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deposits subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Ore_deposits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Classification </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Magmatic_deposits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Magmatic_deposits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Magmatic deposits </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Magmatic_deposits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Metamorphic_deposits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metamorphic_deposits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Metamorphic deposits </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metamorphic_deposits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Porphyry_copper_deposits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Porphyry_copper_deposits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Porphyry copper deposits </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Porphyry_copper_deposits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sedimentary_deposits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sedimentary_deposits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Sedimentary deposits </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sedimentary_deposits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Manganese_nodules" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Manganese_nodules"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Manganese nodules </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Manganese_nodules-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Extraction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Extraction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Extraction </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Extraction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hazards" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hazards"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Hazards </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hazards-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 History </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Trade </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Important_ore_minerals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Important_ore_minerals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Important ore minerals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Important_ore_minerals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Ore</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 77 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-77" aria-hidden="true" > 77 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%85" title="خام – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="خام" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filiz" title="Filiz – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Filiz" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95" title="আকরিক – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="আকরিক" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D3%99%D2%93%D0%B4%D3%99%D0%BD" title="Мәғдән – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Мәғдән" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Руда – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Руда" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0_(%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%81%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BD%D1%96)" title="Руда (карысныя выкапні) – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Руда (карысныя выкапні)" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Руда – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Руда" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruda" title="Ruda – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Ruda" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mena" title="Mena – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Mena" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%C4%83%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2_(%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BB%C4%83_%D1%82%D1%83%D0%BF%D0%BD%C4%83%D0%BB%C4%83%D1%85)" title="Тăправ (пайталлă тупнăлăх) – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Тăправ (пайталлă тупнăлăх)" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruda" title="Ruda – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Ruda" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chitofu_(mugodhi)" title="Chitofu (mugodhi) – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Chitofu (mugodhi)" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malm" title="Malm – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Malm" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erz" title="Erz – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Erz" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maak" title="Maak – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Maak" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%AC%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%B5%CF%85%CE%BC%CE%B1" title="Μετάλλευμα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μετάλλευμα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mena_(miner%C3%ADa)" title="Mena (minería) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Mena (minería)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erco" title="Erco – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Erco" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mea" title="Mea – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Mea" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%86%DA%AF" title="کانسنگ – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کانسنگ" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minerai" title="Minerai – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Minerai" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B4%91%EC%84%9D" title="광석 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="광석" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%A1%D5%B6%D6%84%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9" title="Հանքանյութ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հանքանյութ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95" title="अयस्क – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अयस्क" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralne_sirovine" title="Mineralne sirovine – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Mineralne sirovine" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erco" title="Erco – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Erco" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bijih" title="Bijih – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bijih" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineral_crude" title="Mineral crude – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Mineral crude" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A1lmgr%C3%BDti" title="Málmgrýti – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Málmgrýti" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minerale_grezzo" title="Minerale grezzo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Minerale grezzo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%94_(%D7%9E%D7%97%D7%A6%D7%91)" title="עפרה (מחצב) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="עפרה (מחצב)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%85%E0%B2%A6%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%81" title="ಅದಿರು – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಅದಿರು" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="მადანი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მადანი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%BD" title="Кен – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Кен" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mtapo" title="Mtapo – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Mtapo" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minr%C3%A8" title="Minrè – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Minrè" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%88" title="Кен таш – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Кен таш" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C5%ABda" title="Rūda – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Rūda" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%84erz" title="Äerz – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Äerz" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C5%ABda" title="Rūda – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Rūda" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89rc" title="Érc – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Érc" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Руда – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Руда" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%8D" title="അയിര് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അയിര്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bijih" title="Bijih – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bijih" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%B3%D1%82_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%82%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B4" title="Ашигт малтмалын орд – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Ашигт малтмалын орд" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9E%E1%80%90%E1%80%B9%E1%80%90%E1%80%AF%E1%80%80%E1%80%BB%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8" title="သတ္တုကျောက်ရိုင်း – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="သတ္တုကျောက်ရိုင်း" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ertsgesteente" title="Ertsgesteente – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Ertsgesteente" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%89%B1%E7%9F%B3" title="鉱石 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="鉱石" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malm" title="Malm – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Malm" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malm" title="Malm – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Malm" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruda_(mineral_hosila)" title="Ruda (mineral hosila) – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Ruda (mineral hosila)" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%95%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%9A%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%A7%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A4" title="ਕੱਚੀ ਧਾਤ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਕੱਚੀ ਧਾਤ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ierz" title="Ierz – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Ierz" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruda" title="Ruda – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Ruda" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Min%C3%A9rio" title="Minério – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Minério" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minereu" title="Minereu – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Minereu" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuqi" title="Chuqi – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Chuqi" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Руда – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Руда" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ore" title="Ore – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Ore" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruda" title="Ruda – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Ruda" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruda" title="Ruda – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Ruda" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Руда – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Руда" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruda" title="Ruda – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Ruda" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malmi" title="Malmi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Malmi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malm" title="Malm – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Malm" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="கனிமூலம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கனிமூலம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azara" title="Azara – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Azara" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%A1%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%96%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%9C%E0%B0%82" title="ముడిఖనిజం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="ముడిఖనిజం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maden_cevheri" title="Maden cevheri – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Maden cevheri" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Руда – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Руда" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qu%E1%BA%B7ng" title="Quặng – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Quặng" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A4%A6" title="礦 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="礦" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9F%BF%E7%9F%B3" title="矿石 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="矿石" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%A5" title="ארץ – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="ארץ" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A4%A6%E7%9F%B3" title="礦石 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="礦石" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C5%ABd%C4%97" title="Rūdė – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Rūdė" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9F%BF%E7%9F%B3" title="矿石 – 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div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Ore_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Ore (disambiguation)">Ore (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Banded_iron_formation.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Banded_iron_formation.png/220px-Banded_iron_formation.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Banded_iron_formation.png/330px-Banded_iron_formation.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Banded_iron_formation.png/440px-Banded_iron_formation.png 2x" data-file-width="497" data-file-height="323" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">Iron</a> ore (<a href="/wiki/Banded_iron_formation" title="Banded iron formation">banded iron formation</a>)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Psilomelane-167850.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Psilomelane-167850.jpg/220px-Psilomelane-167850.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Psilomelane-167850.jpg/330px-Psilomelane-167850.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Psilomelane-167850.jpg/440px-Psilomelane-167850.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="539" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">Manganese</a> ore – <a href="/wiki/Psilomelane" title="Psilomelane">psilomelane</a> (size: 6.7 × 5.8 × 5.1 cm)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anglesite-Galena-249200.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Anglesite-Galena-249200.jpg/220px-Anglesite-Galena-249200.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Anglesite-Galena-249200.jpg/330px-Anglesite-Galena-249200.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Anglesite-Galena-249200.jpg/440px-Anglesite-Galena-249200.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="577" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">Lead</a> ore – <a href="/wiki/Galena" title="Galena">galena</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anglesite" title="Anglesite">anglesite</a> (size: 4.8 × 4.0 × 3.0 cm)</figcaption></figure> Ore is natural <a href="/wiki/Rock_(geology)" title="Rock (geology)">rock</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">sediment</a> that contains one or more valuable <a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">minerals</a>, typically including <a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metals</a>, concentrated above background levels, and that is economically viable to mine and process.<a href="#cite_note-Jenkin-2014-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brit_Ore23-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-AGI-3">[3]</a> The grade of ore refers to the concentration of the desired material it contains. The value of the metals or minerals a rock contains must be weighed against the cost of extraction to determine whether it is of sufficiently high grade to be worth mining and is therefore considered an ore.<a href="#cite_note-Hustrulid22-4">[4]</a> A complex ore is one containing more than one valuable mineral.<a href="#cite_note-Wills-2015-5">[5]</a> Minerals of interest are generally <a href="/wiki/Oxide_mineral" title="Oxide mineral">oxides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sulfide_mineral" title="Sulfide mineral">sulfides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Silicate_minerals" class="mw-redirect" title="Silicate minerals">silicates</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Native_metal" title="Native metal">native metals</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Native_copper" title="Native copper">copper</a> or <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Wills-2015-5">[5]</a> Ore bodies are formed by a variety of <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geological</a> processes generally referred to as <a href="/wiki/Ore_genesis" title="Ore genesis">ore genesis</a> and can be classified based on their deposit type. Ore is extracted from the earth through <a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mining</a> and treated or <a href="/wiki/Refining_(metallurgy)" title="Refining (metallurgy)">refined</a>, often via <a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">smelting</a>, to extract the valuable metals or minerals.<a href="#cite_note-Hustrulid22-4">[4]</a> Some ores, depending on their composition, may pose threats to health or surrounding ecosystems. The word ore is of <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxons" title="Anglo-Saxons">Anglo-Saxon</a> origin, meaning lump of metal.<a href="#cite_note-Rapp-2009-6">[6]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gangue_and_tailings">Gangue and tailings</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ore&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Gangue and tailings">edit</a>]</div> In most cases, an ore does not consist entirely of a single mineral, but it is mixed with other valuable minerals and with unwanted or valueless rocks and minerals. The part of an ore that is not economically desirable and that cannot be avoided in mining is known as <a href="/wiki/Gangue" title="Gangue">gangue</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Brit_Ore23-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-AGI-3">[3]</a> The valuable ore minerals are separated from the gangue minerals by <a href="/wiki/Froth_flotation" title="Froth flotation">froth flotation</a>, gravity concentration, electric or magnetic methods, and other operations known collectively as <a href="/wiki/Mineral_processing" title="Mineral processing">mineral processing</a><a href="#cite_note-Wills-2015-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ore_dressing" class="mw-redirect" title="Ore dressing">ore dressing</a>.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> Mineral processing consists of first liberation, to free the ore from the gangue, and concentration to separate the desired mineral(s) from it.<a href="#cite_note-Wills-2015-5">[5]</a> Once processed, the gangue is known as <a href="/wiki/Tailings" title="Tailings">tailings</a>, which are useless but potentially harmful materials produced in great quantity, especially from lower grade deposits.<a href="#cite_note-Wills-2015-5">[5]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ore_deposits">Ore deposits</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ore&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Ore deposits">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mineral_resource_classification" title="Mineral resource classification">Mineral resource classification</a></div> An ore deposit is an economically significant accumulation of minerals within a host rock.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> This is distinct from a mineral resource in that it is a mineral deposit occurring in high enough concentration to be economically viable.<a href="#cite_note-Hustrulid22-4">[4]</a> An ore deposit is one occurrence of a particular ore type.<a href="#cite_note-JORCCODE2-10">[10]</a> Most ore deposits are named according to their location, or after a discoverer (e.g. the <a href="/wiki/Kambalda_type_komatiitic_nickel_ore_deposits" title="Kambalda type komatiitic nickel ore deposits">Kambalda</a> nickel shoots are named after drillers),<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> or after some whimsy, a historical figure, a prominent person, a city or town from which the owner came, something from mythology (such as the name of a god or goddess)<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> or the code name of the resource company which found it (e.g. MKD-5 was the in-house name for the <a href="/wiki/Mount_Keith_Mine" title="Mount Keith Mine">Mount Keith nickel sulphide deposit</a>).<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classification">Classification</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ore&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Classification">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ore_genesis" title="Ore genesis">Ore genesis</a></div> Ore deposits are classified according to various criteria developed via the study of economic geology, or <a href="/wiki/Ore_genesis" title="Ore genesis">ore genesis</a>. The following is a general categorization of the main ore deposit types: <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Magmatic_deposits">Magmatic deposits</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ore&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Magmatic deposits">edit</a>]</div> Magmatic deposits are ones who originate directly from magma<figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Grainitic_Pegmatite.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Grainitic_Pegmatite.jpg/244px-Grainitic_Pegmatite.jpg" decoding="async" width="244" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Grainitic_Pegmatite.jpg/366px-Grainitic_Pegmatite.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Grainitic_Pegmatite.jpg/488px-Grainitic_Pegmatite.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3966" data-file-height="2371" /></a><figcaption>Granitic pegmatite composed of plagioclase and K-feldspar, large hornblende crystal present. Scale bar is 5.0 cm</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pegmatite" title="Pegmatite">Pegmatites</a> are very coarse grained, igneous rocks. They crystallize slowly at great depth beneath the surface, leading to their very large crystal sizes. Most are of granitic composition. They are a large source of industrial minerals such as <a href="/wiki/Quartz" title="Quartz">quartz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Feldspar" title="Feldspar">feldspar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spodumene" title="Spodumene">spodumene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Petalite" title="Petalite">petalite</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lithophile_element" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithophile element">rare lithophile elements</a>.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonatite" title="Carbonatite">Carbonatites</a> are an igneous rock whose volume is made up of over 50% carbonate minerals. They are produced from mantle derived magmas, typically at continental rift zones. They contain more <a href="/wiki/Rare-earth_element" title="Rare-earth element">rare earth elements</a> than any other igneous rock, and as such are a major source of light rare earth elements.<a href="#cite_note-Verplanck-2016-15">[15]</a></li> <li>Magmatic <a href="/wiki/Sulfide_mineral" title="Sulfide mineral">Sulfide</a> Deposits form from mantle melts which rise upwards, and gain sulfur through interaction with the crust. This causes the sulfide minerals present to be immiscible, precipitating out when the melt crystallizes.<a href="#cite_note-Naldrett-2011-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-Song-2011-17">[17]</a> Magmatic sulfide deposits can be subdivided into two groups by their dominant ore element: <ul><li>Ni-Cu, found in <a href="/wiki/Komatiite" title="Komatiite">komatiites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anorthosite" title="Anorthosite">anorthosite</a> complexes, and <a href="/wiki/Flood_basalt" title="Flood basalt">flood basalts</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Naldrett-2011-16">[16]</a> This also includes the <a href="/wiki/Sudbury_Basin" title="Sudbury Basin">Sudbury Nickel Basin</a>, the only known astrobleme source of such ore.<a href="#cite_note-Song-2011-17">[17]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platinum_group_elements" class="mw-redirect" title="Platinum group elements">Platinum Group Elements</a> (PGE) from large <a href="/wiki/Mafic" title="Mafic">mafic</a> intrusions and <a href="/wiki/Tholeiitic_magma_series" title="Tholeiitic magma series">tholeiitic</a> rock.<a href="#cite_note-Naldrett-2011-16">[16]</a></li></ul></li> <li>Stratiform Chromites are strongly linked to PGE magmatic sulfide deposits.<a href="#cite_note-Schulte-2010-18">[18]</a> These highly mafic intrusions are a source of <a href="/wiki/Chromite" title="Chromite">chromite</a>, the only <a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">chromium</a> ore.<a href="#cite_note-Mosier-2012-19">[19]</a> They are so named due to their strata-like shape and formation via layered magmatic injection into the host rock. Chromium is usually located within the bottom of the intrusion. They are typically found within intrusions in continental cratons, the most famous example being the <a href="/wiki/Bushveld_complex" class="mw-redirect" title="Bushveld complex">Bushveld Complex</a> in South Africa.<a href="#cite_note-Schulte-2010-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Podiform" class="mw-redirect" title="Podiform">Podiform Chromitites</a> are found in ultramafic oceanic rocks resulting from complex magma mixing.<a href="#cite_note-Arai-1997-21">[21]</a> They are hosted in serpentine and dunite rich layers and are another source of chromite.<a href="#cite_note-Mosier-2012-19">[19]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kimberlite" title="Kimberlite">Kimberlites</a> are a primary source for diamonds. They originate from depths of 150 km in the mantle and are mostly composed of crustal <a href="/wiki/Xenocryst" class="mw-redirect" title="Xenocryst">xenocrysts</a>, high amounts of magnesium, other trace elements, gases, and in some cases diamond.<a href="#cite_note-Giuliani-2019-22">[22]</a></li></ul> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kimberliite.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Kimberliite.jpg/260px-Kimberliite.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Kimberliite.jpg/390px-Kimberliite.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Kimberliite.jpg/520px-Kimberliite.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2745" data-file-height="1212" /></a><figcaption>Piece of kimberlite. 11.1 cm x 4.5 cm</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metamorphic_deposits">Metamorphic deposits</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ore&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Metamorphic deposits">edit</a>]</div> These are ore deposits which form as a direct result of metamorphism. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Skarn" title="Skarn">Skarns</a> occur in numerous geologic settings worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-Meinert-1992-23">[23]</a> They are silicates derived from the recrystallization of carbonates like <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a> through <a href="/wiki/Contact_metamorphic" class="mw-redirect" title="Contact metamorphic">contact</a> or <a href="/wiki/Regional_metamorphism" class="mw-redirect" title="Regional metamorphism">regional metamorphism</a>, or fluid related <a href="/wiki/Metasomatism" title="Metasomatism">metasomatic</a> events.<a href="#cite_note-Einaudi-1981-24">[24]</a> Not all are economic, but those with potential value are classified depending on the dominant element such as Ca, Fe, Mg, or Mn among many others.<a href="#cite_note-Meinert-1992-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-Einaudi-1981-24">[24]</a> They are one of the most diverse and abundant mineral deposits.<a href="#cite_note-Einaudi-1981-24">[24]</a> As such they are classified solely by their common mineralogy, mainly <a href="/wiki/Garnet" title="Garnet">garnets</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pyroxene" title="Pyroxene">pyroxenes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Meinert-1992-23">[23]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greisen" title="Greisen">Greisens</a>, like skarns, are a metamorphosed silicate, quartz-mica mineral deposit. Formed from a granitic <a href="/wiki/Protolith" title="Protolith">protolith</a> due to alteration by intruding magmas, they are large ore sources of <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tungsten" title="Tungsten">tungsten</a> in the form of <a href="/wiki/Wolframite" title="Wolframite">wolframite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cassiterite" title="Cassiterite">cassiterite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stannite" title="Stannite">stannite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scheelite" title="Scheelite">scheelite</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Pirajno-1992-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Porphyry_copper_deposits">Porphyry copper deposits</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ore&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Porphyry copper deposits">edit</a>]</div> These are the leading source of copper ore.<a href="#cite_note-Hayes-2015-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lee-2020-28">[28]</a> <a href="/wiki/Porphyry_copper_deposit" title="Porphyry copper deposit">Porphyry copper deposits</a> form along <a href="/wiki/Convergent_boundary" title="Convergent boundary">convergent boundaries</a> and are thought to originate from the partial melting of subducted oceanic plates and subsequent concentration of Cu, driven by oxidation.<a href="#cite_note-Lee-2020-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> These are large, round, disseminated deposits containing on average 0.8% copper by weight.<a href="#cite_note-Wills-2015-5">[5]</a> Hydrothermal<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Classic_VMS_Deposit2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Classic_VMS_Deposit2.png/220px-Classic_VMS_Deposit2.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Classic_VMS_Deposit2.png/330px-Classic_VMS_Deposit2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Classic_VMS_Deposit2.png/440px-Classic_VMS_Deposit2.png 2x" data-file-width="1408" data-file-height="1310" /></a><figcaption>A cross-section of a typical <a href="/wiki/Volcanogenic_massive_sulfide_ore_deposit" title="Volcanogenic massive sulfide ore deposit">volcanogenic massive sulfide</a> (VMS) ore deposit</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_mineral_deposit" title="Hydrothermal mineral deposit">Hydrothermal deposits</a> are a large source of ore. They form as a result of the precipitation of dissolved ore constituents out of fluids.<a href="#cite_note-Jenkin-2014-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FutMinRes2-30">[30]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Valley-Type" class="mw-redirect" title="Mississippi Valley-Type">Mississippi Valley-Type</a> (MVT) deposits precipitate from relatively cool, basal brinal fluids within carbonate strata. These are sources of <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a> sulphide ore.<a href="#cite_note-Leach-2001-31">[31]</a></li> <li>Sediment-Hosted Stratiform Copper Deposits (SSC) form when copper sulphides precipitate out of brinal fluids into sedimentary basins near the equator.<a href="#cite_note-Hayes-2015-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> These are the second most common source of copper ore after porphyry copper deposits, supplying 20% of the worlds copper in addition to silver and cobalt.<a href="#cite_note-Hayes-2015-27">[27]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanogenic_massive_sulfide_ore_deposit" title="Volcanogenic massive sulfide ore deposit">Volcanogenic massive sulphide</a> (VMS) deposits form on the seafloor from precipitation of metal rich solutions, typically associated with hydrothermal activity. They take the general form of a large sulphide rich mound above disseminated sulphides and viens. VMS deposits are a major source of <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a> (Zn), <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> (Cu), <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a> (Pb), <a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">silver</a> (Ag), and <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a> (Au).<a href="#cite_note-Galley-2007-33">[33]</a><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gold-Quartz-273364.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Gold-Quartz-273364.jpg/220px-Gold-Quartz-273364.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Gold-Quartz-273364.jpg/330px-Gold-Quartz-273364.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Gold-Quartz-273364.jpg/440px-Gold-Quartz-273364.jpg 2x" data-file-width="496" data-file-height="432" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">Gold</a> ore (size: 7.5 × 6.1 × 4.1 cm)</figcaption></figure></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SEDEX" class="mw-redirect" title="SEDEX">Sedimentary exhalative sulphide deposits</a> (SEDEX) are a copper sulphide ore which form in the same manor as VMS from metal rich brine but are hosted within sedimentary rocks and are not directly related to volcanism.<a href="#cite_note-Pirajno-1992-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orogenic_gold_deposit" title="Orogenic gold deposit">Orogenic gold deposits</a> are a bulk source for gold, with 75% of gold production originating from orogenic gold deposits. Formation occurs during late stage mountain building (see <a href="/wiki/Orogeny" title="Orogeny">orogeny</a>) where metamorphism forces gold containing fluids into joints and fractures where they precipitate. These tend to be strongly correlated with quartz veins.<a href="#cite_note-Jenkin-2014-1">[1]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epithermal_vein_deposit" title="Epithermal vein deposit">Epithermal vein deposits</a> form in the shallow crust from concentration of metal bearing fluids into veins and stockworks where conditions favour precipitation.<a href="#cite_note-Pirajno-1992-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mosier-2012-19">[19]</a> These volcanic related deposits are a source of gold and silver ore, the primary precipitants.<a href="#cite_note-Mosier-2012-19">[19]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sedimentary_deposits">Sedimentary deposits</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ore&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Sedimentary deposits">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MichiganBIF.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/MichiganBIF.jpg/220px-MichiganBIF.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/MichiganBIF.jpg/330px-MichiganBIF.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/MichiganBIF.jpg/440px-MichiganBIF.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1692" data-file-height="1164" /></a><figcaption>Magnified view of banded iron formation specimen from Upper Michigan. Scale bar is 5.0 mm.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Laterite" title="Laterite">Laterites</a> form from the weathering of highly mafic rock near the equator. They can form in as little as one million years and are a source of <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> (Fe), <a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">manganese</a> (Mn), and <a href="/wiki/Aluminum" class="mw-redirect" title="Aluminum">aluminum</a> (Al).<a href="#cite_note-Persons-1970-35">[35]</a> They may also be a source of nickel and cobalt when the parent rock is enriched in these elements.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> <a href="/wiki/Banded_iron_formation" title="Banded iron formation">Banded iron formations</a> (BIFs) are the highest concentration of any single metal available.<a href="#cite_note-Jenkin-2014-1">[1]</a> They are composed of chert beds alternating between high and low iron concentrations.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> Their deposition occurred early in Earth's history when the atmospheric composition was significantly different from today. Iron rich water is thought to have upwelled where it oxidized to Fe (III) in the presence of early photosynthetic plankton producing oxygen. This iron then precipitated out and deposited on the ocean floor. The banding is thought to be a result of changing plankton population.<a href="#cite_note-cloud-1968-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> Sediment Hosted Copper forms from the precipitation of a copper rich oxidized brine into sedimentary rocks. These are a source of copper primarily in the form of copper-sulfide minerals.<a href="#cite_note-Sillit20172-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> <a href="/wiki/Placer_deposit" title="Placer deposit">Placer</a> deposits are the result of weathering, transport, and subsequent concentration of a valuable mineral via water or wind. They are typically sources of gold (Au), <a href="/wiki/Platinum_group" title="Platinum group">platinum group</a> elements (PGE), <a href="/wiki/Sulfide_mineral" title="Sulfide mineral">sulfide minerals</a>, tin (Sn), <a href="/wiki/Tungsten" title="Tungsten">tungsten</a> (W), and <a href="/wiki/Rare-earth_element" title="Rare-earth element">rare-earth elements</a> (REEs). A placer deposit is considered alluvial if formed via river, colluvial if by gravity, and eluvial when close to their parent rock.<a href="#cite_note-Best-2015-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-Haldar-2013-43">[43]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Manganese_nodules">Manganese nodules</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ore&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Manganese nodules">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Polymetallic_nodules" class="mw-redirect" title="Polymetallic nodules">Polymetallic nodules</a>, also called manganese nodules, are mineral <a href="/wiki/Concretion" title="Concretion">concretions</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Sea" title="Sea">sea</a> floor formed of concentric layers of <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> and <a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">manganese</a> <a href="/wiki/Hydroxide" title="Hydroxide">hydroxides</a> around a core.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> They are formed by a combination of <a href="/wiki/Diagenesis" title="Diagenesis">diagenetic</a> and sedimentary precipitation at the estimated rate of about a centimeter over several million years.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> The average diameter of a polymetallic nodule is between 3 and 10 cm (1 and 4 in) in diameter and are characterized by enrichment in iron, manganese, <a href="/wiki/Heavy_metals" title="Heavy metals">heavy metals</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rare_earth_element" class="mw-redirect" title="Rare earth element">rare earth element</a> content when compared to the Earth's crust and surrounding sediment. The proposed mining of these nodules via <a href="/wiki/Remotely_operated_underwater_vehicle" title="Remotely operated underwater vehicle">remotely operated</a> ocean floor trawling robots has raised a number of ecological concerns.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Extraction">Extraction</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ore&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Extraction">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">Mining</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:OreCartPachuca.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/OreCartPachuca.JPG/170px-OreCartPachuca.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/OreCartPachuca.JPG/255px-OreCartPachuca.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/OreCartPachuca.JPG/340px-OreCartPachuca.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>Minecart on display at the Historic Archive and Museum of Mining in <a href="/wiki/Pachuca" title="Pachuca">Pachuca</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Simplified_world_mining_map_1.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Simplified_world_mining_map_1.png/220px-Simplified_world_mining_map_1.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="82" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Simplified_world_mining_map_1.png/330px-Simplified_world_mining_map_1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Simplified_world_mining_map_1.png/440px-Simplified_world_mining_map_1.png 2x" data-file-width="1672" data-file-height="625" /></a><figcaption>Some ore deposits in the world</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Simplified_world_mining_map_2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Simplified_world_mining_map_2.png/220px-Simplified_world_mining_map_2.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Simplified_world_mining_map_2.png/330px-Simplified_world_mining_map_2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Simplified_world_mining_map_2.png/440px-Simplified_world_mining_map_2.png 2x" data-file-width="1425" data-file-height="625" /></a><figcaption>Some additional ore deposits in the world</figcaption></figure> The extraction of ore deposits generally follows these steps.<a href="#cite_note-Hustrulid22-4">[4]</a> Progression from stages 1–3 will see a continuous disqualification of potential ore bodies as more information is obtained on their viability:<a href="#cite_note-Marjoribanks-1997-47">[47]</a> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Prospecting" title="Prospecting">Prospecting</a> to find where an ore is located. The prospecting stage generally involves mapping, <a href="/wiki/Geophysical_survey" title="Geophysical survey">geophysical survey</a> techniques (<a href="/wiki/Aerial_survey" title="Aerial survey">aerial</a> and/or <a href="/wiki/Surveying" title="Surveying">ground-based</a> surveys), geochemical sampling, and preliminary drilling.<a href="#cite_note-Marjoribanks-1997-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-novascotia.ca-48">[48]</a></li> <li>After a deposit is discovered, <a href="/wiki/Mineral_exploration" class="mw-redirect" title="Mineral exploration">exploration</a> is conducted to define its extent and value via further mapping and sampling techniques such as targeted <a href="/wiki/Exploration_diamond_drilling" title="Exploration diamond drilling">diamond drilling</a> to intersect the potential ore body. This exploration stage determines ore grade, tonnage, and if the deposit is a viable economic resource.<a href="#cite_note-Marjoribanks-1997-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-novascotia.ca-48">[48]</a></li> <li>A <a href="/wiki/Feasibility_study" title="Feasibility study">feasibility study</a> then considers the theoretical implications of the potential mining operation in order to determine if it should move ahead with development. This includes evaluating the economically recoverable portion of the deposit, marketability and payability of the ore concentrates, engineering, milling and infrastructure costs, finance and equity requirements, potential environmental impacts, political implications, and a cradle to grave analysis from the initial excavation all the way through to <a href="/wiki/Land_reclamation" title="Land reclamation">reclamation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Marjoribanks-1997-47">[47]</a> Multiple experts from differing fields must then approve the study before the project can move on to the next stage.<a href="#cite_note-Hustrulid22-4">[4]</a> Depending on the size of the project, a pre-feasibility study is sometimes first performed to decide preliminary potential and if a much costlier full feasibility study is even warranted.<a href="#cite_note-Marjoribanks-1997-47">[47]</a></li> <li>Development begins once an ore body has been confirmed economically viable and involves steps to prepare for its extraction such as building of a mine plant and equipment.<a href="#cite_note-Hustrulid22-4">[4]</a></li> <li>Production can then begin and is the operation of the mine in an active sense. The time a mine is active is dependent on its remaining reserves and profitability.<a href="#cite_note-Hustrulid22-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-novascotia.ca-48">[48]</a> The extraction method used is entirely dependent on the deposit type, geometry, and surrounding geology.<a href="#cite_note-Onargan-2012-49">[49]</a> Methods can be generally categorized into surface mining such as <a href="/wiki/Open-pit_mining" title="Open-pit mining">open pit</a> or <a href="/wiki/Strip-mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Strip-mining">strip mining</a>, and underground mining such as <a href="/wiki/Block_Caving" class="mw-redirect" title="Block Caving">block caving</a>, cut and fill, and <a href="/wiki/Stoping" title="Stoping">stoping</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Onargan-2012-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_rehabilitation" title="Land rehabilitation">Reclamation</a>, once the mine is no longer operational, makes the land where a mine had been suitable for future use.<a href="#cite_note-novascotia.ca-48">[48]</a></li></ol> With rates of ore discovery in a steady decline since the mid 20th century, it is thought that most surface level, easily accessible sources have been exhausted. This means progressively lower grade deposits must be turned to, and new methods of extraction must be developed.<a href="#cite_note-Jenkin-2014-1">[1]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hazards">Hazards</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ore&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Hazards">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of mining">Environmental effects of mining</a></div> Some ores contain <a href="/wiki/Heavy_metals" title="Heavy metals">heavy metals</a>, toxins, <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_isotopes" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactive isotopes">radioactive isotopes</a> and other potentially negative compounds which may pose a risk to the environment or health. The exact effects an ore and its tailings have is dependent on the minerals present. Tailings of particular concern are those of older mines, as containment and remediation methods in the past were next to non-existent, leading to high levels of leaching into the surrounding environment.<a href="#cite_note-Wills-2015-5">[5]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">Mercury</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">arsenic</a> are two ore related elements of particular concern.<a href="#cite_note-Franks-51">[51]</a> Additional elements found in ore which may have adverse health affects in organisms include iron, lead, uranium, zinc, silicon, titanium, sulfur, nitrogen, platinum, and chromium.<a href="#cite_note-da_Silva-Rêgo-2022-52">[52]</a> Exposure to these elements may result in respiratory and cardiovascular problems and neurological issues.<a href="#cite_note-da_Silva-Rêgo-2022-52">[52]</a> These are of particular danger to aquatic life if dissolved in water.<a href="#cite_note-Wills-2015-5">[5]</a> Ores such as those of sulphide minerals may severely increase the acidity of their immediate surroundings and of water, with numerous, long lasting impacts on ecosystems.<a href="#cite_note-Wills-2015-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> When water becomes contaminated it may transport these compounds far from the tailings site, greatly increasing the affected range.<a href="#cite_note-da_Silva-Rêgo-2022-52">[52]</a> Uranium ores and those containing other radioactive elements may pose a significant threat if leaving occurs and isotope concentration increases above background levels. Radiation can have severe, long lasting environmental impacts and cause irreversible damage to living organisms.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ore&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="History of mining">History of mining</a></div> Metallurgy began with the direct working of native metals such as gold, lead and copper.<a href="#cite_note-Rostoker-1975-55">[55]</a> Placer deposits, for example, would have been the first source of native gold.<a href="#cite_note-Rapp-2009-6">[6]</a> The first exploited ores were copper oxides such as malachite and azurite, over 7000 years ago at <a href="/wiki/%C3%87atalh%C3%B6y%C3%BCk" title="Çatalhöyük">Çatalhöyük</a> .<a href="#cite_note-Penhallurick-2008-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-H.-1975-58">[58]</a> These were the easiest to work, with relatively limited mining and basic requirements for smelting.<a href="#cite_note-Rostoker-1975-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-H.-1975-58">[58]</a> It is believed they were once much more abundant on the surface than today.<a href="#cite_note-H.-1975-58">[58]</a> After this, copper sulphides would have been turned to as oxide resources depleted and the <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> progressed.<a href="#cite_note-Rostoker-1975-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> Lead production from <a href="/wiki/Galena" title="Galena">galena</a> smelting may have been occurring at this time as well.<a href="#cite_note-Rapp-2009-6">[6]</a> The smelting of arsenic-copper sulphides would have produced the first bronze alloys.<a href="#cite_note-Penhallurick-2008-56">[56]</a> The majority of bronze creation however required tin, and thus the exploitation of cassiterite, the main tin source, began.<a href="#cite_note-Penhallurick-2008-56">[56]</a> Some 3000 years ago, the smelting of iron ores began in <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>. Iron oxide is quite abundant on the surface and forms from a variety of processes.<a href="#cite_note-Rapp-2009-6">[6]</a> Until the 18th century gold, copper, lead, iron, silver, tin, arsenic and mercury were the only metals mined and used.<a href="#cite_note-Rapp-2009-6">[6]</a> In recent decades, Rare Earth Elements have been increasingly exploited for various high-tech applications.<a href="#cite_note-Mariano-2012-60">[60]</a> This has led to an ever-growing search for REE ore and novel ways of extracting said elements.<a href="#cite_note-Mariano-2012-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Trade">Trade</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ore&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Trade">edit</a>]</div> Ores (metals) are traded internationally and comprise a sizeable portion of international trade in <a href="/wiki/Raw_material" title="Raw material">raw materials</a> both in value and volume. This is because the worldwide distribution of ores is unequal and dislocated from locations of peak demand and from smelting infrastructure. Most base metals (copper, lead, zinc, nickel) are traded internationally on the <a href="/wiki/London_Metal_Exchange" title="London Metal Exchange">London Metal Exchange</a>, with smaller stockpiles and metals exchanges monitored by the <a href="/wiki/New_York_Mercantile_Exchange" title="New York Mercantile Exchange">COMEX</a> and <a href="/wiki/NYMEX" class="mw-redirect" title="NYMEX">NYMEX</a> exchanges in the United States and the Shanghai Futures Exchange in China. The global Chromium market is currently dominated by the United States and China.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> Iron ore is traded between customer and producer, though various benchmark prices are set quarterly between the major mining conglomerates and the major consumers, and this sets the stage for smaller participants. Other, lesser, commodities do not have international clearing houses and benchmark prices, with most prices negotiated between suppliers and customers one-on-one. This generally makes determining the price of ores of this nature opaque and difficult. Such metals include <a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">lithium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Niobium" title="Niobium">niobium</a>-<a href="/wiki/Tantalum" title="Tantalum">tantalum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bismuth" title="Bismuth">bismuth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antimony" title="Antimony">antimony</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rare_earths" class="mw-redirect" title="Rare earths">rare earths</a>. Most of these commodities are also dominated by one or two major suppliers with >60% of the world's reserves. China is currently leading in world production of Rare Earth Elements.<a href="#cite_note-Haque-2014-63">[63]</a> The <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a> reports that China was the top importer of ores and metals in 2005 followed by the US and Japan.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Important_ore_minerals">Important ore minerals</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ore&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Important ore minerals">edit</a>]</div> For detailed <a href="/wiki/Petrography" title="Petrography">petrographic</a> descriptions of ore minerals see Tables for the Determination of Common Opaque Minerals by Spry and Gedlinske (1987).<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> Below are the major economic ore minerals and their deposits, grouped by primary elements. <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Type</th> <th>Mineral</th> <th style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">Symbol</a>/<a href="/wiki/Chemical_formula" title="Chemical formula">formula</a></th> <th>Uses</th> <th>Source(s)</th> <th style="width:15">Ref </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="28">Metal ore minerals</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aluminum" class="mw-redirect" title="Aluminum">Aluminum</a></td> <td>Al</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy">Alloys</a>, conductive materials, lightweight applications</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gibbsite" title="Gibbsite">Gibbsite</a> (Al(OH)3) and <a href="/wiki/Aluminium_hydroxide_oxide" title="Aluminium hydroxide oxide">aluminium hydroxide oxide</a>, which are found in <a href="/wiki/Laterite" title="Laterite">laterites</a>. Also <a href="/wiki/Bauxite" title="Bauxite">Bauxite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Barite" class="mw-redirect" title="Barite">Barite</a></td> <td><a href="#cite_note-Wills-2015-5">[5]</a> ' </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Antimony" title="Antimony">Antimony</a></td> <td>Sb</td> <td>Alloys, <a href="/wiki/Flame_retardant" title="Flame retardant">flame retardation</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Stibnite" title="Stibnite">Stibnite</a> (Sb2S3)</td> <td><a href="#cite_note-Wills-2015-5">[5]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Beryllium" title="Beryllium">Beryllium</a></td> <td>Be</td> <td>Metal alloys, in the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear industry">nuclear industry</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">electronics</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Beryl" title="Beryl">Beryl</a> (Be3Al2Si6O18), found in granitic <a href="/wiki/Pegmatites" class="mw-redirect" title="Pegmatites">pegmatites</a></td> <td><a href="#cite_note-Wills-2015-5">[5]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Bismuth" title="Bismuth">Bismuth</a></td> <td>Bi</td> <td>Alloys, <a href="/wiki/Pharmeceutical" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmeceutical">pharmeceuticals</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bismuth#Occurrence_and_production" title="Bismuth">Native bismuth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bismuthinite" title="Bismuthinite">bismuthinite</a> (Bi2S3) with sulphide ores</td> <td><a href="#cite_note-Wills-2015-5">[5]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cesium" class="mw-redirect" title="Cesium">Cesium</a></td> <td>Cs</td> <td>Photoelectrics, pharmaceuticals</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lepidolite" title="Lepidolite">Lepidolite</a> (K(Li, Al)3 (Si, Al)4O10 (OH,F)2) from <a href="/wiki/Pegmatite" title="Pegmatite">pegmatites</a></td> <td><a href="#cite_note-Wills-2015-5">[5]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">Chromium</a></td> <td>Cr</td> <td>Alloys, <a href="/wiki/Electroplating" title="Electroplating">electroplating</a>, colouring agents</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Chromite" title="Chromite">Chromite</a> (FeCr2O4) from <a href="/wiki/Chromite#Stratiform_deposits" title="Chromite">stratiform</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chromite#Podiform_deposits" title="Chromite">podiform</a> chromitites</td> <td><a href="#cite_note-Wills-2015-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mosier-2012-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-Arai-1997-21">[21]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">Cobalt</a></td> <td>Co</td> <td>Alloys, <a href="/wiki/Catalysis" title="Catalysis">chemical catalysts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cemented_carbide" title="Cemented carbide">cemented carbide</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Smaltite" title="Smaltite">Smaltite</a> (CoAs2) in veins with <a href="/wiki/Cobaltite" title="Cobaltite">cobaltite</a>; <a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">silver</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Calcite" title="Calcite">calcite</a>; <a href="/wiki/Cobaltite" title="Cobaltite">cobaltite</a> (CoAsS) in veins with smaltite, silver, nickel and calcite; <a href="/wiki/Carrollite" title="Carrollite">carrollite</a> (CuCo2S4) and <a href="/wiki/Linnaeite" title="Linnaeite">linnaeite</a> (Co3S4) as constituents of <a href="/wiki/Copper_ore" class="mw-redirect" title="Copper ore">copper ore</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Linnaeite" title="Linnaeite">linnaeite</a></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">Copper</a></td> <td>Cu</td> <td>Alloys, high conductivity, <a href="/wiki/Corrosion_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Corrosion resistance">corrosion resistance</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sulphide_mineral" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulphide mineral">Sulphide minerals</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Chalcopyrite" title="Chalcopyrite">chalcopyrite</a> (CuFeS2; primary ore mineral) in sulphide deposits, or <a href="/wiki/Porphyry_copper_deposit" title="Porphyry copper deposit">porphyry copper deposits</a>; <a href="/wiki/Covellite" title="Covellite">covellite</a> (CuS); <a href="/wiki/Chalcocite" title="Chalcocite">chalcocite</a> (Cu2S; secondary with other sulphide minerals) with <a href="/wiki/Native_copper" title="Native copper">native copper</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cuprite" title="Cuprite">cuprite</a> deposits and <a href="/wiki/Bornite" title="Bornite">bornite</a> (Cu5FeS4; secondary with other sulphide minerals) Oxidized minerals, including <a href="/wiki/Malachite" title="Malachite">malachite</a> (Cu2CO3(OH)2) in the oxidized zone of copper deposits; <a href="/wiki/Cuprite" title="Cuprite">cuprite</a> (Cu2O; secondary mineral ); and <a href="/wiki/Azurite" title="Azurite">azurite</a> (Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2; secondary)</td> <td><a href="#cite_note-Wills-2015-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rapp-2009-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lee-2020-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rostoker-1975-55">[55]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">Gold</a></td> <td>Au</td> <td>Electronics, <a href="/wiki/Jewellery" title="Jewellery">jewellery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dentistry" title="Dentistry">dentistry</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Placer_deposit" title="Placer deposit">Placer deposits</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quartz" title="Quartz">quartz</a> grains</td> <td><a href="#cite_note-Wills-2015-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Best-2015-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jenkin-2014-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-Galley-2007-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-Haldar-2013-43">[43]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">Iron</a></td> <td>Fe</td> <td>Industry use, <a href="/wiki/Construction" title="Construction">construction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hematite" title="Hematite">Hematite</a> (Fe2O3; primary source) in <a href="/wiki/Banded_iron_formation" title="Banded iron formation">banded iron formations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vein_(geology)" title="Vein (geology)">veins</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Igneous_rock" title="Igneous rock">igneous rock</a>; <a href="/wiki/Magnetite" title="Magnetite">magnetite</a> (Fe3O4) in igneous and <a href="/wiki/Metamorphic_rock" title="Metamorphic rock">metamorphic rocks</a>; <a href="/wiki/Goethite" title="Goethite">goethite</a> (FeO(OH); secondary to hematite); <a href="/wiki/Limonite" title="Limonite">limonite</a> (FeO(OH)nH2O; secondary to hematite)</td> <td><a href="#cite_note-Wills-2015-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jenkin-2014-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">Lead</a></td> <td>Pb</td> <td>Alloys, <a href="/wiki/Pigmentation" class="mw-redirect" title="Pigmentation">pigmentation</a>, batteries, <a href="/wiki/Corrosion" title="Corrosion">corrosion</a> resistance, <a href="/wiki/Radiation_shielding" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation shielding">radiation shielding</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Galena" title="Galena">Galena</a> (PbS) in veins with other sulphide materials and in <a href="/wiki/Pegmatite" title="Pegmatite">pegmatites</a>; <a href="/wiki/Cerussite" title="Cerussite">cerussite</a> (PbCO3) in oxidized lead zones along with galena</td> <td><a href="#cite_note-Wills-2015-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rapp-2009-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Leach-2001-31">[31]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">Lithium</a></td> <td>Li</td> <td>Metal production, batteries, <a href="/wiki/Ceramic" title="Ceramic">ceramics</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Spodumene" title="Spodumene">Spodumene</a> (LiAlSi2O6) in pegmatites</td> <td><a href="#cite_note-Wills-2015-5">[5]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">Manganese</a></td> <td>Mn</td> <td>Steel alloys, chemical manufacturing</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pyrolusite" title="Pyrolusite">Pyrolusite</a> (MnO2) in oxidized manganese zones like <a href="/wiki/Laterite" title="Laterite">laterites</a> and <a href="/wiki/Skarn" title="Skarn">skarns</a>; <a href="/wiki/Manganite" title="Manganite">manganite</a> (MnO(OH)) and <a href="/wiki/Braunite" title="Braunite">braunite</a> (3Mn2O3 MnSiO3) with pyrolusite</td> <td><a href="#cite_note-Wills-2015-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Meinert-1992-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-Persons-1970-35">[35]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">Mercury</a></td> <td>Hg</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Scientific_instrument" title="Scientific instrument">Scientific instruments</a>, electrical applications, <a href="/wiki/Paint" title="Paint">paint</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solvent" title="Solvent">solvent</a>, pharmeceuticals</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cinnabar" title="Cinnabar">Cinnabar</a> (HgS) in <a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_rock" title="Sedimentary rock">sedimentary</a> fractures with other sulphide minerals</td> <td><a href="#cite_note-Wills-2015-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rapp-2009-6">[6]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Molybdenum" title="Molybdenum">Molybdenum</a></td> <td>Mo</td> <td>Alloys, electronics, industry</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Molybdenite" title="Molybdenite">Molybdenite</a> (MoS2) in <a href="/wiki/Porphyry_copper_deposit" title="Porphyry copper deposit">porphyry deposits</a>, <a href="/wiki/Powellite" title="Powellite">powellite</a> (CaMoO4) in <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_mineral_deposit" title="Hydrothermal mineral deposit">hydrothermal deposits</a></td> <td><a href="#cite_note-Wills-2015-5">[5]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">Nickel</a></td> <td>Ni</td> <td>Alloys, food and pharmaceutical applications, corrosion resistance</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pentlandite" title="Pentlandite">Pentlandite</a> (Fe,Ni)9S8 with other sulphide minerals; <a href="/wiki/Garnierite" title="Garnierite">garnierite</a> (NiMg) with <a href="/wiki/Chromite" title="Chromite">chromite</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Laterite" title="Laterite">laterites</a>; <a href="/wiki/Niccolite" class="mw-redirect" title="Niccolite">niccolite</a> (NiAs) in magmatic sulphide deposits</td> <td><a href="#cite_note-Wills-2015-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Naldrett-2011-16">[16]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Niobium" title="Niobium">Niobium</a></td> <td>Nb</td> <td>Alloys, corrosion resistance</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pyrochlore" title="Pyrochlore">Pyrochlore</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1123817410">.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su{display:inline-block;font-size:80%;line-height:1;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su>span{display:block;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output sub.template-chem2-sub{font-size:80%;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output sup.template-chem2-sup{font-size:80%;vertical-align:0.65em}</style>(Na,Ca)2Nb2O6(OH,F) and <a href="/wiki/Columbite" title="Columbite">columbite</a> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">(<a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">Fe</a>II,<a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">Mn</a>II)<a href="/wiki/Niobium" title="Niobium">Nb</a>2<a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">O</a>6) in granitic pegmatites</td> <td><a href="#cite_note-Wills-2015-5">[5]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Platinum" title="Platinum">Platinum</a> Group</td> <td>Pt</td> <td>Dentistry, jewelry, chemical applications, corrosion resistance, electronics</td> <td>With <a href="/wiki/Chromite" title="Chromite">chromite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> ore, in <a href="/wiki/Placer_deposit" title="Placer deposit">placer deposits</a>; <a href="/wiki/Sperrylite" title="Sperrylite">sperrylite</a> (PtAs2) in sulphide deposits and gold veins</td> <td><a href="#cite_note-Wills-2015-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rare-earth_element" title="Rare-earth element">Rare-earth elements</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lanthanum" title="Lanthanum">La</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cerium" title="Cerium">Ce</a>, <a href="/wiki/Praseodymium" title="Praseodymium">Pr</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neodymium" title="Neodymium">Nd</a>, <a href="/wiki/Promethium" title="Promethium">Pm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samarium" title="Samarium">Sm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Europium" title="Europium">Eu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gadolinium" title="Gadolinium">Gd</a>, <a href="/wiki/Terbium" title="Terbium">Tb</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dysprosium" title="Dysprosium">Dy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Holmium" title="Holmium">Ho</a>, <a href="/wiki/Erbium" title="Erbium">Er</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thulium" title="Thulium">Tm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ytterbium" title="Ytterbium">Yb</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lutetium" title="Lutetium">Lu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scandium" title="Scandium">Sc</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yttrium" title="Yttrium">Y</a></td> <td>Permanent <a href="/wiki/Magnet" title="Magnet">magnets</a>, batteries, glass treatment, <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry" title="Petroleum industry">petroleum industry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Micro-electronics" class="mw-redirect" title="Micro-electronics">micro-electronics</a>, alloys, nuclear applications, corrosion protection (La and Ce are the most widely applicable)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bastn%C3%A4site" title="Bastnäsite">Bastnäsite</a> (REECO3F; for Ce, La, Pr, Nd) in <a href="/wiki/Carbonatite" title="Carbonatite">carbonatites</a>; <a href="/wiki/Monazite" title="Monazite">monazite</a> (REEPO4; for La, Ce, Pr, Nd) in <a href="/wiki/Placer_deposit" title="Placer deposit">placer deposits</a>; <a href="/wiki/Xenotime" title="Xenotime">xenotime</a> (YPO4; for Y) in <a href="/wiki/Pegmatite" title="Pegmatite">pegmatites</a>; <a href="/wiki/Eudialyte" title="Eudialyte">eudialyte</a> (Na15Ca6(Fe,Mn)3Zr3SiO(O,OH,H2O)3 (Si3O9)2(Si9O27)2(OH,Cl)2) in igneous rocks; <a href="/wiki/Allanite" title="Allanite">allanite</a> ((REE,Ca,Y)2(Al,Fe2+,Fe3+)3(SiO4)3(OH)) in <a href="/wiki/Pegmatite" title="Pegmatite">pegmatites</a> and carbonatites</td> <td><a href="#cite_note-Wills-2015-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Verplanck-2016-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mariano-2012-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-Haque-2014-63">[63]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rhenium" title="Rhenium">Rhenium</a></td> <td>Re</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Catalyst" class="mw-redirect" title="Catalyst">Catalyst</a>, temperature applications</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Molybdenite" title="Molybdenite">Molybdenite</a> (MoS2) in porphyry deposits</td> <td><a href="#cite_note-Wills-2015-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">Silver</a></td> <td>Ag</td> <td>Jewellery, glass, photo-electric applications, batteries</td> <td>Sulfide deposits; <a href="/wiki/Argentite" title="Argentite">Argentite</a> (Ag2S; secondary to copper, lead and zinc ores)</td> <td><a href="#cite_note-Wills-2015-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">Tin</a></td> <td>Sn</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Solder" title="Solder">Solder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">bronze</a>, <a href="/wiki/Steel_and_tin_cans" title="Steel and tin cans">cans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pewter" title="Pewter">pewter</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cassiterite" title="Cassiterite">Cassiterite</a> (SnO2) in placer and magmatic deposits</td> <td><a href="#cite_note-Wills-2015-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Penhallurick-2008-56">[56]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Titanium" title="Titanium">Titanium</a></td> <td>Ti</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aerospace" title="Aerospace">Aerospace</a>, industrial tubing</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ilmenite" title="Ilmenite">Ilmenite</a> (FeTiO3) and <a href="/wiki/Rutile" title="Rutile">rutile</a> (TiO2) economically sourced from placer deposits with <a href="/wiki/Rare-earth_elements" class="mw-redirect" title="Rare-earth elements">REEs</a></td> <td><a href="#cite_note-Wills-2015-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tungsten" title="Tungsten">Tungsten</a></td> <td>W</td> <td>Filaments, electronics, lighting</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Wolframite" title="Wolframite">Wolframite</a> ((Fe,Mn)WO4) and <a href="/wiki/Scheelite" title="Scheelite">scheelite</a> (CaWO4) in skarns and in porphyry along with sulphide minerals</td> <td><a href="#cite_note-Wills-2015-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">Uranium</a></td> <td>U</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel" title="Nuclear fuel">Nuclear fuel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ammunition" title="Ammunition">ammunition</a>, radiation shielding</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pitchblende" class="mw-redirect" title="Pitchblende">Pitchblende</a> (UO2) in <a href="/wiki/Uraninite" title="Uraninite">uraninite</a> placer deposits; <a href="/wiki/Carnotite" title="Carnotite">carnotite</a> (K2(UO2)2(VO4)2 3H2O) in placer deposits</td> <td><a href="#cite_note-Wills-2015-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Vanadium" title="Vanadium">Vanadium</a></td> <td>V</td> <td>Alloys, catalysts, glass colouring, batteries</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Patronite" class="mw-redirect" title="Patronite">Patronite</a> (VS4) with sulphide minerals; <a href="/wiki/Roscoelite" title="Roscoelite">roscoelite</a> (K(V,Al,Mg)2 AlSi3O10(OH)2) in epithermal gold deposits</td> <td><a href="#cite_note-Wills-2015-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">Zinc</a></td> <td>Zn</td> <td>Corrosion protection, alloys, various industrial compounds</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sphalerite" title="Sphalerite">Sphalerite</a> ((Zn,Fe)S) with other sulphide minerals in vein deposits; <a href="/wiki/Smithsonite" title="Smithsonite">smithsonite</a> (ZnCO3) in oxidized zone of zinc bearing sulphide deposits</td> <td><a href="#cite_note-Wills-2015-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rapp-2009-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Leach-2001-31">[31]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Zirconium" title="Zirconium">Zirconium</a></td> <td>Zr</td> <td>Alloys, nuclear reactors, corrosion resistance</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Zircon" title="Zircon">Zircon</a> (ZrSiO4) in igneous rocks and in placers</td> <td><a href="#cite_note-Wills-2015-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="5">Non-metal ore minerals</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Fluorospar" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluorospar">Fluorospar</a></td> <td>CaF2</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Steelmaking" title="Steelmaking">Steelmaking</a>, optical equipment</td> <td>Hydrothermal veins and pegmatites</td> <td><a href="#cite_note-Wills-2015-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Graphite" title="Graphite">Graphite</a></td> <td>C</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lubricant" title="Lubricant">Lubricant</a>, industrial molds, paint</td> <td>Pegmatites and metamorphic rocks</td> <td><a href="#cite_note-Wills-2015-5">[5]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Gypsum" title="Gypsum">Gypsum</a></td> <td>CaSO42H2O</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Fertilizer" title="Fertilizer">Fertilizer</a>, filler, <a href="/wiki/Cement" title="Cement">cement</a>, pharmaceuticals, <a href="/wiki/Textiles" class="mw-redirect" title="Textiles">textiles</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Evaporite" title="Evaporite">Evaporites</a>; <a href="/wiki/Volcanogenic_massive_sulfide_ore_deposit" title="Volcanogenic massive sulfide ore deposit">VMS</a></td> <td><a href="#cite_note-Wills-2015-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Diamond" title="Diamond">Diamond</a></td> <td>C</td> <td>Cutting, jewelry</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kimberlite" title="Kimberlite">Kimberlites</a></td> <td><a href="#cite_note-Wills-2015-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Giuliani-2019-22">[22]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Feldspar" title="Feldspar">Feldspar</a></td> <td>Fsp</td> <td>Ceramics, glassmaking, glazes</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Orthoclase" title="Orthoclase">Orthoclase</a> (KAlSi3O8) and <a href="/wiki/Albite" title="Albite">albite</a> (NaAlSi3O8) are ubiquitous throughout <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_crust" title="Earth's crust">Earth's crust</a></td> <td><a href="#cite_note-Wills-2015-5">[5]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ore&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:WikiProject_Geology.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/28px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/42px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/56px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="327" data-file-height="328" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Geology" title="Portal:Geology">Geology portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_geology" title="Economic geology">Economic geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extractive_metallurgy" title="Extractive metallurgy">Extractive metallurgy</a> (ore processing)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Froth_flotation#Science_of_flotation" title="Froth flotation">Froth Flotation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_resource_classification" title="Mineral resource classification">Mineral resource classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ore_genesis" title="Ore genesis">Ore genesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrology" title="Petrology">Petrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymetallic_ore" title="Polymetallic ore">Polymetallic ore</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ore&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output 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(2010) The "chessboard" classification scheme of mineral deposits: Mineralogy and geology from aluminum to zirconium, Earth-Science Reviews, Volume 100, Issue 1–4, June 2010, Pages 1–420</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ore&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Ores" class="extiw" 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.navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ore_minerals,_mineral_mixtures_and_ore_deposits" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ores" title="Template:Ores"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ores" title="Template talk:Ores"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ores" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ores"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ore_minerals,_mineral_mixtures_and_ore_deposits" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Ore,_gangue,_ore_minerals,_gangue_minerals">Ore minerals</a>, mineral mixtures and <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Ore_deposits">ore deposits</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ores</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em"><a href="/wiki/Oxide" title="Oxide">Oxides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cassiterite" title="Cassiterite">Cassiterite</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromite" title="Chromite">Chromite</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">chromium</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coltan" title="Coltan">Coltan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Niobium" title="Niobium">niobium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tantalum" title="Tantalum">tantalum</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbite" title="Columbite">Columbite</a> (<a href="/wiki/Niobium" title="Niobium">niobium</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hematite" title="Hematite">Hematite</a> (<a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilmenite" title="Ilmenite">Ilmenite</a> (<a href="/wiki/Titanium" title="Titanium">titanium</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetite" title="Magnetite">Magnetite</a> (<a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrolusite" title="Pyrolusite">Pyrolusite</a> (<a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">manganese</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tantalite" title="Tantalite">Tantalite</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tantalum" title="Tantalum">tantalum</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uraninite" title="Uraninite">Uraninite</a> (<a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em"><a href="/wiki/Sulfide" title="Sulfide">Sulfides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acanthite" title="Acanthite">Acanthite</a> (<a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">silver</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argentite" title="Argentite">Argentite</a> (<a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">silver</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bornite" title="Bornite">Bornite</a> (<a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalcopyrite" title="Chalcopyrite">Chalcopyrite</a> (<a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalcocite" title="Chalcocite">Chalcocite</a> (<a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinnabar" title="Cinnabar">Cinnabar</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cobaltite" title="Cobaltite">Cobaltite</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">cobalt</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galena" title="Galena">Galena</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molybdenite" title="Molybdenite">Molybdenite</a> (<a href="/wiki/Molybdenum" title="Molybdenum">molybdenum</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrite" title="Pyrite">Pyrite</a> (<a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentlandite" title="Pentlandite">Pentlandite</a> (<a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sphalerite" title="Sphalerite">Sphalerite</a> (<a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em"><a href="/wiki/Carbonate" title="Carbonate">Carbonates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dolomite_(mineral)" title="Dolomite (mineral)">Dolomite</a> (<a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnesite" title="Magnesite">Magnesite</a> (<a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malachite" title="Malachite">Malachite</a> (<a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baryte" title="Baryte">Baryte</a> (<a href="/wiki/Barium" title="Barium">barium</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bauxite" title="Bauxite">Bauxite</a> (<a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beryl" title="Beryl">Beryl</a> (<a href="/wiki/Beryllium" title="Beryllium">beryllium</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sperrylite" title="Sperrylite">Sperrylite</a> (<a href="/wiki/Platinum" title="Platinum">platinum</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scheelite" title="Scheelite">Scheelite</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tungsten" title="Tungsten">tungsten</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolframite" title="Wolframite">Wolframite</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tungsten" title="Tungsten">tungsten</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Deposit types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Banded_iron_formation" title="Banded iron formation">Banded iron formation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonate-hosted_lead-zinc_ore_deposits" title="Carbonate-hosted lead-zinc ore deposits">Carbonate-hosted lead-zinc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heavy_mineral_sands_ore_deposits" title="Heavy mineral sands ore deposits">Heavy mineral sands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_oxide_copper_gold_ore_deposits" title="Iron oxide copper gold ore deposits">Iron oxide copper gold (IOCG)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kambalda_type_komatiitic_nickel_ore_deposits" title="Kambalda type komatiitic nickel ore deposits">Kambalda-type komatiitic nickel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateritic_nickel_ore_deposits" title="Lateritic nickel ore deposits">Lateritic nickel</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Nickel-cobalt-platinum_deposits">Magmatic nickel-copper-iron-PGE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_copper_deposit" title="Porphyry copper deposit">Porphyry copper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_exhalative_deposits" title="Sedimentary exhalative deposits">Sedimentary exhalative (SedEx)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium_ore" title="Uranium ore">Uranium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanogenic_massive_sulfide_ore_deposit" title="Volcanogenic massive sulfide ore deposit">Volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orogenic_gold_deposit" title="Orogenic gold deposit">Orogenic gold deposit</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><img alt="" 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