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id="toc-Single-use_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Job_sprawl_and_spatial_mismatch" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Job_sprawl_and_spatial_mismatch"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Job sprawl and spatial mismatch </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Job_sprawl_and_spatial_mismatch-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Low-density" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Low-density"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Low-density </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Low-density-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conversion_of_agricultural_land_to_urban_use" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conversion_of_agricultural_land_to_urban_use"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Conversion of agricultural land to urban use </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conversion_of_agricultural_land_to_urban_use-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Housing_subdivisions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Housing_subdivisions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Housing subdivisions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Housing_subdivisions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lawn" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lawn"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Lawn </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lawn-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Commercial_developments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commercial_developments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7 Commercial developments </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commercial_developments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effect" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effect"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Effect </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Effect-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Effect subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Effect-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Health" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Health </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Health-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Safety" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Safety"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Safety </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Safety-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Economy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Social </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Urban_Sprawl_and_Emerging_Zoonotic_Diseases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Urban_Sprawl_and_Emerging_Zoonotic_Diseases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Urban Sprawl and Emerging Zoonotic Diseases </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Urban_Sprawl_and_Emerging_Zoonotic_Diseases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Debate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Debate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Debate </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Debate-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Debate subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Debate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Groups_that_oppose_sprawl" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Groups_that_oppose_sprawl"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Groups that oppose sprawl </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Groups_that_oppose_sprawl-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consumer_preference" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consumer_preference"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Consumer preference </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consumer_preference-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Automobile_dependency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Automobile_dependency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Automobile dependency </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Automobile_dependency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transportation_inequality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transportation_inequality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Transportation inequality </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transportation_inequality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Paradox_of_intensification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paradox_of_intensification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Paradox of intensification </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Paradox_of_intensification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Risk_of_increased_housing_prices" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Risk_of_increased_housing_prices"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6 Risk of increased housing prices </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Risk_of_increased_housing_prices-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Proposed_alternatives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proposed_alternatives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.7 Proposed alternatives </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proposed_alternatives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alternative_development_styles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alternative_development_styles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Alternative development styles </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Alternative_development_styles-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Alternative development styles subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Alternative_development_styles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_attempts_at_combatting_urban_sprawl" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_attempts_at_combatting_urban_sprawl"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Early attempts at combatting urban sprawl </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_attempts_at_combatting_urban_sprawl-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Maryland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maryland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1.1 Maryland </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maryland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary_anti-sprawl_initiatives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_anti-sprawl_initiatives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Contemporary anti-sprawl initiatives </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_anti-sprawl_initiatives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 See also </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle See also subsection </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Related_topics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Related_topics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Related topics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Related_topics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Related_terminology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Related_terminology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Related terminology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Related_terminology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes_and_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes_and_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Notes and references </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes_and_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Further reading </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Further reading subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Articles_and_reports" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Articles_and_reports"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Articles and reports </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Articles_and_reports-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Video" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Video"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Video </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Video-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Urban sprawl</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 32 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-32" aria-hidden="true" > 32 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burgspreawlian" title="Burgspreawlian – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Burgspreawlian" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ænglisc</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%85%D8%AF%D8%AF_%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A" title="تمدد عمراني – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تمدد عمراني" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dispersi%C3%B3n_urbana" title="Dispersión urbana – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Dispersión urbana" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4_%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4_%E0%A6%8F%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE" title="অপরিকল্পিত নগরায়িত এলাকা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="অপরিকল্পিত নগরায়িত এলাকা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creixement_en_taca_d%27oli" title="Creixement en taca d'oli – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Creixement en taca d'oli" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%ADdeln%C3%AD_ka%C5%A1e" title="Sídelní kaše – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Sídelní kaše" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blerdwf_trefol" title="Blerdwf trefol – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Blerdwf trefol" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byspredning" title="Byspredning – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Byspredning" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zersiedelung" title="Zersiedelung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Zersiedelung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valglinnastumine" title="Valglinnastumine – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Valglinnastumine" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dispersi%C3%B3n_urbana" title="Dispersión urbana – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Dispersión urbana" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiri-barreiatze" title="Hiri-barreiatze – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Hiri-barreiatze" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%B4_%D8%A8%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%D8%B1%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%87_%D8%B4%D9%87%D8%B1" title="گسترش بی‌رویه شهر – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="گسترش بی‌رویه شهر" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89talement_urbain" title="Étalement urbain – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Étalement urbain" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8A%A4%ED%94%84%EB%A1%A4_%ED%98%84%EC%83%81" title="스프롤 현상 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="스프롤 현상" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penyebaran_perkotaan" title="Penyebaran perkotaan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Penyebaran perkotaan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%93skipulag%C3%B0ur_v%C3%B6xtur_%C3%BE%C3%A9ttb%C3%BDlis" title="Óskipulagður vöxtur þéttbýlis – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Óskipulagður vöxtur þéttbýlis" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citt%C3%A0_diffusa" title="Città diffusa – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Città diffusa" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%95%D7%A8_(%D7%AA%D7%94%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%9A)" title="פרוור (תהליך) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פרוור (תהליך)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A1rossz%C3%A9tfoly%C3%A1s" title="Városszétfolyás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Városszétfolyás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BA%D1%81%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Ексурбанизација – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Ексурбанизација" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebakan_bandar" title="Rebakan bandar – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Rebakan bandar" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B9%E3%83%97%E3%83%AD%E3%83%BC%E3%83%AB%E7%8F%BE%E8%B1%A1" title="スプロール現象 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="スプロール現象" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eksurbanizacja" title="Eksurbanizacja – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Eksurbanizacja" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alastramento_urbano" title="Alastramento urbano – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Alastramento urbano" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D1%81%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Эксурбанизация – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Эксурбанизация" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl" title="Urban sprawl – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Urban sprawl" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaupunkirakenteen_hajautuminen" title="Kaupunkirakenteen hajautuminen – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kaupunkirakenteen hajautuminen" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utglesning" title="Utglesning – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Utglesning" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kentsel_yay%C4%B1lma" title="Kentsel yayılma – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kentsel yayılma" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a 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free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Expansion of auto-oriented, low-density development in suburbs</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Satellite_city" title="Satellite city">Urban decentralisation</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chandler_Arizona_aerial.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Chandler_Arizona_aerial.jpg/250px-Chandler_Arizona_aerial.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Chandler_Arizona_aerial.jpg/330px-Chandler_Arizona_aerial.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Chandler_Arizona_aerial.jpg/500px-Chandler_Arizona_aerial.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="2112" /></a><figcaption>A typical suburban development in the United States, located in <a href="/wiki/Chandler,_Arizona" title="Chandler, Arizona">Chandler, Arizona</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eixample_de_Palma.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Eixample_de_Palma.jpg/250px-Eixample_de_Palma.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="76" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Eixample_de_Palma.jpg/330px-Eixample_de_Palma.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Eixample_de_Palma.jpg/500px-Eixample_de_Palma.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3647" data-file-height="1259" /></a><figcaption>An urban development in <a href="/wiki/Palma,_Mallorca" class="mw-redirect" title="Palma, Mallorca">Palma, Mallorca</a></figcaption></figure> Urban sprawl (also known as suburban sprawl or urban encroachment)<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> is defined as "the spreading of urban developments (such as houses and shopping centers) on undeveloped land near a city".<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> Urban sprawl has been described as the unrestricted growth in many <a href="/wiki/Urban_area" title="Urban area">urban areas</a> of housing, commercial development, and roads over large expanses of land, with little concern for very dense <a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">urban planning</a>. Sometimes the urban areas described as the most "sprawling" are the most densely populated.<a href="#cite_note-Eidlin-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> In addition to describing a special form of <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urbanization</a>, the term also relates to the social and environmental consequences associated with this development.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> In modern times some <a href="/wiki/Suburban" class="mw-redirect" title="Suburban">suburban</a> areas described as "sprawl" have less detached housing and higher density than the nearby <a href="/wiki/Core_city" title="Core city">core city</a>.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> Medieval suburbs suffered from the loss of protection of city walls, before the advent of <a href="/wiki/Industrial_warfare" title="Industrial warfare">industrial warfare</a>. Modern disadvantages and costs include increased travel time, transport costs, pollution, and destruction of the countryside.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> The revenue for building and maintaining <a href="/wiki/Urban_infrastructure" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban infrastructure">urban infrastructure</a> in these areas are gained mostly through property and sales taxes. Most jobs in the US are now located in <a href="/wiki/Suburbs" class="mw-redirect" title="Suburbs">suburbs</a> generating much of the revenue, although a lack of growth will require higher tax rates.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>, the term <a href="/wiki/Peri-urbanisation" title="Peri-urbanisation">peri-urbanisation</a> is often used to denote similar dynamics and phenomena, but the term urban sprawl is currently being used by the <a href="/wiki/European_Environment_Agency" title="European Environment Agency">European Environment Agency</a>. There is widespread disagreement about what constitutes sprawl and how to quantify it. For example, some commentators measure sprawl by <a href="/wiki/Urban_density" title="Urban density">residential density</a>, using the average number of residential units per acre in a given area. Others associate it with <a href="/wiki/Decentralization" title="Decentralization">decentralization</a> (spread of population without a well-defined centre), discontinuity (<a href="/wiki/Leapfrog_development" title="Leapfrog development">leapfrogging</a> development, as defined <a href="#Low-density">below</a>), segregation of uses, and so forth. The term urban sprawl is highly politicized and almost always has negative connotations. It is criticized for causing <a href="/wiki/Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">environmental degradation</a>, intensifying <a href="/wiki/Housing_segregation" class="mw-redirect" title="Housing segregation">segregation</a>, and undermining the vitality of existing urban areas, and is attacked on aesthetic grounds. The pejorative meaning of the term means that few openly support urban sprawl as such. The term has become a rallying cry for managing urban growth.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_sprawl&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definition">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Urban_sprawl_per_country.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Urban_sprawl_per_country.png/330px-Urban_sprawl_per_country.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="341" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Urban_sprawl_per_country.png/500px-Urban_sprawl_per_country.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Urban_sprawl_per_country.png/960px-Urban_sprawl_per_country.png 2x" data-file-width="4029" data-file-height="4740" /></a><figcaption>Measures for urban sprawl in Europe: upper left the Dispersion of the built-up area (DIS), upper right the <a href="/wiki/Weighted_urban_proliferation" title="Weighted urban proliferation">weighted urban proliferation</a> (WUP)</figcaption></figure> The term urban sprawl was often used in the letters between Lewis Mumford and Frederic J. Osborn,<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> firstly by Osborn in his 1941 letter to Mumford and later by Mumford, generally condemning the waste of agricultural land and landscape due to suburban expansions. The term was used in an article in <a href="/wiki/The_Times" title="The Times">The Times</a> in 1955 as a negative comment on the state of <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>'s outskirts. Definitions of sprawl vary; researchers in the field acknowledge that the term lacks precision.<a href="#cite_note-Audirac90-18">[18]</a> Batty et al. defined sprawl as "uncoordinated growth: the expansion of community without concern for its consequences, in short, unplanned, incremental urban growth which is often regarded unsustainable".<a href="#cite_note-Batty-19">[19]</a> Bhatta et al. wrote in 2010 that despite a dispute over the precise definition of sprawl, there is a "general consensus that urban sprawl is characterized by [an] unplanned and uneven pattern of growth, driven by a multitude of processes and leading to inefficient resource utilization".<a href="#cite_note-Bhatta-20">[20]</a> Reid Ewing has shown that sprawl has typically been characterized as <a href="/wiki/Urban_development" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban development">urban developments</a> exhibiting at least one of the following characteristics: low-density or single-use development, strip development, scattered development, and/or <a href="/wiki/Leapfrogging" title="Leapfrogging">leapfrog</a> development (areas of development interspersed with vacant land).<a href="#cite_note-UCL-21">[21]</a> He argued that a better way to identify sprawl was to use indicators rather than characteristics because this was a more flexible and less arbitrary method.<a href="#cite_note-Ewing97-22">[22]</a> He proposed using "<a href="/wiki/Accessibility_(transport)" title="Accessibility (transport)">accessibility</a>" and "functional open space" as indicators.<a href="#cite_note-Ewing97-22">[22]</a> Ewing's approach has been criticized for assuming that sprawl is defined by negative characteristics.<a href="#cite_note-UCL-21">[21]</a> What constitutes sprawl may be considered a matter of degree and will always be somewhat subjective under many definitions of the term.<a href="#cite_note-Ewing97-22">[22]</a> Ewing has also argued that suburban development does not, <a href="/wiki/Per_se_(terminology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Per se (terminology)">per se</a>, constitute sprawl depending on the form it takes,<a href="#cite_note-Ewing97-22">[22]</a> although Gordon & Richardson have argued that the term is sometimes used synonymously with <a href="/wiki/Suburbanization" title="Suburbanization">suburbanization</a> in a pejorative way.<a href="#cite_note-G&R-23">[23]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Examples_and_counterexamples">Examples and counterexamples</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_sprawl&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Examples and counterexamples">edit</a>]</div> According to the National Resources Inventory (NRI), about 44 million acres (69,000 sq mi; 180,000 km2) of land in the United States was developed between 1982 and 2017.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> Presently, the NRI classifies approximately 100,000 more square kilometres (40,000 square miles) (an area approximately the size of <a href="/wiki/Kentucky" title="Kentucky">Kentucky</a>) as developed than <a href="/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau" title="United States Census Bureau">the Census Bureau</a> classifies as urban. The difference in the NRI classification is that it includes rural development, which by definition cannot be considered to be "urban" sprawl. Currently, according to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Census,_2000" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Census, 2000">2000 Census</a>, approximately 2.6 percent of the U.S. land area is urban.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">needs update</a>] Approximately 0.8 percent of the nation's land is in the 37 urbanized areas with more than 1,000,000 population. In 2002, these 37 urbanized areas supported around 40% of the total American population.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">needs update</a>] Nonetheless, some <a href="/wiki/Urban_area" title="Urban area">urban areas</a> like <a href="/wiki/Detroit" title="Detroit">Detroit</a> have expanded geographically even while losing population. But it was not just urbanized areas in the U.S. that lost population and sprawled substantially. According to data in "Cities and Automobile Dependence" by Kenworthy and Laube (1999), urbanized area population losses occurred while there was an expansion of sprawl between 1970 and 1990 in <a href="/wiki/Amsterdam" title="Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a>, Netherlands; <a href="/wiki/Brussels" title="Brussels">Brussels</a>, Belgium; <a href="/wiki/Copenhagen" title="Copenhagen">Copenhagen</a>, Denmark; <a href="/wiki/Frankfurt" title="Frankfurt">Frankfurt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hamburg" title="Hamburg">Hamburg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Munich" title="Munich">Munich</a>, Germany; and <a href="/wiki/Z%C3%BCrich" class="mw-redirect" title="Zürich">Zürich</a>, Switzerland, albeit without the dismantling of infrastructure that occurred in the United States.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Satellite_Image_of_Los_Angeles_from_Sentinel-2_2021-08-03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Satellite_Image_of_Los_Angeles_from_Sentinel-2_2021-08-03.jpg/220px-Satellite_Image_of_Los_Angeles_from_Sentinel-2_2021-08-03.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Satellite_Image_of_Los_Angeles_from_Sentinel-2_2021-08-03.jpg/330px-Satellite_Image_of_Los_Angeles_from_Sentinel-2_2021-08-03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Satellite_Image_of_Los_Angeles_from_Sentinel-2_2021-08-03.jpg/440px-Satellite_Image_of_Los_Angeles_from_Sentinel-2_2021-08-03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1377" data-file-height="780" /></a><figcaption>Despite its urban sprawl and <a href="/wiki/Car_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Car culture">car culture</a>, Los Angeles is the densest major built-up urban area in the United States.</figcaption></figure> Despite its sprawl, <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_metropolitan_area" class="mw-redirect" title="Los Angeles metropolitan area">Metropolitan Los Angeles</a> is the densest major urban area (over 1,000,000 population) in the US, being denser than the New York urban area and the San Francisco urban area.<a href="#cite_note-Eidlin-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> Most of metropolitan Los Angeles is built at more uniform low to moderate density, leading to a much higher overall density for the entire region. This is in contrast to New York, San Francisco or Chicago which have compact, high-density cores surrounded by areas of very low-density suburban periphery, such as eastern <a href="/wiki/Suffolk_County,_New_York" title="Suffolk County, New York">Suffolk County</a> in the New York metro area and <a href="/wiki/Marin_County,_California" title="Marin County, California">Marin County</a> in the San Francisco <a href="/wiki/Bay_Area" class="mw-redirect" title="Bay Area">Bay Area</a>. Some cases of sprawl challenge the definition of the term and what conditions are necessary for urban growth to be considered sprawl. Metropolitan regions such as <a href="/wiki/Greater_Mexico_City" title="Greater Mexico City">Greater Mexico City</a>,<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> <a href="/wiki/National_Capital_Region_(India)" title="National Capital Region (India)">Delhi National Capital Region</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Greater_Tokyo_Area" title="Greater Tokyo Area">Greater Tokyo Area</a> are often regarded as sprawling despite being relatively dense and mixed use.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_sprawl&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> Many theories speculate as to the reason for the creation of urban sprawl. The theory of "flight from blight" explains that aspects of living in urban areas, such as high taxes, crime rates, poor infrastructure and school qualities lead to many people moving out of urban areas and into surrounding suburban areas.<a href="#cite_note-:0-31">[31]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/The_Limits_to_Growth" title="The Limits to Growth">The Limits to Growth</a>, reasons why wealthier people move to suburbs include noise, pollution, crime, drug addiction, poverty, labor strikes, and breakdown of social services.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> Others suggest that Urban Sprawl is a natural product of population increases, higher wages, and therefore better access to housing. Improvement in transportation also means that individuals are able to live further from large cities and industrial hubs, thus increasing demand for better housing further from the noise of cities. This leads to the creation of sprawling residential land development surrounding densely packed urban areas.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Characteristics">Characteristics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_sprawl&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Characteristics">edit</a>]</div> Despite the lack of a clear agreed upon description of what defines sprawl most definitions often associate the following characteristics with sprawl.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BosWash-Night-Labeled.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/BosWash-Night-Labeled.png/220px-BosWash-Night-Labeled.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="490" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/BosWash-Night-Labeled.png 1.5x" data-file-width="222" data-file-height="494" /></a><figcaption>This picture shows the <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_area" title="Metropolitan area">metropolitan areas</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Northeast_Megalopolis" class="mw-redirect" title="Northeast Megalopolis">Northeast Megalopolis</a> of the United States demonstrating urban sprawl, including far-flung <a href="/wiki/Suburb" title="Suburb">suburbs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Exurb" title="Exurb">exurbs</a> illuminated at night.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Single-use_development">Single-use development</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_sprawl&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Single-use development">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Single-use_zoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Single-use zoning">Single-use zoning</a></div> This refers to a situation where commercial, <a href="/wiki/Residential_area" title="Residential area">residential</a>, institutional and <a href="/wiki/Industrial_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial region">industrial areas</a> are separated from one another. Consequently, large tracts of land are devoted to a single use and are segregated from one another by open space, infrastructure, or other barriers. As a result, the places where people live, work, shop, and recreate are far from one another, usually to the extent that walking, transit use and bicycling are impractical, so all these activities generally require a car.<a href="#cite_note-cdcreport-34">[34]</a> The degree to which different <a href="/wiki/Land_use" title="Land use">land uses</a> are mixed together is often used as an indicator of sprawl in studies of the subject.<a href="#cite_note-Bhatta-20">[20]</a> According to this criterion, China's <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urbanization</a> can be classified as "high-density sprawl", a seemingly self-contradictory term coined by <a href="/wiki/New_Urbanism" title="New Urbanism">New Urbanist</a> <a href="/wiki/Peter_Calthorpe" title="Peter Calthorpe">Peter Calthorpe</a>. He explains that despite the high-rise buildings, China's superblocks (huge residential blocks) are largely single-use and surrounded by giant arterial roads, which detach different functions of a city and create an environment unfriendly to pedestrians.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Job_sprawl_and_spatial_mismatch">Job sprawl and spatial mismatch</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_sprawl&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Job sprawl and spatial mismatch">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Traffic_jam_Marginal_Pinheiros_6122_SAO_07_2009.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Traffic_jam_Marginal_Pinheiros_6122_SAO_07_2009.jpg/220px-Traffic_jam_Marginal_Pinheiros_6122_SAO_07_2009.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Traffic_jam_Marginal_Pinheiros_6122_SAO_07_2009.jpg/330px-Traffic_jam_Marginal_Pinheiros_6122_SAO_07_2009.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Traffic_jam_Marginal_Pinheiros_6122_SAO_07_2009.jpg/440px-Traffic_jam_Marginal_Pinheiros_6122_SAO_07_2009.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1383" data-file-height="922" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Traffic_congestion" title="Traffic congestion">Traffic congestion</a> in sprawling <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo" title="São Paulo">São Paulo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>, which, according to <a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a> magazine, has the world's worst traffic jams<a href="#cite_note-Times_SP-37">[37]</a></figcaption></figure> Job sprawl is another land use symptom of urban sprawl and <a href="/wiki/Automobile_dependency" class="mw-redirect" title="Automobile dependency">car-dependent</a> communities. It is defined as low-density, geographically spread-out patterns of employment, where the majority of jobs in a given metropolitan area are located outside of the main city's <a href="/wiki/Central_business_district" title="Central business district">central business district</a> (CBD), and increasingly in the suburban periphery. It is often the result of urban <a href="/wiki/Disinvestment" title="Disinvestment">disinvestment</a>, the geographic freedom of employment location allowed by predominantly car-dependent commuting patterns of many American suburbs, and many companies' desire to locate in low-density areas that are often more affordable and offer potential for expansion. <a href="/wiki/Spatial_mismatch" title="Spatial mismatch">Spatial mismatch</a> is related to job sprawl and economic <a href="/wiki/Environmental_justice" title="Environmental justice">environmental justice</a>. Spatial mismatch is defined as the situation where poor urban, predominantly minority citizens are left without easy access to entry-level jobs, as a result of increasing job sprawl and limited transportation options to facilitate a <a href="/wiki/Reverse_commute" title="Reverse commute">reverse commute</a> to the suburbs. Job sprawl has been documented and measured in various ways. It has been shown to be a growing trend in America's metropolitan areas.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Brookings_Institution" title="Brookings Institution">Brookings Institution</a> has published multiple articles on the topic. In 2005, author <a href="/wiki/Michael_Stoll" title="Michael Stoll">Michael Stoll</a> defined job sprawl simply as jobs located more than 5-mile (8.0 km) radius from the CBD, and measured the concept based on year 2000 <a href="/wiki/U.S._Census" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Census">U.S. Census</a> data.<a href="#cite_note-Stoll-39">[39]</a> Other ways of measuring the concept with more detailed rings around the CBD include a 2001 article by Edward Glaeser<a href="#cite_note-Glaeser-40">[40]</a> and Elizabeth Kneebone's 2009 article, which show that sprawling urban peripheries are gaining employment while areas closer to the CBD are losing jobs.<a href="#cite_note-Kneebone-41">[41]</a> These two authors used three geographic rings limited to a 35-mile (56 km) radius around the CBD: 3 miles (4.8 km) or less, 3 to 10 miles (16 km), and 10 to 35 miles (56 km). Kneebone's study showed the following nationwide breakdown for the largest metropolitan areas in 2006: 21.3% of jobs located in the inner ring, 33.6% of jobs in the 3–10 mile ring, and 45.1% in the 10–35 mile ring. This compares to the year 1998 – 23.3%, 34.2%, and 42.5% in those respective rings. The study shows CBD employment share shrinking, and job growth focused in the suburban and exurban outer metropolitan rings. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Low-density">Low-density</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_sprawl&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Low-density">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bean_Station_neighborhoods_I.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Bean_Station_neighborhoods_I.jpg/250px-Bean_Station_neighborhoods_I.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Bean_Station_neighborhoods_I.jpg/330px-Bean_Station_neighborhoods_I.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Bean_Station_neighborhoods_I.jpg/500px-Bean_Station_neighborhoods_I.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="853" /></a><figcaption>Low-density housing placed between large farms in an <a href="/wiki/Exurban" class="mw-redirect" title="Exurban">exurban</a> community in Tennessee</figcaption></figure> Sprawl often refers to low-<a href="/wiki/Population_density" title="Population density">density</a> <a href="/wiki/Land_development" title="Land development">development</a>.<a href="#cite_note-UCL-21">[21]</a> There is no precise definition of "low density", but it might commonly mean <a href="/wiki/Single-family_detached_home" title="Single-family detached home">single-family detached homes</a> on large lots. Such buildings usually have fewer stories and are spaced farther apart, separated by <a href="/wiki/Lawn" title="Lawn">lawns</a>, <a href="/wiki/Landscaping" title="Landscaping">landscaping</a>, roads or parking lots. In the United States 2–4 houses per acre (5–10 per hectare) might be considered low-density while in the UK 8–12 per acre (or 20–30 per hectare) would still be considered low-density.<a href="#cite_note-UCL-21">[21]</a> Because more automobiles are used in the USA, much more land is designated for parking. The impact of low density development in many communities is that developed or "urbanized" land is increasing at a faster rate than the population is growing.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Overall density is often lowered by "<a href="/wiki/Leapfrogging" title="Leapfrogging">leapfrog</a> development". This term refers to the relationship, or lack of it, between subdivisions. Such developments are typically separated by large <a href="/wiki/Green_belt" title="Green belt">green belts</a>, i.e. tracts of undeveloped land, resulting in an overall density far lower even than the low density indicated by localized per-acre measurements. This is a 20th and 21st century phenomenon generated by the current custom of requiring a developer to provide subdivision infrastructure as a condition of development.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> Usually, the developer is required to set aside a certain percentage of the developed land for public use, including roads, parks and schools. In the past, when a <a href="/wiki/Local_government" title="Local government">local government</a> built all the streets in a given location, the town could expand without interruption and with a coherent circulation system, because it had <a href="/wiki/Eminent_domain" title="Eminent domain">condemnation power</a>. Private developers generally do not have such power (although they can sometimes find local governments willing to help), and often choose to develop on the tracts that happen to be for sale at the time they want to build, rather than pay extra or wait for a more appropriate location. Some research argues that religious ideas about how humans should live (and die) promote low-density development and may contribute to urban sprawl.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conversion_of_agricultural_land_to_urban_use">Conversion of agricultural land to urban use</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_sprawl&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Conversion of agricultural land to urban use">edit</a>]</div> Land for sprawl is often taken from <a href="/wiki/Soil_fertility" title="Soil fertility">fertile</a> <a href="/wiki/Agricultural_land" title="Agricultural land">agricultural lands</a>, which are often located immediately surrounding cities; the extent of modern sprawl has consumed a large amount of the most productive agricultural land,<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> as well as forest, desert and other wilderness areas.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> In the United States the seller may <a href="/wiki/Tax_avoidance" title="Tax avoidance">avoid tax</a> on profit by using a <a href="/wiki/Tax_break" title="Tax break">tax break</a> exempting <a href="/wiki/Like-kind_exchange" title="Like-kind exchange">like-kind exchanges</a> from <a href="/wiki/Capital_gains_tax" title="Capital gains tax">capital gains tax</a>; proceeds from the sale are used to purchase agricultural land elsewhere and the transaction is treated as a "swap" or trade of like assets and no tax is due. Thus urban sprawl is subsidized by the tax code.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> In China, land has been converted from rural to urban use in advance of demand, leading to vacant rural land intended for future development, and eventual urban sprawl.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Housing_subdivisions">Housing subdivisions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_sprawl&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Housing subdivisions">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Derry_and_Thompson.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Derry_and_Thompson.JPG/250px-Derry_and_Thompson.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Derry_and_Thompson.JPG/330px-Derry_and_Thompson.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Derry_and_Thompson.JPG/500px-Derry_and_Thompson.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Sprawl in <a href="/wiki/Milton,_Ontario" title="Milton, Ontario">Milton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ontario" title="Ontario">Ontario</a>. This photograph is an example of Canadian exurban development, though recently attempts are made to reduce this type of development in many major cities.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Housing_subdivision" class="mw-redirect" title="Housing subdivision">Housing subdivisions</a> are large tracts of land consisting entirely of newly built residences. <a href="/wiki/New_Urbanism" title="New Urbanism">New Urbanist</a> architectural firm <a href="/wiki/Duany_Plater-Zyberk_%26_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Duany Plater-Zyberk & Company">Duany Plater-Zyberk & Company</a> state that housing subdivisions "are sometimes called villages, towns, and neighbourhoods by their developers, which is misleading since those terms denote places that are not exclusively residential".<a href="#cite_note-duany2001-49">[49]</a> They are also referred to as developments. Subdivisions often incorporate curved roads and <a href="/wiki/Cul-de-sac" class="mw-redirect" title="Cul-de-sac">cul-de-sacs</a>. These subdivisions may offer only a few places to enter and exit the development, causing traffic to use high volume collector streets. All trips, no matter how short, must enter the collector road in a suburban system.<a href="#cite_note-duany2001-49">[49]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lawn">Lawn</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_sprawl&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Lawn">edit</a>]</div> After the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a>, residential <a href="/wiki/Lawn" title="Lawn">lawns</a> became commonplace in suburbs, notably, but not exclusively in North America.<a href="#cite_note-Steinberg-50">[50]</a> The development of country clubs and golf courses in the early 20th century further promoted lawn culture in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-Jenkins-51">[51]</a> Lawns now take up a significant amount of land in suburban developments, contributing to sprawl.<a href="#cite_note-Steinberg-50">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Commercial_developments">Commercial developments</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_sprawl&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Commercial developments">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Breezewood,_Pennsylvania.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Breezewood%2C_Pennsylvania.jpg/250px-Breezewood%2C_Pennsylvania.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Breezewood%2C_Pennsylvania.jpg/330px-Breezewood%2C_Pennsylvania.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Breezewood%2C_Pennsylvania.jpg/500px-Breezewood%2C_Pennsylvania.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1098" /></a><figcaption>Clustered <a href="/wiki/Commercial_area" title="Commercial area">commercial strips</a> like this one in <a href="/wiki/Breezewood,_Pennsylvania" title="Breezewood, Pennsylvania">Breezewood, Pennsylvania</a> are common in outer rural <a href="/wiki/Exurb" title="Exurb">exurbs</a> and suburbs in metropolitan areas.<a href="#cite_note-ruralsmartgrowth-52">[52]</a></figcaption></figure> In areas of sprawl, commercial use is generally segregated from other uses. In the U.S. and Canada, these often take the form of <a href="/wiki/Strip_malls" class="mw-redirect" title="Strip malls">strip malls</a>, which refer to collections of buildings sharing a common parking lot, usually built on a high-capacity roadway with commercial functions (i.e., a "strip"). Similar developments in the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> are called Retail Parks. Strip malls consisting mostly of <a href="/wiki/Big_box_store" class="mw-redirect" title="Big box store">big box stores</a> or <a href="/wiki/Category_killer" title="Category killer">category killers</a> are sometimes called "power centers" (U.S.). These developments tend to be low-density; the buildings are single-story and there is ample space for parking and access for delivery vehicles. This character is reflected in the spacious landscaping of the parking lots and walkways and clear signage of the retail establishments. Some strip malls are undergoing a transformation into <a href="/wiki/Lifestyle_center_(retail)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lifestyle center (retail)">Lifestyle centers</a>; entailing investments in common areas and facilities (plazas, cafes) and shifting tenancy from daily goods to recreational shopping. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wal-Mart_Supercenter,_Luray,_Virginia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wal-Mart_Supercenter%2C_Luray%2C_Virginia.jpg/250px-Wal-Mart_Supercenter%2C_Luray%2C_Virginia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wal-Mart_Supercenter%2C_Luray%2C_Virginia.jpg/330px-Wal-Mart_Supercenter%2C_Luray%2C_Virginia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wal-Mart_Supercenter%2C_Luray%2C_Virginia.jpg/500px-Wal-Mart_Supercenter%2C_Luray%2C_Virginia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2200" data-file-height="1237" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Walmart" title="Walmart">Walmart</a> Supercenter in Luray, Virginia</figcaption></figure> Another prominent form of retail development in areas characterized by sprawl is the <a href="/wiki/Shopping_mall" title="Shopping mall">shopping mall</a>. Unlike the strip mall, this is usually composed of a single building surrounded by a parking lot that contains multiple shops, usually "anchored" by one or more <a href="/wiki/Department_store" title="Department store">department stores</a>.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> The function and size is also distinct from the strip mall. The focus is almost exclusively on recreational shopping rather than daily goods. Shopping malls also tend to serve a wider (regional) public and require higher-order infrastructure such as highway access and can have floorspaces in excess of 1 million sq ft (93,000 m2). Shopping malls are often detrimental to downtown <a href="/wiki/Shopping_centre" class="mw-redirect" title="Shopping centre">shopping centres</a> of nearby cities since the shopping malls act as a surrogate for the <a href="/wiki/Central_business_district" title="Central business district">city centre</a>.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> Some downtowns have responded to this challenge by building shopping centres of their own.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> <a href="/wiki/Fast_food" title="Fast food">Fast food</a> chains are often built early in areas with low property values where the population is expected to boom and where large traffic is predicted, and set a precedent for future development. <a href="/wiki/Eric_Schlosser" title="Eric Schlosser">Eric Schlosser</a>, in his book <a href="/wiki/Fast_Food_Nation" title="Fast Food Nation">Fast Food Nation</a>, argues that fast food chains accelerate suburban sprawl and help set its tone with their expansive parking lots, flashy signs, and plastic architecture (65). <a href="/wiki/Duany_Plater_Zyberk_%26_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Duany Plater Zyberk & Company">Duany Plater Zyberk & Company</a> believe that this reinforces a destructive pattern of growth in an endless quest to move away from the sprawl that only results in creating more of it.<a href="#cite_note-duany2001-49">[49]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effect">Effect</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_sprawl&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Effect">edit</a>]</div> One of the major environmental problems associated with urban sprawl is <a href="/wiki/Land_consumption" title="Land consumption">land consumption</a>, <a href="/wiki/Habitat_loss" class="mw-redirect" title="Habitat loss">habitat loss</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soil_contamination" title="Soil contamination">land pollution</a>, subsequent reduction in <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> and destruction of <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">local ecosystems</a>. A review by Brian Czech and collegues,<a href="#cite_note-Czech-Krausman-Devers-56">[56]</a> finds that urbanization <a href="/wiki/Endangered_species" title="Endangered species">endangers</a> more species and is more geographically ubiquitous in the mainland United States than any other human activity.<a href="#cite_note-Czech-Krausman-Devers-56">[56]</a> Urban sprawl is disruptive to native flora & fauna and introduces <a href="/wiki/Invasive_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasive plants">invasive plants</a> into their environments, which are considered to be harmful to local biomes.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> Although the effects can be mitigated through careful maintenance of native vegetation, the process of <a href="/wiki/Ecological_succession" title="Ecological succession">ecological succession</a> and public education, sprawl represents one of the primary threats to biodiversity.<a href="#cite_note-mckinney-58">[58]</a> Regions with high birth rates and immigration are therefore faced with environmental problems due to unplanned urban growth and emerging megacities such as <a href="/wiki/Kolkata" title="Kolkata">Kolkata</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shenzhen" title="Shenzhen">Shenzen</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chongqing" title="Chongqing">Chongqing</a>. Unregulated urban sprawl in these areas contributes to severe pollution, resource depletion, and ecosystem degradation.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> For instance, Kolkata's expansion has led to extensive deforestation and <a href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">wetland</a> destruction, endangering biodiversity and increasing flood risks.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> Additionally, Chongqing, as one of China’s fastest-growing urban centers.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> struggles with severe air pollution due to its reliance on coal-powered industries, with particulate matter (<a href="/wiki/Particulates" title="Particulates">PM2.5</a>) levels often exceeding <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> safety limits.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> The rapid expansion of urban infrastructure in such megacities increases greenhouse gas emissions, with transportation and construction sectors contributing significantly to climate change.<a href="#cite_note-Seto-Güneralp-Hutyra-63">[63]</a> Moreover, poor urban planning leads to inadequate sanitation and waste management systems, with cities like Kolkata generating over 5,000 metric tons of waste daily, much of which remains untreated and contributes to water contamination.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> Other problems include: <ul><li>flooding, which results from increased <a href="/wiki/Impervious_surface" title="Impervious surface">impervious surfaces</a> for <a href="/wiki/Road" title="Road">roads</a> and parking (see <a href="/wiki/Urban_runoff" title="Urban runoff">urban runoff</a>)<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a></li> <li>Reduce wildlife population and <a href="/wiki/Pachypodium_habitats" title="Pachypodium habitats">habitat</a> <a href="/wiki/Pachypodium_habitats" title="Pachypodium habitats">space</a></li> <li>Loss of <a href="/wiki/Arable_land" title="Arable land">arable land</a></li> <li>Accelerate <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> in the region</li> <li>Affect regional <a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">hydrology</a>, especially <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater supply</a></li> <li>increased temperatures from <a href="/wiki/Urban_heat_island" title="Urban heat island">heat islands</a>, which leads to a significantly increased risk of mortality in elderly populations.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a>: 9 </li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Reservoir_VIC_3073,_Australia_-_panoramio.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Reservoir_VIC_3073%2C_Australia_-_panoramio.jpg/220px-Reservoir_VIC_3073%2C_Australia_-_panoramio.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Reservoir_VIC_3073%2C_Australia_-_panoramio.jpg/330px-Reservoir_VIC_3073%2C_Australia_-_panoramio.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Reservoir_VIC_3073%2C_Australia_-_panoramio.jpg/440px-Reservoir_VIC_3073%2C_Australia_-_panoramio.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>The urban sprawl of <a href="/wiki/Melbourne" title="Melbourne">Melbourne</a></figcaption></figure> During the mid-to-late 20th century, many major cities in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> experienced population decline due to shrinking household sizes and <a href="/wiki/Suburbanization" title="Suburbanization">suburbanization</a>, leading to significant environmental impacts.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> The expansion of suburban areas resulted in increased land consumption, <a href="/wiki/Habitat_fragmentation" title="Habitat fragmentation">habitat fragmentation</a>, and higher carbon emissions from car-dependent development.<a href="#cite_note-Seto-Güneralp-Hutyra-63">[63]</a> In the U.S., suburbanization was accelerated by policies favoring highway construction and single-family housing, contributing to urban sprawl and loss of arable land.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> While recent urban revitalization has slowed these trends, challenges such as rising energy demands, heat island effects, and pressure on water resources persist.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> At the same time, the urban cores of these and nearly all other major cities in the United States, Western Europe, and Japan that did not annex new territory experienced the related phenomena of falling household size and, particularly in the U.S. (see <a href="/wiki/White_flight" title="White flight">white flight</a>) sustaining population losses. This trend has slowed somewhat in recent years, as more people have regained an interest in urban living.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> Due to the larger area consumed by sprawling suburbs compared to urban neighborhoods, more farmland and wildlife habitats are displaced per resident. As forest cover is cleared and covered with <a href="/wiki/Impervious_surfaces" class="mw-redirect" title="Impervious surfaces">impervious surfaces</a> (<a href="/wiki/Concrete" title="Concrete">concrete</a> and <a href="/wiki/Asphalt_concrete" title="Asphalt concrete">asphalt</a>) in the suburbs, rainfall is less effectively absorbed into the <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a> <a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">aquifers</a>.<a href="#cite_note-cdcreport-34">[34]</a> This threatens both the quality and quantity of water supplies. Sprawl increases <a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">water pollution</a> as rain water picks up <a href="/wiki/Gasoline" title="Gasoline">gasoline</a>, <a href="/wiki/Motor_oil" title="Motor oil">motor oil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heavy_metals" title="Heavy metals">heavy metals</a>, and other pollutants in <a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">runoff</a> from parking lots and roads. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chicagoland_air.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Chicagoland_air.jpg/220px-Chicagoland_air.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Chicagoland_air.jpg/330px-Chicagoland_air.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Chicagoland_air.jpg/440px-Chicagoland_air.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1407" data-file-height="1005" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a> metro area, nicknamed "<a href="/wiki/Chicagoland" class="mw-redirect" title="Chicagoland">Chicagoland</a>"</figcaption></figure> Gordon & Richardson have argued that the conversion of agricultural land to urban use is not a problem due to the increasing efficiency of agricultural production; they argue that aggregate agricultural production is still more than sufficient to meet global food needs despite the expansion of urban land use.<a href="#cite_note-sprawldebate-71">[71]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Health">Health</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_sprawl&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Health">edit</a>]</div> Sprawl leads to increased driving, which in turn leads to vehicle emissions that contribute to <a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">air pollution</a> and its attendant negative impacts on human <a href="/wiki/Health" title="Health">health</a>. In addition, the reduced physical activity implied by increased automobile use has negative health consequences. Sprawl significantly predicts chronic medical conditions and health-related quality of life, but not mental health disorders.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> The American Journal of Public Health and the American Journal of Health Promotion, have both stated that there is a significant connection between sprawl, <a href="/wiki/Obesity" title="Obesity">obesity</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hypertension" title="Hypertension">hypertension</a>.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> Loud vehicles can cause stress, prevent sleep, and minimize social interactions in public for people living in cities (especially homeless people).<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> In the years following World War II, when vehicle ownership was becoming widespread, public health officials recommended the health benefits of suburbs due to soot and industrial fumes in the city center. However, air in modern suburbs is not necessarily cleaner than air in urban neighborhoods.<a href="#cite_note-DeRidder-75">[75]</a> In fact, the most polluted air is on crowded highways, where people in suburbs tend to spend more time. On average, suburban residents generate more per capita pollution and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_emissions" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon emissions">carbon emissions</a> than their urban counterparts because of their increased driving,<a href="#cite_note-cdcreport-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jones2014-77">[77]</a> as well as larger homes.<a href="#cite_note-Goldstein2020-78">[78]</a> Sprawl also reduces the chance that people will take the <a href="/wiki/Bicycle" title="Bicycle">bicycle</a> for their commute which would be better for their health. Bicycles are a common mode of transportation for those living in urban centers due to many factors. One major factor many people consider relates to how, when one rides a bike to, say, their workplace, they are exercising as they do so. This <a href="/wiki/Human_multitasking" title="Human multitasking">multi-tasking</a> is better for one's health than automatic transport. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Safety">Safety</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_sprawl&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Safety">edit</a>]</div> A heavy reliance on automobiles increases traffic throughout the city as well as automobile crashes, pedestrian injuries, and air pollution.<a href="#cite_note-DeRidder-75">[75]</a> Motor <a href="/wiki/Traffic_collision" title="Traffic collision">vehicle crashes</a> are the leading cause of death for Americans between the ages of five and twenty-four and is the leading accident-related cause for all age groups.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> Residents of more sprawling areas are generally at greater risk of dying in a car crash due to increased exposure to driving.<a href="#cite_note-cdcreport-34">[34]</a> Evidence indicates that pedestrians in sprawling areas are at higher risk than those in denser areas, although the relationship is less clear than for drivers and passengers in vehicles.<a href="#cite_note-cdcreport-34">[34]</a> Research covered in the Journal of Economic Issues and State and Local Government Review shows a link between sprawl and emergency medical services response and fire department response delays.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economy">Economy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_sprawl&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Economy">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Car_dependency" title="Car dependency">Car dependency</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NorthAmericanPublicTransport.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/NorthAmericanPublicTransport.png/330px-NorthAmericanPublicTransport.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/NorthAmericanPublicTransport.png/500px-NorthAmericanPublicTransport.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/NorthAmericanPublicTransport.png/600px-NorthAmericanPublicTransport.png 2x" data-file-width="875" data-file-height="595" /></a><figcaption>Chart showing public transport use in major cities in North America</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Road_Space_Requirements.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Road_Space_Requirements.png/220px-Road_Space_Requirements.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="248" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Road_Space_Requirements.png/330px-Road_Space_Requirements.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Road_Space_Requirements.png/440px-Road_Space_Requirements.png 2x" data-file-width="3717" data-file-height="4182" /></a><figcaption>Road Space Requirements</figcaption></figure> Living in larger, more spread out spaces generally makes public services more expensive. Since car usage becomes endemic and public transport often becomes significantly more expensive, city planners are forced to build highway and parking <a href="/wiki/Infrastructure" title="Infrastructure">infrastructure</a>, which in turn decreases taxable land and revenue, and decreases the desirability of the area adjacent to such structures.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> Providing services such as <a href="/wiki/Water_supply" title="Water supply">water</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sanitary_sewer" title="Sanitary sewer">sewers</a>, road maintenance, and <a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">electricity</a> is also more expensive per household in less dense areas, given that sprawl increases lengths of power lines, roads, and pipes, necessitating higher maintenance costs.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> Residents of low-density areas spend a higher proportion of their income on transportation than residents of high density areas.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> The unplanned nature of outward urban development is commonly linked to increased dependency on cars. In 2003, a British newspaper calculated that urban sprawl would cause an economic loss of £3,905 per year, per person through cars alone, based on data from the <a href="/wiki/RAC_plc" class="mw-redirect" title="RAC plc">RAC</a> estimating that the average cost of operating a car in the UK at that time was £5,000 a year, while train travel (assuming a citizen commutes every day of the year, with a ticket cost of 3 pounds) would be only £1,095.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> Additionally, increased density increases the supply of housing in desirable areas, and thus, it also decreases housing prices in those areas (by the logic of <a href="/wiki/Supply_and_demand" title="Supply and demand">supply and demand</a>).<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Petrol_use_urban_density.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Petrol_use_urban_density.svg/220px-Petrol_use_urban_density.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Petrol_use_urban_density.svg/330px-Petrol_use_urban_density.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Petrol_use_urban_density.svg/440px-Petrol_use_urban_density.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption>Major cities – per capita petrol use vs. population density<a href="#cite_note-N&K89-90">[90]</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social">Social</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_sprawl&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Social">edit</a>]</div> Urban sprawl may be partly responsible for the decline in <a href="/wiki/Social_capital" title="Social capital">social capital</a> in the United States. Compact neighborhoods can foster casual social interactions among neighbors, while sprawl creates barriers. Sprawl tends to replace public spaces with private spaces such as fenced-in backyards.<a href="#cite_note-csc06-91">[91]</a> Critics of sprawl maintain that sprawl erodes <a href="/wiki/Quality_of_life" title="Quality of life">quality of life</a>. <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_Duany" title="Andrés Duany">Duany</a> and <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Plater-Zyberk" title="Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk">Plater-Zyberk</a> believe that in traditional neighborhoods the nearness of the workplace to retail and restaurant space that provides cafes and <a href="/wiki/Convenience_store" title="Convenience store">convenience stores</a> with daytime customers is an essential component to the successful balance of urban life. Furthermore, they state that the closeness of the workplace to homes also gives people the option of walking or riding a bicycle to work or school and that without this kind of interaction between the different components of life the urban pattern quickly falls apart.<a href="#cite_note-duany2001-49">[49]</a> <a href="/wiki/James_Howard_Kunstler" title="James Howard Kunstler">James Howard Kunstler</a> has argued that poor <a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">aesthetics</a> in suburban environments make them "places not worth caring about", and that they lack a sense of history and identity.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> Urban sprawl has class and racial implications in many parts of the world; the relative homogeneity of many sprawl developments may reinforce class and racial divides through <a href="/wiki/Residential_segregation" title="Residential segregation">residential segregation</a>. Numerous studies link increased population density with increased aggression.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> Some people believe that increased population density encourages crime and anti-social behavior. It is argued that human beings, while social animals, need significant amounts of social space or they become agitated and aggressive.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> However, the relationship between higher densities and increased social pathology has been largely discredited.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Urban_Sprawl_and_Emerging_Zoonotic_Diseases">Urban Sprawl and Emerging Zoonotic Diseases</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_sprawl&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Urban Sprawl and Emerging Zoonotic Diseases">edit</a>]</div> Urban sprawl, characterized by the uncontrolled expansion of cities into surrounding natural areas, can pose significant challenges to public health, particularly in relation to zoonotic diseases—diseases that are transmitted from animals to humans.<a href="#cite_note-:3-96">[96]</a> Human-Wildlife Interactions As cities expand into previously undisturbed ecosystems, the potential for zoonotic disease transmission increases due to closer interactions between humans and wildlife.<a href="#cite_note-:3-96">[96]</a> For example, urban sprawl has been linked to outbreaks of diseases such as <a href="/wiki/Ebola" title="Ebola">Ebola</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zika_fever" title="Zika fever">Zika</a>, and even <a href="/wiki/Hantavirus" class="mw-redirect" title="Hantavirus">Hantavirus</a>, as humans come into contact with wildlife.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> As rural-to-urban migration increases, informal settlements—often located on the periphery of cities—tend to be crowded, lack adequate resources (e.g., sanitation, healthcare), and suffer from poor infrastructure. These factors create additional opportunities for zoonotic diseases to thrive and spread among humans. Increased Vector-Borne Disease Risk Urban sprawl also leads to the loss of natural habitats and habitat fragmentation, which increases contact between wildlife (including those that carry pathogens) and human populations due to the disruption of their ecosystems. This expansion also creates favorable conditions for the spread of vector-borne diseases. As cities grow, they often develop environments with stagnant water, increased humidity, and higher temperatures—ideal conditions for breeding disease-carrying mosquitoes.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> These conditions help facilitate the survival of mosquitoes, particularly <a href="/wiki/Aedes" title="Aedes">Aedes</a> species, which have been linked to the transmission of <a href="/wiki/Zika_fever" title="Zika fever">Zika</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">Malaria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chikungunya" title="Chikungunya">Chikungunya</a>.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> Environmental Changes and Disease Emergence Changes in land use are a major driver of emerging infectious diseases, as they influence species distribution, abundance, movement, and interactions—all of which affect the transmission of zoonotic diseases.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> For example, deforestation reduces the habitat of certain wildlife species, causing them to move closer to human settlements and ultimately increasing the likelihood of disease spillover. One Health and Urban Sprawl The <a href="/wiki/One_Health_Model" title="One Health Model">One Health</a> framework emphasizes the interconnectedness of human, animal, and environmental health. Addressing the risks of zoonotic diseases in the context of urban sprawl requires an integrated approach that considers the health of all three domains. Effective public health strategies must involve urban planning that takes into account the potential for zoonotic disease transmission, as well as monitoring and controlling animal populations, improving sanitation, and promoting vaccination and disease prevention. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Debate">Debate</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_sprawl&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Debate">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:448px;max-width:448px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Morrisville,_North_Carolina_(North_Side_of_Morrisville-Carpenter_Road)_2006.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Morrisville, North Carolina (north side of Morrisville-Carpenter Road)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Morrisville%2C_North_Carolina_%28North_Side_of_Morrisville-Carpenter_Road%29_2006.jpg/250px-Morrisville%2C_North_Carolina_%28North_Side_of_Morrisville-Carpenter_Road%29_2006.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Morrisville%2C_North_Carolina_%28North_Side_of_Morrisville-Carpenter_Road%29_2006.jpg/330px-Morrisville%2C_North_Carolina_%28North_Side_of_Morrisville-Carpenter_Road%29_2006.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Morrisville%2C_North_Carolina_%28North_Side_of_Morrisville-Carpenter_Road%29_2006.jpg/500px-Morrisville%2C_North_Carolina_%28North_Side_of_Morrisville-Carpenter_Road%29_2006.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Morrisville,_North_Carolina_(South_Side_of_Morrisville-Carpenter_Road)_2006.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Morrisville, North Carolina (south side of Morrisville-Carpenter Road)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Morrisville%2C_North_Carolina_%28South_Side_of_Morrisville-Carpenter_Road%29_2006.jpg/250px-Morrisville%2C_North_Carolina_%28South_Side_of_Morrisville-Carpenter_Road%29_2006.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Morrisville%2C_North_Carolina_%28South_Side_of_Morrisville-Carpenter_Road%29_2006.jpg/330px-Morrisville%2C_North_Carolina_%28South_Side_of_Morrisville-Carpenter_Road%29_2006.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Morrisville%2C_North_Carolina_%28South_Side_of_Morrisville-Carpenter_Road%29_2006.jpg/500px-Morrisville%2C_North_Carolina_%28South_Side_of_Morrisville-Carpenter_Road%29_2006.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Rural neighborhoods in <a href="/wiki/Morrisville,_North_Carolina" title="Morrisville, North Carolina">Morrisville, North Carolina</a> are rapidly developing into affluent, urbanized neighborhoods and subdivisions. The two images above are on opposite sides of the same street.</div></div></div></div> According to Nancy Chin, a large number of effects of sprawl have been discussed in the academic literature in some detail; however, the most contentious issues can be reduced "to an older set of arguments, between those advocating a planning approach and those advocating the efficiency of the market".<a href="#cite_note-UCL-21">[21]</a> Those who criticize sprawl tend to argue that sprawl creates more problems than it solves and should be more heavily regulated, while proponents argue that markets are producing the economically most efficient settlements possible in most situations, even if problems may exist.<a href="#cite_note-UCL-21">[21]</a> However, some market-oriented commentators believe that the current patterns of sprawl are in fact the result of distortions of the free market.<a href="#cite_note-UCL-21">[21]</a> Chin cautions that there is a lack of "reliable empirical evidence to support the arguments made either for or against sprawl". She mentions that the lack of a common definition, the need for more quantitative measures "a broader view both in time and space, and greater comparison with alternative urban forms" would be necessary to draw firmer conclusions and conduct more fruitful debates.<a href="#cite_note-UCL-21">[21]</a> Arguments opposing urban sprawl include concrete effects such as health and environmental issues as well as abstract consequences including neighborhood vitality. <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">American</a> <a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">public policy</a> analyst <a href="/wiki/Randal_O%27Toole" title="Randal O'Toole">Randal O'Toole</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Cato_Institute" title="Cato Institute">Cato Institute</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Libertarian_movement_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Libertarian movement in the United States">libertarian</a> <a href="/wiki/Think_tank" title="Think tank">think tank</a>, has argued that sprawl, thanks to the automobile, gave rise to affordable suburban neighborhoods for <a href="/wiki/Middle_class" title="Middle class">middle class</a> and lower class individuals, including non-whites. He notes that efforts to combat sprawl often result in subsidizing development in wealthier and whiter neighborhoods while condemning and demolishing poorer minority neighborhoods.<a href="#cite_note-Gridlock-103">[103]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Groups_that_oppose_sprawl">Groups that oppose sprawl</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_sprawl&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Groups that oppose sprawl">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/American_Institute_of_Architects" title="American Institute of Architects">American Institute of Architects</a>, <a href="/wiki/American_Planning_Association" title="American Planning Association">American Planning Association</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Smart_Growth_America" title="Smart Growth America">Smart Growth America</a> recommend against sprawl and instead endorses <a href="/wiki/Smart_growth" title="Smart growth">smart</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mixed-use_development" title="Mixed-use development">mixed-use development</a>, including buildings in close proximity to one another that cut down on automobile use, save energy, and promote walkable, healthy, well-designed neighborhoods.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-sgastudy-105">[105]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Club" title="Sierra Club">Sierra Club</a>, the San Francisco Bay Area's <a href="/wiki/Greenbelt_Alliance" title="Greenbelt Alliance">Greenbelt Alliance</a>, <a href="/wiki/1000_Friends_of_Oregon" title="1000 Friends of Oregon">1000 Friends of Oregon</a> and counterpart organizations nationwide, and other environmental organizations oppose sprawl and support investment in existing communities.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> <a href="/wiki/NumbersUSA" title="NumbersUSA">NumbersUSA</a>, a national organization advocating <a href="/wiki/Immigration_reduction" class="mw-redirect" title="Immigration reduction">immigration reduction</a>, also opposes urban sprawl,<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> and its founder, <a href="/wiki/Roy_Beck" title="Roy Beck">Roy Beck</a>, specializes in the study of this issue.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consumer_preference">Consumer preference</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_sprawl&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Consumer preference">edit</a>]</div> One of the primary debates around suburban sprawl is the extent to which sprawl is the result of consumer preference. Some, such as Peter Gordon, a professor of planning and economics at the University of Southern California's School of <a href="/wiki/Urban_Planning" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban Planning">Urban Planning</a> and Development, argue that most households have shown a clear preference for low-density living and that this is a fact that should not be ignored by planners.<a href="#cite_note-reason-110">[110]</a> Gordon and his frequent collaborator, Harry Richardson have argued that <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">The principle of consumer sovereignty has played a powerful role in the increase in America’s wealth and in the welfare of its citizens. Producers (including developers) have responded rapidly to households’ demands. It is a giant step backward to interfere with this effective process unless the benefits of intervention substantially exceed its cost.<a href="#cite_note-prove-111">[111]</a></blockquote> They argue that sprawl generates enough benefits for consumers that they continue to choose it as a form of development over alternative forms, as demonstrated by the continued focus on sprawl type developments by most developers.<a href="#cite_note-sprawldebate-71">[71]</a> However, other academics such as Reid Ewing argue that while a large segment of people prefer suburban living that does not mean that sprawl itself is preferred by consumers, and that a large variety of suburban environments satisfy consumer demand, including areas that mitigate the worst effects of sprawl.<a href="#cite_note-Ewing97-22">[22]</a> Others, for example <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_T._Jackson" title="Kenneth T. Jackson">Kenneth T. Jackson</a><a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> have argued that since low-density housing is often (notably in the U.S.) subsidized in a variety of ways, consumers' professed preferences for this type of living may be over-stated.<a href="#cite_note-UCL-21">[21]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Automobile_dependency">Automobile dependency</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_sprawl&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Automobile dependency">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Los_Angeles_-_Echangeur_autoroute_110_105.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Los_Angeles_-_Echangeur_autoroute_110_105.JPG/220px-Los_Angeles_-_Echangeur_autoroute_110_105.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Los_Angeles_-_Echangeur_autoroute_110_105.JPG/330px-Los_Angeles_-_Echangeur_autoroute_110_105.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Los_Angeles_-_Echangeur_autoroute_110_105.JPG/440px-Los_Angeles_-_Echangeur_autoroute_110_105.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="853" /></a><figcaption>A majority of Californians live, commute, and work in the vast and extensive web of <a href="/wiki/Southern_California_freeways" title="Southern California freeways">Southern California freeways</a>.</figcaption></figure> Whether urban sprawl increases the problems of <a href="/wiki/Automobile_dependency" class="mw-redirect" title="Automobile dependency">automobile dependency</a> or not, policies of <a href="/wiki/Smart_growth" title="Smart growth">smart growth</a> have been fiercely contested issues over several decades. An influential study in 1989 by <a href="/wiki/Peter_Newman_(environmental_scientist)" title="Peter Newman (environmental scientist)">Peter Newman</a> and Jeff Kenworthy compared 32 cities across North America, Australia, Europe and Asia.<a href="#cite_note-N&K89-90">[90]</a> The study has been criticised for its methodology,<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> but the main finding, that denser cities, particularly in Asia, have lower car use than sprawling cities, particularly in North America, has been largely accepted, although the relationship is clearer at the extremes across continents than it is within countries where conditions are more similar. Within cities, studies from across many countries (mainly in the developed world) have shown that denser urban areas with greater mixture of land use and better public transport tend to have lower car use than less dense suburban and ex-urban residential areas. This usually holds true even after controlling for socio-economic factors such as differences in household composition and income.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> This does not necessarily imply that suburban sprawl causes high car use, however. One confounding factor, which has been the subject of many studies, is residential self-selection:<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> people who prefer to drive tend to move towards low density suburbs, whereas people who prefer to walk, cycle or use transit tend to move towards higher density urban areas, better served by public transport. Some studies have found that, when self-selection is controlled for, the built environment has no significant effect on travel behavior.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> More recent studies using more sophisticated methodologies have generally refuted these findings: density, land use and <a href="/wiki/Accessibility_(transport)" title="Accessibility (transport)">public transport accessibility</a> can influence travel behavior, although social and economic factors, particularly household income, usually exert a stronger influence.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US36WBCO47.2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/US36WBCO47.2.jpg/220px-US36WBCO47.2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/US36WBCO47.2.jpg/330px-US36WBCO47.2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/US36WBCO47.2.jpg/440px-US36WBCO47.2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Business_park" title="Business park">Business parks</a> are strongly linked to car-dependent sprawl.</figcaption></figure> Those not opposed to low density development argue that traffic intensities tend to be less, traffic speeds faster and, as a result, ambient <a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">air pollution</a> is lower.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> <a href="/wiki/Kansas_City,_Missouri" title="Kansas City, Missouri">Kansas City, Missouri</a> is often cited as an example of ideal low-density development, with congestion below the mean and home prices below comparable Midwestern cities. <a href="/wiki/Wendell_Cox" title="Wendell Cox">Wendell Cox</a> and Randal O'Toole are leading figures supporting lower density development. Longitudinal (time-lapse) studies of commute times in major metropolitan areas in the United States have shown that commute times decreased for the period 1969 to 1995 even though the geographic size of the city increased.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> Other studies suggest, however, that possible personal benefits from commute time savings have been at the expense of environmental costs in the form of longer average commute distances,<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> rising vehicles-miles-traveled (VMT) per worker,<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> and despite road expansions, worsening traffic congestion.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transportation_inequality">Transportation inequality</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_sprawl&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Transportation inequality">edit</a>]</div> Critics of urban sprawl say that the United States' improper treatment of <a href="/wiki/Transport_divide" title="Transport divide">minority groups' access to transportation</a> is a major downside to the continuation of urban sprawl. In many urban centers, such as Los Angeles and San Francisco, transportation in minority areas is lacking. As found by Kate Baldridge of Golden Gate University Law, areas with high minority populations typically see less than adequate transportation options, leading to overcrowded and unsafe transportation routes that do not provide a comprehensive means of transportation.<a href="#cite_note-:1-126">[126]</a> This disparity is made more evident because minority residents are more reliant on public transportation. According to Baldridge, this means that minority groups cannot move from urban areas, while people with higher incomes and thus better access to transportation can move out of urban areas and into surrounding suburbs.<a href="#cite_note-:1-126">[126]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Paradox_of_intensification">Paradox of intensification</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_sprawl&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Paradox of intensification">edit</a>]</div> Reviewing the evidence on urban intensification, <a href="/wiki/Smart_growth" title="Smart growth">smart growth</a> and their effects on travel behaviour Melia et al. (2011)<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> found support for the arguments of both supporters and opponents of <a href="/wiki/Smart_growth" title="Smart growth">smart growth</a> measures to counteract urban sprawl. Planning policies that increase population densities in urban areas do tend to reduce car use, but the effect is a weak one, so doubling the population density of a particular area will not halve the frequency or distance of car use. These findings led them to propose the paradox of intensification, which states: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><a href="/wiki/Ceteris_paribus" title="Ceteris paribus">Ceteris paribus</a>, urban intensification which increases population density will reduce per capita car use, with benefits to the global environment, but will also increase concentrations of motor traffic, worsening the local environment in those locations where it occurs.</blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Risk_of_increased_housing_prices">Risk of increased housing prices</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_sprawl&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Risk of increased housing prices">edit</a>]</div> There is also some concern that anti-sprawl policies will increase housing prices. Some research suggests Oregon has had the largest housing affordability loss in the nation,<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> but other research shows that Portland's price increases are comparable to other Western cities.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> In Australia, it is claimed by some that housing affordability has hit "crisis levels" due to "urban consolidation" policies implemented by state governments.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> In Sydney, the ratio of the price of a house relative to income is 9:1[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>].<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> The issue has at times been debated between the major political parties.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Proposed_alternatives">Proposed alternatives</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_sprawl&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Proposed alternatives">edit</a>]</div> Many critics concede that sprawl produces some negative externalities; however there is some dispute about the most effective way to reduce these negative effects. Gordon & Richardson for example argue that the costs of building new public transit is disproportionate to the actual environmental or economic benefits, that land use restrictions will increase the cost of housing and restrict economic opportunity, that infill possibilities are too limited to make a major difference to the structure of American cities, and that the government would need to coerce most people to live in a way that they do not want to in order to substantially change the impact of sprawl.<a href="#cite_note-sprawldebate-71">[71]</a> They argue that the property market should be deregulated to allow different people to live as they wish, while providing a framework of <a href="/wiki/Market-based_environmental_policy_instruments" title="Market-based environmental policy instruments">market based fees</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Emissions_trading" title="Emissions trading">emission fees</a>, <a href="/wiki/Congestion_charging" class="mw-redirect" title="Congestion charging">congestion charging</a> or <a href="/wiki/Road_pricing" title="Road pricing">road pricing</a>) to mitigate many of the problems associated with sprawl such as congestion and increased pollution.<a href="#cite_note-prove-111">[111]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Alternative_development_styles">Alternative development styles</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_sprawl&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Alternative development styles">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Smart_growth" title="Smart growth">Smart growth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Compact_City" class="mw-redirect" title="Compact City">Compact City</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transit-oriented_development" title="Transit-oriented development">Transit-oriented development</a>, and <a href="/wiki/New_urbanism" class="mw-redirect" title="New urbanism">New urbanism</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_attempts_at_combatting_urban_sprawl">Early attempts at combatting urban sprawl</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_sprawl&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Early attempts at combatting urban sprawl">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Metropolitan_Green_Belt_among_the_green_belts_of_England.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/The_Metropolitan_Green_Belt_among_the_green_belts_of_England.svg/250px-The_Metropolitan_Green_Belt_among_the_green_belts_of_England.svg.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/The_Metropolitan_Green_Belt_among_the_green_belts_of_England.svg/330px-The_Metropolitan_Green_Belt_among_the_green_belts_of_England.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/The_Metropolitan_Green_Belt_among_the_green_belts_of_England.svg/360px-The_Metropolitan_Green_Belt_among_the_green_belts_of_England.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="420" data-file-height="485" /></a><figcaption><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  Designated areas of green belt in England</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959" /><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Green_Belt" title="Metropolitan Green Belt">Metropolitan Green Belt</a>, first proposed by the <a href="/wiki/London_County_Council" title="London County Council">London County Council</a> in 1935</div></figcaption></figure> Starting in the early 20th century, environmentalist opposition to urban sprawl began to coalesce, with roots in the <a href="/wiki/Garden_city_movement" title="Garden city movement">garden city movement</a>, as well as pressure from campaign groups such as the <a href="/wiki/Campaign_to_Protect_Rural_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Campaign to Protect Rural England">Campaign to Protect Rural England</a> (CPRE). Under <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Morrison" title="Herbert Morrison">Herbert Morrison</a>'s 1934 leadership of the <a href="/wiki/London_County_Council" title="London County Council">London County Council</a>, the first formal proposal was made by the Greater London <a href="/wiki/Regional_Planning" class="mw-redirect" title="Regional Planning">Regional Planning</a> Committee "to provide a reserve supply of public open spaces and of recreational areas and to establish a <a href="/wiki/Green_belt" title="Green belt">green belt</a> or girdle of open space". It was again included in an advisory Greater London Plan prepared by <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Abercrombie" title="Patrick Abercrombie">Patrick Abercrombie</a> in 1944.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Town_and_Country_Planning_Act_1947" title="Town and Country Planning Act 1947">Town and Country Planning Act of 1947</a> expressly incorporated green belts into all further national <a href="/wiki/Urban_development" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban development">urban developments</a>. New provisions for compensation in the <a href="/wiki/Town_and_Country_Planning_Act_1947" title="Town and Country Planning Act 1947">1947 Town and Country Planning Act</a> allowed local authorities around the country to incorporate green belt proposals in their first <a href="/wiki/Development_plans" class="mw-redirect" title="Development plans">development plans</a>. The codification of Green Belt policy and its extension to areas other than London came with the historic Circular 42/55 inviting local planning authorities to consider the establishment of Green Belts. The first <a href="/wiki/Urban_growth_boundary" title="Urban growth boundary">urban growth boundary</a> in the U.S. was in <a href="/wiki/Fayette_County,_Kentucky" title="Fayette County, Kentucky">Fayette County, Kentucky</a>, in 1958.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Maryland">Maryland</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_sprawl&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Maryland">edit</a>]</div> Maryland underwent many "Smart Growth" initiatives, starting in 1997 with the Smart Growth Areas Act. This act allocated funding towards areas already undergoing growth or areas with development plans.<a href="#cite_note-:2-135">[135]</a> Maryland also implemented the 1997 Rural Legacy Act, which distributed grants to private land owners and allowed them to <a href="/wiki/Transferable_development_rights" title="Transferable development rights">purchase development rights</a>. Brownfields Voluntary Cleanup and Revitalization Incentive Programs also incentivized property owners to use previously contaminated properties to avoid liability for the property. The state also offered incentives, such as tax breaks and loans for repairs to contaminated areas. Another program the state of Maryland created was the Job Creation Tax Credit Program, which encouraged businesses to relocate to select areas, reducing the intensity of urban sprawl in some areas.<a href="#cite_note-:2-135">[135]</a> The Live Near Your Work Program also incentivized employees to purchase homes closer to work. This led to a reduced commute time and more emphasis on homeownership rather than renting. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contemporary_anti-sprawl_initiatives">Contemporary anti-sprawl initiatives</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_sprawl&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Contemporary anti-sprawl initiatives">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Burnaby_BC_Aerial_view_2015.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Burnaby_BC_Aerial_view_2015.jpg/220px-Burnaby_BC_Aerial_view_2015.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Burnaby_BC_Aerial_view_2015.jpg/330px-Burnaby_BC_Aerial_view_2015.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Burnaby_BC_Aerial_view_2015.jpg/440px-Burnaby_BC_Aerial_view_2015.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4928" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption>Many Canadian cities feature numerous pockets of high density throughout even their most distant suburbs. As a result, some Canadian suburbs have skylines that eclipse the downtowns of many American cities. Pictured are the skylines of <a href="/wiki/Burnaby,_British_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="Burnaby, British Columbia">Burnaby, British Columbia</a>, a suburb of Vancouver.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:S%C3%A3o_Paulo_Brazil_12Mar2018_SkySat.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/S%C3%A3o_Paulo_Brazil_12Mar2018_SkySat.jpg/220px-S%C3%A3o_Paulo_Brazil_12Mar2018_SkySat.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/S%C3%A3o_Paulo_Brazil_12Mar2018_SkySat.jpg/330px-S%C3%A3o_Paulo_Brazil_12Mar2018_SkySat.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/S%C3%A3o_Paulo_Brazil_12Mar2018_SkySat.jpg/440px-S%C3%A3o_Paulo_Brazil_12Mar2018_SkySat.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2050" data-file-height="1266" /></a><figcaption>Urban fabric in <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo" title="São Paulo">São Paulo</a>, Brazil: side by side, vertical areas and low houses.</figcaption></figure> The term "smart growth" has been particularly used in North America. The terms "<a href="/wiki/Compact_city" title="Compact city">compact city</a>" and "urban intensification" are often used to describe similar concepts in Europe, and particularly in the UK, where it has influenced government policy and planning practice in recent years. The state of <a href="/wiki/Oregon" title="Oregon">Oregon</a> enacted a law in 1973 limiting the area urban areas could occupy, through urban growth boundaries. As a result, <a href="/wiki/Portland,_Oregon" title="Portland, Oregon">Portland</a>, the state's largest urban area, has become a leader in <a href="/wiki/Smart_growth" title="Smart growth">smart growth</a> policies that seek to make urban areas more compact (they are called urban consolidation policies). After the creation of this boundary, the population density of the <a href="/wiki/Urbanized_area" class="mw-redirect" title="Urbanized area">urbanized area</a> increased somewhat (from 1,135 in 1970<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> to 1,290 per km2 in 2000.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a>) Although the growth boundary has not been tight enough to vastly increase density, the consensus is that the growth boundaries have protected great amounts of wild areas and <a href="/wiki/Farmland_preservation" title="Farmland preservation">farmland</a> around the metro area. Much of <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco_Bay_Area" title="San Francisco Bay Area">San Francisco Bay Area</a> has also adopted urban growth boundaries; 25 of its cities and 5 of its counties have urban growth boundaries. Many of these were adopted with the support and advocacy of <a href="/wiki/Greenbelt_Alliance" title="Greenbelt Alliance">Greenbelt Alliance</a>, a non-profit land conservation and urban planning organization. In other areas, the design principles of <a href="/wiki/New_Urbanism" title="New Urbanism">New Urbanism</a> have been employed to combat urban sprawl. The concept of <a href="/wiki/Circular_flow_land_use_management" title="Circular flow land use management">circular flow land use management</a> has been developed in Europe to reduce land take by urban sprawl through promoting inner-city and brownfield development. Although cities such as <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles" title="Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a> are well known for sprawling suburbs, policies and public opinion are changing. Transit-oriented development, in which higher-density mixed-use areas are permitted or encouraged near transit stops, is encouraging more compact development in certain areas: particularly those with light and heavy rail transit systems. Bicycles are the preferred means of travel in many countries:<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> Also, bicycles are permitted in <a href="/wiki/Public_transit" class="mw-redirect" title="Public transit">public transit</a>. Businesses in areas of some towns in which bicycle use is high are thriving. Bicycles and transit contribute in two important ways toward the success of businesses:<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> <ol><li>People living the closest to these business districts on average have more money to spend locally because they spend less on their cars.</li> <li>Because such people rely more on bicycling, walking, and transit than on driving, they tend to focus more of their commerce on locally-owned neighborhood businesses that are convenient for them to reach.</li></ol> <a href="/wiki/Walkability" title="Walkability">Walkability</a> is a measure of how friendly an area is to <a href="/wiki/Walking" title="Walking">walking</a>. Walkability has many health, environmental, and economic benefits. However, evaluating walkability is challenging because it requires the consideration of many <a href="/wiki/Subjectivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Subjectivity">subjective</a> factors.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> Factors influencing walkability include the presence or absence and quality of <a href="/wiki/Footpath" title="Footpath">footpaths</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sidewalk" title="Sidewalk">sidewalks</a>, or other pedestrian right-of-ways, traffic and road conditions, land use patterns, building accessibility, and safety, among others.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> Walkability is an important concept in <a href="/wiki/Sustainable" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable">sustainable</a> <a href="/wiki/Urban_design" title="Urban design">urban design</a>.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> Land use policies are one potential avenue to reduce the effects of urban sprawl. These policies take the form of boundaries to urban growth, regional development rights, and development centralized in urban areas. Housing policies, such as inclusionary zoning, rental vouchers in suburban areas, and a focus on employer-assisted housing are another approach to combatting urban sprawl. Gasoline taxes and increased funding towards the construction of public transportation also help to reduce the necessity of commuting in and out of urban areas.<a href="#cite_note-:2-135">[135]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_sprawl&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Related_topics">Related topics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_sprawl&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Related topics">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conurbation" title="Conurbation">Conurbation</a> – Group of settlements linked by continuous urban area</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_the_car_on_societies" class="mw-redirect" title="Effects of the car on societies">Effects of the car on societies</a> – Overview of the effects of cars on various societiesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gentrification" title="Gentrification">Gentrification</a> – Urban socioeconomic process</li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Motors_streetcar_conspiracy" title="General Motors streetcar conspiracy">General Motors streetcar conspiracy</a> – Alleged conspiracy by GM and others to replace streetcar lines with buses</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_urban_studies_articles" title="Index of urban studies articles">Index of urban studies articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principles_of_intelligent_urbanism" title="Principles of intelligent urbanism">Principles of intelligent urbanism</a> – Theory of urban planning</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural%E2%80%93urban_fringe" class="mw-redirect" title="Rural–urban fringe">Rural–urban fringe</a> – Type of urban growthPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ribbon_development" title="Ribbon development">Ribbon development</a> – Development along a single road</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Town_centre" title="Town centre">Town centre</a> – Commercial or geographical centre or core area of a town</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management" title="Waste management">Waste management</a> – Activities and actions required to manage waste from its source to its final disposal</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildland%E2%80%93urban_interface" title="Wildland–urban interface">Wildland–urban interface</a> – Transition zone between wilderness and developed land</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Related_terminology">Related terminology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_sprawl&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Related terminology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115" /><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affluenza" title="Affluenza">Affluenza</a> – Socio-psychological effects of consumerism</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boomburb" title="Boomburb">Boomburb</a> – Large, suburban-like city</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commuter_town" title="Commuter town">Commuter town</a> – Urban community that is primarily residential, from which most of the workforce commutes out</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentric_zone_model" title="Concentric zone model">Concentric zone model</a> – Urban social structure model</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspicuous_consumption" title="Conspicuous consumption">Conspicuous consumption</a> – Concept in sociology and economy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumerism" title="Consumerism">Consumerism</a> – Aspect of socio-economic order</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a> – Conversion of forest to non-forest for human use</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">Demography</a> – Science that deals with populations and their structures, statistically and theoretically</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edge_city" title="Edge city">Edge city</a> – New unstructured settlement created near a major city</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garden_real_estate" class="mw-redirect" title="Garden real estate">Garden real estate</a> – Specialized sector of the property marketPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_fragmentation" title="Habitat fragmentation">Habitat fragmentation</a> – Discontinuities in an organism's environment causing population fragmentation</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Induced_demand" title="Induced demand">Induced demand</a> – Phenomenon in which supply increases lead to a cycle of increased consumption</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a> – Science of relationships between ecological processes in the environment and particular ecosystems</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_value_tax" title="Land value tax">Land value tax</a> – Levy on the unimproved value of land</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Location_Efficient_Mortgage" class="mw-redirect" title="Location Efficient Mortgage">Location Efficient Mortgage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megacity" title="Megacity">Megacity</a> – Metropolitan area with a total population in excess of ten million people</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microdistrict" title="Microdistrict">Microdistrict</a> – Residential complex</li> <li><a href="/wiki/NIMBY" title="NIMBY">NIMBY</a> – Opposition to nearby development projects</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overconsumption" class="mw-redirect" title="Overconsumption">Overconsumption</a> – Resource use exceeding carrying capacityPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_oil" title="Peak oil">Peak oil</a> – Point in time when the maximum rate of petroleum extraction is reached</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planned_community" title="Planned community">Planned community</a> – Settlement built according to a plan</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_farmland" title="Prime farmland">Prime farmland</a> – Land that has the best combination of physical and chemical characteristics for producing food, feed, forage, fiber, and oilseed crops and is available for these uses.Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_flight" title="Rural flight">Rural flight</a> – Migratory pattern of people from rural to urban areas</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple_living" title="Simple living">Simple living</a> – Simplified, minimalistic lifestyle</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_planning" title="Spatial planning">Spatial planning</a> – Technique for physical organisation of space</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Streetcar_suburb" title="Streetcar suburb">Streetcar suburb</a> – Residential community developed by streetcar lines</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_decay" title="Urban decay">Urban decay</a> – Sociological process affecting cities</li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_population" title="World population">World population</a> – Total number of living humans on Earth</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes_and_references">Notes and references</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_sprawl&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Notes and references">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output 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Please read the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Further_reading" title="Wikipedia:Further reading">editing guide</a> and help improve the section. (September 2018) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBaudrillard1983" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Baudrillard" class="mw-redirect" title="Baudrillard">Baudrillard, Jean</a> (1983). 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University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-07691-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-07691-1"><bdi>978-0-226-07691-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sprawl%3A+A+Compact+History&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-226-07691-1&rft.aulast=Bruegmann&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsprawlcompacthis0000brue&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+sprawl" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCervero1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Cervero" title="Robert Cervero">Cervero, Robert</a> (1986). Suburban Gridlock. 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Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Retail+Planning+Policies+in+Western+Europe&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1960&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Ross&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+sprawl" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDeGroveTurner1991" class="citation book cs1">DeGrove, John; Turner, Robyne (1991). "Local Government in Florida: Coping with Massive and Sustained Growth". In Huckshorn, R. (ed.). Government and Politics in Florida. Gainesville: University of Florida Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Local+Government+in+Florida%3A+Coping+with+Massive+and+Sustained+Growth&rft.btitle=Government+and+Politics+in+Florida&rft.place=Gainesville&rft.pub=University+of+Florida+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=DeGrove&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Turner%2C+Robyne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+sprawl" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFreilichSitkowskiMennillo2010" class="citation book cs1">Freilich, Robert H.; Sitkowski, Robert J.; Mennillo, Seth D. (2010). From Sprawl to Sustainability, Smart Growth, New Urbanism, Green Development and Renewable Energy. American Bar Association Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60442-812-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60442-812-4"><bdi>978-1-60442-812-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Sprawl+to+Sustainability%2C+Smart+Growth%2C+New+Urbanism%2C+Green+Development+and+Renewable+Energy&rft.pub=American+Bar+Association+Publishing&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-60442-812-4&rft.aulast=Freilich&rft.aufirst=Robert+H.&rft.au=Sitkowski%2C+Robert+J.&rft.au=Mennillo%2C+Seth+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+sprawl" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGarreau1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joel_Garreau" title="Joel Garreau">Garreau, Joel</a> (1991). <a href="/wiki/Edge_city" title="Edge city">Edge City: Life on the New Frontier</a>. New York: Anchor Books/Doubleday.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Edge+City%3A+Life+on+the+New+Frontier&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Anchor+Books%2FDoubleday&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Garreau&rft.aufirst=Joel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+sprawl" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGielen2006" class="citation book cs1">Gielen, Tristan (2006). Coping with compaction; the demon of sprawl. Auckland: Random House New Zealand.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Coping+with+compaction%3B+the+demon+of+sprawl&rft.place=Auckland&rft.pub=Random+House+New+Zealand&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Gielen&rft.aufirst=Tristan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+sprawl" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHaydenWark2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Dolores_Hayden" title="Dolores Hayden">Hayden, Dolores</a>; Wark, Jim (2004). A Field Guide to Sprawl. W. W. Norton & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-73125-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-73125-5"><bdi>978-0-393-73125-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Field+Guide+to+Sprawl&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-393-73125-5&rft.aulast=Hayden&rft.aufirst=Dolores&rft.au=Wark%2C+Jim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+sprawl" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHirschhorn2005" class="citation book cs1">Hirschhorn, Joel S. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sprawlkills.com/">Sprawl Kills – How Blandburbs Steal Your Time, Health, and Money</a>. New York: Sterling & Ross. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9766372-0-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-9766372-0-0"><bdi>0-9766372-0-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sprawl+Kills+%E2%80%93+How+Blandburbs+Steal+Your+Time%2C+Health%2C+and+Money&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Sterling+%26+Ross&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-9766372-0-0&rft.aulast=Hirschhorn&rft.aufirst=Joel+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sprawlkills.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+sprawl" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFIngersoll2006" class="citation book cs1">Ingersoll, Richard (2006). Sprawltown: Looking for the City on Its Edges. Princeton Architectural Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781568985664" title="Special:BookSources/9781568985664"><bdi>9781568985664</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sprawltown%3A+Looking+for+the+City+on+Its+Edges&rft.pub=Princeton+Architectural+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9781568985664&rft.aulast=Ingersoll&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+sprawl" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJacobs" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jane_Jacobs" title="Jane Jacobs">Jacobs, Jane</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Death_and_Life_of_Great_American_Cities" title="The Death and Life of Great American Cities">The Death and Life of Great American Cities</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Death+and+Life+of+Great+American+Cities&rft.aulast=Jacobs&rft.aufirst=Jane&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+sprawl" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJameson1990" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Fredric_Jameson" title="Fredric Jameson">Jameson, Fredric</a> (1990). Postmodernism or the cultural logic of late capitalism.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Postmodernism+or+the+cultural+logic+of+late+capitalism&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Jameson&rft.aufirst=Fredric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+sprawl" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJamesHoldenLewinNeilson2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_James_(academic)" title="Paul James (academic)">James, Paul</a>; Holden, Meg; Lewin, Mary; Neilson, Lyndsay; Oakley, Christine; Truter, Art; Wilmoth, David (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/7207756">"Managing Metropolises by Negotiating Mega-Urban Growth"</a>. In Harald Mieg; Klaus Töpfer (eds.). Institutional and Social Innovation for Sustainable Urban Development. Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Managing+Metropolises+by+Negotiating+Mega-Urban+Growth&rft.btitle=Institutional+and+Social+Innovation+for+Sustainable+Urban+Development&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=James&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=Holden%2C+Meg&rft.au=Lewin%2C+Mary&rft.au=Neilson%2C+Lyndsay&rft.au=Oakley%2C+Christine&rft.au=Truter%2C+Art&rft.au=Wilmoth%2C+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F7207756&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+sprawl" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKoolhaas2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rem_Koolhaas" title="Rem Koolhaas">Koolhaas, Rem</a> (2003). Junkspace, Harvard Design School Guide to Shopping. Harvard Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Junkspace%2C+Harvard+Design+School+Guide+to+Shopping&rft.pub=Harvard+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Koolhaas&rft.aufirst=Rem&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+sprawl" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKunstler1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Howard_Kunstler" title="James Howard Kunstler">Kunstler, James Howard</a> (1994). <a href="/wiki/The_Geography_of_Nowhere" title="The Geography of Nowhere">The Geography of Nowhere: The rise and decline of America's man-made landscape</a>. New York: Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-671-70774-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-671-70774-4"><bdi>0-671-70774-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Geography+of+Nowhere%3A+The+rise+and+decline+of+America%27s+man-made+landscape&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-671-70774-4&rft.aulast=Kunstler&rft.aufirst=James+Howard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+sprawl" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLewinnek2014" class="citation book cs1">Lewinnek, Elaine (2014). The Working Man's Reward: Chicago's Early Suburbs and the Roots of American Sprawl. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Working+Man%27s+Reward%3A+Chicago%27s+Early+Suburbs+and+the+Roots+of+American+Sprawl&rft.place=Oxford%2C+England&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Lewinnek&rft.aufirst=Elaine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+sprawl" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSeoule2006" class="citation book cs1">Seoule, David C., ed. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/urbansprawlcompr0000unse">Urban Sprawl A comprehensive Reference Guide</a>. Greenwood Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32038-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32038-5"><bdi>978-0-313-32038-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Urban+Sprawl+A+comprehensive+Reference+Guide&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-313-32038-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Furbansprawlcompr0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+sprawl" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSquires2002" class="citation book cs1">Squires, Gregory D., ed. (2002). Urban Sprawl: Causes, Consequences and Policy Responses. The Urban Institute Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87766-709-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87766-709-4"><bdi>978-0-87766-709-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Urban+Sprawl%3A+Causes%2C+Consequences+and+Policy+Responses&rft.pub=The+Urban+Institute+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-87766-709-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+sprawl" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSuarez1999" class="citation book cs1">Suarez, Ray (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oldneighborhoodw00suar_0">The Old Neighborhood: What we lost in the great suburban migration: 1966-1999</a>. Free Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0684834023" title="Special:BookSources/978-0684834023"><bdi>978-0684834023</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Old+Neighborhood%3A+What+we+lost+in+the+great+suburban+migration%3A+1966-1999&rft.pub=Free+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0684834023&rft.aulast=Suarez&rft.aufirst=Ray&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foldneighborhoodw00suar_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+sprawl" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStein1993" class="citation book cs1">Stein, Jay (1993). Growth Management: The planning challenge of the 1990s. Sage Publications.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Growth+Management%3A+The+planning+challenge+of+the+1990s&rft.pub=Sage+Publications&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Stein&rft.aufirst=Jay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+sprawl" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFVicino2008" class="citation book cs1">Vicino, Thomas J. (2008). Transforming Race and Class in Suburbia: Decline in Metropolitan Baltimore. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Transforming+Race+and+Class+in+Suburbia%3A+Decline+in+Metropolitan+Baltimore&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Vicino&rft.aufirst=Thomas+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+sprawl" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Articles_and_reports">Articles and reports</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_sprawl&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Articles and reports">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBaumeister2012" class="citation report cs1">Baumeister, M. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://celarc.ca/cppc/231/231288.pdf">Managing Urban Sprawl: Reconsidering Development Cost Charges in Canada</a> (PDF) (Report).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Managing+Urban+Sprawl%3A+Reconsidering+Development+Cost+Charges+in+Canada&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Baumeister&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcelarc.ca%2Fcppc%2F231%2F231288.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+sprawl" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEwing1997" class="citation journal cs1">Ewing, Reid (1997). "Is Los Angeles-Style Sprawl Desirable?". Journal of the American Planning Association. 63 (1): 107–126. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01944369708975728">10.1080/01944369708975728</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Planning+Association&rft.atitle=Is+Los+Angeles-Style+Sprawl+Desirable%3F&rft.volume=63&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E107-%3C%2Fspan%3E126&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F01944369708975728&rft.aulast=Ewing&rft.aufirst=Reid&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+sprawl" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jtc.sala.ubc.ca/reports/Urban%20Sprawl-Jan-0511.pdf">Report on Public Health and Urban Sprawl in Ontario: A Review of Pertinent Literature</a> (PDF) (Report). Ontario College of Family Physicians. 2005.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Report+on+Public+Health+and+Urban+Sprawl+in+Ontario%3A+A+Review+of+Pertinent+Literature&rft.pub=Ontario+College+of+Family+Physicians&rft.date=2005&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jtc.sala.ubc.ca%2Freports%2FUrban%2520Sprawl-Jan-0511.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+sprawl" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRybczynski2005" class="citation magazine cs1">Rybczynski, Witold (November 7, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.slate.com/id/2129636/?nav=tap3">"Suburban Despair"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Slate_(magazine)" title="Slate (magazine)">Slate</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Slate&rft.atitle=Suburban+Despair&rft.date=2005-11-07&rft.aulast=Rybczynski&rft.aufirst=Witold&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.slate.com%2Fid%2F2129636%2F%3Fnav%3Dtap3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+sprawl" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Video">Video</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_sprawl&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Video">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radiant_City" title="Radiant City">Radiant City</a> is a 2006 <a href="/wiki/National_Film_Board_of_Canada" title="National Film Board of Canada">National Film Board of Canada</a> documentary on suburban sprawl</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_sprawl&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style 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href="/wiki/Urban_area" title="Urban area">Urban area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City" title="City">City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_area" title="Metropolitan area">Metropolitan area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suburb" title="Suburb">Suburb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use" title="Land use">Land use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planning" title="Planning">Planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planning_and_zoning_commission" title="Planning and zoning commission">Planning and zoning commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Growth_management" title="Growth management">Growth management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Urbanism_Day" title="World Urbanism Day">World Urbanism Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_market_area" title="Labor market area">Labor market area</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major branches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land-use_planning" title="Land-use planning">Land-use planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comprehensive_planning" title="Comprehensive planning">Comprehensive planning</a> (US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_urban_planning" title="History of urban planning">History of urban planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_planning" title="Spatial planning">Spatial planning</a> (Eur)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redevelopment" title="Redevelopment">Redevelopment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_design" title="Urban design">Urban design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_green_space" title="Urban green space">Urban green space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanism" title="Urbanism">Urbanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Rural</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_development" title="Conservation development">Conservation development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preservation_development" title="Preservation development">Preservation development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_housing" title="Rural housing">Rural housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Village_design_statement" title="Village design statement">Village design statement</a> (UK)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Regional_planning" title="Regional planning">Regional planning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regional_Planning_Association_of_America" title="Regional Planning Association of America">Regional Planning Association of America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_planning" title="Environmental planning">Environmental planning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_design" title="Environmental design">Environmental design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_assessment" title="Environmental impact assessment">Environmental impact assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recreation_resource_planning" title="Recreation resource planning">Recreation resource planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_development" title="Sustainable development">Sustainable development</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Transportation_planning" title="Transportation planning">Transportation planning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_forecasting" title="Transportation forecasting">Transportation forecasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trip_distribution" title="Trip distribution">Trip distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rational_planning_model" title="Rational planning model">Rational planning model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transit-oriented_development" title="Transit-oriented development">Transit-oriented development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_transportation_planner" title="Professional transportation planner">Professional transportation planner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_freight_distribution" title="Urban freight distribution">Urban freight distribution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Economic_development" title="Economic development">Economic development</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Community_economic_development" title="Community economic development">Community economic development</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts/ theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Athens_Charter" title="Athens Charter">Athens Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Car-free_movement" title="Car-free movement">Car-free movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_Beautiful_movement" title="City Beautiful movement">City Beautiful movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark-sky_movement" title="Dark-sky movement">Dark-sky movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garden_city_movement" title="Garden city movement">Garden city movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_planning" title="Indigenous planning">Indigenous planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NIMBY" title="NIMBY">NIMBY</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Urbanism" title="New Urbanism">New Urbanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settlement_movement" title="Settlement movement">Settlement movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smart_growth" title="Smart growth">Smart growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(architecture)" title="Structuralism (architecture)">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_towns" class="mw-redirect" title="Transition towns">Transition towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/YIMBY" title="YIMBY">YIMBY</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_urban_planning" title="Theories of urban planning">Theories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collaborative_planning" class="mw-redirect" title="Collaborative planning">Collaborative planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Context_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Context theory">Context theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekistics" title="Ekistics">Ekistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principles_of_Intelligent_Urbanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Principles of Intelligent Urbanism">Intelligent urbanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livable_streets" class="mw-redirect" title="Livable streets">Livable streets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_urbanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Market urbanism">Market urbanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_planning" class="mw-redirect" title="Radical planning">Radical planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_renewal" title="Urban renewal">Urban renewal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Category:Cities_by_type" title="Category:Cities by type">Cities by type</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Company_town" title="Company town">Company town</a> / <a href="/wiki/Monotown" title="Monotown">Monotown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commuter_town" title="Commuter town">Commuter town</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghost_town" title="Ghost town">Ghost town</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_city" title="Global city">Global city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_community" title="Mining community">Mining community</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pit_village" class="mw-redirect" title="Pit village">Pit village</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man_camp" title="Man camp">Man camp</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Logging_camp" title="Logging camp">Logging camp</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model_village" title="Model village">Model village</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planned_community" title="Planned community">Planned community</a> (New town)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intentional_community" title="Intentional community">Intentional community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arcology" title="Arcology">Arcology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_village" title="Urban village">Urban village</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boomtown" title="Boomtown">Boomtown</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affordable_housing" title="Affordable housing">Affordable housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cityscape" title="Cityscape">Cityscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cluster_development" title="Cluster development">Cluster development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complete_Communities" class="mw-redirect" title="Complete Communities">Complete Communities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_community" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation community">Conservation community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creative_city" title="Creative city">Creative city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eminent_domain" title="Eminent domain">Eminent domain</a> (US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filtering_(housing)" title="Filtering (housing)">Filtering (housing)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gentrification" title="Gentrification">Gentrification</a> / <a href="/wiki/Brusselization" title="Brusselization">Brusselization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infill" title="Infill">Infill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthy_city" title="Healthy city">Healthy cities</a> / <a href="/wiki/Healthy_community_design" title="Healthy community design">Healthy community design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LEED-ND" class="mw-redirect" title="LEED-ND">LEED-ND</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leapfrog_development" title="Leapfrog development">Leapfrog development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed-use_development" title="Mixed-use development">Mixed-use development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model_Cities_Program" title="Model Cities Program">Model cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permeability_(spatial_and_transport_planning)" title="Permeability (spatial and transport planning)">Permeability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Placemaking" title="Placemaking">Placemaking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planning_gain" title="Planning gain">Planning gain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planning_Permission" class="mw-redirect" title="Planning Permission">Planning Permission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_flight" title="Rural flight">Rural flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporary_use" title="Temporary use">Temporary use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_place" title="Third place">Third place</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tract_housing" title="Tract housing">Tract housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transferable_development_rights" title="Transferable development rights">Transferable development rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_decay" title="Urban decay">Urban decay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_growth_boundary" title="Urban growth boundary">Urban growth boundary</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Urban sprawl</a> / <a href="/wiki/Peri-urbanisation" title="Peri-urbanisation">Peri-urbanisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_vitality" title="Urban vitality">Urban vitality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">Urbanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verticalization" title="Verticalization">Verticalization</a> / <a href="/wiki/High-rise" class="mw-redirect" title="High-rise">High-rise urbanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoning" title="Zoning">Zoning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Urban_planner" title="Urban planner">Theorists/ practitioners</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_Duany" title="Andrés Duany">Andrés Duany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Perry" title="Clarence Perry">Clarence Perry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Stein" title="Clarence Stein">Clarence Stein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colin_Buchanan_(town_planner)" title="Colin Buchanan (town planner)">Colin Buchanan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Burnham" title="Daniel Burnham">Daniel Burnham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Appleyard" title="Donald Appleyard">Donald Appleyard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ebenezer_Howard" title="Ebenezer Howard">Ebenezer Howard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Bacon_(architect)" title="Edmund Bacon (architect)">Edmund Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Benveniste" title="Guy Benveniste">Guy Benveniste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_McHarg" title="Ian McHarg">Ian McHarg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Rouse" title="James Rouse">James Rouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantinos_Apostolos_Doxiadis" class="mw-redirect" title="Konstantinos Apostolos Doxiadis">Konstantinos Doxiadis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kevin_A._Lynch" title="Kevin A. Lynch">Kevin A. Lynch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Le_Corbusier" title="Le Corbusier">Le Corbusier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loretta_Lees" title="Loretta Lees">Loretta Lees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Calthorpe" title="Peter Calthorpe">Peter Calthorpe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Geddes" title="Patrick Geddes">Patrick Geddes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Unwin" title="Raymond Unwin">Raymond Unwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Adams_(architect)" title="Thomas Adams (architect)">Thomas Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_urban_theorists" title="List of urban theorists">List of urban theorists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_urban_planners" title="List of urban planners">List of urban planners</a></li></ul> <ul><li class="mw-empty-elt"></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Critics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Farrelly" title="Elizabeth Farrelly">Elizabeth Farrelly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jane_Jacobs" title="Jane Jacobs">Jane Jacobs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Howard_Kunstler" title="James Howard Kunstler">James Howard Kunstler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Mumford" title="Lewis Mumford">Lewis Mumford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randal_O%27Toole" title="Randal O'Toole">Randal O'Toole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Training</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_education" title="Urban planning education">Planning education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Planning_Accreditation_Board" title="Planning Accreditation Board">Planning Accreditation Board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graduate_real_estate_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Graduate real estate education">Real estate education</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Professional_planning_institutes" title="Category:Professional planning institutes">Professional organizations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Countries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_Australia" title="Urban planning in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_China" title="Urban planning in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Urban planning in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_Russia" title="Urban planning in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_planning_in_Serbia" title="Spatial planning in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_Singapore" title="Urban planning in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Town_and_country_planning_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Town and country planning in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_of_Barcelona" title="Urban planning of Barcelona">Barcelona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_of_Shanghai" title="Urban planning of Shanghai">Shanghai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_of_Sydney" title="Urban planning of Sydney">Sydney</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_Africa" title="Urban planning in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_communist_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban planning in communist countries">Communist countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Urban planning in Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Urban planning in ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_engineering" title="Civil engineering">Civil engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_economics" title="Development economics">Development economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_social_science" title="Environmental social science">Environmental social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_development" title="Land development">Land development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_architecture" title="Landscape architecture">Landscape architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_spatial_planning" title="Marine spatial planning">Marine spatial planning </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">Public policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_estate_development" title="Real estate development">Real estate development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_ecology" title="Urban ecology">Urban ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_economics" title="Urban economics">Urban economics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/COL-city_icon.png/20px-COL-city_icon.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/COL-city_icon.png/40px-COL-city_icon.png 1.5x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Cities" title="Portal:Cities">Cities portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Urban_planning" title="Category:Urban planning">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_planned_cities" title="List of planned cities">List of planned cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_planning_journals" title="List of planning journals">List of planning journals</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Urban_planning" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Urban planning">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Human_impact_on_the_environment505" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Anthropogenic_effects_on_the_environment" title="Template:Anthropogenic effects on the environment"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anthropogenic_effects_on_the_environment" title="Template talk:Anthropogenic effects on the environment"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropogenic_effects_on_the_environment" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropogenic effects on the environment"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Human_impact_on_the_environment505" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact on the environment</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropocene" title="Anthropocene">Anthropocene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">Ecological footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_assessment" title="Environmental impact assessment">Environmental impact assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues" title="Environmental issues">Environmental issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_issues" title="List of environmental issues">list of issues</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life" title="Human impact on marine life">on marine life</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_global_issues" title="List of global issues">List of global issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_assessment" title="Environmental impact assessment">Impact assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_boundaries" title="Planetary boundaries">Planetary boundaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_ecology_(ethics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social ecology (ethics)">Social ecology (ethics)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Causes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_climate_change" title="Causes of climate change">Causes of climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_agriculture" title="Environmental impact of agriculture">Agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impacts_of_animal_agriculture" title="Environmental impacts of animal agriculture">animal agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_cannabis_cultivation" title="Environmental impact of cannabis cultivation">cannabis cultivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_irrigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of irrigation">irrigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_meat_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of meat production">meat production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_cocoa_production" title="Environmental impact of cocoa production">cocoa production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_and_environmental_impact_of_palm_oil" title="Social and environmental impact of palm oil">palm oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and agriculture in the United States">(US)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_bitcoin" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of bitcoin">Bitcoin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_behavior" class="mw-redirect" title="Corporate behavior">Corporate behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_and_climate_change" title="Deforestation and climate change">Deforestation and climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_energy_industry" title="Environmental impact of the energy industry">Energy industry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indirect_land_use_change_impacts_of_biofuels" title="Indirect land use change impacts of biofuels">biofuels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_biodiesel" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of biodiesel">biodiesel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_and_environmental_impact_of_the_coal_industry" title="Health and environmental impact of the coal industry">coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_electricity_generation" title="Environmental impact of electricity generation">electricity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_energy_industry" title="Environmental impact of the energy industry">energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fashion" title="Environmental impact of fashion">fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fracking_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental impact of fracking in the United States">fracking (US)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_nuclear_power" title="Environmental impact of nuclear power">nuclear power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_oil_shale_industry" title="Environmental impact of the oil shale industry">oil shale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_petroleum_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of the petroleum industry">petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs" title="Environmental impact of reservoirs">reservoirs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of transport">transport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_pollution" title="Genetic pollution">Genetic pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_crime" title="Environmental crime">Environmental crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_impact_of_explosives" title="Ecological impact of explosives">Explosives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrialisation" title="Industrialisation">Industrialisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use#Environment" title="Land use">Land use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing">Manufacturing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_cleaning_products" title="Environmental impact of cleaning products">cleaning agents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_concrete" title="Environmental impact of concrete">concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fashion" title="Environmental impact of fashion">fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic#Environmental_effects" title="Plastic">plastics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_nanotechnology" title="Impact of nanotechnology">nanotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_paint" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of paint">paint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_paper" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of paper">paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_pesticides" title="Environmental impact of pesticides">pesticides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_pharmaceuticals_and_personal_care_products" title="Environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products">pharmaceuticals and personal care</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life" title="Human impact on marine life">Marine life</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fishing" title="Environmental impact of fishing">fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_down_the_food_web" title="Fishing down the food web">fishing down the food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">marine pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">overfishing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of mining">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overconsumption" class="mw-redirect" title="Overconsumption">Overconsumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overdrafting" title="Overdrafting">Overdrafting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">Overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overgrazing" title="Overgrazing">Overgrazing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particulates" title="Particulates">Particulates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarry" title="Quarry">Quarrying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs" title="Environmental impact of reservoirs">Reservoirs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impacts_of_tourism" title="Impacts of tourism">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of transport">Transport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_aviation" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of aviation">aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_rail" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of rail">rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road_ecology" title="Road ecology">roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_shipping" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of shipping">shipping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">Urbanization</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">urban sprawl</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_war" title="Environmental impact of war">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Effects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a 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