a> <a href="/wiki/Paleo-Hebrew_alphabet" title="Paleo-Hebrew alphabet">Paleo-Hebrew alphabet</a> (<a href="/wiki/Archaic_Biblical_Hebrew" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaic Biblical Hebrew">Archaic Biblical Hebrew</a>) <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Aramaic_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Aramaic script">Imperial Aramaic script</a> (<a href="/wiki/Late_Biblical_Hebrew" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Biblical Hebrew">Late Biblical Hebrew</a>) <a href="/wiki/Samaritan_script" title="Samaritan script">Samaritan script</a> (<a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Pentateuch" title="Samaritan Pentateuch">Samaritan Biblical Hebrew</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Manually_coded_language" title="Manually coded language">Signed forms</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Signed_Hebrew" class="mw-redirect" title="Signed Hebrew">Signed Hebrew</a> (oral Hebrew accompanied by sign)<a href="#cite_note-6">[5]</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #faecc8;">Official status</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Official language in</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> (as <a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern Hebrew</a>)<a href="#cite_note-7">[6]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Recognised minority language in</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="vertical-align:middle;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a><a href="#cite_note-auto1-8">[7]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a><a href="#cite_note-auto-9">[8]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a><a href="#cite_note-Yağmur2001-10">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zetler2014-11">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-Toktaş2006-12">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bayır2013-13">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-HRWLanguageRights-14">[13]</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_language_regulators" title="List of language regulators">Regulated by</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Academy_of_the_Hebrew_Language" title="Academy of the Hebrew Language">Academy of the Hebrew Language</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">האקדמיה ללשון העברית‎ (ha-akademyah la-lashon ha-ʿivrit)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #faecc8;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-1" title="ISO 639-1">ISO 639-1</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?iso_639_1=he">he</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-2" title="ISO 639-2">ISO 639-2</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?code_ID=184">heb</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">Variously: <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/heb" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:heb">heb</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern Hebrew</a> <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/hbo" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:hbo">hbo</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Classical Hebrew</a> (liturgical) <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/smp" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:smp">smp</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Hebrew" title="Samaritan Hebrew">Samaritan Hebrew</a> (liturgical) <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/obm" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:obm">obm</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Moabite_language" title="Moabite language">Moabite</a> (extinct) <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/xdm" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:xdm">xdm</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Edomite_language" title="Edomite language">Edomite</a> (extinct)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/hebr1246">hebr1246</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Linguasphere_Observatory" title="Linguasphere Observatory">Linguasphere</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hortensj-garden.org/index.php?tnc=1&tr=lsr&nid=12-AAB-a">12-AAB-a</a></code></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below noprint selfref" style="background-color:#E7E7FF;color:inherit;padding:0.3em 0.5em;text-align:left;line-height:1.3;">This article contains <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> phonetic symbols. Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA#Rendering_issues" title="Help:IPA">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%94_%D7%A2%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%91%D7%9B%D7%AA%D7%91_%D7%95%D7%91%D7%9B%D7%AA%D7%91_%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99_%D7%94%D7%A7%D7%93%D7%95%D7%9D.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%94_%D7%A2%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%91%D7%9B%D7%AA%D7%91_%D7%95%D7%91%D7%9B%D7%AA%D7%91_%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99_%D7%94%D7%A7%D7%93%D7%95%D7%9D.jpg/220px-%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%94_%D7%A2%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%91%D7%9B%D7%AA%D7%91_%D7%95%D7%91%D7%9B%D7%AA%D7%91_%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99_%D7%94%D7%A7%D7%93%D7%95%D7%9D.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%94_%D7%A2%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%91%D7%9B%D7%AA%D7%91_%D7%95%D7%91%D7%9B%D7%AA%D7%91_%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99_%D7%94%D7%A7%D7%93%D7%95%D7%9D.jpg/330px-%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%94_%D7%A2%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%91%D7%9B%D7%AA%D7%91_%D7%95%D7%91%D7%9B%D7%AA%D7%91_%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99_%D7%94%D7%A7%D7%93%D7%95%D7%9D.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%94_%D7%A2%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%91%D7%9B%D7%AA%D7%91_%D7%95%D7%91%D7%9B%D7%AA%D7%91_%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99_%D7%94%D7%A7%D7%93%D7%95%D7%9D.jpg/440px-%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%94_%D7%A2%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%91%D7%9B%D7%AA%D7%91_%D7%95%D7%91%D7%9B%D7%AA%D7%91_%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99_%D7%94%D7%A7%D7%93%D7%95%D7%9D.jpg 2x" data-file-width="808" data-file-height="474" /></a><figcaption>The word IVRIT ("Hebrew") written in modern Hebrew language (top) and in <a href="/wiki/Paleo-Hebrew_alphabet" title="Paleo-Hebrew alphabet">Paleo-Hebrew alphabet</a> (bottom)</figcaption></figure> Hebrew (<a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew alphabet</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">עִבְרִית‎, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Hebrew" title="Romanization of Hebrew">ʿĪvrīt</a>, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style>pronounced <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Hebrew" title="Help:IPA/Hebrew">[ʔivˈʁit]</a> <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/8\/89\/He-Ivrit-2.ogg\/He-Ivrit-2.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"He-Ivrit-2.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/89/He-Ivrit-2.ogg/He-Ivrit-2.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"></a><a href="/wiki/File:He-Ivrit-2.ogg" title="File:He-Ivrit-2.ogg">ⓘ</a> or <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Hebrew" title="Help:IPA/Hebrew">[ʕivˈrit]</a> <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-2" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/2\/28\/Ivrit3.ogg\/Ivrit3.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Ivrit3.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/28/Ivrit3.ogg/Ivrit3.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"></a><a href="/wiki/File:Ivrit3.ogg" title="File:Ivrit3.ogg">ⓘ</a>; <a href="/wiki/Samaritan_script" title="Samaritan script">Samaritan script</a>: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r866777279">.mw-parser-output .script-samaritan{font-family:"Noto Sans Samaritan","Hebrew Samaritan","Everson Mono",EversonMono,Unifont,Quivira,sans-serif;direction:rtl;unicode-bidi:bidi-override}</style>ࠏࠨࠁࠬࠓࠪࠉࠕ‎ ʿÎbrit) is a <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Semitic_languages" title="Northwest Semitic languages">Northwest Semitic language</a> within the <a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic language family</a>. A regional dialect of the <a href="/wiki/Canaanite_languages" title="Canaanite languages">Canaanite languages</a>, it was natively spoken by the <a href="/wiki/Israelites" title="Israelites">Israelites</a> and remained in regular use as a first language until after 200 CE and as the <a href="/wiki/Sacred_language" title="Sacred language">liturgical language</a> of <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> (since the <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_period" title="Second Temple period">Second Temple period</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Samaritanism" title="Samaritanism">Samaritanism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-15">[14]</a> The language was <a href="/wiki/Revival_of_the_Hebrew_language" title="Revival of the Hebrew language">revived as a spoken language</a> in the 19th century, and is the only successful large-scale example of <a href="/wiki/Language_revitalization" title="Language revitalization">linguistic revival</a>. It is the only Canaanite language, as well as one of only two Northwest Semitic languages, with the other being <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a>, still spoken today.<a href="#cite_note-16">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[16]</a> The earliest examples of written <a href="/wiki/Paleo-Hebrew_alphabet" title="Paleo-Hebrew alphabet">Paleo-Hebrew</a> date back to the 10th century BCE.<a href="#cite_note-18">[17]</a> Nearly all of the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a> is written in <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical Hebrew</a>, with much of its present form in the dialect that scholars believe flourished around the 6th century BCE, during the time of the <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_captivity" title="Babylonian captivity">Babylonian captivity</a>. For this reason, Hebrew has been referred to by Jews as <a href="/wiki/Lashon_Hakodesh" title="Lashon Hakodesh">Lashon Hakodesh</a> (לְשׁוֹן הַקֹּדֶש, <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'the holy tongue' or 'the tongue [of] holiness') since ancient times. The language was not referred to by the name Hebrew in the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a>, but as Yehudit (<abbr title="translation">transl.</abbr> '<a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Israel_and_Judah" title="History of ancient Israel and Judah">Judean</a>') or Səpaṯ Kəna'an (<abbr title="translation">transl.</abbr> "the language of <a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaan</a>").<a href="#cite_note-ASB-2">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[note 2]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gittin" title="Gittin">Mishnah Gittin 9:8</a> refers to the language as Ivrit, meaning Hebrew; however, <a href="/wiki/Megillah_(Talmud)" title="Megillah (Talmud)">Mishnah Megillah</a> refers to the language as Ashurit, meaning <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a>, which is derived from the name of <a href="/wiki/Ktav_Ashuri" title="Ktav Ashuri">the alphabet used</a>, in contrast to Ivrit, meaning the <a href="/wiki/Paleo-Hebrew_alphabet" title="Paleo-Hebrew alphabet">Paleo-Hebrew alphabet</a>.<a href="#cite_note-20">[18]</a> Hebrew ceased to be a regular spoken language sometime between 200 and 400 CE, as it declined in the aftermath of the unsuccessful <a href="/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_revolt" title="Bar Kokhba revolt">Bar Kokhba revolt</a>, which was carried out against the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> by the Jews of <a href="/wiki/Judaea_(Roman_province)" title="Judaea (Roman province)">Judaea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-21">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-OxfordDictionaryChristianChurch-22">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sáenz-BadillosRH-24">[note 3]</a> Aramaic and, to a lesser extent, <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> were already in use as international languages, especially among societal elites and immigrants.<a href="#cite_note-25">[22]</a> Hebrew survived into the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">medieval period</a> as the language of <a href="/wiki/Jewish_liturgy" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish liturgy">Jewish liturgy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_literature" title="Rabbinic literature">rabbinic literature</a>, intra-Jewish commerce, and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_literature#Poetry" title="Jewish literature">Jewish poetic literature</a>. The first dated book printed in Hebrew was published by <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Garton" title="Abraham Garton">Abraham Garton</a> in <a href="/wiki/Reggio_Calabria" title="Reggio Calabria">Reggio</a> (<a href="/wiki/Calabria" title="Calabria">Calabria</a>, Italy) in 1475.<a href="#cite_note-26">[23]</a> With the rise of <a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a> in the 19th century, the Hebrew language <a href="/wiki/Revival_of_the_Hebrew_language" title="Revival of the Hebrew language">experienced a full-scale revival</a> as a spoken and literary language. The creation of a modern version of the ancient language was led by <a href="/wiki/Eliezer_Ben-Yehuda" title="Eliezer Ben-Yehuda">Eliezer Ben-Yehuda</a>. <a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern Hebrew</a> (Ivrit) became the main language of the <a href="/wiki/Yishuv" title="Yishuv">Yishuv</a> in <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a>, and subsequently the <a href="/wiki/Official_language" title="Official language">official language</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">State of Israel</a>. Estimates of worldwide usage include five million speakers in 1998,<a href="#cite_note-eth-5">[4]</a> and over nine million people in 2013.<a href="#cite_note-bhol-27">[24]</a> After Israel, the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> has the largest Hebrew-speaking population, with approximately 220,000 fluent speakers (see <a href="/wiki/Israeli_Americans" title="Israeli Americans">Israeli Americans</a> and <a href="/wiki/American_Jews" title="American Jews">Jewish Americans</a>).<a href="#cite_note-2009survey-28">[25]</a> <a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern Hebrew</a> is the <a href="/wiki/Official_language" title="Official language">official language</a> of the State of Israel,<a href="#cite_note-29">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[27]</a> while pre-revival forms of Hebrew are used for prayer or study in Jewish and Samaritan communities around the world today; the latter group utilizes the <a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Hebrew" title="Samaritan Hebrew">Samaritan dialect</a> as their liturgical tongue. As a non-<a href="/wiki/First_language" title="First language">first language</a>, it is studied mostly by non-Israeli Jews and students in Israel, by <a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_Israel" title="Archaeology of Israel">archaeologists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguists</a> specializing in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Middle_East" title="History of the Middle East">its civilizations</a>, and by theologians in <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a> <a href="/wiki/Seminary" title="Seminary">seminaries</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div> The modern <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> word "Hebrew" is derived from <a href="/wiki/Old_French" title="Old French">Old French</a> Ebrau, via <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> Ἑβραῖος (hebraîos) and <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a> 'ibrāy, all ultimately derived from <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical Hebrew</a> Ivri (עברי), one of several names for the <a href="/wiki/Israelites" title="Israelites">Israelite</a> (<a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jewish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Samaritans" title="Samaritans">Samaritan</a>) people (<a href="/wiki/Hebrews" title="Hebrews">Hebrews</a>). It is traditionally understood to be an adjective based on the name of <a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</a>'s ancestor, <a href="/wiki/Eber" title="Eber">Eber</a>, mentioned in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Genesis%2010:21&version=nrsv">Genesis 10:21</a>. The name is believed to be based on the <a href="/wiki/Semitic_root" title="Semitic root">Semitic root</a> ʕ-b-r (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">ע־ב־ר‎), meaning "beyond", "other side", "across";<a href="#cite_note-31">[28]</a> interpretations of the term "Hebrew" generally render its meaning as roughly "from the other side [of the river/desert]"—i.e., an <a href="/wiki/Exonym_and_endonym" class="mw-redirect" title="Exonym and endonym">exonym</a> for the inhabitants of the land of <a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Israel_and_Judah" title="History of ancient Israel and Judah">Israel and Judah</a>, perhaps from the perspective of <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a> or <a href="/wiki/Transjordan_(region)" title="Transjordan (region)">Transjordan</a> (with the river referred to being perhaps the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jordan_River" title="Jordan River">Jordan</a> or <a href="/wiki/Litani_River" title="Litani River">Litani</a>; or maybe the northern <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Desert" title="Arabian Desert">Arabian Desert</a> between <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaan</a>).<a href="#cite_note-32">[29]</a> Compare the word <a href="/wiki/Habiru" class="mw-redirect" title="Habiru">Habiru</a> or cognate <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Assyrian</a> ebru, of identical meaning.<a href="#cite_note-33">[30]</a> One of the earliest references to the language's name as "Ivrit" is found in the prologue to the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Sirach" title="Book of Sirach">Book of Sirach</a>,<a href="#cite_note-34">[note 4]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] from the 2nd century BCE.<a href="#cite_note-Xeravits-35">[31]</a> The Hebrew Bible does not use the term "Hebrew" in reference to the language of the Hebrew people;<a href="#cite_note-36">[32]</a> its later historiography, in the <a href="/wiki/Books_of_Kings" title="Books of Kings">Book of Kings</a>, refers to it as יְהוּדִית Yehudit "<a href="/wiki/Tribe_of_Judah" title="Tribe of Judah">Judahite</a> (language)".<a href="#cite_note-37">[33]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> Hebrew belongs to the <a href="/wiki/Canaanite_languages" title="Canaanite languages">Canaanite group of languages</a>. Canaanite languages are a branch of the <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Semitic_languages" title="Northwest Semitic languages">Northwest Semitic</a> family of languages.<a href="#cite_note-38">[34]</a> Hebrew was the spoken language in the Iron Age kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(Samaria)" title="Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)">Israel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah">Judah</a> during the period from about 1200 to 586 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-39">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-40">[36]</a> Epigraphic evidence from this period confirms the widely accepted view that the earlier layers of biblical literature reflect the language used in these kingdoms.<a href="#cite_note-:0-40">[36]</a> Furthermore, the content of Hebrew inscriptions suggests that the written texts closely mirror the spoken language of that time.<a href="#cite_note-:0-40">[36]</a> Scholars debate the degree to which Hebrew was a spoken vernacular in ancient times following the <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_exile" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylonian exile">Babylonian exile</a> when the predominant international language in the region was <a href="/wiki/Old_Aramaic" title="Old Aramaic">Old Aramaic</a>. Hebrew was extinct as a colloquial language by <a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">late antiquity</a>, but it continued to be used as a literary language, especially in Spain, as the language of commerce between Jews of different native languages, and as the liturgical language of Judaism, evolving various dialects of literary <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Hebrew" title="Medieval Hebrew">Medieval Hebrew</a>, until its <a href="/wiki/Revival_of_the_Hebrew_language" title="Revival of the Hebrew language">revival as a spoken language</a> in the late 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-41">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oldest_Hebrew_inscriptions">Oldest Hebrew inscriptions</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Paleo-Hebrew_alphabet" title="Paleo-Hebrew alphabet">Paleo-Hebrew alphabet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Hebrew_writings" title="Ancient Hebrew writings">Ancient Hebrew writings</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Silwan-inscr.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Silwan-inscr.jpg/220px-Silwan-inscr.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="66" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Silwan-inscr.jpg/330px-Silwan-inscr.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Silwan-inscr.jpg/440px-Silwan-inscr.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="681" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Royal_Steward_inscription" title="Royal Steward inscription">Shebna Inscription</a>, from the tomb of a royal steward found in <a href="/wiki/Siloam" class="mw-redirect" title="Siloam">Siloam</a>, dates to the 7th century BCE.</figcaption></figure> In May 2023, Scott Stripling published the finding of what he claims to be the oldest known Hebrew inscription, a <a href="/wiki/Mount_Ebal_curse_tablet" title="Mount Ebal curse tablet">curse tablet found at Mount Ebal</a>, dated from around 3200 years ago. The presence of the Hebrew <a href="/wiki/Names_of_God_in_Judaism" title="Names of God in Judaism">name of god</a>, Yahweh, as three letters, Yod-Heh-Vav (YHV), according to the author and his team meant that the tablet is Hebrew and not Canaanite.<a href="#cite_note-43">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[40]</a> However, practically all professional archeologists and epigraphers apart from Stripling's team claim that there is no text on this object.<a href="#cite_note-45">[41]</a> In July 2008, Israeli archaeologist <a href="/wiki/Yosef_Garfinkel" title="Yosef Garfinkel">Yossi Garfinkel</a> discovered <a href="/wiki/Khirbet_Qeiyafa_ostracon" title="Khirbet Qeiyafa ostracon">a ceramic shard</a> at <a href="/wiki/Khirbet_Qeiyafa" title="Khirbet Qeiyafa">Khirbet Qeiyafa</a> that he claimed may be the earliest Hebrew writing yet discovered, dating from around 3,000 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-46">[42]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_University_of_Jerusalem" title="Hebrew University of Jerusalem">Hebrew University</a> archaeologist <a href="/wiki/Amihai_Mazar" title="Amihai Mazar">Amihai Mazar</a> said that the inscription was "proto-Canaanite" but cautioned that "[t]he differentiation between the scripts, and between the languages themselves in that period, remains unclear", and suggested that calling the text Hebrew might be going too far.<a href="#cite_note-47">[43]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Gezer_calendar" title="Gezer calendar">Gezer calendar</a> also dates back to the 10th century BCE at the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Monarchic_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Monarchic period">Monarchic period</a>, the traditional time of the reign of <a href="/wiki/David" title="David">David</a> and <a href="/wiki/Solomon" title="Solomon">Solomon</a>. Classified as <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Archaic Biblical Hebrew</a>, the calendar presents a list of seasons and related agricultural activities. The Gezer calendar (named after <a href="/wiki/Gezer" title="Gezer">the city</a> in whose proximity it was found) is written in an old Semitic script, akin to the <a href="/wiki/Phoenician_alphabet" title="Phoenician alphabet">Phoenician</a> one that, through the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greeks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_civilization" title="Etruscan civilization">Etruscans</a>, later became the <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">ancient Rome</a>. The Gezer calendar is written without any <a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">vowels</a>, and it does not use <a href="/wiki/Mater_lectionis" title="Mater lectionis">consonants to imply vowels</a> even in the places in which later Hebrew spelling requires them. Numerous older tablets have been found in the region with similar scripts written in other Semitic languages, for example, <a href="/wiki/Proto-Sinaitic_script" title="Proto-Sinaitic script">Proto-Sinaitic</a>. It is believed that the original shapes of the script go back to <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Egyptian hieroglyphs</a>, though the phonetic values are instead inspired by the <a href="/wiki/Acrophonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Acrophonic">acrophonic</a> principle. The common ancestor of Hebrew and Phoenician is called <a href="/wiki/Canaanite_languages" title="Canaanite languages">Canaanite</a>, and was the first to use a Semitic alphabet distinct from that of Egyptian. One ancient document is the famous <a href="/wiki/Mesha_Stele" title="Mesha Stele">Moabite Stone</a>, written in the Moabite dialect; the <a href="/wiki/Siloam_inscription" title="Siloam inscription">Siloam inscription</a>, found near <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>, is an early example of Hebrew. Less ancient samples of Archaic Hebrew include the <a href="/wiki/Lachish_letters" title="Lachish letters">ostraca found near Lachish</a>, which describe events preceding the final capture of Jerusalem by <a href="/wiki/Nebuchadnezzar_II_of_Babylon" class="mw-redirect" title="Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon">Nebuchadnezzar</a> and the Babylonian captivity of 586 BCE. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical_Hebrew">Classical Hebrew</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Biblical_Hebrew">Biblical Hebrew</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical Hebrew</a></div> In its widest sense, Biblical Hebrew refers to the spoken language of ancient Israel flourishing between <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1000 BCE and <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 400 CE.<a href="#cite_note-dvbrbw-48">[44]</a> It comprises several evolving and overlapping dialects. The phases of Classical Hebrew are often named after important literary works associated with them. <ul><li>Archaic Biblical Hebrew, also called Old Hebrew or Paleo-Hebrew, from the 10th to the 6th century BCE, corresponding to the Monarchic Period until the <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_captivity" title="Babylonian captivity">Babylonian exile</a> and represented by certain texts in the Hebrew Bible (<a href="/wiki/Tanakh" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanakh">Tanakh</a>), notably the <a href="/wiki/Song_of_Moses" title="Song of Moses">Song of Moses</a> (Exodus 15) and the <a href="/wiki/Song_of_Deborah" class="mw-redirect" title="Song of Deborah">Song of Deborah</a> (Judges 5). It was written in the <a href="/wiki/Paleo-Hebrew_alphabet" title="Paleo-Hebrew alphabet">Paleo-Hebrew alphabet</a>. A script descended from this, the <a href="/wiki/Samaritan_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Samaritan alphabet">Samaritan alphabet</a>, is still used by the <a href="/wiki/Samaritans" title="Samaritans">Samaritans</a>.</li> <li><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sefer-torah-vayehi-binsoa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Sefer-torah-vayehi-binsoa.jpg/220px-Sefer-torah-vayehi-binsoa.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Sefer-torah-vayehi-binsoa.jpg/330px-Sefer-torah-vayehi-binsoa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Sefer-torah-vayehi-binsoa.jpg/440px-Sefer-torah-vayehi-binsoa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="448" data-file-height="142" /></a><figcaption>Hebrew script used in <a href="/wiki/Ktav_Stam" title="Ktav Stam">writing a Torah scroll</a>. Note ornamental "<a href="/wiki/Ktav_Stam#Serifs_(tagin)" title="Ktav Stam">crowns</a>" on tops of certain letters.</figcaption></figure> Standard Biblical Hebrew, also called Biblical Hebrew, Early Biblical Hebrew, Classical Biblical Hebrew or Classical Hebrew (in the narrowest sense), around the 8th to 6th centuries BCE, corresponding to the late Monarchic period and the Babylonian exile. It is represented by the bulk of the Hebrew Bible that attains much of its present form around this time.</li> <li>Late Biblical Hebrew, from the 5th to the 3rd centuries BCE, corresponding to the <a href="/wiki/Persian_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian period">Persian period</a> and represented by certain texts in the Hebrew Bible, notably the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. Basically similar to Classical Biblical Hebrew, apart from a few foreign words adopted for mainly governmental terms, and some syntactical innovations such as the use of the particle she- (alternative of "asher", meaning "that, which, who"). It adopted the <a href="/wiki/Aramaic_alphabet" title="Aramaic alphabet">Imperial Aramaic script</a> (from which the modern Hebrew script descends).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israelian_Hebrew" title="Israelian Hebrew">Israelian Hebrew</a> is a proposed northern dialect of biblical Hebrew, believed to have existed in all eras of the language, in some cases competing with late biblical Hebrew as an explanation for non-standard linguistic features of biblical texts.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Early_post-Biblical_Hebrew">Early post-Biblical Hebrew</h4></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dead_Sea_Scrolls" title="Dead Sea Scrolls">Dead Sea Scroll</a> Hebrew from the 3rd century BCE to the 1st century CE, corresponding to the Hellenistic and Roman Periods before the <a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_the_Temple" class="mw-redirect" title="Destruction of the Temple">destruction of the Temple</a> in Jerusalem, and represented by the Qumran Scrolls that form most (but not all) of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Commonly abbreviated as DSS Hebrew, also called Qumran Hebrew. The Imperial Aramaic script of the earlier scrolls in the 3rd century BCE evolved into the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_square_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Hebrew square script">Hebrew square script</a> of the later scrolls in the 1st century CE, also known as ketav Ashuri (Assyrian script), still in use today.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Mishnaic Hebrew</a> from the 1st to the 3rd or 4th century CE, corresponding to the Roman Period after the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem and represented by the bulk of the <a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tosefta" title="Tosefta">Tosefta</a> within the <a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmud</a> and by the Dead Sea Scrolls, notably the <a href="/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_revolt" title="Bar Kokhba revolt">Bar Kokhba</a> letters and the <a href="/wiki/Copper_Scroll" title="Copper Scroll">Copper Scroll</a>. Also called Tannaitic Hebrew or Early Rabbinic Hebrew.</li></ul> Sometimes the above phases of spoken Classical Hebrew are simplified into "Biblical Hebrew" (including several dialects from the 10th century BCE to 2nd century BCE and extant in certain Dead Sea Scrolls) and "Mishnaic Hebrew" (including several dialects from the 3rd century BCE to the 3rd century CE and extant in certain other Dead Sea Scrolls).<a href="#cite_note-Segal-49">[45]</a> However, today most Hebrew linguists classify Dead Sea Scroll Hebrew as a set of dialects evolving out of Late Biblical Hebrew and into Mishnaic Hebrew, thus including elements from both but remaining distinct from either.<a href="#cite_note-Qimron-50">[46]</a> By the start of the Byzantine Period in the 4th century CE, Classical Hebrew ceased as a regularly spoken language, roughly a century after the publication of the Mishnah, apparently declining since the aftermath of the catastrophic <a href="/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_revolt" title="Bar Kokhba revolt">Bar Kokhba revolt</a> around 135 CE. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Displacement_by_Aramaic">Displacement by Aramaic</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Aramaic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Aramaic language">Aramaic language</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rashiscript.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Rashiscript.PNG/220px-Rashiscript.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="56" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Rashiscript.PNG/330px-Rashiscript.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/Rashiscript.PNG 2x" data-file-width="341" data-file-height="87" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Rashi_script" title="Rashi script">Rashi script</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%A8%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_-_Shabbat_matchbox_holder.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/%D0%A8%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_-_Shabbat_matchbox_holder.jpg/220px-%D0%A8%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_-_Shabbat_matchbox_holder.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/%D0%A8%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_-_Shabbat_matchbox_holder.jpg/330px-%D0%A8%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_-_Shabbat_matchbox_holder.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/%D0%A8%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_-_Shabbat_matchbox_holder.jpg/440px-%D0%A8%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_-_Shabbat_matchbox_holder.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3634" data-file-height="2877" /></a><figcaption>A silver matchbox holder with inscription in Hebrew</figcaption></figure> In the early 6th century BCE, the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a> conquered the ancient <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah">Kingdom of Judah</a>, destroying much of <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> and exiling its population far to the east in <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a>. During the <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_captivity" title="Babylonian captivity">Babylonian captivity</a>, many <a href="/wiki/Israelites" title="Israelites">Israelites</a> learned Aramaic, the closely related Semitic language of their captors. Thus, for a significant period, the <a href="/wiki/Jewish" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish">Jewish</a> elite became influenced by Aramaic.<a href="#cite_note-51">[47]</a> After <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus the Great</a> conquered Babylon, he allowed the Jewish people to return from captivity.<a href="#cite_note-52">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[49]</a> In time, a local version of Aramaic came to be spoken in Israel alongside Hebrew. By the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">Common Era</a>, Aramaic was the primary colloquial language of <a href="/wiki/Samaria" title="Samaria">Samarian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Galilee" title="Galilee">Galileean</a> Jews, and western and intellectual Jews spoke <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] but a form of so-called <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_Hebrew" class="mw-redirect" title="Rabbinic Hebrew">Rabbinic Hebrew</a> continued to be used as a vernacular in Judea until it was displaced by Aramaic, probably in the 3rd century CE. Certain <a href="/wiki/Sadducees" title="Sadducees">Sadducee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pharisees" title="Pharisees">Pharisee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scribe#Judaism" title="Scribe">Scribe</a>, Hermit, Zealot and Priest classes maintained an insistence on Hebrew, and all Jews maintained their identity with Hebrew songs and simple quotations from Hebrew texts.<a href="#cite_note-ASB170-23">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Spolsky99-54">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fernandez-55">[51]</a> While there is no doubt that at a certain point, Hebrew was displaced as the everyday spoken language of most Jews, and that its chief successor in the Middle East was the closely related Aramaic language, then <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Spolsky99-54">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sáenz-BadillosRH-24">[note 3]</a> scholarly opinions on the exact dating of that shift have changed very much.<a href="#cite_note-OxfordDictionaryChristianChurch-22">[20]</a> In the first half of the 20th century, most scholars followed <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Geiger" title="Abraham Geiger">Abraham Geiger</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gustaf_Dalman" title="Gustaf Dalman">Gustaf Dalman</a> in thinking that Aramaic became a spoken language in the land of Israel as early as the beginning of Israel's <a href="/wiki/History_of_Palestine#Hellenistic_period" title="History of Palestine">Hellenistic period</a> in the 4th century BCE, and that as a corollary Hebrew ceased to function as a spoken language around the same time. <a href="/wiki/Moshe_Zvi_Segal" title="Moshe Zvi Segal">Moshe Zvi Segal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Klausner" title="Joseph Klausner">Joseph Klausner</a> and Ben Yehuda are notable exceptions to this view. During the latter half of the 20th century, accumulating archaeological evidence and especially linguistic analysis of the Dead Sea Scrolls has disproven that view. The Dead Sea Scrolls, uncovered in 1946–1948 near <a href="/wiki/Qumran" title="Qumran">Qumran</a> revealed ancient Jewish texts overwhelmingly in Hebrew, not Aramaic. The Qumran scrolls indicate that Hebrew texts were readily understandable to the average Jew, and that the language had evolved since Biblical times as spoken languages do.<a href="#cite_note-57">[note 5]</a> Recent scholarship recognizes that reports of Jews speaking in Aramaic indicate a multilingual society, not necessarily the primary language spoken. Alongside Aramaic, Hebrew co-existed within Israel as a spoken language.<a href="#cite_note-Judaism460-58">[53]</a> Most scholars now date the demise of Hebrew as a spoken language to the end of the <a href="/wiki/Judea_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Judea (Roman province)">Roman period</a>, or about 200 CE.<a href="#cite_note-59">[54]</a> It continued on as a literary language down through the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Palestine#Byzantine_period" title="History of Palestine">Byzantine period</a> from the 4th century CE. The exact roles of Aramaic and Hebrew remain hotly debated. A trilingual scenario has been proposed for the land of Israel. Hebrew functioned as the local <a href="/wiki/Mother_tongue" class="mw-redirect" title="Mother tongue">mother tongue</a> with powerful ties to Israel's history, origins and golden age and as the language of Israel's religion; Aramaic functioned as the international language with the rest of the Middle East; and eventually Greek functioned as another international language with the eastern areas of the Roman Empire.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <a href="/wiki/William_Schniedewind" title="William Schniedewind">William Schniedewind</a> argues that after waning in the Persian period, the religious importance of Hebrew grew in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, and cites epigraphical evidence that Hebrew survived as a vernacular language – though both its grammar and its writing system had been substantially influenced by Aramaic.<a href="#cite_note-Schniedewind-60">[55]</a> According to another summary, Greek was the language of government, Hebrew the language of prayer, study and religious texts, and Aramaic was the language of legal contracts and trade.<a href="#cite_note-spolsky85-61">[56]</a> There was also a geographic pattern: according to <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Spolsky" title="Bernard Spolsky">Bernard Spolsky</a>, by the beginning of the Common Era, "<a href="/wiki/Judeo-Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Aramaic">Judeo-Aramaic</a> was mainly used in Galilee in the north, Greek was concentrated in the former colonies and around governmental centers, and Hebrew monolingualism continued mainly in the southern villages of Judea."<a href="#cite_note-Spolsky99-54">[50]</a> In other words, "in terms of dialect geography, at the time of the <a href="/wiki/Tannaim" title="Tannaim">tannaim</a> Palestine could be divided into the Aramaic-speaking regions of Galilee and Samaria and a smaller area, Judaea, in which <a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Rabbinic Hebrew</a> was used among the descendants of returning exiles."<a href="#cite_note-ASB170-23">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fernandez-55">[51]</a> In addition, it has been surmised that <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine Greek</a> was the primary vehicle of communication in coastal cities and among the upper class of <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>, while Aramaic was prevalent in the lower class of Jerusalem, but not in the surrounding countryside.<a href="#cite_note-spolsky85-61">[56]</a> After the suppression of the <a href="/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_revolt" title="Bar Kokhba revolt">Bar Kokhba revolt</a> in the 2nd century CE, Judaeans were forced to disperse. Many relocated to Galilee, so most remaining native speakers of Hebrew at that last stage would have been found in the north.<a href="#cite_note-spolsky85b-62">[57]</a> Many scholars have pointed out that Hebrew continued to be used alongside Aramaic during Second Temple times, not only for religious purposes but also for nationalistic reasons, especially during revolts such as the <a href="/wiki/Maccabean_Revolt" title="Maccabean Revolt">Maccabean Revolt</a> (167–160 BCE) and the emergence of the <a href="/wiki/Hasmonean_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Hasmonean kingdom">Hasmonean kingdom</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Great_Jewish_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Jewish Revolt">Great Jewish Revolt</a> (66–73 CE), and the <a href="/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_revolt" title="Bar Kokhba revolt">Bar Kokhba revolt</a> (132–135 CE).<a href="#cite_note-:02-63">[58]</a> The nationalist significance of Hebrew manifested in various ways throughout this period. Michael Owen Wise notes that "Beginning with the time of the Hasmonean revolt [...] Hebrew came to the fore in an expression akin to modern nationalism. A form of classical Hebrew was now a more significant written language than Aramaic within Judaea."<a href="#cite_note-64">[59]</a> This nationalist aspect was further emphasized during periods of conflict, as Hannah Cotton observing in her analysis of legal documents during the Jewish revolts against Rome that "Hebrew became the symbol of Jewish nationalism, of the independent Jewish State."<a href="#cite_note-65">[60]</a> The nationalist use of Hebrew is evidenced in several historical documents and artefacts, including the composition of 1 Maccabees in archaizing Hebrew, <a href="/wiki/Hasmonean_coinage" title="Hasmonean coinage">Hasmonean coinage</a> under <a href="/wiki/John_Hyrcanus" title="John Hyrcanus">John Hyrcanus</a> (134-104 BCE), and coins from both the Great Revolt and Bar Kokhba Revolt featuring exclusively Hebrew and Palaeo-Hebrew script inscriptions.<a href="#cite_note-:1-66">[61]</a> This deliberate use of Hebrew and Paleo-Hebrew script in official contexts, despite limited literacy, served as a symbol of Jewish nationalism and political independence.<a href="#cite_note-:1-66">[61]</a> The Christian <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> contains some Semitic place names and quotes.<a href="#cite_note-67">[62]</a> The language of such Semitic glosses (and in general the language spoken by Jews in scenes from the New Testament) is often referred to as "Hebrew" in the text,<a href="#cite_note-68">[63]</a> although this term is often re-interpreted as referring to Aramaic instead<a href="#cite_note-69">[note 6]</a><a href="#cite_note-71">[note 7]</a> and is rendered accordingly in recent translations.<a href="#cite_note-72">[65]</a> Nonetheless, these glosses can be interpreted as Hebrew as well.<a href="#cite_note-73">[66]</a> It has been argued that Hebrew, rather than Aramaic or Koine Greek, lay behind the composition of the <a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_Matthew" title="Gospel of Matthew">Gospel of Matthew</a>.<a href="#cite_note-74">[67]</a> (See the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Gospel_hypothesis" title="Hebrew Gospel hypothesis">Hebrew Gospel hypothesis</a> or <a href="/wiki/Language_of_Jesus" title="Language of Jesus">Language of Jesus</a> for more details on Hebrew and Aramaic in the gospels.) <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mishnah_and_Talmud">Mishnah and Talmud</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Mishnaic Hebrew</a></div> The term "Mishnaic Hebrew" generally refers to the Hebrew dialects found in the <a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmud</a>, excepting quotations from the Hebrew Bible. The dialects organize into Mishnaic Hebrew (also called <a href="/wiki/Tannaim" title="Tannaim">Tannaitic</a> Hebrew, Early Rabbinic Hebrew, or <a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnaic</a> Hebrew I), which was a <a href="/wiki/Spoken_language" title="Spoken language">spoken language</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Amoraim" title="Amoraim">Amoraic</a> Hebrew (also called Late Rabbinic Hebrew or Mishnaic Hebrew II), which was a <a href="/wiki/Literary_language" title="Literary language">literary language</a>. The earlier section of the Talmud is the Mishnah that was published around 200 CE, although many of the stories take place much earlier, and were written in the earlier Mishnaic dialect. The dialect is also found in certain Dead Sea Scrolls. Mishnaic Hebrew is considered to be one of the dialects of Classical Hebrew that functioned as a living language in the land of Israel. A transitional form of the language occurs in the other works of Tannaitic literature dating from the century beginning with the completion of the Mishnah. These include the <a href="/wiki/Midrash_halakha" title="Midrash halakha">halachic</a> <a href="/wiki/Midrash" title="Midrash">Midrashim</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sifra" title="Sifra">Sifra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sifre" title="Sifre">Sifre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mekhilta_of_Rabbi_Ishmael" title="Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael">Mekhilta</a> etc.) and the expanded collection of Mishnah-related material known as the <a href="/wiki/Tosefta" title="Tosefta">Tosefta</a>. The Talmud contains excerpts from these works, as well as further Tannaitic material not attested elsewhere; the generic term for these passages is <a href="/wiki/Baraita" title="Baraita">Baraitot</a>. The dialect of all these works is very similar to Mishnaic Hebrew. About a century after the publication of the Mishnah, Mishnaic Hebrew fell into disuse as a spoken language. By the third century CE, sages could no longer identify the Hebrew names of many plants mentioned in the Mishnah. Only a few sages, primarily in the southern regions, retained the ability to speak the language and attempted to promote its use.<a href="#cite_note-:3-75">[68]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem_Talmud" title="Jerusalem Talmud">Jerusalem Talmud</a>, Megillah 1:9: "Rebbi Jonathan from <a href="/wiki/Beit_Guvrin-Maresha_National_Park" title="Beit Guvrin-Maresha National Park">Bet Guvrrin</a> said, four languages are appropriate that the world should use them, and they are these: The Foreign Language (Greek) for song, Latin for war, Syriac for elegies, Hebrew for speech. Some are saying, also Assyrian (Hebrew script) for writing."<a href="#cite_note-76">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-75">[68]</a> The later section of the Talmud, the <a href="/wiki/Gemara" title="Gemara">Gemara</a>, generally comments on the Mishnah and Baraitot in two forms of Aramaic. Nevertheless, Hebrew survived as a liturgical and literary language in the form of later Amoraic Hebrew, which occasionally appears in the text of the Gemara, particularly in the Jerusalem Talmud and the classical <a href="/wiki/Aggadah" title="Aggadah">aggadah midrashes</a>. Hebrew was always regarded as the language of Israel's religion, history and national pride, and after it faded as a spoken language, it continued to be used as a <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a> among scholars and Jews traveling in foreign countries.<a href="#cite_note-77">[70]</a> After the 2nd century CE when the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> exiled most of the Jewish population of Jerusalem following the <a href="/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_revolt" title="Bar Kokhba revolt">Bar Kokhba revolt</a>, they adapted to the societies in which they found themselves, yet letters, contracts, commerce, science, philosophy, medicine, poetry and laws continued to be written mostly in Hebrew, which adapted by borrowing and inventing terms. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval_Hebrew">Medieval Hebrew</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Hebrew" title="Medieval Hebrew">Medieval Hebrew</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aleppo_Codex_Joshua_1_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Aleppo_Codex_Joshua_1_1.jpg/220px-Aleppo_Codex_Joshua_1_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Aleppo_Codex_Joshua_1_1.jpg/330px-Aleppo_Codex_Joshua_1_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Aleppo_Codex_Joshua_1_1.jpg/440px-Aleppo_Codex_Joshua_1_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="743" data-file-height="366" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Aleppo_Codex" title="Aleppo Codex">Aleppo Codex</a>: 10th century <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a> with <a href="/wiki/Masoretes" title="Masoretes">Masoretic</a> pointing (Joshua 1:1).</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cochin_Jewish_Inscription.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Cochin_Jewish_Inscription.JPG/220px-Cochin_Jewish_Inscription.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Cochin_Jewish_Inscription.JPG/330px-Cochin_Jewish_Inscription.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Cochin_Jewish_Inscription.JPG/440px-Cochin_Jewish_Inscription.JPG 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="492" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Kochangadi_Synagogue" title="Kochangadi Synagogue">Kochangadi Synagogue</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kochi" title="Kochi">Kochi</a>, India, dated to 1344</figcaption></figure> After the Talmud, various regional literary dialects of <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Hebrew" title="Medieval Hebrew">Medieval Hebrew</a> evolved. The most important is <a href="/wiki/Tiberian_Hebrew" title="Tiberian Hebrew">Tiberian Hebrew</a> or Masoretic Hebrew, a local dialect of <a href="/wiki/Tiberias" title="Tiberias">Tiberias</a> in <a href="/wiki/Galilee" title="Galilee">Galilee</a> that became the standard for vocalizing the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a> and thus still influences all other regional dialects of Hebrew. This Tiberian Hebrew from the 7th to 10th century CE is sometimes called "Biblical Hebrew" because it is used to pronounce the Hebrew Bible; however, properly it should be distinguished from the historical Biblical Hebrew of the 6th century BCE, whose original pronunciation must be reconstructed. Tiberian Hebrew incorporates the scholarship of the <a href="/wiki/Masoretes" title="Masoretes">Masoretes</a> (from masoret meaning "tradition"), who added <a href="/wiki/Niqqud" title="Niqqud">vowel points</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_cantillation" title="Hebrew cantillation">grammar points</a> to the Hebrew letters to preserve much earlier features of Hebrew, for use in chanting the Hebrew Bible. The Masoretes inherited a biblical text whose letters were considered too sacred to be altered, so their markings were in the form of pointing in and around the letters. The <a href="/wiki/Syriac_alphabet" title="Syriac alphabet">Syriac alphabet</a>, precursor to the <a href="/wiki/Arabic_alphabet" title="Arabic alphabet">Arabic alphabet</a>, also developed vowel pointing systems around this time. The <a href="/wiki/Aleppo_Codex" title="Aleppo Codex">Aleppo Codex</a>, a Hebrew Bible with the Masoretic pointing, was written in the 10th century, likely in Tiberias, and survives into the present day. It is perhaps the most important Hebrew manuscript in existence. During the <a href="/wiki/Golden_age_of_Jewish_culture_in_Spain" title="Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain">Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain</a>, important work was done by grammarians in explaining the grammar and vocabulary of Biblical Hebrew; much of this was based on the work of the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_grammatical_tradition" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic grammatical tradition">grammarians</a> of <a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical Arabic</a>. Important Hebrew grammarians were <a href="/wiki/Judah_ben_David_Hayyuj" title="Judah ben David Hayyuj">Judah ben David Hayyuj</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jonah_ibn_Janah" title="Jonah ibn Janah">Jonah ibn Janah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abraham_ibn_Ezra" title="Abraham ibn Ezra">Abraham ibn Ezra</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[71]</a> and later (in <a href="/wiki/Provence" title="Provence">Provence</a>), <a href="/wiki/David_Kimhi" title="David Kimhi">David Kimhi</a>. A great deal of poetry was written, by poets such as <a href="/wiki/Dunash_ben_Labrat" title="Dunash ben Labrat">Dunash ben Labrat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solomon_ibn_Gabirol" title="Solomon ibn Gabirol">Solomon ibn Gabirol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judah_ha-Levi" class="mw-redirect" title="Judah ha-Levi">Judah ha-Levi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moses_ibn_Ezra" title="Moses ibn Ezra">Moses ibn Ezra</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abraham_ibn_Ezra" title="Abraham ibn Ezra">Abraham ibn Ezra</a>, in a "purified" Hebrew based on the work of these grammarians, and in Arabic quantitative or strophic meters. This literary Hebrew was later used by Italian Jewish poets.<a href="#cite_note-79">[72]</a> The need to express scientific and philosophical concepts from <a href="/wiki/Classical_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Greek language">Classical Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Medieval Arabic</a> motivated Medieval Hebrew to borrow terminology and grammar from these other languages, or to coin equivalent terms from existing Hebrew roots, giving rise to a distinct style of philosophical Hebrew. This is used in the translations made by the <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tibbon" title="Ibn Tibbon">Ibn Tibbon</a> family. (Original Jewish philosophical works were usually written in Arabic.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]) Another important influence was <a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a>, who developed a simple style based on <a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Mishnaic Hebrew</a> for use in his law code, the <a href="/wiki/Mishneh_Torah" title="Mishneh Torah">Mishneh Torah</a>. Subsequent rabbinic literature is written in a blend between this style and the Aramaized Rabbinic Hebrew of the Talmud. Hebrew persevered through the ages as the main language for written purposes by all Jewish communities around the world for a large range of uses—not only liturgy, but also poetry, philosophy, science and medicine, commerce, daily correspondence and contracts. There have been many deviations from this generalization such as <a href="/wiki/Simon_bar_Kokhba" title="Simon bar Kokhba">Bar Kokhba</a>'s letters to his lieutenants, which were mostly in Aramaic,<a href="#cite_note-80">[73]</a> and Maimonides' writings, which were mostly in Arabic;<a href="#cite_note-81">[74]</a> but overall, Hebrew did not cease to be used for such purposes. For example, the first Middle East printing press, in Safed (modern Israel), produced a small number of books in Hebrew in 1577, which were then sold to the nearby Jewish world.<a href="#cite_note-82">[75]</a> This meant not only that well-educated Jews in all parts of the world could correspond in a <a href="/wiki/Mutually_intelligible" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutually intelligible">mutually intelligible</a> language, and that books and legal documents published or written in any part of the world could be read by Jews in all other parts, but that an educated Jew could travel and converse with Jews in distant places, just as priests and other educated Christians could converse in Latin. For example, Rabbi <a href="/wiki/Avraham_Danzig" title="Avraham Danzig">Avraham Danzig</a> wrote the <a href="/wiki/Chayei_Adam" title="Chayei Adam">Chayei Adam</a> in Hebrew, as opposed to <a href="/wiki/Yiddish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Yiddish language">Yiddish</a>, as a guide to <a href="/wiki/Halacha" class="mw-redirect" title="Halacha">Halacha</a> for the "average 17-year-old" (Ibid. Introduction 1). Similarly, Rabbi <a href="/wiki/Yisrael_Meir_Kagan" title="Yisrael Meir Kagan">Yisrael Meir Kagan</a>'s purpose in writing the <a href="/wiki/Mishnah_Berurah" title="Mishnah Berurah">Mishnah Berurah</a> was to "produce a work that could be studied daily so that Jews might know the proper procedures to follow minute by minute". The work was nevertheless written in Talmudic Hebrew and Aramaic, since, "the ordinary Jew [of Eastern Europe] of a century ago, was fluent enough in this idiom to be able to follow the Mishna Berurah without any trouble."<a href="#cite_note-83">[76]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Revival">Revival</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Revival_of_the_Hebrew_language" title="Revival of the Hebrew language">Revival of the Hebrew language</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eliezer_Ben-Yehuda_at_his_desk_in_Jerusalem_-_c1912.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Eliezer_Ben-Yehuda_at_his_desk_in_Jerusalem_-_c1912.jpg/220px-Eliezer_Ben-Yehuda_at_his_desk_in_Jerusalem_-_c1912.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Eliezer_Ben-Yehuda_at_his_desk_in_Jerusalem_-_c1912.jpg/330px-Eliezer_Ben-Yehuda_at_his_desk_in_Jerusalem_-_c1912.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Eliezer_Ben-Yehuda_at_his_desk_in_Jerusalem_-_c1912.jpg/440px-Eliezer_Ben-Yehuda_at_his_desk_in_Jerusalem_-_c1912.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="358" /></a><figcaption>Eliezer Ben-Yehuda</figcaption></figure> Hebrew has been <a href="/wiki/Language_revitalization" title="Language revitalization">revived</a> several times as a literary language, most significantly by the <a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a> (Enlightenment) movement of early and mid-19th-century Germany. In the early 19th century, a form of spoken Hebrew had emerged in the markets of Jerusalem between Jews of different linguistic backgrounds to communicate for commercial purposes. This Hebrew dialect was to a certain extent a <a href="/wiki/Pidgin" title="Pidgin">pidgin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-84">[77]</a> Near the end of that century the Jewish activist <a href="/wiki/Eliezer_Ben-Yehuda" title="Eliezer Ben-Yehuda">Eliezer Ben-Yehuda</a>, owing to the ideology of the <a href="/wiki/Romantic_nationalism" title="Romantic nationalism">national revival</a> (שיבת ציון, Shivat Tziyon, later <a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a>), began reviving Hebrew as a modern spoken language. Eventually, as a result of the local movement he created, but more significantly as a result of the new groups of immigrants known under the name of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Aliyah" title="Second Aliyah">Second Aliyah</a>, it replaced a score of languages spoken by Jews at that time. Those languages were Jewish dialects of local languages, including <a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Judaeo-Spanish</a> (also called "Judezmo" and "Ladino"), <a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Arabic languages">Judeo-Arabic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bukhori_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Bukhori dialect">Bukhori</a> (Tajiki), or local languages spoken in the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">Jewish diaspora</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>. The major result of the literary work of the Hebrew intellectuals along the 19th century was a lexical modernization of Hebrew. New words and expressions were adapted as <a href="/wiki/Neologism" title="Neologism">neologisms</a> from the large corpus of Hebrew writings since the Hebrew Bible, or borrowed from Arabic (mainly by Ben-Yehuda) and older Aramaic and Latin. Many new words were either borrowed from or coined after European languages, especially English, Russian, German, and French. Modern Hebrew became an official language in British-ruled Palestine in 1921 (along with English and Arabic), and then in 1948 became an official language of the newly declared <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">State of Israel</a>. Hebrew is the most widely spoken language in Israel today. In the Modern Period, from the 19th century onward, the literary Hebrew tradition revived as the spoken language of modern Israel, called variously Israeli Hebrew, Modern Israeli Hebrew, Modern Hebrew, New Hebrew, Israeli Standard Hebrew, Standard Hebrew and so on. Israeli Hebrew exhibits some features of <a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Hebrew" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardic Hebrew">Sephardic Hebrew</a> from its local Jerusalemite tradition but adapts it with numerous neologisms, borrowed terms (often technical) from European languages and adopted terms (often colloquial) from Arabic. The literary and narrative use of Hebrew was revived beginning with the Haskalah movement. The first secular periodical in Hebrew, <a href="/wiki/Ha-Me%27assef" class="mw-redirect" title="Ha-Me'assef">Ha-Me'assef</a> (The Gatherer), was published by <a href="/wiki/Maskil" class="mw-redirect" title="Maskil">maskilim</a> in <a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6nigsberg" title="Königsberg">Königsberg</a> (today's <a href="/wiki/Kaliningrad" title="Kaliningrad">Kaliningrad</a>) from 1783 onwards.<a href="#cite_note-85">[78]</a> In the mid-19th century, publications of several Eastern European Hebrew-language newspapers (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Hamagid" title="Hamagid">Hamagid</a>, founded in <a href="/wiki/E%C5%82k" title="Ełk">Ełk</a> in 1856) multiplied. Prominent poets were <a href="/wiki/Hayim_Nahman_Bialik" title="Hayim Nahman Bialik">Hayim Nahman Bialik</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shaul_Tchernichovsky" title="Shaul Tchernichovsky">Shaul Tchernichovsky</a>; there were also novels written in the language. The <a href="/wiki/Revival_of_the_Hebrew_language" title="Revival of the Hebrew language">revival of the Hebrew language</a> as a <a href="/wiki/First_language" title="First language">mother tongue</a> was initiated in the late 19th century by the efforts of Ben-Yehuda. He joined the <a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Jewish national movement</a> and in 1881 immigrated to <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a>, then a part of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>. Motivated by the surrounding ideals of renovation and rejection of the diaspora "<a href="/wiki/Shtetl" title="Shtetl">shtetl</a>" lifestyle, Ben-Yehuda set out to develop tools for making the <a href="/wiki/Literary_language" title="Literary language">literary</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sacred_language" title="Sacred language">liturgical language</a> into everyday <a href="/wiki/Spoken_language" title="Spoken language">spoken language</a>. However, his brand of Hebrew followed norms that had been replaced in <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a> by different grammar and style, in the writings of people like <a href="/wiki/Ahad_Ha%27am" title="Ahad Ha'am">Ahad Ha'am</a> and others. His organizational efforts and involvement with the establishment of schools and the writing of textbooks pushed the <a href="/wiki/Vernacular" title="Vernacular">vernacularization</a> activity into a gradually accepted movement. It was not, however, until the 1904–1914 Second Aliyah that Hebrew had caught real momentum in Ottoman Palestine with the more highly organized enterprises set forth by the new group of immigrants. When the <a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine" title="Mandatory Palestine">British Mandate of Palestine</a> recognized Hebrew as one of the country's three official languages (English, Arabic, and Hebrew, in 1922), its new formal status contributed to its diffusion. A constructed modern language with a truly Semitic vocabulary and written appearance, although often European in <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonology</a>, was to take its place among the current languages of the nations. While many saw his work as fanciful or even <a href="/wiki/Blasphemy" title="Blasphemy">blasphemous</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[79]</a> (because Hebrew was the holy language of the Torah and therefore some thought that it should not be used to discuss everyday matters), many soon understood the need for a common language amongst Jews of the British Mandate who at the turn of the 20th century were arriving in large numbers from diverse countries and speaking different languages. A Committee of the Hebrew Language was established. After the establishment of Israel, it became the <a href="/wiki/Academy_of_the_Hebrew_Language" title="Academy of the Hebrew Language">Academy of the Hebrew Language</a>. The results of Ben-Yehuda's lexicographical work were published in a dictionary (The Complete Dictionary of Ancient and Modern Hebrew, <a href="/wiki/Ben-Yehuda_Dictionary" title="Ben-Yehuda Dictionary">Ben-Yehuda Dictionary</a>). The seeds of Ben-Yehuda's work fell on fertile ground, and by the beginning of the 20th century, Hebrew was well on its way to becoming the main language of the Jewish population of both Ottoman and British Palestine. At the time, members of the <a href="/wiki/Yishuv" title="Yishuv">Old Yishuv</a> and a very few <a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic</a> sects, most notably those under the auspices of <a href="/wiki/Satmar_(Hasidic_dynasty)" class="mw-redirect" title="Satmar (Hasidic dynasty)">Satmar</a>, refused to speak Hebrew and spoke only Yiddish. In the Soviet Union, the use of Hebrew, along with other Jewish cultural and religious activities, was suppressed. Soviet authorities considered the use of Hebrew "reactionary" since it was associated with Zionism, and the teaching of Hebrew at primary and secondary schools was officially banned by the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Commissariat_for_Education" title="People's Commissariat for Education">People's Commissariat for Education</a> as early as 1919, as part of an overall agenda aiming to <a href="/wiki/Secularization" title="Secularization">secularize</a> education (the language itself did not cease to be studied at universities for historical and linguistic purposes<a href="#cite_note-87">[80]</a>). The official ordinance stated that Yiddish, being the spoken language of the Russian Jews, should be treated as their only national language, while Hebrew was to be treated as a foreign language.<a href="#cite_note-88">[81]</a> Hebrew books and periodicals ceased to be published and were seized from the libraries, although liturgical texts were still published until the 1930s. Despite numerous protests,<a href="#cite_note-89">[82]</a> a policy of suppression of the teaching of Hebrew operated from the 1930s on. Later in the 1980s in the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">USSR</a>, Hebrew studies reappeared due to people struggling for permission to go to Israel (<a href="/wiki/Refusenik" title="Refusenik">refuseniks</a>). Several of the teachers were imprisoned, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Iosif_Begun" title="Iosif Begun">Yosef Begun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ephraim_Kholmyansky" title="Ephraim Kholmyansky">Ephraim Kholmyansky</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Yevgeny_Korostyshevsky&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yevgeny Korostyshevsky (page does not exist)">Yevgeny Korostyshevsky</a> and others responsible for a Hebrew learning network connecting many cities of the USSR. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_Hebrew">Modern Hebrew</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern Hebrew</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Annava165.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Annava165.jpg/350px-Annava165.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Annava165.jpg/525px-Annava165.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Annava165.jpg/700px-Annava165.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2043" data-file-height="643" /></a><figcaption>Hebrew, <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> and English multilingual signs on an Israeli highway</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hebkeyboard.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Hebkeyboard.JPG/220px-Hebkeyboard.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Hebkeyboard.JPG/330px-Hebkeyboard.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Hebkeyboard.JPG/440px-Hebkeyboard.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2808" data-file-height="1709" /></a><figcaption>Dual language <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_keyboard" title="Hebrew keyboard">Hebrew</a> and English keyboard</figcaption></figure> Standard Hebrew, as developed by Eliezer Ben-Yehuda, was based on <a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Mishnaic</a> spelling and <a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Hebrew" title="Sephardi Hebrew">Sephardi Hebrew</a> pronunciation. However, the earliest speakers of Modern Hebrew had Yiddish as their native language and often introduced <a href="/wiki/Calque" title="Calque">calques</a> from Yiddish and <a href="/wiki/Phono-semantic_matching" title="Phono-semantic matching">phono-semantic matchings</a> of international words. Despite using Sephardic Hebrew pronunciation as its primary basis, modern Israeli Hebrew has adapted to <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Hebrew" title="Ashkenazi Hebrew">Ashkenazi Hebrew</a> <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonology</a> in some respects, mainly the following: <ul><li>the replacement of <a href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_consonant" title="Pharyngeal consonant">pharyngeal articulation</a> in the letters chet (<big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><a href="/wiki/%D7%97" class="mw-redirect" title="ח">ח</a>‎</big>) and ayin ( <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><a href="/wiki/%D7%A2" class="mw-redirect" title="ע">ע</a>‎</big>) by most Hebrew speakers with uvular [<big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><a href="/wiki/%CE%A7" class="mw-redirect" title="Χ">χ</a>‎</big>] and glottal [<big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><a href="/wiki/%CA%94" class="mw-redirect" title="ʔ">ʔ</a>‎</big>], respectively, by most Hebrew speakers.</li> <li>the conversion of (<big><a href="/wiki/Resh" title="Resh"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">ר‎</a></big>) /r/ from an <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_flap" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar flap">alveolar flap</a> [ɾ] to a <a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_fricative" title="Voiced uvular fricative">voiced uvular fricative</a> [ʁ] or <a href="/wiki/Uvular_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Uvular trill">uvular trill</a> [ʀ], by most of the speakers, like in most varieties of standard German or Yiddish. see <a href="/wiki/Guttural_R" title="Guttural R">Guttural R</a></li> <li>the pronunciation (by many speakers) of <a href="/wiki/Zeire" class="mw-redirect" title="Zeire">tzere</a> <<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"> ֵ ‎> as [eɪ] in some contexts (sifréj and téjša instead of Sephardic sifré and tésha)</li> <li>the partial elimination of vocal <a href="/wiki/Shva" title="Shva">Shva</a> <<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"> ְ ‎> (zmán instead of Sephardic zĕman)<a href="#cite_note-90">[83]</a></li> <li>in popular speech, penultimate stress in proper names (Dvóra instead of Dĕvorá; Yehúda instead of Yĕhudá) and some other words<a href="#cite_note-91">[84]</a></li> <li>similarly in popular speech, penultimate stress in verb forms with a second person plural suffix (katávtem "you wrote" instead of kĕtavtém).<a href="#cite_note-92">[note 8]</a></li></ul> The vocabulary of Israeli Hebrew is much larger than that of earlier periods. According to <a href="/wiki/Ghil%27ad_Zuckermann" title="Ghil'ad Zuckermann">Ghil'ad Zuckermann</a>: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">The number of attested Biblical Hebrew words is 8198, of which some 2000 are <a href="/wiki/Hapax_legomenon" title="Hapax legomenon">hapax legomena</a> (the number of Biblical Hebrew roots, on which many of these words are based, is 2099). The number of attested Rabbinic Hebrew words is less than 20,000, of which (i) 7879 are Rabbinic par excellence, i.e. they did not appear in the Old Testament (the number of new Rabbinic Hebrew roots is 805); (ii) around 6000 are a subset of Biblical Hebrew; and (iii) several thousand are Aramaic words which can have a Hebrew form. Medieval Hebrew added 6421 words to (Modern) Hebrew. The approximate number of new lexical items in Israeli is 17,000 (cf. 14,762 in Even-Shoshan 1970 [...]). With the inclusion of foreign and technical terms [...], the total number of Israeli words, including words of biblical, rabbinic and medieval descent, is more than 60,000.<a href="#cite_note-Zuckermann-93">[85]</a>: 64–65 </blockquote> In Israel, Modern Hebrew is currently taught in institutions called <a href="/wiki/Ulpan" title="Ulpan">Ulpanim</a> (singular: Ulpan). There are government-owned, as well as private, Ulpanim offering online courses and face-to-face programs. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Current_status">Current status</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Academy_of_the_Hebrew_Language.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Academy_of_the_Hebrew_Language.JPG/220px-Academy_of_the_Hebrew_Language.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Academy_of_the_Hebrew_Language.JPG/330px-Academy_of_the_Hebrew_Language.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Academy_of_the_Hebrew_Language.JPG/440px-Academy_of_the_Hebrew_Language.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/Academy_of_the_Hebrew_Language" title="Academy of the Hebrew Language">Academy of the Hebrew Language</a></figcaption></figure> Modern Hebrew is the primary official language of the State of Israel. As of 2013<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hebrew_language&action=edit">[update]</a>, there are about 9 million Hebrew speakers worldwide,<a href="#cite_note-israel-hayom-hebrew-speakers-94">[86]</a> of whom 7 million speak it fluently.<a href="#cite_note-esl.fis.edu-95">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-ucl.ac.uk-96">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-studentsabroad-97">[89]</a> Currently, 90% of Israeli Jews are proficient in Hebrew, and 70% are highly proficient.<a href="#cite_note-CBS-98">[90]</a> Some 60% of Israeli Arabs are also proficient in Hebrew,<a href="#cite_note-CBS-98">[90]</a> and 30% report having a higher proficiency in Hebrew than in Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-bhol-27">[24]</a> In total, about 53% of the Israeli population speaks Hebrew as a native language,<a href="#cite_note-99">[91]</a> while most of the rest speak it fluently. In 2013 Hebrew was the native language of 49% of Israelis over the age of 20, with <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>, <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yiddish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Yiddish language">Yiddish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Ladino</a> being the native tongues of most of the rest. Some 26% of <a href="/wiki/1990s_Post-Soviet_aliyah" class="mw-redirect" title="1990s Post-Soviet aliyah">immigrants from the former Soviet Union</a> and 12% of Arabs reported speaking Hebrew poorly or not at all.<a href="#cite_note-CBS-98">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-100">[92]</a> Steps have been taken to keep Hebrew the primary language of use, and to prevent large-scale incorporation of English words into the Hebrew vocabulary. The <a href="/wiki/Academy_of_the_Hebrew_Language" title="Academy of the Hebrew Language">Academy of the Hebrew Language</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_University_of_Jerusalem" title="Hebrew University of Jerusalem">Hebrew University of Jerusalem</a> currently invents about 2,000 new Hebrew words each year for modern words by finding an original Hebrew word that captures the meaning, as an alternative to incorporating more English words into Hebrew vocabulary. The <a href="/wiki/Haifa" title="Haifa">Haifa</a> municipality has banned officials from using English words in official documents, and is fighting to stop businesses from using only English signs to market their services.<a href="#cite_note-101">[93]</a> In 2012, a <a href="/wiki/Knesset" title="Knesset">Knesset</a> bill for the preservation of the Hebrew language was proposed, which includes the stipulation that all signage in Israel must first and foremost be in Hebrew, as with all speeches by Israeli officials abroad. The bill's author, MK <a href="/wiki/Akram_Hasson" title="Akram Hasson">Akram Hasson</a>, stated that the bill was proposed as a response to Hebrew "losing its prestige" and children incorporating more English words into their vocabulary.<a href="#cite_note-102">[94]</a> Hebrew is one of several languages for which the constitution of South Africa calls to be respected in their use for religious purposes.<a href="#cite_note-auto-9">[8]</a> Also, Hebrew is an official national minority language in <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a>, since 6 January 2005.<a href="#cite_note-auto1-8">[7]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hamas" title="Hamas">Hamas</a> has made Hebrew a compulsory language taught in schools in the Gaza Strip.<a href="#cite_note-103">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew#Phonology" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical Hebrew § Phonology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew_phonology" title="Modern Hebrew phonology">Modern Hebrew phonology</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical Hebrew</a> had a typical Semitic consonant inventory, with pharyngeal /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiced pharyngeal fricative">ʕ</a> <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiceless pharyngeal fricative">ħ</a>/, a series of "emphatic" consonants (possibly <a href="/wiki/Ejective_consonant" title="Ejective consonant">ejective</a>, but this is debated), lateral fricative /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar lateral fricative">ɬ</a>/, and in its older stages also uvular /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_fricative" title="Voiceless uvular fricative">χ</a> <a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_fricative" title="Voiced uvular fricative">ʁ</a>/. /χ ʁ/ merged into /ħ ʕ/ in later Biblical Hebrew, and /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a> <a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a> <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a> <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a> <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>/ underwent allophonic spirantization to [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiced labiodental fricative">v</a> <a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_fricative" title="Voiced velar fricative">ɣ</a> <a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_fricative" title="Voiced dental fricative">ð</a> <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a> <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a> <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_fricative" title="Voiceless dental fricative">θ</a>] (known as <a href="/wiki/Begadkefat" title="Begadkefat">begadkefat</a>). The earliest Biblical Hebrew vowel system contained the Proto-Semitic vowels /<a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a> aː <a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a> iː <a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a> uː/ as well as /<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a>ː/, but this system changed dramatically over time. By the time of the Dead Sea Scrolls, /ɬ/ had shifted to /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>/ in the Jewish traditions, though for the Samaritans it merged with /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a>/ instead.<a href="#cite_note-Qimron-50">[46]</a> The Tiberian reading tradition of the Middle Ages had the vowel system /<a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a> <a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛ</a> <a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a> <a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a> <a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back rounded vowel">ɔ</a> <a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a> <a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a> ă ɔ̆ ɛ̆/, though other Medieval reading traditions had fewer vowels. A number of reading traditions have been preserved in liturgical use. In Oriental (<a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Hebrew" title="Sephardi Hebrew">Sephardi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Hebrew" title="Mizrahi Hebrew">Mizrahi</a>) Jewish reading traditions, the emphatic consonants are realized as pharyngealized, while the <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Hebrew" title="Ashkenazi Hebrew">Ashkenazi</a> (northern and eastern European) traditions have lost emphatics and pharyngeals (although according to Ashkenazi law, pharyngeal articulation is preferred over uvular or glottal articulation when representing the community in religious service such as prayer and <a href="/wiki/Torah_reading" title="Torah reading">Torah reading</a>), and show the shift of /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a>/ to /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiced labiodental fricative">v</a>/. The <a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Hebrew" title="Samaritan Hebrew">Samaritan</a> tradition has a complex vowel system that does not correspond closely to the <a href="/wiki/Tiberian_vocalization" title="Tiberian vocalization">Tiberian</a> systems. Modern Hebrew pronunciation developed from a mixture of the different Jewish reading traditions, generally tending towards simplification. In line with <a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Hebrew" title="Sephardi Hebrew">Sephardi Hebrew</a> pronunciation, emphatic consonants have shifted to their ordinary counterparts, /w/ to /v/, and [ɣ ð θ] are not present. Most Israelis today also merge /ʕ ħ/ with /<a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a> <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_fricative" title="Voiceless uvular fricative">χ</a>/, do not have contrastive gemination, and pronounce /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a>/ as a uvular fricative [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_fricative" title="Voiced uvular fricative">ʁ</a>] or a voiced velar fricative /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_fricative" title="Voiced velar fricative">ɣ</a>/ rather than an alveolar trill, because of Ashkenazi Hebrew influences. The consonants /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">tʃ</a>/ and /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiced postalveolar affricate">dʒ</a>/ have become phonemic due to loan words, and /w/ has similarly been re-introduced. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3></div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Semitic_language" title="Proto-Semitic language">Proto- Semitic</a> </th> <th rowspan="2">IPA </th> <th colspan="5">Hebrew </th> <th colspan="2">Example </th></tr> <tr> <th style="font-size:85%" colspan="2">written </th> <th style="font-size:85%"><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical</a> </th> <th style="font-size:85%"><a href="/wiki/Tiberian_Hebrew" title="Tiberian Hebrew">Tiberian</a> </th> <th style="font-size:85%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern</a> </th> <th style="font-size:85%">Word </th> <th style="font-size:85%">Meaning </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Bet_(letter)" title="Bet (letter)">*b</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a>] </th> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"><big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">ב‎</big>3</td> <td>ḇ/b </td> <td>/b/ </td> <td>/v/, /b/ </td> <td>/v/, /b/ </td> <td><big>בית</big> </td> <td>house </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Dalet" title="Dalet">*d</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a>] </th> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"><big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">ד‎</big>3</td> <td>ḏ/d </td> <td>/d/ </td> <td>/ð/, /d/ </td> <td>/d/ </td> <td><big>דב</big> </td> <td>bear </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Gimel" title="Gimel">*g</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>] </th> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"><big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">ג‎</big>3</td> <td>ḡ/g </td> <td>/ɡ/ </td> <td>/ɣ/, /ɡ/ </td> <td>/ɡ/ </td> <td><big>גמל</big> </td> <td>camel </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Pe_(Semitic_letter)" title="Pe (Semitic letter)">*p</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a>] </th> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"><big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">פ‎</big>3</td> <td>p̄/p </td> <td>/p/ </td> <td>/f/, /p/ </td> <td>/f/, /p/ </td> <td><big>פחם</big> </td> <td>coal </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Taw" title="Taw">*t</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>] </th> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"><big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">ת‎</big>3</td> <td>ṯ/t </td> <td>/t/ </td> <td>/θ/, /t/ </td> <td>/t/ </td> <td><big>תמר</big> </td> <td>palm </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Kaph" title="Kaph">*k</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>] </th> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"><big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">כ‎</big>3</td> <td>ḵ/k </td> <td>/k/ </td> <td>/x/, /k/ </td> <td>/χ/, /k/ </td> <td><big>כוכב</big> </td> <td>star </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Teth" title="Teth">*ṭ</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Alveolar_ejective_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar ejective stop">tʼ</a>] </th> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"><big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">ט‎</big></td> <td>ṭ </td> <td>/tˤ/ </td> <td>/tˤ/ </td> <td>/t/ </td> <td><big>טבח</big> </td> <td>cook </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Qoph" title="Qoph">*q</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Velar_ejective_stop" title="Velar ejective stop">kʼ</a>] </th> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"><big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">ק‎</big></td> <td>q </td> <td>/kˤ/ </td> <td>/q/ </td> <td>/k/ </td> <td><big>קבר</big> </td> <td>tomb </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%8E%C4%81l" title="Ḏāl">*ḏ</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_fricative" title="Voiced dental fricative">ð</a>] / [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_non-sibilant_affricate" title="Voiced dental non-sibilant affricate">d͡ð</a>] </th> <td rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"><big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">ז‎</big>2</td> <td rowspan="2">z </td> <td rowspan="2">/z/ </td> <td rowspan="2">/z/ </td> <td rowspan="2">/z/ </td> <td><big>זכר</big> </td> <td>male </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Zayin" title="Zayin">*z</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a>] / [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiced alveolar affricate">d͡z</a>] </th> <td><big>זרק</big> </td> <td>threw </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Samekh" title="Samekh">*s</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>] / [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolar affricate">t͡s</a>] </th> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"><big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">ס‎</big></td> <td>s </td> <td>/s/ </td> <td>/s/ </td> <td>/s/ </td> <td><big>סוכר</big> </td> <td>sugar </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Shin_(letter)" title="Shin (letter)">*š</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a>] / [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_retracted_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar retracted fricative">s̠</a>] </th> <td rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"><big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">שׁ‎</big>2</td> <td rowspan="2">š </td> <td rowspan="2">/ʃ/ </td> <td rowspan="2">/ʃ/ </td> <td rowspan="2">/ʃ/ </td> <td><big>שׁמים</big> </td> <td>sky </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/%E1%B9%AE%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ṯāʾ">*ṯ</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_fricative" title="Voiceless dental fricative">θ</a>] / [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_non-sibilant_affricate" title="Voiceless dental non-sibilant affricate">t͡θ</a>] </th> <td><big>שׁמונה</big> </td> <td>eight </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Shin_(letter)" title="Shin (letter)">*ś</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar lateral fricative">ɬ</a>] / [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolar lateral affricate">t͡ɬ</a>] </th> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"><big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">שׂ‎</big>1</td> <td>ś </td> <td>/ɬ/ </td> <td>/s/ </td> <td>/s/ </td> <td><big>שׂמאל</big> </td> <td>left </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/%E1%BA%92%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ẓāʾ">*ṱ</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Dental_ejective_fricative" title="Dental ejective fricative">θʼ</a>] / [<a href="/wiki/Dental_ejective_affricate" title="Dental ejective affricate">t͡θʼ</a>] </th> <td rowspan="3" style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"><big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">צ‎</big></td> <td rowspan="3">ṣ </td> <td rowspan="3">/sˤ/ </td> <td rowspan="3">/sˤ/ </td> <td rowspan="3">/ts/ </td> <td><big>צל</big> </td> <td>shadow </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Tsade" title="Tsade">*ṣ</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Alveolar_ejective_fricative" title="Alveolar ejective fricative">sʼ</a>] / [<a href="/wiki/Alveolar_ejective_affricate" title="Alveolar ejective affricate">t͡sʼ</a>] </th> <td><big>צרח</big> </td> <td>screamed </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%8C%C4%81d" title="Ḍād">*ṣ́</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Alveolar_lateral_ejective_fricative" title="Alveolar lateral ejective fricative">ɬʼ</a>] / [<a href="/wiki/Alveolar_lateral_ejective_affricate" title="Alveolar lateral ejective affricate">t͡ɬʼ</a>] </th> <td><big>צחק</big> </td> <td>laughed </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Ghayn" title="Ghayn">*ġ</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_fricative" title="Voiced velar fricative">ɣ</a>]~[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_fricative" title="Voiced uvular fricative">ʁ</a>] </th> <td rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"><big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">ע‎</big></td> <td rowspan="2">ʻ </td> <td>/ʁ/ </td> <td rowspan="2">/ʕ/ </td> <td rowspan="2">/ʔ/, - </td> <td><big>עורב</big> </td> <td>raven </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Ayin" title="Ayin">*ʻ</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiced pharyngeal fricative">ʕ</a>] </th> <td>/ʕ/ </td> <td><big>עשׂר</big> </td> <td>ten </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Aleph" title="Aleph">*ʼ</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a>] </th> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"><big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">א‎</big></td> <td>ʼ </td> <td>/ʔ/ </td> <td>/ʔ/ </td> <td>/ʔ/, - </td> <td><big>אב</big> </td> <td>father </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%AA%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ḫāʾ">*ḫ</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a>]~[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_fricative" title="Voiceless uvular fricative">χ</a>] </th> <td rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"><big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">ח‎</big>2</td> <td rowspan="2">ḥ </td> <td>/χ/ </td> <td rowspan="2">/ħ/ </td> <td rowspan="2">/χ/ </td> <td><big>חמשׁ</big> </td> <td>five </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Heth" title="Heth">*ḥ</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiceless pharyngeal fricative">ħ</a>] </th> <td>/ħ/ </td> <td><big>חבל</big> </td> <td>rope </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/He_(letter)" title="He (letter)">*h</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>] </th> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"><big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">ה‎</big></td> <td>h </td> <td>/h/ </td> <td>/h/ </td> <td>/h/, - </td> <td><big>הגר</big> </td> <td>emigrated </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Mem" title="Mem">*m</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a>] </th> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"><big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">מ‎</big></td> <td>m </td> <td>/m/ </td> <td>/m/ </td> <td>/m/ </td> <td><big>מים</big> </td> <td>water </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Nun_(letter)" title="Nun (letter)">*n</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a>] </th> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"><big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">נ‎</big></td> <td>n </td> <td>/n/ </td> <td>/n/ </td> <td>/n/ </td> <td><big>נביא</big> </td> <td>prophet </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Resh" title="Resh">*r</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_and_alveolar_taps_and_flaps" title="Voiced dental and alveolar taps and flaps">ɾ</a>] </th> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"><big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">ר‎</big></td> <td>r </td> <td>/ɾ/ </td> <td>/ɾ/ </td> <td>/ʁ/ </td> <td><big>רגל</big> </td> <td>leg </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Lamedh" title="Lamedh">*l</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a>] </th> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"><big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">ל‎</big></td> <td>l </td> <td>/l/ </td> <td>/l/ </td> <td>/l/ </td> <td><big>לשׁון</big> </td> <td>tongue </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Yodh" title="Yodh">*y</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a>] </th> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"><big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">י‎</big></td> <td>y </td> <td>/j/ </td> <td>/j/ </td> <td>/j/ </td> <td><big>יד</big> </td> <td>hand </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Waw_(letter)" title="Waw (letter)">*w</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a>] </th> <td style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"><big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">ו‎</big></td> <td>w </td> <td>/w/ </td> <td>/w/ </td> <td>/v/ </td> <td><big>ורד</big> </td> <td>rose </td></tr> <tr> <th>Proto-Semitic </th> <th>IPA </th> <th colspan="2">Hebrew </th> <th style="font-size:85%">Biblical </th> <th style="font-size:85%">Tiberian </th> <th style="font-size:85%">Modern </th> <th colspan="2">Example </th></tr></tbody></table> Notes: <ol><li>Proto-Semitic *ś was still pronounced as [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar lateral fricative">ɬ</a>] in Biblical Hebrew, but no letter was available in the Phoenician alphabet, so the letter <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">ש‎</big> had two pronunciations, representing both /ʃ/ and /ɬ/. Later on, however, /ɬ/ merged with /s/, but the old spelling was largely retained, and the two pronunciations of <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">ש‎</big> were distinguished graphically in <a href="/wiki/Tiberian_Hebrew" title="Tiberian Hebrew">Tiberian Hebrew</a> as <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">שׁ‎</big> /ʃ/ vs. <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">שׂ‎</big> /s/ < /ɬ/.</li> <li>Biblical Hebrew as of the 3rd century BCE apparently still distinguished the phonemes ġ versus ʻ and ḫ versus ḥ, as witnessed by transcriptions in the <a href="/wiki/Septuagint" title="Septuagint">Septuagint</a>. As in the case of /ɬ/, no letters were available to represent these sounds, and existing letters did double duty: <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">ח‎</big> for /χ/ and /ħ/ and <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">ע‎</big> for /ʁ/ and /ʕ/. In all of these cases, however, the sounds represented by the same letter eventually merged, leaving no evidence (other than early transcriptions) of the former distinctions.</li> <li>Hebrew and Aramaic underwent <a href="/wiki/Begadkefat" title="Begadkefat">begadkefat</a> spirantization at a certain point, whereby the stop sounds /b ɡ d k p t/ were <a href="/wiki/Lenition" title="Lenition">softened</a> to the corresponding fricatives [v ɣ ð x f θ] (written ḇ ḡ ḏ ḵ p̄ ṯ) when occurring after a vowel and not geminated. This change probably happened after the original Old Aramaic phonemes /θ, ð/ disappeared in the 7th century BCE,<a href="#cite_note-104">[96]</a> and most likely occurred after the loss of Hebrew /χ, ʁ/ <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 200 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-105">[note 9]</a> It is known to have occurred in Hebrew by the 2nd century.<a href="#cite_note-106">[97]</a> After a certain point this alternation became contrastive in word-medial and final position (though bearing low <a href="/wiki/Functional_load" title="Functional load">functional load</a>), but in word-initial position they remained allophonic.<a href="#cite_note-bbgd-107">[98]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern Hebrew</a>, the distinction has a higher functional load due to the loss of gemination, although only the three fricatives /v χ f/ are still preserved (the fricative /x/ is pronounced /χ/ in modern Hebrew). (The others are pronounced like the corresponding stops, as Modern Hebrew pronunciation was based on the <a href="/wiki/Sephardic_pronunciation" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardic pronunciation">Sephardic pronunciation</a> which lost the distinction)</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grammar">Grammar</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew_grammar" title="Modern Hebrew grammar">Modern Hebrew grammar</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Hebrew_grammar" title="History of Hebrew grammar">History of Hebrew grammar</a></div> Hebrew grammar is partly <a href="/wiki/Analytic_language" title="Analytic language">analytic</a>, expressing such forms as <a href="/wiki/Dative_case" title="Dative case">dative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ablative_case" title="Ablative case">ablative</a> and <a href="/wiki/Accusative_case" title="Accusative case">accusative</a> using <a href="/wiki/Preposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Preposition">prepositional</a> particles rather than <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">grammatical cases</a>. However, inflection plays a decisive role in the formation of verbs and nouns. For example, nouns have a <a href="/wiki/Construct_state" title="Construct state">construct state</a>, called "smikhut", to denote the relationship of "belonging to": this is the converse of the <a href="/wiki/Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">genitive case</a> of more inflected languages. Words in smikhut are often combined with <a href="/wiki/Hyphen" title="Hyphen">hyphens</a>. In modern speech, the use of the construct is sometimes interchangeable with the preposition "shel", meaning "of". There are many cases, however, where older declined forms are retained (especially in idiomatic expressions and the like), and "person"-<a href="/wiki/Enclitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Enclitic">enclitics</a> are widely used to "decline" prepositions. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Morphology">Morphology</h3></div> Like all Semitic languages, the Hebrew language exhibits a pattern of stems consisting typically of "<a href="/wiki/Triliteral" class="mw-redirect" title="Triliteral">triliteral</a>", or 3-consonant <a href="/wiki/Triliteral" class="mw-redirect" title="Triliteral">consonantal roots</a>, from which nouns, adjectives, and verbs are formed in various ways: e.g. by inserting vowels, doubling consonants, lengthening vowels and/or adding prefixes, suffixes or <a href="/wiki/Infix" title="Infix">infixes</a>. 4-consonant roots also exist and became more frequent in the modern language due to a process of coining verbs from nouns that are themselves constructed from 3-consonant verbs. Some triliteral roots lose one of their consonants in most forms and are called "Nakhim" (Resting). Hebrew uses a number of <a href="/wiki/Prefixes_in_Hebrew" title="Prefixes in Hebrew">one-letter prefixes</a> that are added to words for various purposes. These are called inseparable prepositions or "Letters of Use" (Hebrew: אותיות השימוש, romanized: Otiyot HaShimush). Such items include: the definite <a href="/wiki/Article_(grammar)" title="Article (grammar)">article</a> ha- (/ha/) (= "the"); <a href="/wiki/Preposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Preposition">prepositions</a> be- (/be/) (= "in"), le- (/le/) (= "to"; a shortened version of the preposition el), mi- (/mi/) (= "from"; a shortened version of the preposition min); <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_conjunction" class="mw-redirect" title="Grammatical conjunction">conjunctions</a> ve- (/ve/) (= "and"), she- (/ʃe/) (= "that"; a shortened version of the Biblical conjunction asher), ke- (/ke/) (= "as", "like"; a shortened version of the conjunction kmo). <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D7%A2%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA_handwritten_form.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/%D7%A2%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA_handwritten_form.jpg/220px-%D7%A2%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA_handwritten_form.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="89" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/%D7%A2%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA_handwritten_form.jpg/330px-%D7%A2%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA_handwritten_form.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/%D7%A2%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA_handwritten_form.jpg/440px-%D7%A2%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA_handwritten_form.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2951" data-file-height="1194" /></a><figcaption>The Hebrew word for "Hebrew" (עברית) in its <a href="/wiki/Cursive_Hebrew" title="Cursive Hebrew">cursive form</a></figcaption></figure> The vowel accompanying each of these letters may differ from those listed above, depending on the first letter or vowel following it. The rules governing these changes are hardly observed in colloquial speech as most speakers tend to employ the regular form. However, they may be heard in more formal circumstances. For example, if a preposition is put before a word that begins with a moving <a href="/wiki/Shva" title="Shva">Shva</a>, then the preposition takes the vowel /i/ (and the initial consonant may be weakened): colloquial be-kfar (= "in a village") corresponds to the more formal bi-khfar. The definite article may be inserted between a preposition or a conjunction and the word it refers to, creating composite words like mé-ha-kfar (= "from the village"). The latter also demonstrates the change in the vowel of mi-. With be, le and ke, the definite article is assimilated into the prefix, which then becomes ba, la or ka. Thus *be-ha-matos becomes ba-matos (= "in the plane"). This does not happen to mé (the form of "min" or "mi-" used before the letter "he"), therefore mé-ha-matos is a valid form, which means "from the airplane". <dl><dd>* indicates that the given example is grammatically <a href="/wiki/Standard_language" title="Standard language">non-standard</a>.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Syntax">Syntax</h3></div> Like most other languages, the vocabulary of the Hebrew language is divided into verbs, nouns, adjectives and so on, and its sentence structure can be analyzed by terms like object, subject and so on. <ul><li>Though early <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical Hebrew</a> had a <a href="/wiki/Verb%E2%80%93subject%E2%80%93object_word_order" title="Verb–subject–object word order">VSO</a> ordering, this gradually transitioned to a subject-verb-object ordering. Many Hebrew sentences have several correct orders of words.</li> <li>In Hebrew, there is no <a href="/wiki/Indefinite_article" class="mw-redirect" title="Indefinite article">indefinite article</a>.</li> <li>Hebrew sentences do not have to include verbs; the <a href="/wiki/Copula_(linguistics)" title="Copula (linguistics)">copula</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Present_tense" title="Present tense">present tense</a> is omitted. For example, the sentence "I am here" (אני פה ani po) has only two words; one for I (אני) and one for here (פה). In the sentence "I am that person" (אני הוא האדם הזה ani hu ha'adam ha'ze), the word for "am" corresponds to the word for "he" (הוא). However, this is usually omitted. Thus, the sentence (אני האדם הזה) is more often used and means the same thing.</li> <li>Negative and interrogative sentences have the same order as the regular declarative one. A question that has a yes/no answer begins with "האם" (ha'im, an interrogative form of 'if'), but it is largely omitted in informal speech.</li> <li>In Hebrew there is a specific preposition (את et) for direct objects that would not have a preposition marker in English. The English phrase "he ate the cake" would in Hebrew be הוא אכל את העוגה hu akhal et ha'ugah (literally, "He ate את the cake"). The word את, however, can be omitted, making הוא אכל העוגה hu akhal ha'ugah ("He ate the cake"). Former Israeli Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/David_Ben-Gurion" title="David Ben-Gurion">David Ben-Gurion</a> was convinced that את should never be used as it elongates the sentence without adding meaning.</li> <li>In spoken Hebrew ‏את ה-‏ et ha- is also often contracted to ‏-תַ'‏ ta-, e.g. ת'אנשים ta-anashim instead of את האנשים et ha-anashim (the ' indicates non-standard use). This phenomenon has also been found by researchers in the <a href="/wiki/Cave_of_Letters#Bar-Kokhba_letters" title="Cave of Letters">Bar Kokhba documents</a>: מעיד אני עלי תשמים… שאני נותן תכבלים ברגליכם, writing תללו instead of את הללו, as well as תדקל and so on.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Writing_system">Writing system</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew alphabet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_braille" class="mw-redirect" title="Hebrew braille">Hebrew braille</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Frank-ruehl.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Frank-ruehl.png/220px-Frank-ruehl.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/Frank-ruehl.png 1.5x" data-file-width="252" data-file-height="175" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew alphabet</a></figcaption></figure> Users of the language write Modern Hebrew from <a href="/wiki/Right-to-left" class="mw-redirect" title="Right-to-left">right to left</a> using the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew alphabet</a> – an "impure" <a href="/wiki/Abjad" title="Abjad">abjad</a>, or consonant-only script, of 22 letters. The ancient <a href="/wiki/Paleo-Hebrew_alphabet" title="Paleo-Hebrew alphabet">paleo-Hebrew alphabet</a> resembles those used for <a href="/wiki/Canaanite_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Canaanite language">Canaanite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phoenician_language" title="Phoenician language">Phoenician</a>.<a href="#cite_note-108">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-109">[100]</a> Modern scripts derive from the "square" letter form, known as Ashurit (Assyrian), which developed from the <a href="/wiki/Aramaic_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Aramaic script">Aramaic script</a>. A <a href="/wiki/Cursive_Hebrew" title="Cursive Hebrew">cursive Hebrew</a> script is used in handwriting: the letters tend to appear more circular in form when written in cursive, and sometimes vary markedly from their printed equivalents. The medieval version of the cursive script forms the basis of another style, known as <a href="/wiki/Rashi_script" title="Rashi script">Rashi script</a>. When necessary, vowels are indicated by <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_diacritics" title="Hebrew diacritics">diacritic</a> marks above or below the letter representing the syllabic onset, or by use of <a href="/wiki/Matres_lectionis" class="mw-redirect" title="Matres lectionis">matres lectionis</a>, which are consonantal letters used as vowels. Further diacritics may serve to indicate variations in the pronunciation of the consonants (e.g. bet/vet, shin/sin); and, in some contexts, to indicate the punctuation, accentuation and musical rendition of Biblical texts (see <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_cantillation" title="Hebrew cantillation">Hebrew cantillation</a>). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Liturgical_use_in_Judaism">Liturgical use in Judaism</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1096940132">.mw-parser-output .listen .side-box-text{line-height:1.1em}.mw-parser-output .listen-plain{border:none;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded{width:100%;margin:0;border-width:1px 0 0 0;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-header{padding:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded .listen-header{padding:2px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen-file-header{padding:4px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen .description{padding-top:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen .mw-tmh-player{max-width:100%}@media(max-width:719px){.mw-parser-output .listen{clear:both}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .listen:not(.listen-noimage){width:320px}.mw-parser-output .listen-left{overflow:visible;float:left}.mw-parser-output .listen-center{float:none;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/50px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/75px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/100px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Cantillation_Example_Aliyah_Reform2.ogg" title="File:Cantillation Example Aliyah Reform2.ogg">Audio example of liturgical Hebrew</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="232" style="width:232px;" data-durationhint="18" data-mwtitle="Cantillation_Example_Aliyah_Reform2.ogg" data-mwprovider="local"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f3/Cantillation_Example_Aliyah_Reform2.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/transcoded/f/f3/Cantillation_Example_Aliyah_Reform2.ogg/Cantillation_Example_Aliyah_Reform2.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></div> <div class="description">This is a portion of the blessing that is traditionally <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_cantillation" title="Hebrew cantillation">chanted</a> before the <a href="/wiki/Baal_kore" class="mw-redirect" title="Baal kore">Aliyah La-Torah</a> (reading of the Torah).</div></div></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"><hr />Problems playing this file? See <a href="/wiki/Help:Media" title="Help:Media">media help</a>.</div> </div> Hebrew has always been used as the language of prayer and study, and the following pronunciation systems are found. <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Hebrew" title="Ashkenazi Hebrew">Ashkenazi Hebrew</a>, originating in Central and Eastern Europe, is still widely used in Ashkenazi Jewish religious services and studies in Israel and abroad, particularly in the <a href="/wiki/Haredi" class="mw-redirect" title="Haredi">Haredi</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox</a> communities. It was influenced by <a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a> pronunciation. <a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Hebrew" title="Sephardi Hebrew">Sephardi Hebrew</a> is the traditional pronunciation of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_and_Portuguese_Jews" title="Spanish and Portuguese Jews">Spanish and Portuguese Jews</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardi Jews">Sephardi Jews</a> in the countries of the former <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, with the exception of <a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Hebrew" title="Yemenite Hebrew">Yemenite Hebrew</a>. This pronunciation, in the form used by the Jerusalem Sephardic community, is the basis of the <a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew_phonology" title="Modern Hebrew phonology">Hebrew phonology</a> of Israeli native speakers. It was influenced by <a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Ladino</a> pronunciation. <a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Hebrew" title="Mizrahi Hebrew">Mizrahi (Oriental) Hebrew</a> is actually a collection of dialects spoken liturgically by Jews in various parts of the <a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arab</a> and <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islamic</a> world. It was derived from the old <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic language</a>, and in some cases influenced by Sephardi Hebrew. <a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Hebrew" title="Yemenite Hebrew">Yemenite Hebrew</a> or Temanit differs from other Mizrahi dialects by having a radically different vowel system, and distinguishing between different diacritically marked consonants that are pronounced identically in other dialects (for example gimel and "ghimel".) These pronunciations are still used in synagogue ritual and religious study in Israel and elsewhere, mostly by people who are not native speakers of Hebrew. However, some traditionalist Israelis use liturgical pronunciations in prayer. Many synagogues in the diaspora, even though Ashkenazi by rite and by ethnic composition, have adopted the "Sephardic" pronunciation in deference to Israeli Hebrew. However, in many British and American schools and synagogues, this pronunciation retains several elements of its Ashkenazi substrate, especially the distinction between <a href="/wiki/Niqqud" title="Niqqud">tsere</a> and <a href="/wiki/Niqqud" title="Niqqud">segol</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/32px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="23" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/48px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/64px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="800" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Israel" title="Portal:Israel">Israel portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/24px-Star_of_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="24" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/36px-Star_of_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/48px-Star_of_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="693" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Judaism" title="Portal:Judaism">Judaism portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Globe_of_letters.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/28px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/42px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/56px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Language" title="Portal:Language">Language portal</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Hebrew_alphabet" title="Paleo-Hebrew alphabet">Paleo-Hebrew alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hebrew_dictionaries" title="List of Hebrew dictionaries">List of Hebrew dictionaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hebrew_words_of_Persian_origin" title="List of Hebrew words of Persian origin">List of Hebrew words of Persian origin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebraism" title="Hebraism">Hebraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebraization_of_English" title="Hebraization of English">Hebraization of English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_abbreviations" title="Hebrew abbreviations">Hebrew abbreviations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_literature" title="Hebrew literature">Hebrew literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_numerals" title="Hebrew numerals">Hebrew numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_languages" title="Jewish languages">Jewish languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_words_of_Hebrew_origin" title="List of English words of Hebrew origin">List of English words of Hebrew origin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Hebrew" title="Romanization of Hebrew">Romanization of Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Study_of_the_Hebrew_language" title="Study of the Hebrew language">Study of the Hebrew language</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Hebrew" title="Sephardi Hebrew">Sephardi</a>: [ʕivˈɾit]; <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Iraqi</a>: [ʕibˈriːθ]; <a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Hebrew" title="Yemenite Hebrew">Yemenite</a>: [ʕivˈriːθ]; <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Hebrew_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashkenazi Hebrew language">Ashkenazi</a>: [ivˈʀis] or [ivˈris], strict pronunciation [ʔivˈris] or [ʔivˈʀis]. </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> Later Hellenistic writers such as <a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_John" title="Gospel of John">Gospel of John</a> used the term Hebraisti to refer to both Hebrew and <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ASB-2">[1]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sáenz-BadillosRH-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sáenz-BadillosRH_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sáenz-BadillosRH_24-1">b</a> Sáenz-Badillos, Ángel (1993): "There is general agreement that two main periods of RH (Rabbinical Hebrew) can be distinguished. The first, which lasted until the close of the Tannaitic era (around 200 CE), is characterized by RH as a spoken language gradually developing into a literary medium in which the Mishnah, Tosefta, baraitot and Tannaitic midrashim would be composed. The second stage begins with the <a href="/wiki/Amoraim" title="Amoraim">Amoraim</a> and sees RH being replaced by Aramaic as the spoken vernacular, surviving only as a literary language. Then it continued to be used in later rabbinic writings until the tenth century in, for example, the Hebrew portions of the two Talmuds and in midrashic and haggadic literature."<a href="#cite_note-ASB170-23">[21]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> See original text </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> Fernández & Elwolde: "It is generally believed that the Dead Sea Scrolls, specifically the Copper Scroll and also the Bar Kokhba letters, have furnished clear evidence of the popular character of MH [Mishnaic Hebrew]."<a href="#cite_note-56">[52]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> The Cambridge History of Judaism: "Thus in certain sources Aramaic words are termed 'Hebrew,' ... For example: η επιλεγομενη εβραιστι βηθεσδα 'which is called in the Hebrew tongue Bethesda' (John 5.2). This is not a Hebrew name but rather an Aramaic one: בית חסדא, 'the house of Hisda'."<a href="#cite_note-Judaism460-58">[53]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> Fitzmyer, Joseph A.: "The adverb Ἑβραϊστί (and its related expressions) seems to mean 'in Hebrew', and it has often been argued that it means this and nothing more. As is well known, it is used at times with words and expressions that are clearly Aramaic. Thus in John 19:13, Ἑβραιστὶ δὲ Γαββαθᾶ is given as an explanation of the Lithostrotos, and Γαββαθᾶ is a Grecized form of the Aramaic word gabbětā, 'raised place.'"<a href="#cite_note-70">[64]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> These pronunciations may have originated in learners' mistakes formed on the analogy of other suffixed forms (katávta, alénu), rather than being examples of residual Ashkenazi influence. </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> According to the generally accepted view, it is unlikely that begadkefat spirantization occurred before the merger of /χ, ʁ/ and /ħ, ʕ/, or else [x, χ] and [ɣ, ʁ] would have to be contrastive, which is cross-linguistically rare. However, Blau argues that it is possible that lenited /k/ and /χ/ could coexist even if pronounced identically, since one would be recognized as an alternating allophone (as apparently is the case in Nestorian Syriac). See <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:56). </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-ASB-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ASB_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ASB_2-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ASB_2-2">c</a> Sáenz-Badillos (1993) </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> H. S. Nyberg 1952. Hebreisk Grammatik. s. 2. Reprinted in Sweden by Universitetstryckeriet, Uppsala, 2006. </li> <li id="cite_note-e19-4"><a href="#cite_ref-e19_4-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/19/language/heb/">Modern Hebrew</a> at <a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a> (19th ed., 2016) <a href="/wiki/Paywall" title="closed access publication – behind paywall"><img alt="Closed access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/9px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/14px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/18px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/19/language/hbo/">Classical Hebrew (liturgical)</a> at <a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a> (19th ed., 2016) <a href="/wiki/Paywall" title="closed access publication – behind paywall"><img alt="Closed access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/9px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/14px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/18px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/19/language/smp/">Samaritan Hebrew (liturgical)</a> at <a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a> (19th ed., 2016) <a href="/wiki/Paywall" title="closed access publication – behind paywall"><img alt="Closed access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/9px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/14px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/18px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/19/language/obm/">Moabite (extinct)</a> at <a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a> (19th ed., 2016) <a href="/wiki/Paywall" title="closed access publication – behind paywall"><img alt="Closed access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/9px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/14px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/18px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/19/language/xdm/">Edomite (extinct)</a> at <a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a> (19th ed., 2016) <a href="/wiki/Paywall" title="closed access publication – behind paywall"><img alt="Closed access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/9px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/14px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/18px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a> </li> <li id="cite_note-eth-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-eth_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-eth_5-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration 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.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/language/heb">"Hebrew"</a>. 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Retrieved 29 August 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.gov.za&rft.atitle=Constitution+of+the+Republic+of+South+Africa%2C+1996+%E2%80%93+Chapter+1%3A+Founding+Provisions+%7C+South+African+Government&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gov.za%2Fdocuments%2Fconstitution%2Fchapter-1-founding-provisions&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHebrew+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Yağmur2001-10"><a href="#cite_ref-Yağmur2001_10-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYağmur2001" class="citation cs2">Yağmur, Kutlay (2001), Extra, G.; Gorter, D. (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://research.tilburguniversity.edu/en/publications/turkish-and-other-languages-in-turkey">"Turkish and other languages in Turkey"</a>, The Other Languages of Europe, Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, pp. 407–427, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85359-510-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85359-510-3"><bdi>978-1-85359-510-3</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231020210255/https://research.tilburguniversity.edu/en/publications/turkish-and-other-languages-in-turkey">archived</a> from the original on 20 October 2023, retrieved 6 October 2023, <q>"Mother tongue" education is mostly limited to Turkish teaching in Turkey. No other language can be taught as a mother tongue other than Armenian, Greek, and Hebrew, as agreed in the Lausanne Treaty [...] Like Jews and Greeks, Armenians enjoy the privilege of an officially recognized minority status. [...] No language other than Turkish can be taught at schools or at cultural centers. Only Armenian, Greek, and Hebrew are exceptions to this constitutional rule.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Other+Languages+of+Europe&rft.atitle=Turkish+and+other+languages+in+Turkey&rft.pages=407-427&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-85359-510-3&rft.aulast=Ya%C4%9Fmur&rft.aufirst=Kutlay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fresearch.tilburguniversity.edu%2Fen%2Fpublications%2Fturkish-and-other-languages-in-turkey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHebrew+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zetler2014-11"><a href="#cite_ref-Zetler2014_11-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZetler2014" class="citation journal cs1">Zetler, Reyhan (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sagw.ch/fileadmin/redaktion_judaistik/dokumente/Judaistik/2014/III.%20R.%20Zetler%20-%20Bulletin%20SGJF%20Nr.%2023%20%282014%29.pdf">"Turkish Jews between 1923 and 1933 – What Did the Turkish Policy between 1923 and 1933 Mean for the Turkish Jews?"</a> (PDF). 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Retrieved 12 October 2023. p. 514: <q>This implies that Turkey grants educational right in minority languages only to the recognized minorities covered by the Lausanne who are the Armenians, Greeks and the Jews.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=East+European+Quarterly&rft.atitle=EU+enlargement+conditions+and+minority+protection+%3A+a+reflection+on+Turkey%27s+non-Muslim+minorities&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=489-519&rft.date=2006&rft.issn=0012-8449&rft.aulast=Tokta%C5%9F&rft.aufirst=%C5%9Eule&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcadmus.eui.eu%2Fhandle%2F1814%2F42732&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHebrew+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bayır2013-13"><a href="#cite_ref-Bayır2013_13-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBayır2013" class="citation book cs1">Bayır, Derya (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/37557239">Minorities and nationalism in Turkish law</a>. Cultural Diversity and Law. Farnham: <a href="/wiki/Ashgate_Publishing" title="Ashgate Publishing">Ashgate Publishing</a>. pp. 89–90. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4094-7254-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4094-7254-4"><bdi>978-1-4094-7254-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231014083317/https://www.academia.edu/37557239/DERYA_BAYIR_MINORITIES_AND_NATIONALISM_IN_TURKISH_LAW">Archived</a> from the original on 14 October 2023. Retrieved 12 October 2023. <q>Oran farther points out that the rights set out for the four categories are stated to be the 'fundamental law' of the land, so that no legislation or official action shall conflict or interfere with these stipulations or prevail over them (article 37). [...] According to the Turkish state, only Greek, Armenian and Jewish non-Muslims were granted minority protection by the Lausanne Treaty. [...] Except for non-Muslim populations - that is, Greeks, Jews and Armenians - none of the other minority groups' language rights have been de jure protected by the legal system in Turkey.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Minorities+and+nationalism+in+Turkish+law&rft.place=Farnham&rft.series=Cultural+Diversity+and+Law&rft.pages=89-90&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-4094-7254-4&rft.aulast=Bay%C4%B1r&rft.aufirst=Derya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F37557239&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHebrew+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HRWLanguageRights-14"><a href="#cite_ref-HRWLanguageRights_14-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hrw.org/news/2002/04/19/qa-freedom-expression-and-language-rights-turkey">Questions and Answers: Freedom of Expression and Language Rights in Turkey</a>. New York: Human Rights Watch. April 2002. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231020130644/https://www.hrw.org/news/2002/04/19/qa-freedom-expression-and-language-rights-turkey">Archived</a> from the original on 20 October 2023. Retrieved 12 October 2023. <q>The Turkish government accepts the language rights of the Jewish, Greek and Armenian minorities as being guaranteed by the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Questions+and+Answers%3A+Freedom+of+Expression+and+Language+Rights+in+Turkey&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Human+Rights+Watch&rft.date=2002-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hrw.org%2Fnews%2F2002%2F04%2F19%2Fqa-freedom-expression-and-language-rights-turkey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHebrew+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChomsky1957" class="citation book cs1">Chomsky, William (1957). Hebrew: The Eternal Language. Philadelphia: The Jewish Publication Society of America. pp. 1–13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hebrew%3A+The+Eternal+Language&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pages=1-13&rft.pub=The+Jewish+Publication+Society+of+America&rft.date=1957&rft.aulast=Chomsky&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHebrew+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrenobleWhaley2005" class="citation book cs1">Grenoble, Leonore A.; Whaley, Lindsay J. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Vavj5-hdDgQC&pg=PA63">Saving Languages: An Introduction to Language Revitalization</a>. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. p. 63. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-01652-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-01652-0"><bdi>978-0-521-01652-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230408152859/https://books.google.com/books?id=Vavj5-hdDgQC&pg=PA63">Archived</a> from the original on 8 April 2023. Retrieved 28 March 2017. <q>Hebrew is cited by Paulston et al. (1993:276) as 'the only true example of language revival.'</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Saving+Languages%3A+An+Introduction+to+Language+Revitalization&rft.place=United+Kingdom&rft.pages=63&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-521-01652-0&rft.aulast=Grenoble&rft.aufirst=Leonore+A.&rft.au=Whaley%2C+Lindsay+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVavj5-hdDgQC%26pg%3DPA63&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHebrew+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFesperman1998" class="citation news cs1">Fesperman, Dan (26 April 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.baltimoresun.com/1998/04/26/once-dead-language-brings-israel-to-life-hebrew-after-1700-years-a-revived-language-becomes-a-common-thread-knitting-together-a-nation-of-immigrants-with-little-in-common-except-religion/">"Once 'dead' language brings Israel to life Hebrew: After 1,700 years, a revived language becomes a common thread knitting together a nation of immigrants with little in common except religion"</a>. The Baltimore Sun. Sun Foreign Staff. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170329141226/http://articles.baltimoresun.com/1998-04-26/news/1998116050_1_read-hebrew-hebrew-and-arabic-german">Archived</a> from the original on 29 March 2017. Retrieved 28 March 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Baltimore+Sun&rft.atitle=Once+%27dead%27+language+brings+Israel+to+life+Hebrew%3A+After+1%2C700+years%2C+a+revived+language+becomes+a+common+thread+knitting+together+a+nation+of+immigrants+with+little+in+common+except+religion&rft.date=1998-04-26&rft.aulast=Fesperman&rft.aufirst=Dan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.baltimoresun.com%2F1998%2F04%2F26%2Fonce-dead-language-brings-israel-to-life-hebrew-after-1700-years-a-revived-language-becomes-a-common-thread-knitting-together-a-nation-of-immigrants-with-little-in-common-except-religion%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHebrew+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.physorg.com/news182101034.html">"Most ancient Hebrew biblical inscription deciphered"</a>. Physorg.com. 7 January 2010. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120127105129/http://www.physorg.com/news182101034.html">Archived</a> from the original on 27 January 2012. Retrieved 25 April 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Most+ancient+Hebrew+biblical+inscription+deciphered&rft.pub=Physorg.com&rft.date=2010-01-07&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.physorg.com%2Fnews182101034.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHebrew+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> Hoffman, Joel M. In the Beginning : A Short History of the Hebrew Language. New York, New York University Press, 2006, p. 169. </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> Sáenz-Badillos (1993), p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EZCgpaTgLm0C&pg=PA171">171</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230408152903/https://books.google.com/books?id=EZCgpaTgLm0C&pg=PA171">Archived</a> 8 April 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-OxfordDictionaryChristianChurch-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-OxfordDictionaryChristianChurch_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OxfordDictionaryChristianChurch_22-1">b</a> "Hebrew" in The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, edit. F.L. Cross, first edition (Oxford, 1958), 3rd edition (Oxford 1997). The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church which once said, in 1958 in its first edition, that Hebrew "ceased to be a spoken language around the fourth century BCE", now says, in its 1997 (third) edition, that Hebrew "continued to be used as a spoken and written language in the New Testament period". </li> <li id="cite_note-ASB170-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ASB170_23-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ASB170_23-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ASB170_23-2">c</a> Sáenz-Badillos (1993), p. 170–171 </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> "If you couldn't speak Greek by say the time of early Christianity you couldn't get a job. You wouldn't get a good job. A professional job. You had to know Greek in addition to your own language. And so you were getting to a point where Jews... the Jewish community in, say, Egypt and large cities like Alexandria didn't know Hebrew anymore, they only knew Greek. And so you need a Greek version in the synagogue." – Josheph Blankinsopp, Professor of Biblical Studies University of Notre Dame in A&E's Who Wrote the Bible </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/abraham-ben-isaac-ben-garton">"Abraham Ben Isaac Ben Garton"</a>. Encyclopedia.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221027042028/https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/abraham-ben-isaac-ben-garton">Archived</a> from the original on 27 October 2022. Retrieved 27 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia.com&rft.atitle=Abraham+Ben+Isaac+Ben+Garton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedia.com%2Freligion%2Fencyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps%2Fabraham-ben-isaac-ben-garton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHebrew+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-bhol-27">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bhol_27-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bhol_27-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131104025104/http://www.bhol.co.il/article_en.aspx?id=52405">"'Kometz Aleph – Au': How many Hebrew speakers are there in the world?"</a>. Nachman Gur for Behadrey Haredim. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bhol.co.il/article_en.aspx?id=52405">the original</a> on 4 November 2013. Retrieved 2 November 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%27Kometz+Aleph+%E2%80%93+Au%27%3A+How+many+Hebrew+speakers+are+there+in+the+world%3F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bhol.co.il%2Farticle_en.aspx%3Fid%3D52405&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHebrew+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2009survey-28"><a href="#cite_ref-2009survey_28-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071225193634/http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/cats/population/ancestry_language_spoken_at_home.html">"Table 53. Languages Spoken at Home by Language: 2009"</a>, The 2012 Statistical Abstract, U.S. Census Bureau, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/cats/population/ancestry_language_spoken_at_home.html">the original</a> on 25 December 2007, retrieved 27 December 2011</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+2012+Statistical+Abstract&rft.atitle=Table+53.+Languages+Spoken+at+Home+by+Language%3A+2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.census.gov%2Fcompendia%2Fstatab%2Fcats%2Fpopulation%2Fancestry_language_spoken_at_home.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHebrew+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.languagemagazine.com/2018/08/14/arabic-downgraded-in-israel/">"Arabic Downgraded in Israel"</a>. Language Magazine. 14 August 2018. Retrieved 5 August 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Language+Magazine&rft.atitle=Arabic+Downgraded+in+Israel&rft.date=2018-08-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.languagemagazine.com%2F2018%2F08%2F14%2Farabic-downgraded-in-israel%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHebrew+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolmesBalousha2018" class="citation news cs1">Holmes, Oliver; Balousha, Hazem (19 July 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jul/19/one-more-racist-law-reactions-as-israel-axes-arabic-as-official-language">"'One more racist law': reactions as Israel axes Arabic as official language"</a>. The Guardian. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077">0261-3077</a>. Retrieved 5 August 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=%27One+more+racist+law%27%3A+reactions+as+Israel+axes+Arabic+as+official+language&rft.date=2018-07-19&rft.issn=0261-3077&rft.aulast=Holmes&rft.aufirst=Oliver&rft.au=Balousha%2C+Hazem&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2018%2Fjul%2F19%2Fone-more-racist-law-reactions-as-israel-axes-arabic-as-official-language&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHebrew+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://biblehub.com/hebrew/5676.htm">"Strong's Hebrew: 5676. עֵ֫בֶר (eber) – region across or beyond, side"</a>. biblehub.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180417133208/http://biblehub.com/hebrew/5676.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 17 April 2018. Retrieved 25 March 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=biblehub.com&rft.atitle=Strong%27s+Hebrew%3A+5676.+%D7%A2%D6%B5%D6%AB%D7%91%D6%B6%D7%A8+%28eber%29+%E2%80%93+region+across+or+beyond%2C+side&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbiblehub.com%2Fhebrew%2F5676.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHebrew+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lib.cet.ac.il/pages/item.asp?item=12606">"הספריה של מט"ח"</a>. Lib.cet.ac.il. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130502104627/http://lib.cet.ac.il/pages/item.asp?item=12606">Archived</a> from the original on 2 May 2013. Retrieved 25 April 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D7%94%D7%A1%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94+%D7%A9%D7%9C+%D7%9E%D7%98%22%D7%97&rft.pub=Lib.cet.ac.il&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flib.cet.ac.il%2Fpages%2Fitem.asp%3Fitem%3D12606&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHebrew+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMuss-Arnolt1905" class="citation book cs1">Muss-Arnolt, William (1905). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uycYAAAAYAAJ&q=assyrian+ebru&pg=PA9">A Concise Dictionary of the Assyrian Languages</a>. Reuther & Reichard. p. 9. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230408152916/https://books.google.com/books?id=uycYAAAAYAAJ&q=assyrian+ebru&pg=PA9">Archived</a> from the original on 8 April 2023. Retrieved 10 June 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Concise+Dictionary+of+the+Assyrian+Languages&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=Reuther+%26+Reichard&rft.date=1905&rft.aulast=Muss-Arnolt&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuycYAAAAYAAJ%26q%3Dassyrian%2Bebru%26pg%3DPA9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHebrew+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Xeravits-35"><a href="#cite_ref-Xeravits_35-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGéza_XeravitsJózsef_Zsengellér2008" class="citation book cs1">Géza Xeravits; József Zsengellér (25 June 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y042aO03HLUC&pg=PA43">Studies in the Book of Ben Sira: Papers of the Third International Conference on the Deuterocanonical Books, Shime'on Centre, Pápa, Hungary, 18–20 May, 2006</a>. Brill. pp. 43–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16906-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16906-7"><bdi>978-90-04-16906-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+in+the+Book+of+Ben+Sira%3A+Papers+of+the+Third+International+Conference+on+the+Deuterocanonical+Books%2C+Shime%27on+Centre%2C+P%C3%A1pa%2C+Hungary%2C+18%E2%80%9320+May%2C+2006&rft.pages=43-&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2008-06-25&rft.isbn=978-90-04-16906-7&rft.au=G%C3%A9za+Xeravits&rft.au=J%C3%B3zsef+Zsengell%C3%A9r&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dy042aO03HLUC%26pg%3DPA43&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHebrew+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> Barton, John, ed. (2004) [2002]. The Biblical World. 2. Taylor & Francis. p. 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> Kings II 18:26. </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> Ross, Allen P. Introducing Biblical Hebrew, Baker Academic, 2001. </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> אברהם בן יוסף ,מבוא לתולדות הלשון העברית (Avraham ben-Yosef, Introduction to the History of the Hebrew Language), page 38, אור-עם, Tel-Aviv, 1981. </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-40">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_40-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_40-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_40-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodblatt2006" class="citation cs2">Goodblatt, David, ed. 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"Jewish Multilingualism in the First century: An Essay in Historical Sociolinguistics", Joshua A. Fishman (ed.), Readings in The Sociology of Jewish Languages, Leiden: E. J. Brill, pp. 35–50. Also adopted by Smelik, Willem F. 1996. The Targum of Judges. P.9 </li> <li id="cite_note-spolsky85b-62"><a href="#cite_ref-spolsky85b_62-0">^</a> Spolsky, B. (1985), p. 40. and passim </li> <li id="cite_note-:02-63"><a href="#cite_ref-:02_63-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodblatt2006" class="citation cs2">Goodblatt, David, ed. (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/elements-of-ancient-jewish-nationalism/constructing-jewish-nationalism-the-hebrew-language/99AF61E0AE06DD38702A610D002393EB">"Constructing Jewish Nationalism: The Hebrew Language"</a>, Elements of Ancient Jewish Nationalism, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 50–51, 61, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fcbo9780511499067.004">10.1017/cbo9780511499067.004</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-86202-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-86202-8"><bdi>978-0-521-86202-8</bdi></a>, retrieved 8 October 2024</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Elements+of+Ancient+Jewish+Nationalism&rft.atitle=Constructing+Jewish+Nationalism%3A+The+Hebrew+Language&rft.pages=50-51%2C+61&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fcbo9780511499067.004&rft.isbn=978-0-521-86202-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Fabs%2Felements-of-ancient-jewish-nationalism%2Fconstructing-jewish-nationalism-the-hebrew-language%2F99AF61E0AE06DD38702A610D002393EB&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHebrew+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWise1994" class="citation book cs1">Wise, Michael Owen (1994). "Accidents and Accidence: A Scribal View of Linguistic Dating of the Aramaic Scrolls from Qumran". Thunder in Gemini and Other Essays on the History, Language and Literature of Second Temple Palestine. Sheffield, UK: Sheffield Academic Press. p. 117.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Accidents+and+Accidence%3A+A+Scribal+View+of+Linguistic+Dating+of+the+Aramaic+Scrolls+from+Qumran&rft.btitle=Thunder+in+Gemini+and+Other+Essays+on+the+History%2C+Language+and+Literature+of+Second+Temple+Palestine&rft.place=Sheffield%2C+UK&rft.pages=117&rft.pub=Sheffield+Academic+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Wise&rft.aufirst=Michael+Owen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHebrew+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCotton1999" class="citation journal cs1">Cotton, Hannah M. (1999). "The Languages of the Legal and Administrative Documents from the Judaean Desert". ZPE. 125: 225.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ZPE&rft.atitle=The+Languages+of+the+Legal+and+Administrative+Documents+from+the+Judaean+Desert&rft.volume=125&rft.pages=225&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Cotton&rft.aufirst=Hannah+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHebrew+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-66">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_66-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_66-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchwartz1995" class="citation journal cs1">Schwartz, Seth (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/651047">"Language, Power and Identity in Ancient Palestine"</a>. Past & Present (148): 3–4, 26–27, 44. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fpast%2F148.1.3">10.1093/past/148.1.3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0031-2746">0031-2746</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/651047">651047</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Past+%26+Present&rft.atitle=Language%2C+Power+and+Identity+in+Ancient+Palestine&rft.issue=148&rft.pages=3-4%2C+26-27%2C+44&rft.date=1995&rft.issn=0031-2746&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F651047%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fpast%2F148.1.3&rft.aulast=Schwartz&rft.aufirst=Seth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F651047&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHebrew+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> Huehnergard, John and <a href="/wiki/Jo_Ann_Hackett" title="Jo Ann Hackett">Jo Ann Hackett</a>. The Hebrew and Aramaic languages. In The Biblical World (2002), Volume 2 (John Barton, ed.). P.19 </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> E.g. Acts 21:40; 22:2; 26:14: têi hebraḯdi dialéktôi, lit. 'in the Hebrew dialect/language' </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> Fitzmyer, Joseph A. 1979. A Wandering Armenian: Collected Aramaic Essays. P.43 </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> Geoffrey W. Bromley (ed.) The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, W.B. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, Michigan 1979, 4 vols. vol.1 sub.'Aramaic' p.233: 'in the Aramaic vernacular of Palestine' </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> Randall Buth and Chad Pierce "EBRAISTI in Ancient Texts, Does ἑβραιστί ever Mean 'Aramaic'?" in Buth and Notley eds., Language Environment of First Century Judaea, Brill, 2014:66–109. p. 109 "no, Ἑβραιστί does not ever appear to mean Aramaic in attested texts during the Second Temple and Graeco-Roman periods."; p. 107 "John did not mention what either βεθεσδα or γαββαθα meant. They may both have been loanwords from Greek and Latin respectively." p103 "βεθεσδα ... (בית-אסטא(ן ... house of portico ... 3Q15 אסטאן הדרומית southern portico," and Latin gabata (p. 106) "means platter, dish... perhaps a mosaic design in the pavement ... " The Latin loanword is attested as "bowl" in later <a href="/wiki/Christian_Palestinian_Aramaic" title="Christian Palestinian Aramaic">Christian Palestinian Aramaic</a> and גבתא is (p106) "unattested in other Aramaic dialects" [contra the allegations of many]. </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> Grintz, Jehoshua M., "Hebrew as the Spoken and Written Language in the Last Days of the Second Temple", Journal of Biblical Literature (1960) 79 (1): pp. 32–47. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.2307/3264497">https://doi.org/10.2307/3264497</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240728212324/https://scholarlypublishingcollective.org/sblpress/jbl/article-abstract/79/1/32/187039/Hebrew-as-the-Spoken-and-Written-Language-in-the?redirectedFrom=fulltext">Archived</a> 28 July 2024 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-75">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_75-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_75-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFהר2022" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">הר, משה דוד (2022). "היהודים בארץ-ישראל בימי האימפריה הרומית הנוצרית" [The Jews in the Land of Israel in the Days of the Christian Roman Empire]. ארץ-ישראל בשלהי העת העתיקה: מבואות ומחקרים [Eretz Israel in Late Antiquity: Introductions and Studies] (in Hebrew). 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Carmi, Penguin Book of Hebrew Verse. </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> Safrai, Shmuel, Shemuel Safrai, M. Stern. 1976. The Jewish people in the first century. P.1036 </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> Fox, Marvin. 1995. Interpreting Maimonides. P.326 </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cojs.org/1577-first-printing-press-middle-east-safed/">"1577 The First Printing Press in the Middle East – Safed – Center for Online Judaic Studies"</a>. Center for Online Judaic Studies. 7 September 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180804013842/http://cojs.org/1577-first-printing-press-middle-east-safed/">Archived</a> from the original on 4 August 2018. Retrieved 3 August 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Center+for+Online+Judaic+Studies&rft.atitle=1577+The+First+Printing+Press+in+the+Middle+East+%E2%80%93+Safed+%E2%80%93+Center+for+Online+Judaic+Studies&rft.date=2017-09-07&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcojs.org%2F1577-first-printing-press-middle-east-safed%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHebrew+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF(Ha-Kohen)1980" class="citation book cs1">(Ha-Kohen), Israel Meir (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=onNwsw0akyoC&pg=PR14">Mishnah B'rurah – Israel Meir (ha-Kohen), Aharon Feldman, Aviel Orenstein – Google Books</a>. Feldheim Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87306-198-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87306-198-8"><bdi>978-0-87306-198-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230408152917/https://books.google.com/books?id=onNwsw0akyoC&pg=PR14">Archived</a> from the original on 8 April 2023. Retrieved 3 May 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mishnah+B%27rurah+%E2%80%93+Israel+Meir+%28ha-Kohen%29%2C+Aharon+Feldman%2C+Aviel+Orenstein+%E2%80%93+Google+Books&rft.pub=Feldheim+Publishers&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-87306-198-8&rft.aulast=%28Ha-Kohen%29&rft.aufirst=Israel+Meir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DonNwsw0akyoC%26pg%3DPR14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHebrew+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBensadoun2010" class="citation web cs1">Bensadoun, Daniel (15 October 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jpost.com/Jewish-World/Jewish-News/This-week-in-history-Revival-of-the-Hebrew-language">"This week in history: Revival of the Hebrew language – Jewish World – Jerusalem Post"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190401111442/https://www.jpost.com/Jewish-World/Jewish-News/This-week-in-history-Revival-of-the-Hebrew-language">Archived</a> from the original on 1 April 2019. Retrieved 6 April 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=This+week+in+history%3A+Revival+of+the+Hebrew+language+%E2%80%93+Jewish+World+%E2%80%93+Jerusalem+Post&rft.date=2010-10-15&rft.aulast=Bensadoun&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jpost.com%2FJewish-World%2FJewish-News%2FThis-week-in-history-Revival-of-the-Hebrew-language&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHebrew+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> Spiegel, Shalom. Hebrew Reborn (1930), Meridian Books reprint 1962, New York p. 56. </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishmag.com/43mag/ben-yehuda/ben-yehuda.htm">Eliezer Ben Yehuda and the Resurgence of the Hebrew Language</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100115054257/http://jewishmag.com/43mag/ben-yehuda/ben-yehuda.htm">Archived</a> 15 January 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> by Libby Kantorwitz </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121222024723/http://www.jewish-heritage.org/prep26.htm">"The Transformation of Jewish Culture in the USSR from 1930 to the Present (in Russian)"</a>. Jewish-heritage.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewish-heritage.org/prep26.htm">the original</a> on 22 December 2012. Retrieved 25 April 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Transformation+of+Jewish+Culture+in+the+USSR+from+1930+to+the+Present+%28in+Russian%29&rft.pub=Jewish-heritage.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewish-heritage.org%2Fprep26.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHebrew+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNosonovsky,_Michael1997" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Nosonovsky, Michael (25 August 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://berkovich-zametki.com/Nomer16/MN31.htm">"ЕВРЕЙСКАЯ СОВЕТСКАЯ КУЛЬТУРА БЫЛА ПРИГОВОРЕНА К УНИЧТОЖЕНИЮ В 1930–Е ГОДЫ"</a> [Jewish Soviet Culture Was Sentenced to Destruction in the 1930s] (in Russian). Berkovich-zametki.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110707225500/http://berkovich-zametki.com/Nomer16/MN31.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 7 July 2011. Retrieved 25 April 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D0%95%D0%92%D0%A0%D0%95%D0%99%D0%A1%D0%9A%D0%90%D0%AF+%D0%A1%D0%9E%D0%92%D0%95%D0%A2%D0%A1%D0%9A%D0%90%D0%AF+%D0%9A%D0%A3%D0%9B%D0%AC%D0%A2%D0%A3%D0%A0%D0%90+%D0%91%D0%AB%D0%9B%D0%90+%D0%9F%D0%A0%D0%98%D0%93%D0%9E%D0%92%D0%9E%D0%A0%D0%95%D0%9D%D0%90+%D0%9A+%D0%A3%D0%9D%D0%98%D0%A7%D0%A2%D0%9E%D0%96%D0%95%D0%9D%D0%98%D0%AE+%D0%92+1930%E2%80%93%D0%95+%D0%93%D0%9E%D0%94%D0%AB&rft.pub=Berkovich-zametki.com&rft.date=1997-08-25&rft.au=Nosonovsky%2C+Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fberkovich-zametki.com%2FNomer16%2FMN31.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHebrew+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120517002646/http://www.zionistarchives.org.il/ZA/SiteE/pShowView.aspx?GM=Y&ID=48&Teur=Protest%20against%20the%20suppression%20of%20Hebrew%20in%20the%20Soviet%20Union%20%201930-1931">Protest against the suppression of Hebrew in the Soviet Union 1930–1931</a> signed by <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>, among others. </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosén1966" class="citation book cs1">Rosén, Haiim B. (1966). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/textbookofisrael0000rose/page/0">A Textbook of Israeli Hebrew</a>. Chicago & London: The University of Chicago Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/textbookofisrael0000rose/page/0">0.161</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-72603-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-72603-8"><bdi>978-0-226-72603-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Textbook+of+Israeli+Hebrew&rft.place=Chicago+%26+London&rft.pages=0.161&rft.pub=The+University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1966&rft.isbn=978-0-226-72603-8&rft.aulast=Ros%C3%A9n&rft.aufirst=Haiim+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftextbookofisrael0000rose%2Fpage%2F0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHebrew+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShisha_Halevy1989" class="citation book cs1">Shisha Halevy, Ariel (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110721134619/http://ling.huji.ac.il/Staff/Ariel_Shisha-Halevy/">The Proper Name: Structural Prolegomena to its Syntax – a Case Study in Coptic</a>. 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Milano: Centro Studi Camito-Semitici. p. 72.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Proto-Semitic+to+Hebrew%3A+Phonology%3A+etymological+approach+in+a+Hamito-Semitic+perspective&rft.place=Milano&rft.pages=72&rft.pub=Centro+Studi+Camito-Semitici&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Dolgopolsky&rft.aufirst=Aron&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHebrew+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDolgopolsky1999">Dolgopolsky (1999</a>:73) </li> <li id="cite_note-bbgd-107"><a href="#cite_ref-bbgd_107-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlau2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joshua_Blau" class="mw-redirect" title="Joshua Blau">Blau, Joshua</a> (2010). Phonology and Morphology of Biblical Hebrew: An Introduction. Linguistic studies in ancient West Semitic. Vol. 2 (revised ed.). Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns. pp. 78–81. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-129-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-129-0"><bdi>978-1-57506-129-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Phonology+and+Morphology+of+Biblical+Hebrew%3A+An+Introduction&rft.place=Winona+Lake&rft.series=Linguistic+studies+in+ancient+West+Semitic&rft.pages=78-81&rft.edition=revised&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-57506-129-0&rft.aulast=Blau&rft.aufirst=Joshua&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHebrew+language" class="Z3988"> No text access via Google Books. </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson-Wright2019" class="citation book cs1">Wilson-Wright, Aren M. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sites.utexas.edu/scripts/files/2020/10/2019-AWW-The-Canaanite-Languages.pdf">"The Canaanite languages"</a> (PDF). In Huehnergard, John; Pat-El, Na'ama (eds.). The Semitic languages. Routledge language family series (2nd ed.). London New York (N. Y.) Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. p. 511. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-73195-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-73195-9"><bdi>978-0-415-73195-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221106072842/https://sites.utexas.edu/scripts/files/2020/10/2019-AWW-The-Canaanite-Languages.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 6 November 2022. Retrieved 15 May 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Canaanite+languages&rft.btitle=The+Semitic+languages&rft.place=London+New+York+%28N.+Y.%29+Abingdon%2C+Oxon&rft.series=Routledge+language+family+series&rft.pages=511&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-415-73195-9&rft.aulast=Wilson-Wright&rft.aufirst=Aren+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsites.utexas.edu%2Fscripts%2Ffiles%2F2020%2F10%2F2019-AWW-The-Canaanite-Languages.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHebrew+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStaff2022" class="citation web cs1">Staff, Biblical Archaeology Society (15 March 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/biblical-artifacts/inscriptions/the-phoenician-alphabet-in-archaeology/">"The Phoenician Alphabet in Archaeology"</a>. Biblical Archaeology Society. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240515030804/https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/biblical-artifacts/inscriptions/the-phoenician-alphabet-in-archaeology/">Archived</a> from the original on 15 May 2024. Retrieved 15 May 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Biblical+Archaeology+Society&rft.atitle=The+Phoenician+Alphabet+in+Archaeology&rft.date=2022-03-15&rft.aulast=Staff&rft.aufirst=Biblical+Archaeology+Society&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.biblicalarchaeology.org%2Fdaily%2Fbiblical-artifacts%2Finscriptions%2Fthe-phoenician-alphabet-in-archaeology%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHebrew+language" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoffman2004" class="citation book cs1">Hoffman, Joel M. (August 2004). In the Beginning: A Short History of the Hebrew Language. New York: NYU Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-3654-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-3654-8"><bdi>978-0-8147-3654-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+the+Beginning%3A+A+Short+History+of+the+Hebrew+Language&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=NYU+Press&rft.date=2004-08&rft.isbn=978-0-8147-3654-8&rft.aulast=Hoffman&rft.aufirst=Joel+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHebrew+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIzre'el2001" class="citation web cs1">Izre'el, Shlomo (2001). Hary, Benjamin (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tau.ac.il/humanities/semitic/cosih.html">"The Corpus of Spoken Israeli Hebrew"</a>. (CoSIH): Working Papers I. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111227154717/http://www.tau.ac.il/humanities/semitic/cosih.html">Archived</a> from the original on 27 December 2011. Retrieved 25 January 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Corpus+of+Spoken+Israeli+Hebrew&rft.pub=%28CoSIH%29%3A+Working+Papers+I&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Izre%27el&rft.aufirst=Shlomo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tau.ac.il%2Fhumanities%2Fsemitic%2Fcosih.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHebrew+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlein2014" class="citation book cs1">Klein, Reuven Chaim (2014). Lashon HaKodesh: History, Holiness, & Hebrew. Mosaica Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-937887-36-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-937887-36-0"><bdi>978-1-937887-36-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lashon+HaKodesh%3A+History%2C+Holiness%2C+%26+Hebrew&rft.pub=Mosaica+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-937887-36-0&rft.aulast=Klein&rft.aufirst=Reuven+Chaim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHebrew+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuzar2001" class="citation book cs1">Kuzar, Ron (2001). Hebrew and Zionism: A Discourse Analytic Cultural Study. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-016993-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-016993-5"><bdi>978-3-11-016993-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hebrew+and+Zionism%3A+A+Discourse+Analytic+Cultural+Study&rft.place=Berlin+%26+New+York&rft.pub=Mouton+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-3-11-016993-5&rft.aulast=Kuzar&rft.aufirst=Ron&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHebrew+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaufer1999" class="citation book cs1">Laufer, Asher (1999). Hebrew Handbook of the International Phonetic Association. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-65236-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-65236-0"><bdi>978-0-521-65236-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hebrew+Handbook+of+the+International+Phonetic+Association&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-521-65236-0&rft.aulast=Laufer&rft.aufirst=Asher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHebrew+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSáenz-Badillos1993" class="citation book cs1">Sáenz-Badillos, Angel (1993) [1988]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EZCgpaTgLm0C">A History of the Hebrew Language</a>. Translated by John Elwolde. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-55634-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-55634-7"><bdi>978-0-521-55634-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230408152915/https://books.google.com/books?id=EZCgpaTgLm0C">Archived</a> from the original on 8 April 2023. Retrieved 16 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Hebrew+Language&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+England&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-521-55634-7&rft.aulast=S%C3%A1enz-Badillos&rft.aufirst=Angel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEZCgpaTgLm0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHebrew+language" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and 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href="http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/7453-hebrew-language">Hebrew language</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Encyclopedia" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish Encyclopedia">Jewish Encyclopedia</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/languages/other/hebrew/guide/">A Guide to Hebrew</a> at <a href="/wiki/BBC_Online" title="BBC Online">BBC Online</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.adath-shalom.ca/rabin_he.htm">A Short History of the Hebrew Language</a> by <a href="/wiki/Chaim_Menachem_Rabin" title="Chaim Menachem Rabin">Chaim Menachem Rabin</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tutorials,_courses_and_dictionaries">Tutorials, courses and dictionaries</h3></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.laits.utexas.edu/hebrew/">Hebrew language</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Texas_at_Austin_College_of_Liberal_Arts" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Texas at Austin College of Liberal Arts">University of Texas at Austin College of Liberal Arts</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livelingua.com/course/fsi/Hebrew_-_Basic_Course">Hebrew Basic Course</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Foreign_Service_Institute" title="Foreign Service Institute">Foreign Service Institute</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hebrew.ch/?lang=en">Phonetically Transcribed Modern Hebrew Course</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220526181204/https://www.hebrew.ch/?lang=en">Archived</a> 26 May 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> by Polyglot Daniel Epstein</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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href="/wiki/Template:Hebrew_language" title="Template:Hebrew language"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Hebrew_language" title="Template talk:Hebrew language"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Hebrew_language" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Hebrew language"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Hebrew_language" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hebrew language</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Hebrew_alphabet" title="History of the Hebrew alphabet">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_and_Aramaic_inscriptions" title="Canaanite and Aramaic inscriptions">Ancient inscriptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Hebrew" title="Romanization of Hebrew">Transliteration to English</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hebraization_of_English" title="Hebraization of English">from English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gematria" title="Gematria">Gematria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eras</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical</a> (<a href="/wiki/Israelian_Hebrew" title="Israelian Hebrew">northern dialect</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Mishnaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Hebrew" title="Medieval Hebrew">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reading traditions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Hebrew" title="Ashkenazi Hebrew">Ashkenazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Hebrew" title="Sephardi Hebrew">Sephardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romaniote_Jews#Romaniote_Hebrew" title="Romaniote Jews">Romaniote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Hebrew" title="Italian Hebrew">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Hebrew" title="Mizrahi Hebrew">Mizrahi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Syrian_Jews#Pronunciation_of_Hebrew" title="Syrian Jews">Syrian</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Hebrew" title="Yemenite Hebrew">Yemenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Hebrew" title="Samaritan Hebrew">Samaritan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiberian_Hebrew" title="Tiberian Hebrew">Tiberian</a> (extinct)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_vocalization" title="Palestinian vocalization">Palestinian</a> (extinct)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_vocalization" title="Babylonian vocalization">Babylonian</a> (extinct)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Orthography</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eras</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew_orthography" title="Biblical Hebrew orthography">Biblical</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scripts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rashi_script" title="Rashi script">Rashi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Braille" title="Hebrew Braille">Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ktav_Ashuri" title="Ktav Ashuri">Ashuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursive_Hebrew" title="Cursive Hebrew">Cursive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tag_(Hebrew_writing)" title="Tag (Hebrew writing)">Crowning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Hebrew_alphabet" title="Paleo-Hebrew alphabet">Paleo-Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solitreo" title="Solitreo">Solitreo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Alphabet</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleph" title="Aleph">Alef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bet_(letter)" title="Bet (letter)">Bet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gimel" title="Gimel">Gimel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalet" title="Dalet">Dalet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/He_(letter)" title="He (letter)">Hei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waw_(letter)" title="Waw (letter)">Vav</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zayin" title="Zayin">Zayin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heth" title="Heth">Ḥet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teth" title="Teth">Tet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yodh" title="Yodh">Yud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaph" title="Kaph">Kaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamedh" title="Lamedh">Lamed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mem" title="Mem">Mem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nun_(letter)" title="Nun (letter)">Nun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samekh" title="Samekh">Samech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayin" title="Ayin">Ayin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pe_(Semitic_letter)" title="Pe (Semitic letter)">Pei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsade" title="Tsade">Tsadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qoph" title="Qoph">Kuf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resh" title="Resh">Resh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shin_(letter)" title="Shin (letter)">Shin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taw" title="Taw">Tav</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Niqqud" title="Niqqud">Niqqud</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tiberian_vocalization" title="Tiberian vocalization">Tiberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_vocalization" title="Babylonian vocalization">Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_vocalization" title="Palestinian vocalization">Palestinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_vocalization" title="Samaritan vocalization">Samaritan</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shva" title="Shva">Shva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiriq" title="Hiriq">Hiriq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tzere" title="Tzere">Tzere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segol" title="Segol">Segol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patach" title="Patach">Pataḥ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamatz" title="Kamatz">Kamatz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holam" title="Holam">Holam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kubutz_and_shuruk" title="Kubutz and shuruk">Kubutz/shuruk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dagesh" title="Dagesh">Dagesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mappiq" title="Mappiq">Mappiq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_punctuation#Hyphen_and_maqaf" title="Hebrew punctuation">Maqaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rafe" title="Rafe">Rafe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shin_(letter)#Sin_and_Shin_dot" title="Shin (letter)">Sin/Shin dot</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_spelling" title="Hebrew spelling">Spelling</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ktiv_menuqad" title="Ktiv menuqad">with Niqqud</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ktiv_hasar_niqqud#Ktiv_haser" title="Ktiv hasar niqqud">missing</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ktiv_hasar_niqqud" title="Ktiv hasar niqqud">full</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mater_lectionis" title="Mater lectionis">Mater lectionis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_abbreviations" title="Hebrew abbreviations">Abbreviations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plene_scriptum" title="Plene scriptum">Plene scriptum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_punctuation" title="Hebrew punctuation">Punctuation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_diacritics" title="Hebrew diacritics">Diacritics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meteg" title="Meteg">Meteg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_cantillation" title="Hebrew cantillation">Cantillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geresh" title="Geresh">Geresh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gershayim" title="Gershayim">Gershayim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inverted_nun" title="Inverted nun">Inverted nun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shekel_sign" title="Shekel sign">Shekel sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_numerals" title="Hebrew numerals">Numerals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">Phonology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew#Phonology" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew_phonology" title="Modern Hebrew phonology">Modern Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippi%27s_law" title="Philippi's law">Philippi's law</a></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Begadkefat" title="Begadkefat">Law of attenuation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Hebrew_grammar">Grammar</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew#Grammar" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew_grammar" title="Modern Hebrew grammar">Modern</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew_verbs" title="Modern Hebrew verbs">Verbal morphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semitic_root" title="Semitic root">Semitic roots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prefixes_in_Hebrew" title="Prefixes in Hebrew">Prefixes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffixes_in_Hebrew" title="Suffixes in Hebrew">Suffixes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segolate" title="Segolate">Segolate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vav-consecutive" title="Vav-consecutive">Vav-consecutive</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revival_of_the_Hebrew_language" title="Revival of the Hebrew language">Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academy_of_the_Hebrew_Language" title="Academy of the Hebrew Language">Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Study_of_the_Hebrew_language" title="Study of the Hebrew language">Study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulpan" title="Ulpan">Ulpan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_keyboard" title="Hebrew keyboard">Keyboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_literature" title="Hebrew literature">Hebrew</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Hebrew_writings" title="Ancient Hebrew writings">ancient</a> / <a href="/wiki/Israeli_literature" title="Israeli literature">modern Israeli</a> literature</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_name" title="Hebrew name">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebraization_of_surnames" title="Hebraization of surnames">Surnames</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unicode_and_HTML_for_the_Hebrew_alphabet" title="Unicode and HTML for the Hebrew alphabet">Unicode and HTML</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reference works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gesenius-Kautsch-Cowley" class="mw-redirect" title="Gesenius-Kautsch-Cowley">Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Gesenius" title="Wilhelm Gesenius">Gesenius' Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon to the Old Testament Scriptures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown%E2%80%93Driver%E2%80%93Briggs" title="Brown–Driver–Briggs">Brown–Driver–Briggs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strong%27s_Concordance" title="Strong's Concordance">Strong's Concordance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_and_Aramaic_Lexicon_of_the_Old_Testament" title="Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament">Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Links_to_related_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="Links_to_related_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Links to related articles</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px"> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Languages_of_Israel" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Languages_of_Israel" title="Template:Languages of Israel"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Languages_of_Israel" title="Template talk:Languages of Israel"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Languages_of_Israel" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Languages of Israel"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Languages_of_Israel" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Israel" title="Languages of Israel">Languages of Israel</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Official</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hebrew</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Special status</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_language_in_Israel" title="Arabic language in Israel">Arabic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_Arabic" title="Palestinian Arabic">Palestinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Arabian_Arabic" title="Northwest Arabian Arabic">Bedouin</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-official</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amharic" title="Amharic">Amharic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domari_language" title="Domari language">Domari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Ladino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurdish languages">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_language" title="Romanian language">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_language_in_Israel" title="Russian language in Israel">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Israel#Other_spoken_languages" title="Languages of Israel">others</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sign languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abu_Kaf_Bedouin_Sign_Language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abu Kaf Bedouin Sign Language (page does not exist)">Abu Kaf</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Atrash_Sign_Language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Atrash Sign Language (page does not exist)">Al-Atrash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Sayyid_Bedouin_Sign_Language" title="Al-Sayyid Bedouin Sign Language">Al-Sayyid</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arab_El-Naim_Sign_Language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arab El-Naim Sign Language (page does not exist)">El-Naim</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ein_Mahel_Sign_Language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ein Mahel Sign Language (page does not exist)">Ein Mahel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Jewish_Sign_Language" title="Algerian Jewish Sign Language">Ghardaian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Sign_Language" title="Israeli Sign Language">Israeli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kafr_Qasem_Sign_Language" title="Kafr Qasem Sign Language">Kafr Qasem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic_Sign_Language" title="Levantine Arabic Sign Language">Levantine Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Sign_Language" title="Russian Sign Language">Russian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>See also: <a href="/wiki/Jewish_languages" title="Jewish languages">Jewish languages</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Semitic_languages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Semitic_languages" title="Template:Semitic languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Semitic_languages" title="Template talk:Semitic languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Semitic_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Semitic languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Semitic_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Branches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Semitic_languages" title="East Semitic languages">East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Semitic_languages" title="West Semitic languages">West</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Semitic_languages" title="Central Semitic languages">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Semitic_languages" title="South Semitic languages">South</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Semitic_languages" title="East Semitic languages">East</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canaano-Akkadian_language" title="Canaano-Akkadian language">Canaano-Akkadian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dilmun#People,_language_and_religion" title="Dilmun">Dilmunite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eblaite_language" title="Eblaite language">Eblaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kishite_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kishite language">Kishite</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_Semitic_languages" title="Central Semitic languages">Central</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Arabic_language" title="Proto-Arabic language">Proto-Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Arabic" title="Old Arabic">Old Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_North_Arabian" title="Ancient North Arabian">Ancient North Arabian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dadanitic" title="Dadanitic">Dadanitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_North_Arabian#Dumaitic" title="Ancient North Arabian">Dumaitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasaitic" title="Hasaitic">Hasaitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hismaic" title="Hismaic">Hismaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safaitic#Language" title="Safaitic">Safaitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taymanitic" title="Taymanitic">Taymanitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thamudic" title="Thamudic">Thamudic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Arabic" title="Nabataean Arabic">Nabataean Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-classical_Arabic" title="Pre-classical Arabic">Pre-classical Arabic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Literary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Standard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Arabic" title="Varieties of Arabic">Dialect groups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic" title="Levantine Arabic">Levantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Arabic" title="Maghrebi Arabic">Maghrebi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siculo-Arabic" title="Siculo-Arabic">Siculo-Arabic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_language" title="Maltese language">Maltese</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Mesopotamian Arabic">Mesopotamian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peninsular_Arabic" title="Peninsular Arabic">Peninsular</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Semitic_languages" title="Northwest Semitic languages">Northwest</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Aramaic" title="Old Aramaic">Old Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Aramaic" title="Imperial Aramaic">Imperial Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Aramaic" title="Biblical Aramaic">Biblical Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aramaic#Middle_Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Middle Aramaic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dialect groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armazic_language" title="Armazic language">Armazic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Aramaic_languages" title="Eastern Aramaic languages">Eastern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hatran_Aramaic" title="Hatran Aramaic">Ashurian and Hatran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Babylonian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Babylonian Aramaic">Jewish Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandaic_language" title="Mandaic language">Mandaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Aramaic_languages" title="Judeo-Aramaic languages">Judeo-Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Aramaic_languages" title="Western Aramaic languages">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Aramaic" title="Lebanese Aramaic">Lebanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Aramaic" title="Nabataean Aramaic">Nabataean</a></li> <li>Palestinian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Palestinian_Aramaic" title="Christian Palestinian Aramaic">Christian Palestinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galilean_dialect" title="Galilean dialect">Galilean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Palestinian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Palestinian Aramaic">Jewish Palestinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Aramaic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Samaritan Aramaic language">Samaritan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Aramaic" title="Palmyrene Aramaic">Palmyrene</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_languages" title="Neo-Aramaic languages">Neo- Aramaic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Neo-Aramaic" title="Central Neo-Aramaic">Central</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mla%E1%B8%A5s%C3%B4_language" title="Mlaḥsô language">Mlaḥsô</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turoyo_language" title="Turoyo language">Turoyo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Mandaic" title="Neo-Mandaic">Neo-Mandaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeastern_Neo-Aramaic" title="Northeastern Neo-Aramaic">Northeastern</a> <ul><li>Christian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Barwar" title="Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Barwar">Barwar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Bohtan" title="Neo-Aramaic dialect of Bohtan">Bohtan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Hertevin" title="Neo-Aramaic dialect of Hertevin">Hértevin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koy_Sanjaq_Christian_Neo-Aramaic" title="Koy Sanjaq Christian Neo-Aramaic">Koy Sanjaq Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Qaraqosh" title="Neo-Aramaic dialect of Qaraqosh">Qaraqosh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Senaya" title="Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Senaya">Senaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suret_language" title="Suret language">Suret</a> <ul><li>Assyrian</li> <li>Chaldean</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Urmia" title="Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Urmia">Urmia Christian</a></li></ul></li> <li>Jewish <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Barzani" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Barzani">Barzani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Betanure" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Betanure">Betanure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Inter-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Inter-Zab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Koy_Sanjaq" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Koy Sanjaq">Koy Sanjaq Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanandaj_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Sanandaj Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Sanandaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Trans-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Trans-Zab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Urmia" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Urmia">Urmia Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Zakho" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Zakho">Zakho</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Neo-Aramaic" title="Western Neo-Aramaic">Western</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_languages" title="Canaanite languages">Canaanite</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ammonite_language" title="Ammonite language">Ammonite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edomite_language" title="Edomite language">Edomite</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hebrew</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Israelian_Hebrew" title="Israelian Hebrew">northern dialect</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Mishnaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Hebrew" title="Medieval Hebrew">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moabite_language" title="Moabite language">Moabite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenician_language" title="Phoenician language">Phoenician</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Punic_language" title="Punic language">Punic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amorite_language" title="Amorite language">Amorite</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ugaritic" title="Ugaritic">Ugaritic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deir_Alla_inscription" title="Deir Alla inscription">Deir Alla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Himyaritic_language" title="Himyaritic language">Himyaritic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samalian_language" title="Samalian language">Samalian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutean_language" title="Sutean language">Sutean</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_Semitic_languages" title="South Semitic languages">South</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eastern (<a href="/wiki/Modern_South_Arabian_languages" title="Modern South Arabian languages">Mod- ern Arabian</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ba%E1%B9%AD%E1%B8%A5ari_language" title="Baṭḥari language">Baṭḥari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%A4arsusi_language" title="Ḥarsusi language">Ḥarsusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoby%C3%B3t_language" title="Hobyót language">Hobyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mehri_language" title="Mehri language">Mehri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shehri_language" title="Shehri language">Shehri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soqotri_language" title="Soqotri language">Soqotri</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ethio-Semitic_languages" title="Ethio-Semitic languages">Ethio-Semitic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez" title="Geʽez">Geʽez</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dahalik_language" title="Dahalik language">Dahalik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigre_language" title="Tigre language">Tigre</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigrinya_language" title="Tigrinya language">Tigrinya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Trans- versal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amharic" title="Amharic">Amharic</a>–<a href="/wiki/Argobba_language" title="Argobba language">Argobba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harari_language" title="Harari language">Harari</a>–<a href="/wiki/Gurage_people" title="Gurage people">East Gurage</a> <ul><li>East Gurage <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Silt%CA%BCe_language" title="Siltʼe language">Siltʼe</a> <ul><li>Inneqor</li> <li>Ulbare</li> <li>Wolane</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zay_language" title="Zay language">Zay</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Outer</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>N-group <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gafat_language" title="Gafat language">Gafat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soddo_language" title="Soddo language">Soddo</a></li></ul></li> <li>Tt-group <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mesmes_language" title="Mesmes language">Mesmes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muher_language" title="Muher language">Muher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurage_people" title="Gurage people">West Gurage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inor_language" title="Inor language">Inor</a> <ul><li>Endegen</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesqan_language" title="Mesqan language">Mesqan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sebat_Bet_Gurage_language" title="Sebat Bet Gurage language">Sebat Bet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chaha_language" title="Chaha language">Chaha</a></li> <li>Ezha</li> <li>Gumer</li> <li>Gura</li> <li>Gyeto</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Old_South_Arabian" title="Old South Arabian">Old Arabian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Faifi_language" title="Faifi language">Faifi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadramautic_language" title="Hadramautic language">Hadramautic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minaean_language" title="Minaean language">Minaean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qatabanian_language" title="Qatabanian language">Qatabanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rijal_Alma_(speech_variety)" title="Rijal Alma (speech variety)">Rijal Alma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Razihi_language" title="Razihi language">Razihi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabaic" title="Sabaic">Sabaic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>Italics indicate <a href="/wiki/Extinct_language" title="Extinct language">extinct</a> or historical languages.</li> <li>Languages between parentheses are <a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)">varieties</a> of the language on their left.</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Jewish_languages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Jewish_languages" title="Template:Jewish languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Jewish_languages" title="Template talk:Jewish languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Jewish_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Jewish languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Jewish_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_languages" title="Jewish languages">Jewish languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hebrew</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eras</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Mishnaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Hebrew" title="Medieval Hebrew">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reading traditions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Hebrew" title="Ashkenazi Hebrew">Ashkenazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Hebrew" title="Sephardi Hebrew">Sephardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Hebrew" title="Mizrahi Hebrew">Mizrahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Hebrew" title="Italian Hebrew">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Hebrew" title="Yemenite Hebrew">Yemenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiberian_Hebrew" title="Tiberian Hebrew">Tiberian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Aramaic_languages" title="Judeo-Aramaic languages">Judaeo-Aramaic</a>/<a href="/wiki/Targum_(Aramaic_dialects)" title="Targum (Aramaic dialects)">Targum</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Aramaic" title="Biblical Aramaic">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Talmudic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Babylonian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Babylonian Aramaic">Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Palestinian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Palestinian Aramaic">Jewish Palestinian Aramaic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galilean_dialect" title="Galilean dialect">Galilean</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Barzani" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Barzani">Barzani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Trans-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Hulaulá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Zakho" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Zakho">Lishana Deni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Urmia" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Urmia">Lishán Didán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Inter-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Lishanid Noshan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Betanure" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Betanure">Betanure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic" title="Judeo-Arabic">Judaeo-Arabic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Algerian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Algerian Arabic">Judaeo-Algerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Egyptian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Egyptian Arabic">Judaeo-Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fessi_dialect#Jewish_Fessi_dialect" title="Fessi dialect">Judaeo-Fessi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Judaeo-Iraqi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic" title="Baghdad Jewish Arabic">Judaeo-Baghdadi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Moroccan_Arabic" title="Judeo-Moroccan Arabic">Judaeo-Moroccan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Palestinian_Judeo-Arabic" title="Modern Palestinian Judeo-Arabic">Judaeo-Palestinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tripolitanian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic">Judaeo-Tripolitanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Syrian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Syrian Arabic">Judaeo-Syrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tunisian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tunisian Arabic">Judaeo-Tunisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Yemeni_Arabic" title="Judeo-Yemeni Arabic">Judaeo-Yemeni</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez" title="Geʽez">Geʽez</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Semitic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethiopian Semitic languages">Ethiosemitic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kayla_dialect" title="Kayla dialect">Kayla</a>/<a href="/wiki/Qwara_dialect" title="Qwara dialect">Qwara</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cushitic_languages" title="Cushitic languages">Cushitic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Berber_language" title="Judeo-Berber language">Judaeo-Berber</a> (<a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.5em"><a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a> (<a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects" title="Yiddish dialects">dialects</a>/<a href="/wiki/Argot" class="mw-redirect" title="Argot">argots</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Yiddish">Eastern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galitzish" class="mw-redirect" title="Galitzish">Galitzish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithuanian Yiddish">Litvish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poylish" class="mw-redirect" title="Poylish">Poylish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects" title="Yiddish dialects">Ukrainish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Udmurtish" class="mw-redirect" title="Udmurtish">Udmurtish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klezmer-loshn" title="Klezmer-loshn">Klezmer-loshn</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Yiddish">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Alsatian" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Alsatian">Judaeo-Alsatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lachoudisch" title="Lachoudisch">Lachoudisch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots-Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Scots-Yiddish">Scots-Yiddish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.5em"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_English_varieties" title="Jewish English varieties">Jewish English</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yeshivish" title="Yeshivish">Yeshivish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yinglish" class="mw-redirect" title="Yinglish">Yinglish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heblish" class="mw-redirect" title="Heblish">Heblish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Romance_languages" title="Judaeo-Romance languages">Judaeo-Romance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Catalan" title="Judaeo-Catalan">Judaeo-Catalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Italian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Italian languages">Judaeo-Italian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Livornese" title="Judeo-Livornese">Judaeo-Livornese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Mantuan" title="Judeo-Mantuan">Judaeo-Mantuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Piedmontese" title="Judaeo-Piedmontese">Judaeo-Piedmontese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Roman_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Roman language">Judaeo-Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Judaeo-Spanish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haketia" title="Haketia">Haketia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tetuani_Ladino" title="Tetuani Ladino">Tetuani</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Latin" title="Judeo-Latin">Judaeo-Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Proven%C3%A7al" title="Judeo-Provençal">Judaeo-Provençal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Gascon" title="Judeo-Gascon">Judaeo-Gascon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Portuguese" title="Judaeo-Portuguese">Judaeo-Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Aragonese" title="Judaeo-Aragonese">Judaeo-Aragonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zarphatic_language" title="Zarphatic language">Zarphatic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iranian_languages" title="Judeo-Iranian languages">Judaeo-Iranian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bukharian_(Judeo-Tajik_dialect)" title="Bukharian (Judeo-Tajik dialect)">Bukhori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tat" title="Judeo-Tat">Judaeo-Tat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Persian" title="Judeo-Persian">Judaeo-Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Hamedani%E2%80%93Borujerdi" title="Judeo-Hamedani–Borujerdi">Judaeo-Hamedani–Borujerdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Shirazi" title="Judeo-Shirazi">Judaeo-Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrian_Dari" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoroastrian Dari">Judaeo-Yazdi–Kermani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Kashani" title="Judeo-Kashani">Judaeo-Kashani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Golpaygani" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Golpaygani">Judaeo-Golpaygani</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Koine_Greek" title="Jewish Koine Greek">Jewish Koine Greek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yevanic_language" title="Yevanic language">Yevanic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hellenic_languages" title="Hellenic languages">Hellenic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knaanic_language" title="Knaanic language">Knaanic</a>, Pre-1970s <a href="/wiki/Odesan_Russian" title="Odesan Russian">Odesan Russian</a> (<a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Urdu" title="Judeo-Urdu">Judaeo-Urdu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Marathi" title="Judeo-Marathi">Judaeo-Marathi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Krymchak_language" title="Krymchak language">Krymchak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karaim_language" title="Karaim language">Karaim</a> (<a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malayalam" title="Judeo-Malayalam">Judaeo-Malayalam</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Georgian" title="Judaeo-Georgian">Judaeo-Georgian</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kartvelian_languages" title="Kartvelian languages">Kartvelian</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Papiamento" title="Judaeo-Papiamento">Judaeo-Papiamento</a> (<a href="/wiki/Portuguese-based_creole_languages" title="Portuguese-based creole languages">Portuguese-based Creole</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malay" title="Judeo-Malay">Judaeo-Malay</a> (<a href="/wiki/Malayic_languages" title="Malayic languages">Malayic</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">Sign languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Sign_Language" title="Israeli Sign Language">Israeli Sign Language</a> (<a href="/wiki/German_Sign_Language_family" title="German Sign Language family">German Sign</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Jewish_Sign_Language" title="Algerian Jewish Sign Language">Algerian Jewish Sign Language</a> (<a href="/wiki/Village_sign_language" title="Village sign language">village sign language</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>Italics indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236088147">.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline;font-size:88%;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em 0 0;padding:0 2em}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;padding:0.2em 0;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px;line-height:22px}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;align-items:baseline;padding:0.2em 0;column-gap:1em;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{display:flex;align-items:baseline;margin:0.15em 0;min-height:24px;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-logo{width:22px;line-height:22px;margin:0 0.2em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-link{margin:0 0.2em;text-align:left}@media screen and (max-width:960px){.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{flex-flow:column wrap;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{flex:0 1}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{flex:1;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{flex:0 0 20em;min-width:20em}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.portal-bar{margin-top:-1px}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="noprint metadata sister-bar" role="navigation" aria-label="sister-projects"><div class="sister-bar-header">Hebrew language at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a>:</div><ul class="sister-bar-content"><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/19px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/29px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/38px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:Hebrew_language" class="extiw" title="wikt:Category:Hebrew language">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/14px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/21px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/28px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Hebrew_language" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Hebrew language">Media</a> from Commons</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/16px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/24px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/32px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Hebraic_proverbs" class="extiw" title="q:Hebraic proverbs">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/28px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/36px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" 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