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mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qabarc%C4%B1ql%C4%B1_yadda%C5%9F" title="Qabarcıqlı yaddaş – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Qabarcıqlı yaddaş" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mem%C3%B2ria_de_bombolla" title="Memòria de bombolla – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Memòria de bombolla" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bublinov%C3%A1_pam%C4%9B%C5%A5" title="Bublinová paměť – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Bublinová paměť" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetisk_boblehukommelse" title="Magnetisk boblehukommelse – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Magnetisk boblehukommelse" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetblasenspeicher" title="Magnetblasenspeicher – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Magnetblasenspeicher" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mullm%C3%A4lu" title="Mullmälu – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Mullmälu" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memoria_de_burbuja" title="Memoria de burbuja – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Memoria de burbuja" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9moire_%C3%A0_bulles" title="Mémoire à bulles – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Mémoire à bulles" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuimhne_bholg%C3%A1nach" title="Cuimhne bholgánach – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Cuimhne bholgánach" 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id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Obsolete type of non-volatile computer memory</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 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.ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Bubble_memory" title="Special:EditPage/Bubble memory">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Bubble+memory%22">"Bubble memory"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Bubble+memory%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Bubble+memory%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Bubble+memory%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Bubble+memory%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Bubble+memory%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2010</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bubble_memory_module.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Bubble_memory_module.jpg/220px-Bubble_memory_module.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Bubble_memory_module.jpg/330px-Bubble_memory_module.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Bubble_memory_module.jpg/440px-Bubble_memory_module.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1240" data-file-height="804" /></a><figcaption>Intel 7110 magnetic-bubble memory module</figcaption></figure> <style 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.sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Computer_memory" title="Computer memory">Computer memory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Computer_data_storage" title="Computer data storage">data storage</a> types</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">General</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memory_cell_(computing)" title="Memory cell (computing)">Memory cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_coherence" title="Memory coherence">Memory coherence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cache_coherence" title="Cache coherence">Cache coherence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_hierarchy" title="Memory hierarchy">Memory hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_access_pattern" title="Memory access pattern">Memory access pattern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_map" title="Memory map">Memory map</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_data_storage#Secondary_storage" title="Computer data storage">Secondary storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_memory" title="Semiconductor memory">MOS memory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Floating-gate_MOSFET" title="Floating-gate MOSFET">floating-gate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuous_availability" title="Continuous availability">Continuous availability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Areal_density_(computer_storage)" class="mw-redirect" title="Areal density (computer storage)">Areal density (computer storage)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Block_(data_storage)" title="Block (data storage)">Block (data storage)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object_storage" title="Object storage">Object storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct-attached_storage" title="Direct-attached storage">Direct-attached storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network-attached_storage" title="Network-attached storage">Network-attached storage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Storage_area_network" title="Storage area network">Storage area network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Block-level_storage" title="Block-level storage">Block-level storage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-instance_storage" title="Single-instance storage">Single-instance storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data" title="Data">Data</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_model" title="Data model">Structured data</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unstructured_data" title="Unstructured data">Unstructured data</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_data" title="Big data">Big data</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metadata" title="Metadata">Metadata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_compression" title="Data compression">Data compression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_corruption" title="Data corruption">Data corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_cleansing" title="Data cleansing">Data cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_degradation" title="Data degradation">Data degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_integrity" title="Data integrity">Data integrity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_security" title="Data security">Data security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_validation" title="Data validation">Data validation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_validation_and_reconciliation" title="Data validation and reconciliation">Data validation and reconciliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_recovery" title="Data recovery">Data recovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_data_storage" title="Computer data storage">Storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_cluster" class="mw-redirect" title="Data cluster">Data cluster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Directory_(computing)" title="Directory (computing)">Directory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shared_resource" title="Shared resource">Shared resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File_sharing" title="File sharing">File sharing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File_system" title="File system">File system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clustered_file_system" title="Clustered file system">Clustered file system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clustered_file_system#Distributed_file_systems" title="Clustered file system">Distributed file system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_file_system_for_cloud" title="Distributed file system for cloud">Distributed file system for cloud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_data_store" title="Distributed data store">Distributed data store</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_database" title="Distributed database">Distributed database</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Database" title="Database">Database</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_bank" title="Data bank">Data bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_storage" title="Data storage">Data storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_store" title="Data store">Data store</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_deduplication" title="Data deduplication">Data deduplication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_structure" title="Data structure">Data structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_redundancy" title="Data redundancy">Data redundancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Replication_(computing)" title="Replication (computing)">Replication (computing)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_refresh" title="Memory refresh">Memory refresh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_record" title="Storage record">Storage record</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_repository" title="Information repository">Information repository</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_base" title="Knowledge base">Knowledge base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_file" title="Computer file">Computer file</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object_file" title="Object file">Object file</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File_deletion" title="File deletion">File deletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File_copying" title="File copying">File copying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Backup" title="Backup">Backup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Core_dump" title="Core dump">Core dump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hex_dump" title="Hex dump">Hex dump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_communication" title="Data communication">Data communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_transfer" title="Information transfer">Information transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporary_file" title="Temporary file">Temporary file</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copy_protection" title="Copy protection">Copy protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_rights_management" title="Digital rights management">Digital rights management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volume_(computing)" title="Volume (computing)">Volume (computing)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boot_sector" title="Boot sector">Boot sector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_boot_record" title="Master boot record">Master boot record</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volume_boot_record" title="Volume boot record">Volume boot record</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disk_array" title="Disk array">Disk array</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disk_image" title="Disk image">Disk image</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disk_mirroring" title="Disk mirroring">Disk mirroring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disk_aggregation" title="Disk aggregation">Disk aggregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disk_partitioning" title="Disk partitioning">Disk partitioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_segmentation" title="Memory segmentation">Memory segmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locality_of_reference" title="Locality of reference">Locality of reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_disk" title="Logical disk">Logical disk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_virtualization" title="Storage virtualization">Storage virtualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_memory" title="Virtual memory">Virtual memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory-mapped_file" title="Memory-mapped file">Memory-mapped file</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_entropy" class="mw-redirect" title="Software entropy">Software entropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_rot" title="Software rot">Software rot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In-memory_database" title="In-memory database">In-memory database</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In-memory_processing" title="In-memory processing">In-memory processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persistence_(computer_science)" title="Persistence (computer science)">Persistence (computer science)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persistent_data_structure" title="Persistent data structure">Persistent data structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RAID" title="RAID">RAID</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-RAID_drive_architectures" title="Non-RAID drive architectures">Non-RAID drive architectures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_paging" title="Memory paging">Memory paging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bank_switching" title="Bank switching">Bank switching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grid_computing" title="Grid computing">Grid computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_computing" title="Cloud computing">Cloud computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_storage" title="Cloud storage">Cloud storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fog_computing" title="Fog computing">Fog computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edge_computing" title="Edge computing">Edge computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dew_computing" title="Dew computing">Dew computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amdahl%27s_law" title="Amdahl's law">Amdahl's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moore%27s_law" title="Moore's law">Moore's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Kryder#Kryder's_law_projection" title="Mark Kryder">Kryder's law</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Volatile_memory" title="Volatile memory">Volatile</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Random-access_memory" title="Random-access memory">RAM</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cache_(computing)#HARDWARE" title="Cache (computing)">Hardware cache</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CPU_cache" title="CPU cache">CPU cache</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scratchpad_memory" title="Scratchpad memory">Scratchpad memory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_random-access_memory" title="Dynamic random-access memory">DRAM</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/EDRAM" title="EDRAM">eDRAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synchronous_dynamic_random-access_memory" title="Synchronous dynamic random-access memory">SDRAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synchronous_dynamic_random-access_memory#Synchronous_Graphics_RAM_(SGRAM)" title="Synchronous dynamic random-access memory">SGRAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LPDDR" title="LPDDR">LPDDR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quad_Data_Rate_SRAM" title="Quad Data Rate SRAM">QDRSRAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_random-access_memory#Extended_data_out_DRAM" title="Dynamic random-access memory">EDO DRAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XDR_DRAM" title="XDR DRAM">XDR DRAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RDRAM" title="RDRAM">RDRAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DDR_SDRAM" title="DDR SDRAM">DDR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GDDR_SDRAM" title="GDDR SDRAM">GDDR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Bandwidth_Memory" title="High Bandwidth Memory">HBM</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Static_random-access_memory" title="Static random-access memory">SRAM</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1T-SRAM" title="1T-SRAM">1T-SRAM</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistive_random-access_memory" title="Resistive random-access memory">ReRAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_memory" title="Quantum memory">QRAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Content-addressable_memory" title="Content-addressable memory">Content-addressable memory</a> (CAM)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_RAM" title="Computational RAM">Computational RAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_random_access_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Video random access memory">VRAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual-ported_RAM" title="Dual-ported RAM">Dual-ported RAM</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Video_RAM_(dual-ported_DRAM)" class="mw-redirect" title="Video RAM (dual-ported DRAM)">Video RAM (dual-ported DRAM)</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Historical</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Williams_tube" title="Williams tube">Williams–Kilburn tube</a> (1946–1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delay-line_memory" title="Delay-line memory">Delay-line memory</a> (1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mellon_optical_memory" title="Mellon optical memory">Mellon optical memory</a> (1951)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selectron_tube" title="Selectron tube">Selectron tube</a> (1952)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dekatron" title="Dekatron">Dekatron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T-RAM" title="T-RAM">T-RAM</a> (2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z-RAM" title="Z-RAM">Z-RAM</a> (2002–2010)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Non-volatile_memory" title="Non-volatile memory">Non-volatile</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Read-only_memory" title="Read-only memory">ROM</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diode_matrix" title="Diode matrix">Diode matrix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Read-only_memory#Factory-programmed" title="Read-only memory">MROM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmable_ROM" title="Programmable ROM">PROM</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/EPROM" title="EPROM">EPROM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EEPROM" title="EEPROM">EEPROM</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ROM_cartridge" title="ROM cartridge">ROM cartridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid-state_storage" title="Solid-state storage">Solid-state storage</a> (SSS) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flash_memory" title="Flash memory">Flash memory</a> is used in:</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid-state_drive" title="Solid-state drive">Solid-state drive</a> (SSD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid-state_hybrid_drive" class="mw-redirect" title="Solid-state hybrid drive">Solid-state hybrid drive</a> (SSHD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/USB_flash_drive" title="USB flash drive">USB flash drive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IBM_FlashSystem" title="IBM FlashSystem">IBM FlashSystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flash_Core_Module" title="Flash Core Module">Flash Core Module</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_card" title="Memory card">Memory card</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memory_Stick" title="Memory Stick">Memory Stick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CompactFlash" title="CompactFlash">CompactFlash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PC_Card" title="PC Card">PC Card</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MultiMediaCard" title="MultiMediaCard">MultiMediaCard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SD_card" title="SD card">SD card</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SIM_card" title="SIM card">SIM card</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SmartMedia" title="SmartMedia">SmartMedia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Flash_Storage" title="Universal Flash Storage">Universal Flash Storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SxS" title="SxS">SxS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MicroP2" title="MicroP2">MicroP2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XQD_card" title="XQD card">XQD card</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmable_metallization_cell" title="Programmable metallization cell">Programmable metallization cell</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Non-volatile_random-access_memory" title="Non-volatile random-access memory">NVRAM</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memistor" title="Memistor">Memistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memristor" title="Memristor">Memristor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phase-change_memory" title="Phase-change memory">PCM</a> (<a href="/wiki/3D_XPoint" title="3D XPoint">3D XPoint</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetoresistive_RAM" title="Magnetoresistive RAM">MRAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrochemical_RAM" title="Electrochemical RAM">Electrochemical RAM</a> (ECRAM)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nano-RAM" title="Nano-RAM">Nano-RAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmable_metallization_cell" title="Programmable metallization cell">CBRAM</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Early-stage <a href="/wiki/Non-volatile_random-access_memory" title="Non-volatile random-access memory">NVRAM</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ferroelectric_RAM" title="Ferroelectric RAM">FeRAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistive_random-access_memory" title="Resistive random-access memory">ReRAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fe_FET" title="Fe FET">FeFET memory</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Analog_recording" title="Analog recording">Analog recording</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phonograph_cylinder" title="Phonograph cylinder">Phonograph cylinder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonograph_record" title="Phonograph record">Phonograph record</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadruplex_videotape" title="Quadruplex videotape">Quadruplex videotape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vision_Electronic_Recording_Apparatus" title="Vision Electronic Recording Apparatus">Vision Electronic Recording Apparatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_recording" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetic recording">Magnetic recording</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_storage" title="Magnetic storage">Magnetic storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_tape" title="Magnetic tape">Magnetic tape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic-tape_data_storage" title="Magnetic-tape data storage">Magnetic-tape data storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tape_drive" title="Tape drive">Tape drive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tape_library" title="Tape library">Tape library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_Data_Storage" title="Digital Data Storage">Digital Data Storage</a> (DDS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Videotape" title="Videotape">Videotape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Videocassette" class="mw-redirect" title="Videocassette">Videocassette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassette_tape" title="Cassette tape">Cassette tape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_Tape-Open" title="Linear Tape-Open">Linear Tape-Open</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Betamax" title="Betamax">Betamax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/8_mm_video_format" title="8 mm video format">8 mm video format</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DV_(video_format)" title="DV (video format)">DV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MiniDV" class="mw-redirect" title="MiniDV">MiniDV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MicroMV" title="MicroMV">MicroMV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U-matic" title="U-matic">U-matic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VHS" title="VHS">VHS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-VHS" title="S-VHS">S-VHS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VHS-C" title="VHS-C">VHS-C</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D-VHS" title="D-VHS">D-VHS</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard_disk_drive" title="Hard disk drive">Hard disk drive</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Optical_storage" title="Optical storage">Optical</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/3D_optical_data_storage" title="3D optical data storage">3D optical data storage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Optical_disc" title="Optical disc">Optical disc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LaserDisc" title="LaserDisc">LaserDisc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio" title="Compact Disc Digital Audio">Compact Disc Digital Audio</a> (CDDA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compact_disc" title="Compact disc">CD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CD_Video" title="CD Video">CD Video</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CD-R" title="CD-R">CD-R</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CD-RW" title="CD-RW">CD-RW</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_CD" title="Video CD">Video CD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super_Video_CD" title="Super Video CD">Super Video CD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mini_CD" title="Mini CD">Mini CD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nintendo_optical_discs" title="Nintendo optical discs">Nintendo optical discs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CD-ROM" title="CD-ROM">CD-ROM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyper_CD-ROM" title="Hyper CD-ROM">Hyper CD-ROM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DVD" title="DVD">DVD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DVD_recordable#DVD+R_and_DVD+RW_(DVD_"plus")" title="DVD recordable">DVD+R</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DVD-Video" title="DVD-Video">DVD-Video</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DVD_card" title="DVD card">DVD card</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DVD-RAM" title="DVD-RAM">DVD-RAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MiniDVD" title="MiniDVD">MiniDVD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HD_DVD" title="HD DVD">HD DVD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blu-ray" title="Blu-ray">Blu-ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultra_HD_Blu-ray" title="Ultra HD Blu-ray">Ultra HD Blu-ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holographic_Versatile_Disc" title="Holographic Versatile Disc">Holographic Versatile Disc</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Write_once_read_many" title="Write once read many">WORM</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">In development</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Programmable_metallization_cell" title="Programmable metallization cell">CBRAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racetrack_memory" title="Racetrack memory">Racetrack memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nano-RAM" title="Nano-RAM">NRAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millipede_memory" title="Millipede memory">Millipede memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrochemical_RAM" title="Electrochemical RAM">ECRAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patterned_media" title="Patterned media">Patterned media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holographic_data_storage" title="Holographic data storage">Holographic data storage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_quantum_holography" title="Electronic quantum holography">Electronic quantum holography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/5D_optical_data_storage" title="5D optical data storage">5D optical data storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_digital_data_storage" title="DNA digital data storage">DNA digital data storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_memory" title="Universal memory">Universal memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_crystal" title="Time crystal">Time crystal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_memory" title="Quantum memory">Quantum memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UltraRAM" title="UltraRAM">UltraRAM</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Historical</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paper_data_storage" title="Paper data storage">Paper data storage</a> (1725)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punched_card" title="Punched card">Punched card</a> (1725)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punched_tape" title="Punched tape">Punched tape</a> (1725)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plugboard" title="Plugboard">Plugboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drum_memory" title="Drum memory">Drum memory</a> (1932)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic-core_memory" title="Magnetic-core memory">Magnetic-core memory</a> (1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plated-wire_memory" title="Plated-wire memory">Plated-wire memory</a> (1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Core_rope_memory" title="Core rope memory">Core rope memory</a> (1960s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thin-film_memory" title="Thin-film memory">Thin-film memory</a> (1962)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disk_pack" title="Disk pack">Disk pack</a> (1962)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twistor_memory" title="Twistor memory">Twistor memory</a> (~1968)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bubble memory</a> (~1970)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floppy_disk" title="Floppy disk">Floppy disk</a> (1971)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Memory_types" title="Template:Memory types"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Memory_types" title="Template talk:Memory types"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Memory_types" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Memory types"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Bubble memory</b> is a type of <a href="/wiki/Non-volatile_memory" title="Non-volatile memory">non-volatile</a> <a href="/wiki/Computer_memory" title="Computer memory">computer memory</a> that uses a thin film of a magnetic material to hold small magnetized areas, known as <i>bubbles</i> or <i>domains</i>, each storing one <a href="/wiki/Bit" title="Bit">bit</a> of data. The material is arranged to form a series of parallel tracks that the bubbles can move along under the action of an external magnetic field. The bubbles are read by moving them to the edge of the material, where they can be read by a conventional <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_pickup" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetic pickup">magnetic pickup</a>, and then rewritten on the far edge to keep the memory cycling through the material. In operation, bubble memories are similar to <a href="/wiki/Delay-line_memory" title="Delay-line memory">delay-line memory</a> systems. </p><p>Bubble memory started out as a promising technology in the 1970s, offering performance similar to <a href="/wiki/Core_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Core memory">core memory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Memory_density" class="mw-redirect" title="Memory density">memory density</a> similar to <a href="/wiki/Hard_drives" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard drives">hard drives</a>, and no moving parts. This led many to consider it a contender for a "universal memory" that could be used for all storage needs. The introduction of dramatically faster <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_memory" title="Semiconductor memory">semiconductor memory</a> chips in the early 1970s pushed bubble into the slow end of the scale and it began to be considered mostly as a replacement for disks. The equally dramatic improvements in hard-drive capacity through the early 1980s made it uncompetitive in price terms for mass storage.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bubble memory was used for some time in the 1970s and 1980s in applications where its non-moving nature was desirable for maintenance or shock-proofing reasons. The introduction of <a href="/wiki/Flash_storage" class="mw-redirect" title="Flash storage">flash storage</a> and similar technologies rendered even this niche uncompetitive, and bubble disappeared entirely by the late 1980s. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bubble_memory&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Precursors">Precursors</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bubble_memory&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Precursors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Twistor_memory" title="Twistor memory">Twistor memory</a></div> <p>Bubble memory is largely the brainchild of a single person, <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Bobeck" class="mw-redirect" title="Andrew Bobeck">Andrew Bobeck</a>. Bobeck had worked on many kinds of magnetics-related projects through the 1960s, and two of his projects put him in a particularly good position for the development of bubble memory. The first was the development of the first <a href="/wiki/Magnetic-core_memory" title="Magnetic-core memory">magnetic-core memory</a> system driven by a <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistor</a>-based controller, and the second was the development of <a href="/wiki/Twistor_memory" title="Twistor memory">twistor memory</a>. </p><p>Twistor is essentially a version of <a href="/wiki/Core_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Core memory">core memory</a> that replaces the "cores" with a piece of <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_tape" title="Magnetic tape">magnetic tape</a>. The main advantage of twistor is its ability to be assembled by automated machines, as opposed to core, which was almost entirely manual. <a href="/wiki/AT%26T_Corporation" title="AT&T Corporation">AT&T</a> had great hopes for twistor, believing that it would greatly reduce the cost of computer memory and put them in an industry leading position. Instead, <a href="/wiki/DRAM" class="mw-redirect" title="DRAM">DRAM</a> memories came onto the market in the early 1970s and rapidly replaced all previous <a href="/wiki/Random-access_memory" title="Random-access memory">random-access memory</a> systems. Twistor ended up being used only in a few applications, many of them AT&T's own computers. </p><p>One interesting side effect of the twistor concept was noticed in production: under certain conditions, passing a current through one of the electrical wires running inside the tape would cause the magnetic fields on the tape to move in the direction of the current. If used properly, it allowed the stored bits to be pushed down the tape and pop off the end, forming a type of <a href="/wiki/Delay-line_memory" title="Delay-line memory">delay-line memory</a>, but one where the propagation of the fields was under computer control, as opposed to automatically advancing at a set rate defined by the materials used. However, such a system had few advantages over twistor, especially as it did not allow random access. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Development">Development</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bubble_memory&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CMOS_magnetische_Blasendom%C3%A4nen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/CMOS_magnetische_Blasendom%C3%A4nen.jpg/180px-CMOS_magnetische_Blasendom%C3%A4nen.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/CMOS_magnetische_Blasendom%C3%A4nen.jpg/270px-CMOS_magnetische_Blasendom%C3%A4nen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/CMOS_magnetische_Blasendom%C3%A4nen.jpg/360px-CMOS_magnetische_Blasendom%C3%A4nen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="396" /></a><figcaption>Bubble domain visualization by using CMOS-MagView</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bubble_memory_driver_coils_and_guides.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Bubble_memory_driver_coils_and_guides.png/220px-Bubble_memory_driver_coils_and_guides.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Bubble_memory_driver_coils_and_guides.png/330px-Bubble_memory_driver_coils_and_guides.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Bubble_memory_driver_coils_and_guides.png/440px-Bubble_memory_driver_coils_and_guides.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Bubble memory driver coils/windings/field coils and guides (T bar guides in this case); the guides or propagation elements, are on top of a magnetic film, which is on top of a substrate chip. This is mounted to a PCB (not shown) and then surrounded by two windings shown in yellow and blue.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1967, Bobeck joined a team at <a href="/wiki/Bell_Labs" title="Bell Labs">Bell Labs</a> and started work on improving <a href="/wiki/Twistor_memory" title="Twistor memory">twistor</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Memory_density" class="mw-redirect" title="Memory density">memory density</a> of twistor was a function of the size of the wires; the length of any one wire determined how many bits it held, and many such wires were laid side-by-side to produce a larger memory system. </p><p>Conventional magnetic materials, like the magnetic tape used in twistor, allowed the magnetic signal to be placed at any location and to move in any direction. <a href="/wiki/Paul_Charles_Michaelis" title="Paul Charles Michaelis">Paul Charles Michaelis</a> working with <a href="/wiki/Permalloy" title="Permalloy">permalloy</a> magnetic thin films discovered that it was possible to move magnetic signals in <a href="/wiki/Orthogonal" class="mw-redirect" title="Orthogonal">orthogonal</a> directions within the film. This seminal work led to a patent application.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The memory device and method of propagation were described in a paper presented at the 13th Annual Conference on Magnetism and Magnetic Materials, Boston, Massachusetts, 15 September 1967. The device used anisotropic thin magnetic films that required different magnetic pulse combinations for orthogonal propagation directions. The propagation velocity was also dependent on the hard and easy magnetic axes. This difference suggested that an isotropic magnetic medium would be desirable. </p><p>This led to the possibility of making a memory system similar to the moving-domain twistor concept, but using a single block of magnetic material instead of many twistor wires. Starting work extending this concept using <a href="/wiki/Orthoferrite" title="Orthoferrite">orthoferrite</a>, Bobeck noticed an additional interesting effect. With the magnetic tape materials used in twistor, the data had to be stored on relatively large patches known as <i>domains</i>. Attempts to magnetize smaller areas would fail. With orthoferrite, if the patch was written and then a magnetic field was applied to the entire material, the patch would shrink down into a tiny circle, which he called a <i>bubble</i>. These bubbles were much smaller than the domains of normal media like tape, which suggested that very high area densities were possible. </p><p>Five significant discoveries took place at Bell Labs: </p> <ol><li>The controlled two-dimensional motion of single wall domains in permalloy films</li> <li>The application of orthoferrites</li> <li>The discovery of the stable cylindrical domain</li> <li>The invention of the field access mode of operation</li> <li>The discovery of growth-induced uniaxial anisotropy in the garnet system and the realization that garnets would be a practical material</li></ol> <p>The bubble system cannot be described by any single invention, but in terms of the above discoveries. Andy Bobeck was the sole discoverer of (4) and (5) and co-discoverer of (2) and (3); (1) was performed by P. Michaelis in P. Bonyhard's group. At one point, over 60 scientists were working on the project at Bell Labs, many of whom have earned recognition in this field. For instance, in September 1974, <a href="/wiki/H.E.D._Scovil" class="mw-redirect" title="H.E.D. Scovil">H.E.D. Scovil</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=P.C._Michaelis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="P.C. Michaelis (page does not exist)">P.C. Michaelis</a> and Bobeck were awarded the <a href="/wiki/IEEE_Morris_N._Liebmann_Memorial_Award" title="IEEE Morris N. Liebmann Memorial Award">IEEE Morris N. Liebmann Memorial Award</a> by the IEEE with the following citation: <i>For the concept and development of single-walled magnetic domains (magnetic bubbles), and for recognition of their importance to memory technology.</i> </p><p>It took some time to find the perfect material, but it was discovered that some <a href="/wiki/Garnet" title="Garnet">garnets</a> had the correct properties. Bubbles would easily form in the material and could be pushed along it fairly easily. The next problem was to make them move to the proper location where they could be read back out: twistor was a wire and there was only one place to go, but in a 2D sheet things would not be so easy. Unlike the original experiments, the garnet did not constrain the bubbles to move only in one direction, but its bubble properties were too advantageous to ignore. </p><p>The solution was to imprint a pattern of tiny magnetic bars onto the surface of the garnet, called propagation elements. When a small magnetic field was applied, they would become magnetized, and the bubbles would "stick" to one end. By then reversing the field they would be attracted to the far end, moving down the surface. Another reversal would pop them off the end of the bar to the next bar in the line, and so on, controlling or guiding the direction of travel of the bubbles. T bars/guides, shaped like the letters, were used in early bubble memory designs, but were later replaced by other shapes such as asymmetrical chevrons.<sup id="cite_ref-intel_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-intel-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In practice the magnetic field rotates and is provided by a pair of coils, that produce a rotating magnetic field in the X and Z axes, it is this rotating magnetic field that moves the bubbles in the memory. </p><p>Amorphous magnetic films were also considered as they had greater potential for improvement of bubble memories vs garnet magnetic films, however the existing experience with garnet films meant that they did not gain a foothold. Garnet films have the same or better magnetic properties than orthoferrite films which were considered less promising by comparison. Garnet materials (as films on top of a substrate) could allow for higher propagation speeds of the bubbles (bubble speed) than orthoferrites. Hard bubbles are slower and more erratic than normal bubbles, a problem that is often overcome by ion-implantation of the garnet magnetic film with neon,<sup id="cite_ref-donald_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-donald-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and can also be done by coating the garnet magnetic film with permalloy.<sup id="cite_ref-nist_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nist-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A memory device is formed by lining up tiny <a href="/wiki/Electromagnet" title="Electromagnet">electromagnets</a> at one end with detectors at the other end. Bubbles written in would be slowly pushed to the other, forming a sheet of twistors lined up beside each other. Attaching the output from the detector back to the electromagnets turns the sheet into a series of loops, which can hold the information as long as needed.<sup id="cite_ref-intel_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-intel-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bubble memory is a <a href="/wiki/Non-volatile_memory" title="Non-volatile memory">non-volatile memory</a>. Even when power was removed, the bubbles remained, just as the patterns do on the surface of a <a href="/wiki/Disk_drive" class="mw-redirect" title="Disk drive">disk drive</a>. Better yet, bubble memory devices needed no moving parts: the field that pushed the bubbles along the surface was generated electrically, whereas media like tape and disk drives required mechanical movement. Finally, because of the small size of the bubbles, the density was in theory much higher than existing magnetic storage devices. The only downside was performance; the bubbles had to cycle to the far end of the sheet before they could be read. </p><p>A bubble memory device consists of a case, that houses a PCB with connections to one or more bubble memory chips which may be translucent. The area around the chips on the PCB is surrounded by two windings made of copper wire or other electrically conductive material, that mostly wrap the area, leaving some space for the PCB to pass through the windings and connect to the chips. The windings are wound in directions opposite to each other, for example one winding has wires oriented along the X axis and the other winding has wires along the Z axis. The windings, in turn, are surrounded by two permanent magnets, one below and another above the windings. This forms an assembly that is housed inside the case which acts as a magnetic shield and forms a magnetic return path for the magnetic field from the magnets. The permanent magnets are critical; they create a static (DC, direct current) magnetic field, used as a bias field that enables the contents of the memory to be retained, in other words they allow bubble memories to be non-volatile. If the magnets are removed, all bubbles will disappear and thus all contents will be deleted. The windings create a rotating magnetic field parallel to the orientation of the bubble memory, at around 100 to 200 kHz. This will move or drive the bubbles in the magnetic film in a somewhat circular fashion, guided or restrained by the propagation elements. For example, the rotating magnetic field can force the bubbles to constantly circulate around loops, which may be elongated and are defined by the locations of the guiding elements.<sup id="cite_ref-intel_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-intel-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To allow the bubbles to move around the bubble chips and to guide them through the chip, the chips have some sort of pattern made of ferromagnetic metal that can include for example asymmetrical chevrons.<sup id="cite_ref-intel_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-intel-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the bubbles can move around the edges of the chevrons. The patterns can be called propagation elements as they allow the bubbles to move or propagate across it. They define pathways for the bubbles to be stored and retrieved for reading and the rotating magnetic field moves the bubbles along these paths. For bubble memory, a material like Gadolinium Gallium Garnet is used as the substrate in the chips.<sup id="cite_ref-intel_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-intel-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On top of the substrate is a magnetic film (bubble host or bubble film/layer)<sup id="cite_ref-nist_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nist-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-donald_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-donald-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> such as a Gadolinium-containing garnet<sup id="cite_ref-nist_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nist-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or more often, single crystal substituted yttrium iron garnet<sup id="cite_ref-donald_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-donald-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which holds the magnetic bubbles, that is grown epitaxially with liquid-phase epitaxy with lead oxide flux as the liquid with yttrium oxide and other oxides, and then the film is doped with ion-implantation of one or several elements, to reduce undesirable characteristics.<sup id="cite_ref-nist_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nist-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-intel_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-intel-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The epitaxy process would be carried out with a platinum crucible and wafer holder.<sup id="cite_ref-donald_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-donald-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The chevrons and other parts are built on top of the film.<sup id="cite_ref-intel_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-intel-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The propagation elements, including the chevrons, can be made of a material such as Nickel-Iron permalloy. The materials in bubble memories are chosen mainly for their magnetic properties.<sup id="cite_ref-intel_3-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-intel-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gadolinium Gallium Garnet is used as a substrate because it can support the epitaxial growth of magnetic garnet films, and is nonmagnetic,<sup id="cite_ref-donald_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-donald-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although some bubble memories used Nickel-Cobalt substrates instead. </p><p>The use of propagation elements formed by ion implantation instead of permalloy, was proposed to increase the capacity of bubble memory to 16 Mbit/cm<sup>2</sup>.<sup id="cite_ref-donald_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-donald-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Commercialization">Commercialization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bubble_memory&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Commercialization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TI_TIBS0004_bubble_memory_device_(18997455749).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/TI_TIBS0004_bubble_memory_device_%2818997455749%29.jpg/170px-TI_TIBS0004_bubble_memory_device_%2818997455749%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/TI_TIBS0004_bubble_memory_device_%2818997455749%29.jpg/255px-TI_TIBS0004_bubble_memory_device_%2818997455749%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/TI_TIBS0004_bubble_memory_device_%2818997455749%29.jpg/340px-TI_TIBS0004_bubble_memory_device_%2818997455749%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2148" data-file-height="2281" /></a><figcaption>Bubble Memory by <a href="/wiki/Texas_Instruments" title="Texas Instruments">Texas Instruments</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KL_Bubble_Memory_MemTech.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/KL_Bubble_Memory_MemTech.jpg/170px-KL_Bubble_Memory_MemTech.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/KL_Bubble_Memory_MemTech.jpg/255px-KL_Bubble_Memory_MemTech.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/KL_Bubble_Memory_MemTech.jpg/340px-KL_Bubble_Memory_MemTech.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1101" data-file-height="1101" /></a><figcaption>Bubble memory by MemTech (purchaser of Intel Magnetics). The long sequence of letters encodes a map of the defective storage loops in the memory.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KL_USSR_Bubble_Memory.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/KL_USSR_Bubble_Memory.jpg/170px-KL_USSR_Bubble_Memory.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/KL_USSR_Bubble_Memory.jpg/255px-KL_USSR_Bubble_Memory.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/KL_USSR_Bubble_Memory.jpg/340px-KL_USSR_Bubble_Memory.jpg 2x" data-file-width="980" data-file-height="980" /></a><figcaption>Bubble memory made in the <a href="/wiki/USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="USSR">USSR</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Helix_Labs_bubble_memory_board_for_IBM_PC,_component_side_(19227474936).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Helix_Labs_bubble_memory_board_for_IBM_PC%2C_component_side_%2819227474936%29.jpg/220px-Helix_Labs_bubble_memory_board_for_IBM_PC%2C_component_side_%2819227474936%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="82" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Helix_Labs_bubble_memory_board_for_IBM_PC%2C_component_side_%2819227474936%29.jpg/330px-Helix_Labs_bubble_memory_board_for_IBM_PC%2C_component_side_%2819227474936%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Helix_Labs_bubble_memory_board_for_IBM_PC%2C_component_side_%2819227474936%29.jpg/440px-Helix_Labs_bubble_memory_board_for_IBM_PC%2C_component_side_%2819227474936%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3957" data-file-height="1480" /></a><figcaption>4 MBit <a href="/wiki/Expansion_card" title="Expansion card">expansion card</a> for <a href="/wiki/IBM_XT" class="mw-redirect" title="IBM XT">IBM XT</a> with four Intel 7110</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bubble_memory_card_for_Apple_II,_component_side_(19146005122).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Bubble_memory_card_for_Apple_II%2C_component_side_%2819146005122%29.jpg/220px-Bubble_memory_card_for_Apple_II%2C_component_side_%2819146005122%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="87" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Bubble_memory_card_for_Apple_II%2C_component_side_%2819146005122%29.jpg/330px-Bubble_memory_card_for_Apple_II%2C_component_side_%2819146005122%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Bubble_memory_card_for_Apple_II%2C_component_side_%2819146005122%29.jpg/440px-Bubble_memory_card_for_Apple_II%2C_component_side_%2819146005122%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4406" data-file-height="1745" /></a><figcaption>1 MBit expansion card for <a href="/wiki/Apple_II" title="Apple II">Apple II</a> and <a href="/wiki/Apple_IIe" title="Apple IIe">IIe</a> with one Intel 7110<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Bobeck's team soon had 1 cm (0.39 in) square memories that stored 4,096 bits, the same as a then-standard plane of <a href="/wiki/Core_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Core memory">core memory</a>. This sparked considerable interest in the industry. Not only could bubble memories replace core but it seemed that they could replace tapes and disks as well. In fact, it seemed that bubble memory would soon be the only form of memory used in the vast majority of applications, with the high-performance market being the only one they could not serve. </p><p>The technology was included in experimental devices from Bell Labs in 1974.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the mid-1970s, practically every large electronics company had teams working on bubble memory.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Texas Instruments introduced the first commercial product that incorporated bubble memory in 1977, and introduced the first commercially available bubble memory, the TIB 0103 with 92 kilobit capacity.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the late 1970s several products were on the market, and <a href="/wiki/Intel" title="Intel">Intel</a> released their own 1-megabit version, the 7110, in 1979.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the early 1980s, however, bubble memory technology became a dead end with the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Hard_disk" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard disk">hard disk</a> systems offering higher storage densities, higher access speeds, and lower costs. In 1981 major companies working on the technology closed their bubble memory operations,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> notably Rockwell, National Semiconductor, Texas Instruments and Plessey, leaving a "big five" group of companies still pursuing "second-generation bubble" by 1984: Intel, Motorola, Hitachi, <a href="/wiki/SAGEM" title="SAGEM">SAGEM</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fujitsu" title="Fujitsu">Fujitsu</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-dataprocessing198410_bubble_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dataprocessing198410_bubble-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 4-megabit bubble memories such as the Intel 7114, were introduced in 1983<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 16-megabit bubble memory was developed.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bubble memory found uses in niche markets through the 1980s in systems needing to avoid the higher rates of mechanical failures of disk drives, and in systems operating in high vibration or harsh environments. This application became obsolete too with the development of <a href="/wiki/Flash_storage" class="mw-redirect" title="Flash storage">flash storage</a>, which also brought performance, density, and cost benefits. </p><p>One application was <a href="/wiki/Konami" title="Konami">Konami</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Bubble_System" title="Bubble System">Bubble System</a> arcade video game system, introduced in 1984. It featured interchangeable bubble memory cartridges on a <a href="/wiki/Motorola_68000" title="Motorola 68000">68000</a>-based board. The Bubble System required a "warm-up" time of about 85 seconds (prompted by a timer on the screen when switched on) before the game was loaded, as bubble memory needs to be heated to around 30 to 40 °C (86 to 104 °F) to operate properly. <a href="/wiki/Fujitsu" title="Fujitsu">Fujitsu</a> used bubble memory on their <a href="/wiki/FM-8" title="FM-8">FM-8</a> in 1981 and <a href="/wiki/Sharp_Corporation" title="Sharp Corporation">Sharp</a> used it in their <a href="/wiki/Sharp_PC-5000" title="Sharp PC-5000">PC 5000</a> series, a laptop-like portable computer from 1983. Nicolet used bubble memory modules for saving waveforms in their Model 3091 oscilloscope, as did <a href="/wiki/Hewlett-Packard" title="Hewlett-Packard">HP</a> who offered a $1595 bubble memory option that extended the memory on their model 3561A digital signal analyzer. <a href="/wiki/GRiD_Systems_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="GRiD Systems Corporation">GRiD Systems Corporation</a> used it in their early laptops. TIE communication used it in the early development of digital phone systems in order to lower their MTBF rates and produce a non-volatile telephone system's central processor.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bubble memory was also used on the <a href="/wiki/Quantel_Mirage" title="Quantel Mirage">Quantel Mirage</a> DVM8000/1 VFX system.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>To store the bubbles, the propagation elements are in pairs and side to side, and are arranged in rows called loops to store the bubbles, thus they are storage loops since the bubbles that are stored in a loop will constantly circulate around it, forced by the rotating magnetic field that can also move the bubbles elsewhere. Bubble memories have extra spare loops to allow for increased yield during manufacturing as they replace defective loops. The list of defective loops is programmed onto the memory, on a special, separate loop called a boot loop, and it is also often printed on the label of the memory. A bubble memory controller will read the boot loop every time a bubble memory system is powered on, during initialization the controller will put the boot loop data in a boot loop register. Writing into a bubble memory is done by a formatter within the memory controller and signals from bits read in the bubble memory are amplified by the sense amplifier of the controller and they will reference the boot loop register to avoid overwriting, or further reading of the data in the boot loop.<sup id="cite_ref-intel_3-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-intel-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The bubbles are created (the memory is written) with a seed bubble that is constantly split or cut by a hairpin-shaped piece of electrically conductive wire (such as aluminum-copper alloy) using a current strong enough to locally overcome and reverse the magnetic bias field generated by the magnets, thus the hairpin-shaped piece of wire acts as a small electromagnet. The seed bubble regains its original size quickly after cutting. The seed bubble circulates under a circular permalloy patch which keeps it from moving elsewhere. After generation, the bubbles then circulate into an "input track" and then into a storage loop. Old bubbles could be moved out of the loop into an "output track" for destruction later. The space left behind by the old bubbles would then be available for new ones.<sup id="cite_ref-intel_3-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-intel-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If the seed bubble is ever lost, a new one can be nucleated via special signals sent to the bubble memory and a current 2 to 4 times higher than necessary for cutting of bubbles from the seed bubble.<sup id="cite_ref-donald_4-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-donald-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The bubbles in a storage loop (and empty spaces for bubbles) constantly circulate around it. To read a bubble, it would be "replicated" by moving it to a larger propagation element to stretch the bubble, then it would be passed under a hairpin-shaped conductor to cut it into two with a current pulse which lasts 1/4 of a hertz and is shaped as a spike waveform with a long trailing edge, this would split the bubble in two, one of which would continue circulating in the storage loop, keeping the bubble and thus data safe in case of power failure. The other bubble would be moved to an output track to move it to a detector which is a magnetoresistive bridge, made of a column of interconnected permalloy chevrons where the chevrons are one behind the other, and before it there are similar columns of chevrons that are not interconnected. These stretch the bubbles to generate a larger output at the detector. The detector has a constant electric current, and when bubbles pass under it, they change slightly the electrical resistance and thus current in the detector, and the movement of the bubbles creates a voltage in the order of millivolts, and this is read as either a 1 or a 0. Because the bubble must be moved to a specific area to be read, there are latency constraints. After the detector the bubbles are run into a guard rail to destroy them. A 1 is represented by a bubble, and a 0 is represented by the absence of a bubble.<sup id="cite_ref-intel_3-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-intel-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The gadolinium gallium garnet wafers used as substrates for the bubble chips, were 3 inches in diameter and cost $100 each in 1982 as their production required the use of iridium crucibles.<sup id="cite_ref-donald_4-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-donald-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Further_applications">Further applications</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bubble_memory&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Further applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2007, the idea of using <a href="/wiki/Microfluidic" class="mw-redirect" title="Microfluidic">microfluidic</a> bubbles as <a href="/wiki/Fluidics" title="Fluidics">logic</a> (rather than memory) was proposed by <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">MIT</a> researchers. The bubble logic would use nanotechnology and has been demonstrated to have access times of 7 ms, which is faster than the 10 ms access times that contemporary hard drives had, though it is slower than the access time of traditional RAM and of traditional logic circuits, making the proposal not commercially practical. <sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>IBM's 2008 work on <a href="/wiki/Racetrack_memory" title="Racetrack memory">racetrack memory</a> is essentially a 1-dimensional version of bubble, bearing an even closer relationship to the original serial twistor concept.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bubble_memory&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gadolinium_gallium_garnet" title="Gadolinium gallium garnet">Gadolinium gallium garnet</a>, used in many bubble memories as a substrate</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bubble_memory&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output 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a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output 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IDG Enterprise – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Computerworld&rft.pub=IDG+Enterprise&rft.date=1979-05-07&rft.aulast=Enterprise&rft.aufirst=I.+D.+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Df8kLXVsJ3J8C%26dq%3Dintel%2B7110%2B1979%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABubble+memory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInc1982" class="citation web cs1">Inc, InfoWorld Media Group (July 12, 1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KTAEAAAAMBAJ&dq=intel+7110+1979&pg=PA28">"InfoWorld"</a>. InfoWorld Media Group, Inc. – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=InfoWorld&rft.pub=InfoWorld+Media+Group%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1982-07-12&rft.aulast=Inc&rft.aufirst=InfoWorld+Media+Group&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKTAEAAAAMBAJ%26dq%3Dintel%2B7110%2B1979%26pg%3DPA28&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABubble+memory" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|last=</code> has generic name (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#generic_name" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInc1979" class="citation web cs1">Inc, InfoWorld Media Group (May 9, 1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DT0EAAAAMBAJ&dq=intel+7110+1979&pg=PA1">"InfoWorld"</a>. InfoWorld Media Group, Inc. – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=InfoWorld&rft.pub=InfoWorld+Media+Group%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1979-05-09&rft.aulast=Inc&rft.aufirst=InfoWorld+Media+Group&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDT0EAAAAMBAJ%26dq%3Dintel%2B7110%2B1979%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABubble+memory" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|last=</code> has generic name (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#generic_name" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBanks1981" class="citation news cs1">Banks, Howard (September 20, 1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1981/09/20/business/the-computer-bubble-that-burst.html">"The Computer Bubble That Burst"</a>. <i>New York Times</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150524082628/http://www.nytimes.com/1981/09/20/business/the-computer-bubble-that-burst.html">Archived</a> from the original on 24 May 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 October</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft.atitle=The+Computer+Bubble+That+Burst&rft.date=1981-09-20&rft.aulast=Banks&rft.aufirst=Howard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1981%2F09%2F20%2Fbusiness%2Fthe-computer-bubble-that-burst.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABubble+memory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dataprocessing198410_bubble-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dataprocessing198410_bubble_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReece1984" class="citation magazine cs1">Reece, Charles (October 1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sim_data-processing_1984-10_26_8/page/n27/mode/2up">"Bubble memory in data processing"</a>. <i>Data Processing</i>. pp. 26–28<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 March</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Data+Processing&rft.atitle=Bubble+memory+in+data+processing&rft.pages=26-28&rft.date=1984-10&rft.aulast=Reece&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsim_data-processing_1984-10_26_8%2Fpage%2Fn27%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABubble+memory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2JI_AQAAIAAJ&q=intel+7114+1983"><i>Computer Design</i></a>. Computer Design Publishing Corporation. 1983.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Computer+Design&rft.pub=Computer+Design+Publishing+Corporation&rft.date=1983&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2JI_AQAAIAAJ%26q%3Dintel%2B7114%2B1983&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABubble+memory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MGBJAQAAIAAJ&q=intel+7114+1983"><i>Electronics</i></a>. 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Intel AR-271. </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pMUpAQAAMAAJ&q=hitachi+BDN0153">"Electronic Products Magazine"</a>. United Technical Publications. 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March 3, 1985 – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Journal+of+Electronic+Engineering%3A+JEE.&rft.pub=Dempa+Publications%2C+Incorporated&rft.date=1985-03-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmSpKAQAAIAAJ%26q%3DHitachi%2BBDN0151&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABubble+memory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oldcomputers.net/grid1101.html">GRiD Compass 1101 computer</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080916202158/http://oldcomputers.net/grid1101.html">Archived</a> 2008-09-16 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, oldcomputers.net</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrakashGershenfeld2007" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Manu_Prakash" title="Manu Prakash">Prakash, Manu</a>; <a href="/wiki/Neil_Gershenfeld" title="Neil Gershenfeld">Gershenfeld, Neil</a> (9 February 2007). "Microfluidic Bubble Logic". <i>Science</i>. <b>315</b> (5813): 832–5. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007Sci...315..832P">2007Sci...315..832P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1136907">10.1126/science.1136907</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1721.1%2F46593">1721.1/46593</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20038959">20038959</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17289994">17289994</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5882836">5882836</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Microfluidic+Bubble+Logic&rft.volume=315&rft.issue=5813&rft.pages=832-5&rft.date=2007-02-09&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1721.1%2F46593&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A5882836%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007Sci...315..832P&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17289994&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1136907&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20038959%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Prakash&rft.aufirst=Manu&rft.au=Gershenfeld%2C+Neil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABubble+memory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParkin2008" class="citation journal cs1">Parkin (11 April 2008). 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font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Magnetic_bubble_memory" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Magnetic bubble memory">Magnetic bubble memory</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/bubble_memory" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/bubble memory">bubble memory</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071012175019/http://jbayko.sasktelwebsite.net/cpuAppendF.html">Great Microprocessors of the Past and Present. Appendix F: Memory Types</a>: Web site by John Bayko</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://flyers.arcade-museum.com/?page=thumbs&db=videodb&id=3878">The Arcade Flyer Archive</a>: Konami Bubble System Flyer</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070930031657/http://www.eetonline.com/special/special_issues/millennium/milestones/bobeck.html">Bubbles: the better memory</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dvorak.org/blog/?page_id=8249">Whatever Happened to Bubble Memory?</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gsalmasi.com/newpage/bubbles.html">Magnetic Bubble Memories</a> - Web site by George S. Almasi</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130222043219/http://www.marksullivan.net/bubblememory.html">Novel Non-magnetic Bubble Memory</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gsalmasi.com/almasiconsulting/bubbles/images/nasa_chip_bw.pdf">Structure of a bubble memory</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.chipsetc.com/bubble-memory.html">An exploded view and photo of a dissasembled bubble memory, showing PCBs with memory bubble chips</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hackaday.io/project/189882-an-os-and-sw-tools-for-the-sbc-85">A file operating system ported to a modern bubble board</a></li></ul> <p><br /> </p> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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