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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Other </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Causes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Causes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Causes </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Causes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Causes subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Causes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Alcohol_exposure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alcohol_exposure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Alcohol exposure </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alcohol_exposure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Toxic_substances" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Toxic_substances"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Toxic substances </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Toxic_substances-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Medications_and_supplements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medications_and_supplements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.1 Medications and supplements </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medications_and_supplements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Toxic_substances_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Toxic_substances_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.2 Toxic substances </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Toxic_substances_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Endometriosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Endometriosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Endometriosis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Endometriosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Smoking" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Smoking"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Smoking </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Smoking-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Infections" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Infections"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Infections </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Infections-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Malnutrition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Malnutrition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Malnutrition </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Malnutrition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physical_restraint" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physical_restraint"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7 Physical restraint </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Physical_restraint-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.8 Genetics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Defective_sperm" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Defective_sperm"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.9 Defective sperm </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Defective_sperm-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Socioeconomics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Socioeconomics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.10 Socioeconomics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Socioeconomics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radiation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radiation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.11 Radiation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radiation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Parent's_age" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Parent's_age"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.12 Parent's age </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Parent's_age-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unknown" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unknown"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.13 Unknown </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unknown-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prevention" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prevention"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Prevention </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prevention-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Screening" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Screening"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Screening </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Screening-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epidemiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epidemiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Epidemiology </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Epidemiology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Epidemiology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Epidemiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 United States </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Birth defect</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 46 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-46" aria-hidden="true" > 46 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aangebore_afwyking" title="Aangebore afwyking – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Aangebore afwyking" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%A8_%D8%AE%D9%84%D9%82%D9%8A" title="عيب خلقي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="عيب خلقي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Вродени заболявания – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Вродени заболявания" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uro%C4%91ena_mana" title="Urođena mana – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Urođena mana" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trastorn_cong%C3%A8nit" title="Trastorn congènit – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Trastorn congènit" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vrozen%C3%A1_nemoc" title="Vrozená nemoc – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Vrozená nemoc" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fehlbildung" title="Fehlbildung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Fehlbildung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enfermedad_cong%C3%A9nita" title="Enfermedad congénita – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Enfermedad congénita" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sortzetiko_eritasun" title="Sortzetiko eritasun – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Sortzetiko eritasun" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%B2%D8%A7%D8%AF%DB%8C" title="ناهنجاری مادرزادی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ناهنجاری مادرزادی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maladie_cong%C3%A9nitale" title="Maladie congénitale – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Maladie congénitale" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doenza_conx%C3%A9nita" title="Doenza conxénita – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Doenza conxénita" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%84%A0%EC%B2%9C_%EA%B2%B0%ED%95%A8" title="선천 결함 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="선천 결함" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AE%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Բնածին արատներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Բնածին արատներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B7" title="जन्म दोष – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="जन्म दोष" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelainan_bawaan" title="Kelainan bawaan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kelainan bawaan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malattia_congenita" title="Malattia congenita – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Malattia congenita" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%9D_%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%93" title="מום מולד – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מום מולד" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%A8%D3%A9%D1%80%D1%87%D2%AF%D2%AF_%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B8" title="Өөрчүү кемтиги – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Өөрчүү кемтиги" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosomin%C4%97s_ligos" title="Chromosominės ligos – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Chromosominės ligos" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kecacatan_kelahiran" title="Kecacatan kelahiran – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kecacatan kelahiran" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aangeboren_afwijking" title="Aangeboren afwijking – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Aangeboren afwijking" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%88%E5%A4%A9%E6%80%A7%E7%95%B0%E5%B8%B8" title="先天性異常 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="先天性異常" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medf%C3%B8dte_misdannelser" title="Medfødte misdannelser – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Medfødte misdannelser" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%86%E0%AC%9C%E0%AC%A8%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%AE_%E0%AC%A4%E0%AD%83%E0%AC%9F%E0%AC%BF" title="ଆଜନ୍ମ ତୃଟି – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ଆଜନ୍ମ ତୃଟି" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congenital_Disorder" title="Congenital Disorder – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Congenital Disorder" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%AE_%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%81%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%B8" title="ਜਨਮ ਨੁਕਸ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਜਨਮ ਨੁਕਸ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wady_wrodzone" title="Wady wrodzone – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wady wrodzone" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doen%C3%A7a_cong%C3%AAnita" title="Doença congênita – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Doença congênita" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Пороки развития – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Пороки развития" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birth_defect" title="Birth defect – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Birth defect" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birth_defect" title="Birth defect – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Birth defect" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kongenitalna_anomalija" title="Kongenitalna anomalija – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Kongenitalna anomalija" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malformacija" title="Malformacija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Malformacija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synnynn%C3%A4inen_sairaus" title="Synnynnäinen sairaus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Synnynnäinen sairaus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missbildning" title="Missbildning – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Missbildning" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about congenital disorders in humans. Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Teratology" title="Teratology">teratology</a> or <a href="/wiki/Genetic_disorder" title="Genetic disorder">genetic disorder</a>.</div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Medical condition</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox ib-medical-condition"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background:#ccc">Birth defect</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Other names</th><td class="infobox-data">Congenital disorder, congenital disease, congenital deformity, congenital anomaly<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr style="background-color: #f8f9fa;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Incomplete_Cleft_Lip.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Incomplete_Cleft_Lip.png/220px-Incomplete_Cleft_Lip.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Incomplete_Cleft_Lip.png/330px-Incomplete_Cleft_Lip.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Incomplete_Cleft_Lip.png/440px-Incomplete_Cleft_Lip.png 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="1024" /></a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">Incomplete <a href="/wiki/Cleft_lip" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleft lip">cleft lip</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Medical_specialty" title="Medical specialty">Specialty</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Medical_genetics" title="Medical genetics">Medical genetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pediatrics" title="Pediatrics">pediatrics</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Signs_and_symptoms" title="Signs and symptoms">Symptoms</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Physical_disability" title="Physical disability">Physical disability</a>, <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_disability" title="Intellectual disability">intellectual disability</a>, <a href="/wiki/Developmental_disability" title="Developmental disability">developmental disability</a><a href="#cite_note-NIH2017Def-2">[2]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Usual onset</th><td class="infobox-data">Present at birth<a href="#cite_note-NIH2017Def-2">[2]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Types</th><td class="infobox-data">Structural, functional<a href="#cite_note-NIH2017What-3">[3]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Causes</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a>, exposure to certain medications or chemicals, certain <a href="/wiki/Infection" title="Infection">infections</a> during <a href="/wiki/Pregnancy" title="Pregnancy">pregnancy</a><a href="#cite_note-NIH2017Ca-4">[4]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Risk_factor" title="Risk factor">Risk factors</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Insufficient <a href="/wiki/Folic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Folic acid">folic acid</a>, drinking <a href="/wiki/Ethanol" title="Ethanol">alcohol</a> or <a href="/wiki/Smoking" title="Smoking">smoking</a>, poorly controlled <a href="/wiki/Diabetes" title="Diabetes">diabetes</a>, mother over the age of 35<a href="#cite_note-NIH2017Risk-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-CDC2017Fact-6">[6]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Treatment</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Therapy" title="Therapy">Therapy</a>, medication, surgery, <a href="/wiki/Assistive_technology" title="Assistive technology">assistive technology</a><a href="#cite_note-NIH2017Tx-7">[7]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Frequency</th><td class="infobox-data">3% of newborns (US)<a href="#cite_note-CDC2015Epi-8">[8]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Deaths</th><td class="infobox-data">628,000 (2015)<a href="#cite_note-GBD2015De-9">[9]</a></td></tr></tbody></table> A birth defect<a href="#cite_note-10">[a]</a> is an abnormal condition that is present at <a href="/wiki/Childbirth" title="Childbirth">birth</a>, regardless of its cause.<a href="#cite_note-NIH2017Def-2">[2]</a> Birth defects may result in <a href="/wiki/Disability" title="Disability">disabilities</a> that may be <a href="/wiki/Physical_disability" title="Physical disability">physical</a>, <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_disability" title="Intellectual disability">intellectual</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Developmental_disability" title="Developmental disability">developmental</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NIH2017Def-2">[2]</a> The disabilities can range from mild to severe.<a href="#cite_note-CDC2017Fact-6">[6]</a> Birth defects are divided into two main types: structural disorders in which problems are seen with the shape of a body part and <a href="/wiki/Functional_disorder" title="Functional disorder">functional disorders</a> in which problems exist with how a body part works.<a href="#cite_note-NIH2017What-3">[3]</a> Functional disorders include <a href="/wiki/Metabolic_disorder" title="Metabolic disorder">metabolic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Degenerative_disease" title="Degenerative disease">degenerative disorders</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NIH2017What-3">[3]</a> Some birth defects include both structural and functional disorders.<a href="#cite_note-NIH2017What-3">[3]</a> Birth defects may result from <a href="/wiki/Genetic_disorder" title="Genetic disorder">genetic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Chromosome_abnormality" title="Chromosome abnormality">chromosomal disorders</a>, exposure to certain medications or chemicals, or certain <a href="/wiki/Vertically_transmitted_infection" title="Vertically transmitted infection">infections during pregnancy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NIH2017Ca-4">[4]</a> Risk factors include <a href="/wiki/Folate_deficiency" title="Folate deficiency">folate deficiency</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_drink" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcohol drink">drinking alcohol</a> or <a href="/wiki/Smoking_and_pregnancy" title="Smoking and pregnancy">smoking</a> during pregnancy, poorly controlled <a href="/wiki/Gestational_diabetes" title="Gestational diabetes">diabetes</a>, and a mother over the age of 35 years old.<a href="#cite_note-NIH2017Risk-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-CDC2017Fact-6">[6]</a> Many are believed to involve multiple factors.<a href="#cite_note-CDC2017Fact-6">[6]</a> Birth defects may be visible at birth or diagnosed by <a href="/wiki/Newborn_screening" title="Newborn screening">screening tests</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NIH2017Diag-11">[10]</a> A number of defects can be detected before birth by different <a href="/wiki/Prenatal_testing" title="Prenatal testing">prenatal tests</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NIH2017Diag-11">[10]</a> Treatment varies depending on the defect in question.<a href="#cite_note-NIH2017Tx-7">[7]</a> This may include <a href="/wiki/Therapy" title="Therapy">therapy</a>, medication, surgery, or <a href="/wiki/Assistive_technology" title="Assistive technology">assistive technology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NIH2017Tx-7">[7]</a> Birth defects affected about 96 million people as of 2015<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Birth_defect&action=edit">[update]</a>.<a href="#cite_note-GBD2015Pre-12">[11]</a> In the United States, they occur in about 3% of newborns.<a href="#cite_note-CDC2015Epi-8">[8]</a> They resulted in about 628,000 deaths in 2015, down from 751,000 in 1990.<a href="#cite_note-GBD2015De-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-GBD204-13">[12]</a> The types with the greatest numbers of deaths are <a href="/wiki/Congenital_heart_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Congenital heart disease">congenital heart disease</a> (303,000), followed by <a href="/wiki/Neural_tube_defects" class="mw-redirect" title="Neural tube defects">neural tube defects</a> (65,000).<a href="#cite_note-GBD2015De-9">[9]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification">Classification</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Birth_defect&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Classification">edit</a>]</div> Much of the language used for describing congenital conditions antedates <a href="/wiki/Gene_mapping" title="Gene mapping">genome mapping</a>, and structural conditions are often considered separately from other congenital conditions. Many metabolic conditions are now known to have subtle structural expression, and structural conditions often have genetic links. Still, congenital conditions are often classified on a structural basis, organized when possible by primary organ system affected.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primarily_structural">Primarily structural</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Birth_defect&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Primarily structural">edit</a>]</div> Several terms are used to describe congenital abnormalities. (Some of these are also used to describe noncongenital conditions, and more than one term may apply in an individual condition.) <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Terminology">Terminology</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Birth_defect&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Terminology">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>A congenital physical anomaly is an abnormality of the structure of a body part. It may or may not be perceived as a problem condition. Many, if not most, people have one or more <a href="/wiki/Minor_physical_anomalies" title="Minor physical anomalies">minor physical anomalies</a> if examined carefully. Examples of minor anomalies can include curvature of the fifth finger (<a href="/wiki/Clinodactyly" title="Clinodactyly">clinodactyly</a>), a third nipple, tiny indentations of the skin near the ears (<a href="/wiki/Preauricular_sinus_and_cyst" title="Preauricular sinus and cyst">preauricular</a> pits), shortness of the fourth <a href="/wiki/Metacarpal" class="mw-redirect" title="Metacarpal">metacarpal</a> or <a href="/wiki/Metatarsal" class="mw-redirect" title="Metatarsal">metatarsal</a> bones, or dimples over the lower spine (<a href="/wiki/Sacral_dimple" title="Sacral dimple">sacral dimples</a>). Some minor anomalies may be clues to more significant internal abnormalities.</li> <li>Birth defect is a widely used term for a congenital malformation, i.e. a congenital, physical anomaly that is recognizable at <a href="/wiki/Childbirth" title="Childbirth">birth</a>, and which is significant enough to be considered a problem. According to the <a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a> (CDC), most birth defects are believed to be caused by a complex mix of factors including genetics, environment, and behaviors,<a href="#cite_note-cdc-14">[13]</a> though many birth defects have no known cause. An example of a birth defect is <a href="/wiki/Cleft_palate" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleft palate">cleft palate</a>, which occurs during the fourth through seventh weeks of gestation.<a href="#cite_note-cdc.gov-15">[14]</a> Body tissue and special cells from each side of the head grow toward the center of the face. They join to make the face.<a href="#cite_note-cdc.gov-15">[14]</a> A cleft means a split or separation; the "roof" of the mouth is called the palate.<a href="#cite_note-16">[15]</a></li> <li>A congenital malformation is a physical anomaly that is deleterious, i.e. a structural defect perceived as a problem. A typical combination of malformations affecting more than one body part is referred to as a malformation syndrome.</li> <li>Some conditions are due to abnormal tissue development: <ul><li>A malformation is associated with a disorder of tissue development.<a href="#cite_note-isbn0-7216-1489-2-17">[16]</a> Malformations often occur in the first trimester.</li> <li>A <a href="/wiki/Dysplasia" title="Dysplasia">dysplasia</a> is a disorder at the organ level that is due to problems with tissue development.<a href="#cite_note-isbn0-7216-1489-2-17">[16]</a></li></ul></li> <li>Conditions also can arise after tissue is formed: <ul><li>A <a href="/wiki/Deformity" title="Deformity">deformation</a> is a condition arising from mechanical stress to normal tissue.<a href="#cite_note-isbn0-7216-1489-2-17">[16]</a> Deformations often occur in the second or third trimester, and can be due to <a href="/wiki/Oligohydramnios" title="Oligohydramnios">oligohydramnios</a>.</li> <li>A disruption involves breakdown of normal tissues.<a href="#cite_note-isbn0-7216-1489-2-17">[16]</a></li></ul></li> <li>When multiple effects occur in a specified order, they are known as a <a href="/wiki/Sequence_(medicine)" title="Sequence (medicine)">sequence</a>. When the order is not known, it is a <a href="/wiki/Syndrome" title="Syndrome">syndrome</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Examples_of_primarily_structural_congenital_disorders">Examples of primarily structural congenital disorders</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Birth_defect&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Examples of primarily structural congenital disorders">edit</a>]</div> A limb anomaly is called a <a href="/wiki/Dysmelia" title="Dysmelia">dysmelia</a>. These include all forms of limbs anomalies, such as <a href="/wiki/Amelia_(birth_defect)" title="Amelia (birth defect)">amelia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ectrodactyly" title="Ectrodactyly">ectrodactyly</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phocomelia" title="Phocomelia">phocomelia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polymelia" title="Polymelia">polymelia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polydactyly" title="Polydactyly">polydactyly</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syndactyly" title="Syndactyly">syndactyly</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polysyndactyly" title="Polysyndactyly">polysyndactyly</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oligodactyly" title="Oligodactyly">oligodactyly</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brachydactyly" title="Brachydactyly">brachydactyly</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dwarfism" title="Dwarfism">achondroplasia</a>, congenital <a href="/wiki/Aplasia" title="Aplasia">aplasia</a> or <a href="/wiki/Hypoplasia" title="Hypoplasia">hypoplasia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amniotic_band_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Amniotic band syndrome">amniotic band syndrome</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cleidocranial_dysostosis" title="Cleidocranial dysostosis">cleidocranial dysostosis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-18">[17]</a> <a href="/wiki/Congenital_heart_defect" title="Congenital heart defect">Congenital heart defects</a> include <a href="/wiki/Patent_ductus_arteriosus" title="Patent ductus arteriosus">patent ductus arteriosus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atrial_septal_defect" title="Atrial septal defect">atrial septal defect</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ventricular_septal_defect" title="Ventricular septal defect">ventricular septal defect</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tetralogy_of_Fallot" title="Tetralogy of Fallot">tetralogy of Fallot</a>. Congenital anomalies of the nervous system include neural tube defects such as <a href="/wiki/Spina_bifida" title="Spina bifida">spina bifida</a>, <a href="/wiki/Encephalocele" title="Encephalocele">encephalocele</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Anencephaly" title="Anencephaly">anencephaly</a>. Other congenital anomalies of the nervous system include the <a href="/wiki/Arnold%E2%80%93Chiari_malformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Arnold–Chiari malformation">Arnold–Chiari malformation</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Dandy%E2%80%93Walker_malformation" title="Dandy–Walker malformation">Dandy–Walker malformation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrocephalus" title="Hydrocephalus">hydrocephalus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Microencephaly" class="mw-redirect" title="Microencephaly">microencephaly</a>, <a href="/wiki/Megalencephaly" title="Megalencephaly">megalencephaly</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lissencephaly" title="Lissencephaly">lissencephaly</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polymicrogyria" title="Polymicrogyria">polymicrogyria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Holoprosencephaly" title="Holoprosencephaly">holoprosencephaly</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Agenesis_of_the_corpus_callosum" title="Agenesis of the corpus callosum">agenesis of the corpus callosum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-19">[18]</a> Congenital anomalies of the <a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastrointestinal system">gastrointestinal system</a> include numerous forms of <a href="/wiki/Stenosis" title="Stenosis">stenosis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Atresia" title="Atresia">atresia</a>, and perforation, such as <a href="/wiki/Gastroschisis" title="Gastroschisis">gastroschisis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-20">[19]</a> Congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract include renal parenchyma, kidneys, and urinary collecting system.<a href="#cite_note-21">[20]</a> Defects can be bilateral or unilateral, and different defects often coexist in an individual child.<a href="#cite_note-22">[21]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primarily_metabolic">Primarily metabolic</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Birth_defect&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Primarily metabolic">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Inborn_error_of_metabolism" class="mw-redirect" title="Inborn error of metabolism">Inborn error of metabolism</a></div> A congenital metabolic disease is also referred to as an <a href="/wiki/Inborn_error_of_metabolism" class="mw-redirect" title="Inborn error of metabolism">inborn error of metabolism</a>. Most of these are <a href="/wiki/Genetic_disorder#Single-gene" title="Genetic disorder">single-gene defects</a>, usually heritable. Many affect the structure of body parts, but some simply affect the function.<a href="#cite_note-23">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other">Other</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Birth_defect&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Other">edit</a>]</div> Other well-defined genetic conditions may affect the production of hormones, receptors, structural proteins, and ion channels. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Causes">Causes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Birth_defect&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Causes">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alcohol_exposure">Alcohol exposure</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Birth_defect&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Alcohol exposure">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fetal_alcohol_spectrum_disorder" title="Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder">Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder</a></div> The mother's consumption of alcohol during pregnancy can cause a continuum of various permanent birth defects: craniofacial abnormalities,<a href="#cite_note-24">[23]</a> brain damage,<a href="#cite_note-25">[24]</a> intellectual disability,<a href="#cite_note-26">[25]</a> heart disease, kidney abnormality, skeletal anomalies, ocular abnormalities.<a href="#cite_note-27">[26]</a> The prevalence of children affected is estimated at least 1% in U.S.<a href="#cite_note-28">[27]</a> as well in Canada. Very few studies have investigated the links between paternal alcohol use and offspring health.<a href="#cite_note-DeSantis-29">[28]</a> However, recent animal research has shown a correlation between paternal alcohol exposure and decreased offspring birth weight. Behavioral and cognitive disorders, including difficulties with learning and memory, hyperactivity, and lowered stress tolerance have been linked to paternal alcohol ingestion.<a href="#cite_note-30">[29]</a> The compromised stress management skills of animals whose male parent was exposed to alcohol are similar to the exaggerated responses to stress that children with <a href="/wiki/Fetal_alcohol_spectrum_disorder" title="Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder">fetal alcohol syndrome</a> display because of maternal alcohol use. These birth defects and behavioral disorders were found in cases of both long- and short-term paternal alcohol ingestion.<a href="#cite_note-Trasler-31">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-Abel-32">[31]</a> In the same animal study, paternal alcohol exposure was correlated with a significant difference in organ size and the increased risk of the offspring displaying <a href="/wiki/Ventricular_septal_defect" title="Ventricular septal defect">ventricular septal defects</a> at birth.<a href="#cite_note-Abel-32">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Toxic_substances">Toxic substances</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Birth_defect&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Toxic substances">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Developmental_toxicity" title="Developmental toxicity">Developmental toxicity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Drugs_in_pregnancy" title="Drugs in pregnancy">drugs in pregnancy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Environmental_toxicants_and_fetal_development" title="Environmental toxicants and fetal development">environmental toxicants and fetal development</a></div> Substances whose <a href="/wiki/Toxicity" title="Toxicity">toxicity</a> can cause congenital disorders are called <a href="/wiki/Teratology" title="Teratology">teratogens</a>, and include certain pharmaceutical and recreational <a href="/wiki/Drugs_in_pregnancy" title="Drugs in pregnancy">drugs in pregnancy</a>, as well as many <a href="/wiki/Environmental_toxins_in_pregnancy" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental toxins in pregnancy">environmental toxins in pregnancy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-33">[32]</a> A review published in 2010 identified six main teratogenic mechanisms associated with medication use: <a href="/wiki/Folate_antagonism" class="mw-redirect" title="Folate antagonism">folate antagonism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neural_crest_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Neural crest cell">neural crest cell</a> disruption, <a href="/wiki/Endocrine_disruption" class="mw-redirect" title="Endocrine disruption">endocrine disruption</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oxidative_stress" title="Oxidative stress">oxidative stress</a>, <a href="/wiki/Blood_vessel" title="Blood vessel">vascular</a> disruption, and specific receptor- or enzyme-mediated teratogenesis.<a href="#cite_note-34">[33]</a> An estimated 10% of all birth defects are caused by prenatal exposure to a teratogenic agent.<a href="#cite_note-isbn0-471-38225-6-35">[34]</a> These exposures include medication or drug exposures, maternal infections and diseases, and environmental and occupational exposures. Paternal smoking has also been linked to an increased risk of birth defects and childhood cancer for the offspring, where the paternal germline undergoes oxidative damage due to cigarette use.<a href="#cite_note-Zhu-36">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ji-37">[36]</a> Teratogen-caused birth defects are potentially preventable. Nearly 50% of pregnant women have been exposed to at least one medication during gestation.<a href="#cite_note-pmid7266953-38">[37]</a> During pregnancy, a woman can also be exposed to teratogens from contaminated clothing or toxins within the seminal fluid of a partner.<a href="#cite_note-anderson-39">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-Trasler-31">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-chia-40">[39]</a> An additional study found that of 200 individuals referred for genetic counseling for a teratogenic exposure, 52% were exposed to more than one potential teratogen.<a href="#cite_note-pmid3703408-41">[40]</a> The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="United States Environmental Protection Agency">United States Environmental Protection Agency</a> studied 1,065 chemical and drug substances in their ToxCast program (part of the <a href="/wiki/CompTox_Chemicals_Dashboard" title="CompTox Chemicals Dashboard">CompTox Chemicals Dashboard</a>) using <a href="/wiki/In_silico" title="In silico">in silico</a> modeling and a human <a href="/wiki/Pluripotent" class="mw-redirect" title="Pluripotent">pluripotent</a> <a href="/wiki/Stem_cell" title="Stem cell">stem cell</a>-based assay to predict <a href="/wiki/In_vivo" title="In vivo">in vivo</a> developmental intoxicants based on changes in cellular <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolism</a> following chemical exposure. Findings of the study published in 2020 were that 19% of the 1065 chemicals yielded a prediction of <a href="/wiki/Developmental_toxicity" title="Developmental toxicity">developmental toxicity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-42">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Medications_and_supplements">Medications and supplements</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Birth_defect&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Medications and supplements">edit</a>]</div> Probably, the most well-known teratogenic drug is <a href="/wiki/Thalidomide" title="Thalidomide">thalidomide</a>. It was developed near the end of the 1950s by Chemie Grünenthal as a <a href="/wiki/Hypnotic" title="Hypnotic">sleep-inducing aid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antiemetic" title="Antiemetic">antiemetic</a>. Because of its ability to prevent nausea, it was prescribed for pregnant women in almost 50 countries worldwide between 1956 and 1962.<a href="#cite_note-isbn978-80-246-1780-0-43">[42]</a> Until <a href="/wiki/William_McBride_(doctor)" title="William McBride (doctor)">William McBride</a> published the study leading to its withdrawal from the market in 1961, about 8,000 to 10,000 severely malformed children were born. The most typical disorders induced by thalidomide were reductional deformities of the long bones of the extremities. <a href="/wiki/Phocomelia" title="Phocomelia">Phocomelia</a>, otherwise a rare deformity, therefore helped to recognise the teratogenic effect of the new drug. Among other malformations caused by thalidomide were those of ears, eyes, brain, kidney, heart, and digestive and respiratory tracts; 40% of the prenatally affected children died soon after birth.<a href="#cite_note-isbn978-80-246-1780-0-43">[42]</a> As thalidomide is used today as a treatment for <a href="/wiki/Multiple_myeloma" title="Multiple myeloma">multiple myeloma</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leprosy" title="Leprosy">leprosy</a>, several births of affected children were described in spite of the strictly required use of contraception among female patients treated by it. <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_A" title="Vitamin A">Vitamin A</a> is the sole vitamin that is embryotoxic even in a therapeutic dose, for example in <a href="/wiki/Multivitamin" title="Multivitamin">multivitamins</a>, because its metabolite, <a href="/wiki/Retinoic_acid" title="Retinoic acid">retinoic acid</a>, plays an important role as a signal molecule in the development of several tissues and organs. Its natural precursor, <a href="/wiki/%CE%92-carotene" class="mw-redirect" title="Β-carotene">β-carotene</a>, is considered safe, whereas the consumption of animal liver can lead to malformation, as the liver stores lipophilic vitamins, including retinol.<a href="#cite_note-isbn978-80-246-1780-0-43">[42]</a> <a href="/wiki/Isotretinoin" title="Isotretinoin">Isotretinoin</a> (13-cis-retinoic-acid; brand name Roaccutane), vitamin A analog, which is often used to treat severe <a href="/wiki/Acne_vulgaris" class="mw-redirect" title="Acne vulgaris">acne</a>, is such a strong teratogen that just a single dose taken by a pregnant woman (even <a href="/wiki/Transdermal" title="Transdermal">transdermally</a>) may result in serious birth defects. Because of this effect, most countries have systems in place to ensure that it is not given to pregnant women and that the patient is aware of how important it is to prevent pregnancy during and at least one month after treatment. Medical guidelines also suggest that pregnant women should limit vitamin A intake to about 700 <a href="/wiki/%CE%9Cg" class="mw-redirect" title="Μg">μg</a>/day, as it has teratogenic potential when consumed in excess.<a href="#cite_note-pmid8602195-44">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid16028634-45">[44]</a> Vitamin A and similar substances can induce spontaneous abortions, premature births, defects of eyes (<a href="/wiki/Microphthalmia" title="Microphthalmia">microphthalmia</a>), ears, thymus, face deformities, and neurological (<a href="/wiki/Hydrocephalus" title="Hydrocephalus">hydrocephalus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Microcephalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Microcephalia">microcephalia</a>) and cardiovascular defects, as well as <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_disability" title="Intellectual disability">intellectual disability</a>.<a href="#cite_note-isbn978-80-246-1780-0-43">[42]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tetracycline" title="Tetracycline">Tetracycline</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic">antibiotic</a>, should never be prescribed to women of reproductive age or to children, because of its negative impact on <a href="/wiki/Bone" title="Bone">bone</a> mineralization and <a href="/wiki/Human_tooth_development" title="Human tooth development">teeth mineralization</a>. The "tetracycline teeth" have brown or grey colour as a result of a defective development of both the <a href="/wiki/Dentine" class="mw-redirect" title="Dentine">dentine</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Enamel_of_teeth" class="mw-redirect" title="Enamel of teeth">enamel of teeth</a>.<a href="#cite_note-isbn978-80-246-1780-0-43">[42]</a> Several <a href="/wiki/Anticonvulsants" class="mw-redirect" title="Anticonvulsants">anticonvulsants</a> are known to be highly teratogenic. <a href="/wiki/Phenytoin" title="Phenytoin">Phenytoin</a>, also known as diphenylhydantoin, along with <a href="/wiki/Carbamazepine" title="Carbamazepine">carbamazepine</a>, is responsible for the <a href="/wiki/Fetal_hydantoin_syndrome" title="Fetal hydantoin syndrome">fetal hydantoin syndrome</a>, which may typically include broad nose base, cleft lip and/or palate, <a href="/wiki/Microcephalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Microcephalia">microcephalia</a>, nails and fingers <a href="/wiki/Hypoplasia" title="Hypoplasia">hypoplasia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Small_for_gestational_age" title="Small for gestational age">intrauterine growth restriction</a>, and intellectual disability. <a href="/wiki/Trimethadione" title="Trimethadione">Trimethadione</a> taken during pregnancy is responsible for the <a href="/wiki/Fetal_trimethadione_syndrome" title="Fetal trimethadione syndrome">fetal trimethadione syndrome</a>, characterized by craniofacial, cardiovascular, renal, and spine malformations, along with a delay in mental and physical development. <a href="/wiki/Valproate" title="Valproate">Valproate</a> has <a href="/wiki/Antifolate" title="Antifolate">antifolate</a> effects, leading to <a href="/wiki/Neural_tube" title="Neural tube">neural tube</a> closure-related defects such as spina bifida. Lower <a href="/wiki/IQ" class="mw-redirect" title="IQ">IQ</a> and <a href="/wiki/Autism" title="Autism">autism</a> have recently also been reported as a result of intrauterine valproate exposure.<a href="#cite_note-isbn978-80-246-1780-0-43">[42]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hormonal_contraception" title="Hormonal contraception">Hormonal contraception</a> is considered harmless for the embryo. Peterka and Novotná<a href="#cite_note-isbn978-80-246-1780-0-43">[42]</a> do, however, state that synthetic <a href="/wiki/Progestin" class="mw-redirect" title="Progestin">progestins</a> used to prevent miscarriage in the past frequently caused masculinization of the outer reproductive organs of female newborns due to their <a href="/wiki/Androgen" title="Androgen">androgenic</a> activity. <a href="/wiki/Diethylstilbestrol" title="Diethylstilbestrol">Diethylstilbestrol</a> is a synthetic <a href="/wiki/Estrogen" title="Estrogen">estrogen</a> used from the 1940s to 1971, when the prenatal exposition has been linked to the <a href="/wiki/Clear-cell_adenocarcinoma_of_the_vagina" title="Clear-cell adenocarcinoma of the vagina">clear-cell adenocarcinoma of the vagina</a>. Following studies showed elevated risks for other tumors and congenital malformations of the sex organs for both sexes. All <a href="/wiki/Chemotherapy" title="Chemotherapy">cytostatics</a> are strong teratogens; <a href="/wiki/Abortion" title="Abortion">abortion</a> is usually recommended when pregnancy is discovered during or before chemotherapy. <a href="/wiki/Aminopterin" title="Aminopterin">Aminopterin</a>, a cytostatic drug with anti<a href="/wiki/Folate" title="Folate">folate</a> effect, was used during the 1950s and 1960s to induce <a href="/wiki/Therapeutic_abortion" class="mw-redirect" title="Therapeutic abortion">therapeutic abortions</a>. In some cases, the abortion did not happen, but the newborns had a fetal aminopterin syndrome consisting of growth retardation, <a href="/wiki/Craniosynostosis" title="Craniosynostosis">craniosynostosis</a>, hydrocephalus, facial dismorphities, intellectual disability, or leg deformities<a href="#cite_note-isbn978-80-246-1780-0-43">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-Aminopterin_syndrome-46">[45]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Toxic_substances_2">Toxic substances</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Birth_defect&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Toxic substances">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">Drinking water</a> is often a medium through which harmful toxins travel. Heavy metals, elements, nitrates, nitrites, and fluoride can be carried through water and cause congenital disorders.<a href="#cite_note-47">[46]</a> Nitrate, which is found mostly in drinking water from ground sources, is a powerful teratogen. A case-control study in rural Australia that was conducted following frequent reports of prenatal mortality and congenital malformations found that those who drank the nitrate-containing groundwater, as opposed to rain water, ran the risk of giving birth to children with central nervous system disorders, muscoskeletal defects, and cardiac defects.<a href="#cite_note-48">[47]</a> Chlorinated and aromatic solvents such as benzene and trichloroethylene sometimes enter the water supply due to oversights in waste disposal. A case-control study on the area found that by 1986, leukemia was occurring in the children of Woburn, Massachusetts, at a rate that was four times the expected rate of incidence. Further investigation revealed a connection between the high occurrence of leukemia and an error in water distribution that delivered water to the town with significant contamination with manufacturing waste containing trichloroethylene.<a href="#cite_note-49">[48]</a> As an <a href="/wiki/Endocrine_disruptor" title="Endocrine disruptor">endocrine disruptor</a>, <a href="/wiki/DDT" title="DDT">DDT</a> was shown to induce <a href="/wiki/Miscarriage" title="Miscarriage">miscarriages</a>, interfere with the development of the <a href="/wiki/Female_reproductive_system" title="Female reproductive system">female reproductive system</a>, cause the <a href="/wiki/Congenital_hypothyroidism" title="Congenital hypothyroidism">congenital hypothyroidism</a>, and suspectably <a href="/wiki/Childhood_obesity" title="Childhood obesity">childhood obesity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-isbn978-80-246-1780-0-43">[42]</a> Fluoride, when transmitted through water at high levels, can also act as a teratogen. Two reports on fluoride exposure from China, which were controlled to account for the education level of parents, found that children born to parents who were exposed to 4.12 ppm fluoride grew to have IQs that were, on average, seven points lower than their counterparts whose parents consumed water that contained 0.91 ppm fluoride. In studies conducted on rats, higher fluoride in drinking water led to increased acetylcholinesterase levels, which can alter prenatal brain development. The most significant effects were noted at a level of 5 ppm.<a href="#cite_note-50">[49]</a> The fetus is even more susceptible to damage from carbon monoxide intake, which can be harmful when inhaled during pregnancy, usually through first- or second-hand tobacco smoke. The concentration of carbon monoxide in the infant born to a nonsmoking mother is around 2%, and this concentration drastically increases to a range of 6%–9% if the mother smoked tobacco. Other possible sources of prenatal carbon monoxide intoxication are exhaust gas from combustion motors, use of dichloromethane (paint thinner, varnish removers) in enclosed areas, defective gas water heaters, indoor barbeques, open flames in poorly ventilated areas, and atmospheric exposure in highly polluted areas.<a href="#cite_note-51">[50]</a> Exposure to carbon monoxide at toxic levels during the first two trimesters of pregnancy can lead to intrauterine growth restriction, leading to a baby who has stunted growth and is born smaller than 90% of other babies at the same gestational age. The effect of chronic exposure to carbon monoxide can depend on the stage of pregnancy in which the mother is exposed. Exposure during the embryonic stage can have neurological consequences, such as telencephalic dysgenesis, behavioral difficulties during infancy, and reduction of cerebellum volume. Also, possible skeletal defects could result from exposure to carbon monoxide during the embryonic stage, such as hand and foot malformations, <a href="/wiki/Hip_dysplasia" title="Hip dysplasia">hip dysplasia</a>, hip subluxation, agenesis of a limb, and inferior maxillary atresia with <a href="/wiki/Glossoptosis" title="Glossoptosis">glossoptosis</a>. Also, carbon monoxide exposure between days 35 and 40 of embryonic development can lead to an increased risk of the child developing a cleft palate. Exposure to carbon monoxide or polluted ozone exposure can also lead to cardiac defects of the ventrical septal, pulmonary artery, and heart valves.<a href="#cite_note-52">[51]</a> The effects of carbon monoxide exposure are decreased later in fetal development during the fetal stage, but they may still lead to <a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypoxia (medical)">anoxic</a> <a href="/wiki/Encephalopathy" title="Encephalopathy">encephalopathy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-53">[52]</a> Industrial pollution can also lead to congenital defects.<a href="#cite_note-54">[53]</a> Over a period of 37 years, the <a href="/wiki/Chisso" title="Chisso">Chisso</a> Corporation, a petrochemical and plastics company, contaminated the waters of <a href="/wiki/Minamata_Bay" title="Minamata Bay">Minamata Bay</a> with an estimated 27 tons of <a href="/wiki/Methylmercury" title="Methylmercury">methylmercury</a>, contaminating the local water supply. This led many people in the area to develop what became known as the "<a href="/wiki/Minamata_disease" title="Minamata disease">Minamata disease</a>". Because methylmercury is a teratogen, the <a href="/wiki/Mercury_poisoning" title="Mercury poisoning">mercury poisoning</a> of those residing by the bay resulted in neurological defects in the offspring. Infants exposed to mercury poisoning in utero showed predispositions to <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_palsy" title="Cerebral palsy">cerebral palsy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ataxia" title="Ataxia">ataxia</a>, inhibited psychomotor development, and intellectual disability.<a href="#cite_note-55">[54]</a> Landfill sites have been shown to have adverse effects on fetal development. Extensive research has shown that landfills have several negative effects on babies born to mothers living near landfill sites: low birth weight, birth defects, spontaneous abortion, and fetal and infant mortality. Studies done around the <a href="/wiki/Love_Canal" title="Love Canal">Love Canal</a> site near Niagara Falls and the <a href="/wiki/Lipari_Landfill" title="Lipari Landfill">Lipari Landfill</a> in New Jersey have shown a higher proportion of low birth-weight babies than communities farther away from landfills. A study done in California showed a positive correlation between time and quantity of dumping and low birth weights and neonatal deaths. A study in the United Kingdom showed a correlation between pregnant women living near landfill sites and an increased risk of congenital disorders, such as neural tube defects, <a href="/wiki/Hypospadias" title="Hypospadias">hypospadias</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epispadia" class="mw-redirect" title="Epispadia">epispadia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Abdominal_wall_defects" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdominal wall defects">abdominal wall defects</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Gastroschisis" title="Gastroschisis">gastroschisis</a> and exomphalos. A study conducted on a Welsh community also showed an increased incidence of gastroschisis. Another study on 21 European hazardous-waste sites showed that those living within 3 km had an increased risk of giving birth to infants with birth defects and that as distance from the land increased, the risk decreased. These birth defects included neural tube defects, malformations of the cardiac septa, anomalies of arteries and veins, and chromosomal anomalies.<a href="#cite_note-56">[55]</a> Looking at communities that live near landfill sites brings up environmental justice. A vast majority of sites are located near poor, mostly black, communities. For example, between the early 1920s and 1978, about 25% of Houston's population was black. However, over 80% of landfills and incinerators during this time were located in these black communities.<a href="#cite_note-57">[56]</a> Another issue regarding <a href="/wiki/Environmental_justice" title="Environmental justice">environmental justice</a> is <a href="/wiki/Lead_poisoning" title="Lead poisoning">lead poisoning</a>. A fetus exposed to lead during the pregnancy can result in learning difficulties and slowed growth. Some paints (before 1978) and pipes contain lead. Therefore, pregnant women who live in homes with lead paint inhale the dust containing lead, leading to lead exposure in the fetus. When lead pipes are used for drinking water and cooking water, this water is ingested, along with the lead, exposing the fetus to this toxin. This issue is more prevalent in poorer communities because more well-off families are able to afford to have their homes repainted and pipes renovated.<a href="#cite_note-58">[57]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Endometriosis">Endometriosis</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Birth_defect&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Endometriosis">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Endometriosis" title="Endometriosis">Endometriosis</a></div> Endometriosis can impact a woman's <a href="/wiki/Fetus" title="Fetus">fetus</a>, causing a 30% higher risk for congenital malformations and a 50% higher risk of <a href="/wiki/Neonates" class="mw-redirect" title="Neonates">neonates</a> being under-sized for their gestational age.<a href="#cite_note-PMID28181672-59">[58]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Smoking">Smoking</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Birth_defect&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Smoking">edit</a>]</div> Paternal smoking prior to conception has been linked with the increased risk of congenital abnormalities in offspring.<a href="#cite_note-DeSantis-29">[28]</a> Smoking causes DNA mutations in the germline of the father, which can be inherited by the offspring. Cigarette smoke acts as a chemical mutagen on germ cell DNA. The germ cells suffer oxidative damage, and the effects can be seen in altered mRNA production, infertility issues, and side effects in the embryonic and fetal stages of development. This <a href="/wiki/Oxidative_stress" title="Oxidative stress">oxidative damage</a> may result in epigenetic or genetic modifications of the father's germline. Fetal <a href="/wiki/Lymphocyte" title="Lymphocyte">lymphocytes</a> have been damaged as a result of a father's smoking habits prior to conception.<a href="#cite_note-Ji-37">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-anderson-39">[38]</a> Correlations between paternal smoking and the increased risk of offspring developing childhood cancers (including acute <a href="/wiki/Leukemia" title="Leukemia">leukemia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brain_tumors" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain tumors">brain tumors</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lymphoma" title="Lymphoma">lymphoma</a>) before age five have been established. Little is currently known about how paternal smoking damages the fetus, and what window of time in which the father smokes is most harmful to offspring.<a href="#cite_note-Ji-37">[36]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Infections">Infections</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Birth_defect&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Infections">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Vertically_transmitted_infection" title="Vertically transmitted infection">Vertically transmitted infection</a></div> A <a href="/wiki/Vertically_transmitted_infection" title="Vertically transmitted infection">vertically transmitted infection</a> is an <a href="/wiki/Infection" title="Infection">infection</a> caused by <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a>, or in rare cases, <a href="/wiki/Parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasite">parasites</a> <a href="/wiki/Transmission_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission (medicine)">transmitted</a> directly from the mother to an <a href="/wiki/Embryo" title="Embryo">embryo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fetus" title="Fetus">fetus</a>, or baby during pregnancy or childbirth.<a href="#cite_note-60">[59]</a> Congenital disorders were initially believed to be the result of only hereditary factors. However, in the early 1940s, Australian pediatric ophthalmologist <a href="/wiki/Norman_Gregg" title="Norman Gregg">Norman Gregg</a> began recognizing a pattern in which the infants arriving at his surgery were developing congenital cataracts at a higher rate than those who developed it from hereditary factors.<a href="#cite_note-61">[60]</a> On October 15, 1941, Gregg delivered a paper that explained his findings-68 out of the 78 children with congenital cataracts had been exposed in utero to rubella due to an outbreak in Australian army camps. These findings confirmed, to Gregg, that, in fact, environmental causes for congenital disorders could exist. <a href="/wiki/Rubella" title="Rubella">Rubella</a> is known to cause abnormalities of the eye, internal ear, heart, and sometimes the teeth. More specifically, fetal exposure to rubella during weeks five to ten of development (the sixth week particularly) can cause <a href="/wiki/Cataracts" class="mw-redirect" title="Cataracts">cataracts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Microphthalmia" title="Microphthalmia">microphthalmia</a> in the eyes. If the mother is infected with rubella during the ninth week, a crucial week for internal ear development, destruction of the <a href="/wiki/Organ_of_Corti" title="Organ of Corti">organ of Corti</a> can occur, causing deafness. In the heart, the <a href="/wiki/Ductus_arteriosus" title="Ductus arteriosus">ductus arteriosus</a> can remain after birth, leading to hypertension. Rubella can also lead to atrial and ventricular septal defects in the heart. If exposed to rubella in the second trimester, the fetus can develop central nervous system malformations. However, because infections of rubella may remain undetected, misdiagnosed, or unrecognized in the mother, and/or some abnormalities are not evident until later in the child's life, precise incidence of birth defects due to rubella are not entirely known. The timing of the mother's infection during fetal development determines the risk and type of birth defect. As the embryo develops, the risk of abnormalities decreases. If exposed to the rubella virus during the first four weeks, the risk of malformations is 47%. Exposure during weeks five through eight creates a 22% chance, while weeks 9–12, a 7% chance exists, followed by 6% if the exposure is during the 13th-16th weeks. Exposure during the first eight weeks of development can also lead to premature birth and fetal death. These numbers are calculated from immediate inspection of the infant after birth. Therefore, mental defects are not accounted for in the percentages because they are not evident until later in the child's life. If they were to be included, these numbers would be much higher.<a href="#cite_note-Langman's_Medical_Embryology-62">[61]</a> Other infectious agents include <a href="/wiki/Cytomegalovirus" title="Cytomegalovirus">cytomegalovirus</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Herpes_simplex_virus" title="Herpes simplex virus">herpes simplex virus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hyperthermia" title="Hyperthermia">hyperthermia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Toxoplasmosis" title="Toxoplasmosis">toxoplasmosis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Syphilis" title="Syphilis">syphilis</a>. Maternal exposure to cytomegalovirus can cause <a href="/wiki/Microcephaly" title="Microcephaly">microcephaly</a>, cerebral calcifications, blindness, <a href="/wiki/Chorioretinitis" title="Chorioretinitis">chorioretinitis</a> (which can cause blindness), <a href="/wiki/Hepatosplenomegaly" title="Hepatosplenomegaly">hepatosplenomegaly</a>, and meningoencephalitis in fetuses.<a href="#cite_note-Langman's_Medical_Embryology-62">[61]</a> Microcephaly is a disorder in which the fetus has an atypically small head,<a href="#cite_note-63">[62]</a> cerebral calcifications means certain areas of the brain have atypical calcium deposits,<a href="#cite_note-64">[63]</a> and meningoencephalitis is the enlargement of the brain. All three disorders cause abnormal brain function or intellectual disability. Hepatosplenomegaly is the enlargement of the liver and spleen which causes digestive problems.<a href="#cite_note-65">[64]</a> It can also cause some <a href="/wiki/Kernicterus" title="Kernicterus">kernicterus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Petechiae" class="mw-redirect" title="Petechiae">petechiae</a>. Kernicterus causes yellow pigmentation of the skin, brain damage, and deafness.<a href="#cite_note-66">[65]</a> Petechaie is when the capillaries bleed resulting in red/purple spots on the skin.<a href="#cite_note-67">[66]</a> However, cytomegalovirus is often fatal in the embryo. The <a href="/wiki/Zika_virus" title="Zika virus">Zika virus</a> can also be transmitted from the pregnant mother to her baby and cause microcephaly. The herpes simplex virus can cause <a href="/wiki/Microcephaly" title="Microcephaly">microcephaly</a>, microphthalmus (abnormally small eyeballs),<a href="#cite_note-68">[67]</a> retinal dysplasia, <a href="/wiki/Hepatosplenomegaly" title="Hepatosplenomegaly">hepatosplenomegaly</a>, and intellectual disability.<a href="#cite_note-Langman's_Medical_Embryology-62">[61]</a> Both microphthalmus and retinal dysplasia can cause blindness. However, the most common symptom in infants is an inflammatory response that develops during the first three weeks of life.<a href="#cite_note-Langman's_Medical_Embryology-62">[61]</a> Hyperthermia causes <a href="/wiki/Anencephaly" title="Anencephaly">anencephaly</a>, which is when part of the brain and skull are absent in the infant.<a href="#cite_note-Langman's_Medical_Embryology-62">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-69">[68]</a> Mother exposure to toxoplasmosis can cause cerebral calcification, hydrocephalus (causes mental disabilities),<a href="#cite_note-70">[69]</a> and intellectual disability in infants. Other birth abnormalities have been reported as well, such as chorioretinitis, microphthalmus, and ocular defects. Syphilis causes congenital deafness, intellectual disability, and diffuse fibrosis in organs, such as the liver and lungs, if the embryo is exposed.<a href="#cite_note-Langman's_Medical_Embryology-62">[61]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Malnutrition">Malnutrition</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Birth_defect&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Malnutrition">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Nutrition_and_pregnancy" title="Nutrition and pregnancy">Nutrition and pregnancy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Folate_deficiency" title="Folate deficiency">folate deficiency</a></div> For example, a lack of <a href="/wiki/Folic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Folic acid">folic acid</a>, a B vitamin, in the diet of a mother can cause cellular <a href="/wiki/Neural_tube" title="Neural tube">neural tube</a> deformities that result in spina bifida. Congenital disorders such as a neural tube deformity can be prevented by 72% if the mother consumes 4 mg of folic acid before the conception and after twelve weeks of pregnancy.<a href="#cite_note-example1-71">[70]</a> Folic acid, or vitamin B9, aids the development of the foetal nervous system.<a href="#cite_note-example1-71">[70]</a> Studies with mice have found that food deprivation of the male mouse prior to conception leads to the offspring displaying significantly lower blood glucose levels.<a href="#cite_note-anderson2-72">[71]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Physical_restraint">Physical restraint</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Birth_defect&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Physical restraint">edit</a>]</div> External physical shocks or constraints due to growth in a restricted space may result in unintended deformation or separation of cellular structures resulting in an abnormal final shape or damaged structures unable to function as expected. An example is <a href="/wiki/Potter_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Potter syndrome">Potter syndrome</a> due to <a href="/wiki/Oligohydramnios" title="Oligohydramnios">oligohydramnios</a>. This finding is important for future understanding of how genetics may predispose individuals for diseases such as obesity, diabetes, and cancer.<a href="#cite_note-73">[72]</a> For multicellular organisms that develop in a <a href="/wiki/Womb" class="mw-redirect" title="Womb">womb</a>, the physical interference or presence of other similarly developing organisms such as <a href="/wiki/Twins" class="mw-redirect" title="Twins">twins</a> can result in the two cellular masses being integrated into a larger whole, with the combined cells attempting to continue to develop in a manner that satisfies the intended growth patterns of both cell masses.<a href="#cite_note-74">[73]</a> The two cellular masses can compete with each other, and may either duplicate or merge various structures. This results in conditions such as <a href="/wiki/Conjoined_twins" title="Conjoined twins">conjoined twins</a>, and the resulting merged organism may die at birth when it must leave the life-sustaining environment of the womb and must attempt to sustain its biological processes independently. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genetics">Genetics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Birth_defect&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Genetics">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Genetic_disorder" title="Genetic disorder">Genetic disorder</a></div> Genetic causes of birth defects include <a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">inheritance</a> of abnormal <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a> from the mother or the father, as well as new <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutations</a> in one of the <a href="/wiki/Germ_cell" title="Germ cell">germ cells</a> that gave rise to the fetus. Male germ cells mutate at a much faster rate than female germ cells, and as the father ages, the DNA of the germ cells mutates quickly.<a href="#cite_note-Zhu-36">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sartorius-75">[74]</a> If an egg is fertilized with sperm that has damaged DNA, a possibility exists that the fetus could develop abnormally.<a href="#cite_note-Sartorius-75">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-Savitz-76">[75]</a> Genetic disorders are all congenital (present at birth), though they may not be expressed or recognized until later in life. Genetic disorders may be grouped into single-gene defects, multiple-gene disorders, or <a href="/wiki/Chromosome_abnormality" title="Chromosome abnormality">chromosomal defects</a>. Single-gene defects may arise from abnormalities of both copies of an <a href="/wiki/Autosome" title="Autosome">autosomal</a> gene (a <a href="/wiki/Dominance_(genetics)#Recessive_allele" title="Dominance (genetics)">recessive</a> disorder) or of only one of the two copies (a <a href="/wiki/Dominance_(genetics)#Dominant_allele" title="Dominance (genetics)">dominant</a> disorder). Some conditions result from deletions or abnormalities of a few genes located contiguously on a chromosome. Chromosomal disorders involve the loss or duplication of larger portions of a chromosome (or an entire chromosome) containing hundreds of genes. Large chromosomal abnormalities always produce effects on many different body parts and organ systems. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Defective_sperm">Defective sperm</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Birth_defect&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Defective sperm">edit</a>]</div> Non-genetic defects in sperm cells, such as deformed <a href="/wiki/Centriole" title="Centriole">centrioles</a> and other components in the tail and neck of the sperm which are important for the embryonic development, may result in defects.<a href="#cite_note-77">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[77]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Socioeconomics">Socioeconomics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Birth_defect&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Socioeconomics">edit</a>]</div> A low <a href="/wiki/Socioeconomic_status" title="Socioeconomic status">socioeconomic status</a> in a deprived neighborhood may include exposure to "environmental stressors and risk factors".<a href="#cite_note-Graaf-79">[78]</a> Socioeconomic inequalities are commonly measured by the Cartairs-Morris score, Index of Multiple Deprivation, Townsend deprivation index, and the Jarman score.<a href="#cite_note-Vos-80">[79]</a> The Jarman score, for example, considers "unemployment, overcrowding, single parents, under-fives, elderly living alone, ethnicity, low social class and residential mobility".<a href="#cite_note-Vos-80">[79]</a> In Vos' meta-analysis these indices are used to view the effect of low SES neighborhoods on maternal health. In the meta-analysis, data from individual studies were collected from 1985 up until 2008.<a href="#cite_note-Vos-80">[79]</a> Vos concludes that a correlation exists between prenatal adversities and deprived neighborhoods.<a href="#cite_note-Vos-80">[79]</a> Other studies have shown that low SES is closely associated with the development of the fetus in utero and growth retardation.<a href="#cite_note-Bradley_and_Corwyn-81">[80]</a> Studies also suggest that children born in low SES families are "likely to be born prematurely, at low birth weight, or with asphyxia, a birth defect, a disability, fetal alcohol syndrome, or AIDS".<a href="#cite_note-Bradley_and_Corwyn-81">[80]</a> Bradley and Corwyn also suggest that congenital disorders arise from the mother's lack of nutrition, a poor lifestyle, maternal substance abuse and "living in a neighborhood that contains hazards affecting fetal development (toxic waste dumps)".<a href="#cite_note-Bradley_and_Corwyn-81">[80]</a> In a meta-analysis that viewed how inequalities influenced maternal health, it was suggested that deprived neighborhoods often promoted behaviors such as smoking, drug and alcohol use.<a href="#cite_note-Graaf-79">[78]</a> After controlling for socioeconomic factors and ethnicity, several individual studies demonstrated an association with outcomes such as perinatal mortality and preterm birth.<a href="#cite_note-Graaf-79">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radiation">Radiation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Birth_defect&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Radiation">edit</a>]</div> For the survivors of the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombing_of_Hiroshima" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic bombing of Hiroshima">atomic bombing of Hiroshima</a> and <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombing_of_Nagasaki" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic bombing of Nagasaki">Nagasaki</a>, who are known as the <a href="/wiki/Hibakusha" title="Hibakusha">Hibakusha</a>, no statistically demonstrable increase of birth defects/congenital malformations was found among their later conceived children, or found in the later conceived children of cancer survivors who had previously received <a href="/wiki/Radiotherapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiotherapy">radiotherapy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-82">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-books.google.ie-84">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-85">[84]</a> The surviving women of Hiroshima and Nagasaki who were able to conceive, though exposed to substantial amounts of radiation, later had children with no higher incidence of abnormalities/birth defects than in the Japanese population as a whole.<a href="#cite_note-86">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-87">[86]</a> Relatively few studies have researched the effects of paternal radiation exposure on offspring. Following the <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl" title="Chernobyl">Chernobyl</a> disaster, it was assumed in the 1990s that the germ line of irradiated fathers suffered <a href="/wiki/Minisatellite" title="Minisatellite">minisatellite</a> mutations in the DNA, which was inherited by descendants.<a href="#cite_note-Trasler-31">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-dubrova-88">[87]</a> More recently, however, the World Health Organization states, "children conceived before or after their father's exposure showed no statistically significant differences in mutation frequencies".<a href="#cite_note-89">[88]</a> This <a href="/wiki/Statistically_insignificant" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistically insignificant">statistically insignificant</a> increase was also seen by independent researchers analyzing the children of the <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_liquidators" title="Chernobyl liquidators">liquidators</a>.<a href="#cite_note-90">[89]</a> Animal studies have shown that incomparably massive doses of X-ray irradiation of male mice resulted in birth defects of the offspring.<a href="#cite_note-anderson-39">[38]</a> In the 1980s, a relatively high prevalence of pediatric leukemia cases in children living near a nuclear processing plant in West Cumbria, UK, led researchers to investigate whether the cancer was a result of paternal radiation exposure. A significant association between paternal irradiation and offspring cancer was found, but further research areas close to other nuclear processing plants did not produce the same results.<a href="#cite_note-anderson-39">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-Trasler-31">[30]</a> Later this was determined to be the <a href="/wiki/List_of_cancer_clusters" title="List of cancer clusters">Seascale cluster</a> in which the leading hypothesis is the influx of foreign workers, who have a different rate of leukemia within their race than the British average, resulted in the observed cluster of 6 children more than expected around Cumbria.<a href="#cite_note-91">[90]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Parent's_age">Parent's age</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Birth_defect&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Parent's age">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Advanced_maternal_age" title="Advanced maternal age">Advanced maternal age</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paternal_age_effect" title="Paternal age effect">Paternal age effect</a></div> Certain birth complications can occur more often in <a href="/wiki/Advanced_maternal_age" title="Advanced maternal age">advanced maternal age</a> (greater than 35 years). Complications include fetal growth restriction, preeclampsia, placental abruption, pre-mature births, and stillbirth. These complications not only may put the child at risk, but also the mother.<a href="#cite_note-92">[91]</a> The effects of the father's age on offspring are not yet well understood and are studied far less extensively than the effects of the mother's age.<a href="#cite_note-olshan-93">[92]</a> Fathers contribute proportionally more DNA mutations to their offspring via their germ cells than the mother, with the paternal age governing how many mutations are passed on. This is because, as humans age, male germ cells acquire mutations at a much faster rate than female germ cells.<a href="#cite_note-Zhu-36">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-anderson-39">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sartorius-75">[74]</a> Around a 5% increase in the incidence of <a href="/wiki/Septal_defect" class="mw-redirect" title="Septal defect">ventricular septal defects</a>, atrial septal defects, and <a href="/wiki/Patent_ductus_arteriosus" title="Patent ductus arteriosus">patent ductus arteriosus</a> in offspring has been found to be correlated with advanced paternal age. Advanced paternal age has also been linked to increased risk of <a href="/wiki/Achondroplasia" title="Achondroplasia">achondroplasia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Apert_syndrome" title="Apert syndrome">Apert syndrome</a>. Offspring born to fathers under the age of 20 show increased risk of being affected by patent ductus arteriosus, ventricular septal defects, and the <a href="/wiki/Tetralogy_of_Fallot" title="Tetralogy of Fallot">tetralogy of Fallot</a>. It is hypothesized that this may be due to environmental exposures or lifestyle choices.<a href="#cite_note-olshan-93">[92]</a> Research has found that there is a correlation between advanced paternal age and risk of birth defects such as <a href="/wiki/Dysmelia" title="Dysmelia">limb anomalies</a>, syndromes involving multiple systems, and <a href="/wiki/Down_syndrome" title="Down syndrome">Down syndrome</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Sartorius-75">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zhu-36">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-yang-94">[93]</a> Recent studies have concluded that 5-9% of Down syndrome cases are due to paternal effects, but these findings are controversial.<a href="#cite_note-Sartorius-75">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-Savitz-76">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zhu-36">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-wiener-95">[94]</a> There is concrete evidence that advanced paternal age is associated with the increased likelihood that a mother will have a <a href="/wiki/Miscarriage" title="Miscarriage">miscarriage</a> or that <a href="/wiki/Perinatal_mortality" title="Perinatal mortality">fetal death</a> will occur.<a href="#cite_note-Sartorius-75">[74]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Unknown">Unknown</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Birth_defect&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Unknown">edit</a>]</div> Although significant progress has been made in identifying the etiology of some birth defects, approximately 65% have no known or identifiable cause.<a href="#cite_note-isbn0-471-38225-6-35">[34]</a> These are referred to as sporadic, a term that implies an unknown cause, random occurrence regardless of maternal living conditions,<a href="#cite_note-pmid10960809-96">[95]</a> and a low recurrence risk for future children. For 20-25% of anomalies there seems to be a "multifactorial" cause, meaning a complex interaction of multiple minor genetic anomalies with environmental risk factors. Another 10–13% of anomalies have a purely environmental cause (e.g. infections, illness, or drug abuse in the mother). Only 12–25% of anomalies have a purely genetic cause. Of these, the majority are <a href="/wiki/Chromosomal_anomalies" class="mw-redirect" title="Chromosomal anomalies">chromosomal anomalies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-KAF473-97">[96]</a> Congenital disorders are not limited to humans and can be found in a variety of other species, including cattle. One such condition is called schistosomus reflexus and is defined by spinal inversion, exposure of abdominal viscera, and limb abnormalities.<a href="#cite_note-98">[97]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prevention">Prevention</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Birth_defect&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Prevention">edit</a>]</div> Folate supplements decrease the risk of neural tube defects. Tentative evidence supports the role of <a href="/wiki/L-arginine" class="mw-redirect" title="L-arginine">L-arginine</a> in decreasing the risk of <a href="/wiki/Intrauterine_growth_restriction" title="Intrauterine growth restriction">intrauterine growth restriction</a>.<a href="#cite_note-99">[98]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Screening">Screening</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Birth_defect&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Screening">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Newborn_screening" title="Newborn screening">Newborn screening</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Newborn_screening" title="Newborn screening">Newborn screening tests</a> were introduced in the early 1960s and initially dealt with just two disorders. Since then <a href="/wiki/Tandem_mass_spectrometry" title="Tandem mass spectrometry">tandem mass spectrometry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gas_chromatography%E2%80%93mass_spectrometry" title="Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry">gas chromatography–mass spectrometry</a>, and DNA analysis has made it possible for a much larger range of disorders to be screened. Newborn screening mostly measures metabolite and enzyme activity using a dried blood spot sample.<a href="#cite_note-Simonsen-100">[99]</a> Screening tests are carried out in order to detect serious disorders that may be treatable to some extent.<a href="#cite_note-Wilcken-101">[100]</a> Early diagnosis makes possible the readiness of therapeutic dietary information, enzyme replacement therapy and organ transplants.<a href="#cite_note-Ezgu-102">[101]</a> Different countries support the screening for a number of metabolic disorders (<a href="/wiki/Inborn_errors_of_metabolism" title="Inborn errors of metabolism">inborn errors of metabolism</a> (IEM)), and genetic disorders including <a href="/wiki/Cystic_fibrosis" title="Cystic fibrosis">cystic fibrosis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Duchenne_muscular_dystrophy" title="Duchenne muscular dystrophy">Duchenne muscular dystrophy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Wilcken-101">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-DMD-103">[102]</a> Tandem mass spectroscopy can also be used for IEM, and investigation of sudden infant death, and shaken baby syndrome.<a href="#cite_note-Wilcken-101">[100]</a> Screening can also be carried out <a href="/wiki/Prenatal_testing" title="Prenatal testing">prenatally</a> and can include <a href="/wiki/Obstetric_ultrasonography" title="Obstetric ultrasonography">obstetric ultrasonography</a> to give scans such as the <a href="/wiki/Nuchal_scan" title="Nuchal scan">nuchal scan</a>. <a href="/wiki/3D_ultrasound" title="3D ultrasound">3D ultrasound</a> scans can give detailed information of structural anomalies. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Birth_defect&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Epidemiology">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Congenital_anomalies_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Congenital_anomalies_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg/260px-Congenital_anomalies_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Congenital_anomalies_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg/390px-Congenital_anomalies_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Congenital_anomalies_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg/520px-Congenital_anomalies_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="940" data-file-height="415" /></a><figcaption>Congenital anomalies deaths per million persons in 2012: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col div-col-small" style="column-width: 10em;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  0–26</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  27–34</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  35–46</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  47–72</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  73–91</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  92–111</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  112–134</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  135–155</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  156–176</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  177–396</div></div></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Congenital_anomalies_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Congenital_anomalies_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg/260px-Congenital_anomalies_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Congenital_anomalies_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg/390px-Congenital_anomalies_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Congenital_anomalies_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg/520px-Congenital_anomalies_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="940" data-file-height="415" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Disability-adjusted_life_year" title="Disability-adjusted life year">Disability-adjusted life year</a> for congenital anomalies per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004:<a href="#cite_note-104">[103]</a><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col div-col-small" style="column-width: 10em;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  no data</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  less than 160</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  160–240</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  240–320</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  320–400</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  400–480</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  480–560</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  560–640</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  640–720</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  720–800</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  800–900</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  900–950</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  more than 950</div> </div></figcaption></figure> Congenital anomalies resulted in about 632,000 deaths per year in 2013 down from 751,000 in 1990.<a href="#cite_note-GBD204-13">[12]</a> The types with the greatest death are <a href="/wiki/Congenital_heart_defect" title="Congenital heart defect">congenital heart defects</a> (323,000), followed by <a href="/wiki/Neural_tube_defects" class="mw-redirect" title="Neural tube defects">neural tube defects</a> (69,000).<a href="#cite_note-GBD204-13">[12]</a> Many studies have found that the frequency of occurrence of certain congenital malformations depends on the sex of the child (table).<a href="#cite_note-105">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-107">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-108">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cui-109">[108]</a> For example, pyloric stenosis occurs more often in males while congenital hip dislocation is four to five times more likely to occur in females. Among children with one kidney, there are approximately twice as many males, whereas among children with three kidneys there are approximately 2.5 times more females. The same pattern is observed among infants with excessive number of ribs, vertebrae, teeth and other organs which in a process of evolution have undergone reduction—among them there are more females. Contrarily, among the infants with their scarcity, there are more males. Anencephaly is shown to occur approximately twice as frequently in females.<a href="#cite_note-WHO_reports-110">[109]</a> The number of boys born with 6 fingers is two times higher than the number of girls.<a href="#cite_note-111">[110]</a> Now various techniques are available to detect congenital anomalies in fetus before birth.<a href="#cite_note-112">[111]</a> About 3% of newborns have a "major physical anomaly", meaning a physical anomaly that has cosmetic or functional significance.<a href="#cite_note-113">[112]</a> Physical congenital abnormalities are the leading cause of infant mortality in the United States, accounting for more than 20% of all infant deaths. Seven to ten percent of all children[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] will require extensive medical care to diagnose or treat a birth defect.<a href="#cite_note-pmid2468064-114">[113]</a> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable"> <caption>The sex ratio of patients with congenital malformations </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Congenital anomaly</th> <th>Sex ratio, ♂♂:♀♀ </th></tr> <tr> <td>Defects with female predominance</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Congenital hip dislocation</td> <td>1 : 5.2;<a href="#cite_note-Rajewski-115">[114]</a> 1 : 5;<a href="#cite_note-Montagu-116">[115]</a> 1 : 8;<a href="#cite_note-Cui-109">[108]</a> 1 : 3.7<a href="#cite_note-Riley,_Halliday-117">[116]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cleft_lip_and_palate" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleft lip and palate">Cleft palate</a></td> <td>1 : 3<a href="#cite_note-Montagu-116">[115]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Anencephaly" title="Anencephaly">Anencephaly</a></td> <td>1 : 1.9;<a href="#cite_note-Rajewski-115">[114]</a> 1 : 2<a href="#cite_note-WHO_reports-110">[109]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Craniocele</td> <td>1 : 1.8<a href="#cite_note-Rajewski-115">[114]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Aplasia of lung</td> <td>1 : 1.51<a href="#cite_note-Rajewski-115">[114]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Spinal herniation</td> <td>1 : 1.4<a href="#cite_note-Rajewski-115">[114]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Diverticulum of the esophagus</td> <td>1 : 1.4<a href="#cite_note-Rajewski-115">[114]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Stomach</td> <td>1 : 1.4<a href="#cite_note-Rajewski-115">[114]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Neutral defects</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Hypoplasia of the tibia and femur</td> <td>1 : 1.2<a href="#cite_note-Rajewski-115">[114]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Spina_bifida" title="Spina bifida">Spina bifida</a></td> <td>1 : 1.2<a href="#cite_note-Riley,_Halliday-117">[116]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Atresia of small intestine</td> <td>1 : 1<a href="#cite_note-Rajewski-115">[114]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Microcephaly" title="Microcephaly">Microcephaly</a></td> <td>1.2 : 1<a href="#cite_note-Riley,_Halliday-117">[116]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Esophageal_atresia" title="Esophageal atresia">Esophageal atresia</a></td> <td>1.3 : 1;<a href="#cite_note-Rajewski-115">[114]</a> 1.5 : 1<a href="#cite_note-Riley,_Halliday-117">[116]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hydrocephalus" title="Hydrocephalus">Hydrocephalus</a></td> <td>1.3 : 1<a href="#cite_note-Riley,_Halliday-117">[116]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Defects with male predominance</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Diverticula of the colon</td> <td>1.5 : 1<a href="#cite_note-Rajewski-115">[114]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Atresia of the rectum</td> <td>1.5 : 1;<a href="#cite_note-Rajewski-115">[114]</a> 2 : 1<a href="#cite_note-Riley,_Halliday-117">[116]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Unilateral <a href="/wiki/Renal_agenesis" title="Renal agenesis">renal agenesis</a></td> <td>2 : 1;<a href="#cite_note-Rajewski-115">[114]</a> 2.1 : 1<a href="#cite_note-Riley,_Halliday-117">[116]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Schistocystis</td> <td>2 : 1<a href="#cite_note-Rajewski-115">[114]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cleft_lip_and_palate" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleft lip and palate">Cleft lip and palate</a></td> <td>2 : 1;<a href="#cite_note-Montagu-116">[115]</a> 1.47 : 1<a href="#cite_note-Riley,_Halliday-117">[116]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Bilateral <a href="/wiki/Renal_agenesis" title="Renal agenesis">renal agenesis</a></td> <td>2.6 : 1<a href="#cite_note-Rajewski-115">[114]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Congenital anomalies of the genitourinary system</td> <td>2.7 : 1<a href="#cite_note-Cui-109">[108]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Pyloric_stenosis" title="Pyloric stenosis">Pyloric stenosis</a>, congenital</td> <td>5 : 1;<a href="#cite_note-Montagu-116">[115]</a> 5.4 : 1<a href="#cite_note-Cui-109">[108]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Meckel%27s_diverticulum" title="Meckel's diverticulum">Meckel's diverticulum</a></td> <td>More common in boys<a href="#cite_note-Rajewski-115">[114]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Congenital_megacolon" class="mw-redirect" title="Congenital megacolon">Congenital megacolon</a></td> <td>More common in boys<a href="#cite_note-Rajewski-115">[114]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>All defects</td> <td>1.22 : 1;<a href="#cite_note-118">[117]</a> 1.29 : 1<a href="#cite_note-Cui-109">[108]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <ul><li>Data<a href="#cite_note-Cui-109">[108]</a> obtained on opposite-sex twins. ** — Data<a href="#cite_note-Riley,_Halliday-117">[116]</a> were obtained in the period 1983–1994.</li></ul> P. M. Rajewski and A. L. Sherman (1976) have analyzed the frequency of congenital anomalies in relation to the system of the organism. Prevalence of men was recorded for the anomalies of phylogenetically younger organs and systems.<a href="#cite_note-Rajewski-115">[114]</a> In respect of an etiology, sexual distinctions can be divided on appearing before and after differentiation of male's gonads during embryonic development, which begins from the eighteenth week. The testosterone level in male embryos thus raises considerably.<a href="#cite_note-119">[118]</a> The subsequent hormonal and physiological distinctions of male and female embryos can explain some sexual differences in frequency of congenital defects.<a href="#cite_note-120">[119]</a> It is difficult to explain the observed differences in the frequency of birth defects between the sexes by the details of the reproductive functions or the influence of environmental and social factors. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Birth_defect&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: United States">edit</a>]</div> The CDC and National Birth Defect Project studied the incidence of birth defects in the US. Key findings include: <ul><li>Down syndrome was the most common condition with an estimated prevalence of 14.47 per 10,000 live births, implying about 6,000 diagnoses each year.</li> <li>About 7,000 babies are born with a cleft palate, cleft lip or both.</li></ul> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Adjusted National Prevalence Estimates and Estimated Number of Cases in the United States, 2004–2006<a href="#cite_note-121">[120]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Birth Defects</th> <th>Cases per Births</th> <th>Estimated Annual Number of Cases</th> <th>Estimated National Prevalence per 10,000 Live Births (Adjusted for maternal race/ethnicity) </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4">Central nervous system defects </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Anencephaly" title="Anencephaly">Anencephaly</a></td> <td>1 in 4,859</td> <td>859</td> <td>2.06 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Spina_bifida" title="Spina bifida">Spina bifida</a> without anencephaly</td> <td>1 in 2,858</td> <td>1460</td> <td>3.50 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Encephalocele" title="Encephalocele">Encephalocele</a></td> <td>1 in 12,235</td> <td>341</td> <td>0.82 </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4">Eye defects </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Anophthalmia" title="Anophthalmia">Anophthalmia</a>/ <a href="/wiki/Microphthalmia" title="Microphthalmia">microphthalmia</a></td> <td>1 in 5,349</td> <td>780</td> <td>1.87 </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4">Cardiovascular defects </td></tr> <tr> <td>Common truncus</td> <td>1 in 13,876</td> <td>301</td> <td>0.72 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Transposition of great arteries</td> <td>1 in 3,333</td> <td>1252</td> <td>3.00 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tetralogy_of_Fallot" title="Tetralogy of Fallot">Tetralogy of Fallot</a></td> <td>1 in 2,518</td> <td>1657</td> <td>3.97 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Atrioventricular_septal_defect" title="Atrioventricular septal defect">Atrioventricular septal defect</a></td> <td>1 in 2,122</td> <td>1966</td> <td>4.71 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hypoplastic_left_heart_syndrome" title="Hypoplastic left heart syndrome">Hypoplastic left heart syndrome</a></td> <td>1 in 4,344</td> <td>960</td> <td>2.30 </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4">Orofacial defects </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cleft_palate" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleft palate">Cleft palate</a> without cleft lip</td> <td>1 in 1,574</td> <td>2651</td> <td>6.35 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cleft_lip" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleft lip">Cleft lip</a> with and without cleft palate</td> <td>1 in 940</td> <td>4437</td> <td>10.63 </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4">Gastrointestinal defects </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Esophageal_atresia" title="Esophageal atresia">Esophageal atresia</a>/tracheoeophageal fistula</td> <td>1 in 4,608</td> <td>905</td> <td>2.17 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Rectal and large intestinalatresia/<a href="/wiki/Stenosis" title="Stenosis">stenosis</a></td> <td>1 in 2,138</td> <td>1952</td> <td>4.68 </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4">Musculoskeletal defects </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Clubfoot" title="Clubfoot">Clubfoot</a>, lower limbs</td> <td>1 in 250 ~ 1000</td> <td>...</td> <td>... </td></tr> <tr> <td>Reduction deformity, upper limbs</td> <td>1 in 2,869</td> <td>1454</td> <td>3.49 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Reduction deformity, lower limbs</td> <td>1 in 5,949</td> <td>701</td> <td>1.68 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Gastroschisis" title="Gastroschisis">Gastroschisis</a></td> <td>1 in 2,229</td> <td>1871</td> <td>4.49 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Omphalocele" title="Omphalocele">Omphalocele</a></td> <td>1 in 5,386</td> <td>775</td> <td>1.86 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Diaphragmatic_hernia" title="Diaphragmatic hernia">Diaphragmatic hernia</a></td> <td>1 in 3,836</td> <td>1088</td> <td>2.61 </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4">Chromosomal anomalies </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Trisomy_13" class="mw-redirect" title="Trisomy 13">Trisomy 13</a></td> <td>1 in 7,906</td> <td>528</td> <td>1.26 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Trisomy_21" class="mw-redirect" title="Trisomy 21">Trisomy 21</a> (<a href="/wiki/Down_syndrome" title="Down syndrome">Down syndrome</a>)</td> <td>1 in 691</td> <td>6037</td> <td>14.47 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Trisomy_18" title="Trisomy 18">Trisomy 18</a></td> <td>1 in 3,762</td> <td>1109</td> <td>2.66 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Birth_defect&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Idiopathic" class="mw-redirect" title="Idiopathic">Idiopathic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_congenital_disorders" title="List of congenital disorders">List of congenital disorders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ICD-9_codes_740-759:_Congenital_anomalies" class="mw-redirect" title="List of ICD-9 codes 740-759: Congenital anomalies">List of ICD-9 codes 740-759: Congenital anomalies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malformative_syndrome" title="Malformative syndrome">Malformative syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_of_Dimes" title="March of Dimes">March of Dimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitochondrial_disease" title="Mitochondrial disease">Mitochondrial disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Birth_Defects_Prevention_Network" title="National Birth Defects Prevention Network">National Birth Defects Prevention Network</a>, founded 1997</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernumerary_body_part" title="Supernumerary body part">Supernumerary body part</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Birth_defect&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> Also known as a congenital disorder, congenital disease, congenital deformity, or congenital anomaly. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Birth_defect&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRuth_A._Hannon2010" class="citation book cs1">Ruth A. 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Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 128. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60547-781-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60547-781-7"><bdi>978-1-60547-781-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Porth+pathophysiology+%3A+concepts+of+altered+health+states&rft.place=Philadelphia%2C+PA&rft.pages=128&rft.edition=1st+Canadian&rft.pub=Wolters+Kluwer+Health%2FLippincott+Williams+%26+Wilkins&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-60547-781-7&rft.au=Ruth+A.+Hannon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2-MFXOEG0lcC%26pg%3DPA128&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABirth+defect" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NIH2017Def-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NIH2017Def_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NIH2017Def_2-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NIH2017Def_2-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NIH2017Def_2-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/birthdefects/conditioninfo/Pages/default.aspx">"Birth Defects: Condition Information"</a>. www.nichd.nih.gov. 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Retrieved 8 December 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.nichd.nih.gov&rft.atitle=Birth+Defects%3A+Condition+Information&rft.date=2017-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nichd.nih.gov%2Fhealth%2Ftopics%2Fbirthdefects%2Fconditioninfo%2FPages%2Fdefault.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABirth+defect" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NIH2017What-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NIH2017What_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NIH2017What_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NIH2017What_3-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NIH2017What_3-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/birthdefects/conditioninfo/pages/types.aspx">"What are the types of birth defects?"</a>. www.nichd.nih.gov. 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Retrieved 8 December 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.nichd.nih.gov&rft.atitle=What+are+the+types+of+birth+defects%3F&rft.date=2017-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nichd.nih.gov%2Fhealth%2Ftopics%2Fbirthdefects%2Fconditioninfo%2Fpages%2Ftypes.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABirth+defect" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NIH2017Ca-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NIH2017Ca_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NIH2017Ca_4-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/birthdefects/conditioninfo/pages/causes.aspx">"What causes birth defects?"</a>. www.nichd.nih.gov. September 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171217014359/https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/birthdefects/conditioninfo/Pages/causes.aspx">Archived</a> from the original on 17 December 2017. Retrieved 8 December 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.nichd.nih.gov&rft.atitle=What+causes+birth+defects%3F&rft.date=2017-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nichd.nih.gov%2Fhealth%2Ftopics%2Fbirthdefects%2Fconditioninfo%2Fpages%2Fcauses.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABirth+defect" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NIH2017Risk-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NIH2017Risk_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NIH2017Risk_5-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/birthdefects/conditioninfo/pages/risk.aspx">"How many people are affected by/at risk for birth defects?"</a>. www.nichd.nih.gov. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171217014346/https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/birthdefects/conditioninfo/Pages/risk.aspx">Archived</a> from the original on 17 December 2017. 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Retrieved 2021-02-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=MDforLives&rft.atitle=Birth+Defects%3A+Saving+Pediatric+Patients+from+Congenital+Defects&rft.date=2021-01-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmdforlives.blog%2F2021%2F01%2F31%2Fbirth-defects-preventable%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABirth+defect" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/birthdefects/features/birthdefects-keyfindings.html">"Key Findings: Updated National Birth Prevalence Estimates for Selected Birth Defects in the United States, 2004–2006"</a>. CDC. 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Retrieved October 1, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CDC&rft.atitle=Key+Findings%3A+Updated+National+Birth+Prevalence+Estimates+for+Selected+Birth+Defects+in+the+United+States%2C+2004%E2%80%932006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fncbddd%2Fbirthdefects%2Ffeatures%2Fbirthdefects-keyfindings.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABirth+defect" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Birth_defect&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output 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navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Duplications, including <a href="/wiki/Trisomy" title="Trisomy">trisomies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1q21.1_duplication_syndrome" title="1q21.1 duplication syndrome">1q21.1 duplication syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syndactyly-nystagmus_syndrome_due_to_2q31.1_microduplication" title="Syndactyly-nystagmus syndrome due to 2q31.1 microduplication">2q31.1 microduplication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trisomy_8" title="Trisomy 8">Trisomy 8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trisomy_9" title="Trisomy 9">Trisomy 9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrasomy_9p" title="Tetrasomy 9p">Tetrasomy 9p</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distal_trisomy_10q" title="Distal trisomy 10q">Distal trisomy 10q</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patau_syndrome" title="Patau syndrome">Patau syndrome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_13" title="Chromosome 13">13</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trisomy_16" title="Trisomy 16">Trisomy 16</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16p11.2_duplication_syndrome" title="16p11.2 duplication syndrome">16p11.2 duplication syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trisomy_18" title="Trisomy 18">Trisomy 18</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Down_syndrome" title="Down syndrome">Down syndrome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_21" title="Chromosome 21">21</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/22q11.2_duplication_syndrome" title="22q11.2 duplication syndrome">22q11.2 duplication syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trisomy_22" title="Trisomy 22">Trisomy 22</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cat_eye_syndrome" title="Cat eye syndrome">Cat-eye syndrome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_22" title="Chromosome 22">22</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Deletion_(genetics)" title="Deletion (genetics)">Deletions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>(<a href="/wiki/1q21.1_copy_number_variations" title="1q21.1 copy number variations">1q21.1 copy number variations</a>/<a href="/wiki/1q21.1_deletion_syndrome" title="1q21.1 deletion syndrome">1q21.1 deletion syndrome</a>/<a href="/wiki/1q21.1_duplication_syndrome" title="1q21.1 duplication syndrome">1q21.1 duplication syndrome</a>/<a href="/wiki/TAR_syndrome" title="TAR syndrome">TAR syndrome</a>/<a href="/wiki/1p36_deletion_syndrome" title="1p36 deletion syndrome">1p36 deletion syndrome</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_1" title="Chromosome 1">1</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolf%E2%80%93Hirschhorn_syndrome" title="Wolf–Hirschhorn syndrome">Wolf–Hirschhorn syndrome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_4" title="Chromosome 4">4</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cri_du_chat_syndrome" title="Cri du chat syndrome">Cri du chat syndrome</a>/<a href="/wiki/Chromosome_5q_deletion_syndrome" title="Chromosome 5q deletion syndrome">Chromosome 5q deletion syndrome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_5" title="Chromosome 5">5</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Williams_syndrome" title="Williams syndrome">Williams syndrome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_7" title="Chromosome 7">7</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacobsen_syndrome" title="Jacobsen syndrome">Jacobsen syndrome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_11" title="Chromosome 11">11</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miller%E2%80%93Dieker_syndrome" title="Miller–Dieker syndrome">Miller–Dieker syndrome</a>/<a href="/wiki/Smith%E2%80%93Magenis_syndrome" title="Smith–Magenis syndrome">Smith–Magenis syndrome</a>/<a href="/wiki/17q12_microdeletion_syndrome" title="17q12 microdeletion syndrome">17q12 microdeletion syndrome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_17" title="Chromosome 17">17</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DiGeorge_syndrome" title="DiGeorge syndrome">DiGeorge syndrome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_22" title="Chromosome 22">22</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/22q11.2_distal_deletion_syndrome" title="22q11.2 distal deletion syndrome">22q11.2 distal deletion syndrome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_22" title="Chromosome 22">22</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/22q13_deletion_syndrome" title="22q13 deletion syndrome">22q13 deletion syndrome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_22" title="Chromosome 22">22</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genomic_imprinting" title="Genomic imprinting">genomic imprinting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angelman_syndrome" title="Angelman syndrome">Angelman syndrome</a>/<a href="/wiki/Prader%E2%80%93Willi_syndrome" title="Prader–Willi syndrome">Prader–Willi syndrome</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chromosome_15" title="Chromosome 15">15</a>)</li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distal_18q-" title="Distal 18q-">Distal 18q-</a>/<a href="/wiki/Proximal_18q-" title="Proximal 18q-">Proximal 18q-</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/X_chromosome" title="X chromosome">X</a>/<a href="/wiki/Y_chromosome" title="Y chromosome">Y</a> linked</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Monosomy" title="Monosomy">Monosomies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Turner_syndrome" title="Turner syndrome">Turner syndrome (45,X)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Trisomy" title="Trisomy">Trisomies</a>/<a href="/wiki/Tetrasomy" title="Tetrasomy">tetrasomies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aneuploidy" title="Aneuploidy">other karyotypes</a>/<a href="/wiki/Mosaic_(genetics)" title="Mosaic (genetics)">mosaics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Klinefelter_syndrome" title="Klinefelter syndrome">Klinefelter syndrome (47,XXY)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XXYY_syndrome" title="XXYY syndrome">XXYY syndrome (48,XXYY)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XXXY_syndrome" title="XXXY syndrome">XXXY syndrome (48,XXXY)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XXXYY_syndrome" title="XXXYY syndrome">XXXYY syndrome (49,XXXYY)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XXXXY_syndrome" title="XXXXY syndrome">XXXXY syndrome (49,XXXXY)</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trisomy_X" title="Trisomy X">Trisomy X (47,XXX)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrasomy_X" title="Tetrasomy X">Tetrasomy X (48,XXXX)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentasomy_X" title="Pentasomy X">Pentasomy X (49,XXXXX)</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/XYY_syndrome" title="XYY syndrome">XYY syndrome (47,XYY)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XYYY_syndrome" title="XYYY syndrome">XYYY syndrome (48,XYYY)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XYYYY_syndrome" title="XYYYY syndrome">XYYYY syndrome (49,XYYYY)</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/45,X/46,XY_mosaicism" title="45,X/46,XY mosaicism">45,X/46,XY</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/46,XX/46,XY" title="46,XX/46,XY">46,XX/46,XY</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chromosomal_translocation" title="Chromosomal translocation">Translocations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Leukemia" title="Leukemia">Leukemia</a>/<a href="/wiki/Lymphoma" title="Lymphoma">lymphoma</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lymphoid</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burkitt_lymphoma" title="Burkitt lymphoma">Burkitt lymphoma</a> t(8 <a href="/wiki/Myc" title="Myc">MYC</a>;14 <a href="/wiki/IGH@" title="IGH@">IGH</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Follicular_lymphoma" title="Follicular lymphoma">Follicular lymphoma</a> t(14 <a href="/wiki/IGH@" title="IGH@">IGH</a>;18 <a href="/wiki/Bcl-2" title="Bcl-2">BCL2</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mantle_cell_lymphoma" title="Mantle cell lymphoma">Mantle cell lymphoma</a>/<a href="/wiki/Multiple_myeloma" title="Multiple myeloma">Multiple myeloma</a> <a href="/wiki/T(11:14)" title="T(11:14)">t(11 CCND1:14 IGH)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anaplastic_large-cell_lymphoma" title="Anaplastic large-cell lymphoma">Anaplastic large-cell lymphoma </a> t(2 <a href="/wiki/Anaplastic_lymphoma_kinase" title="Anaplastic lymphoma kinase">ALK</a>;5 <a href="/wiki/NPM1" title="NPM1">NPM1</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acute_lymphoblastic_leukemia" title="Acute lymphoblastic leukemia">Acute lymphoblastic leukemia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Myeloid</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philadelphia_chromosome" title="Philadelphia chromosome">Philadelphia chromosome</a> t(9 <a href="/wiki/ABL_(gene)" title="ABL (gene)">ABL</a>; 22 <a href="/wiki/BCR_(gene)" title="BCR (gene)">BCR</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acute_myeloblastic_leukemia_with_maturation" title="Acute myeloblastic leukemia with maturation">Acute myeloblastic leukemia with maturation</a> t(8 <a href="/wiki/RUNX1T1" title="RUNX1T1">RUNX1T1</a>;21 <a href="/wiki/RUNX1" title="RUNX1">RUNX1</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acute_promyelocytic_leukemia" title="Acute promyelocytic leukemia">Acute promyelocytic leukemia</a> t(15 <a href="/wiki/Promyelocytic_leukemia_protein" title="Promyelocytic leukemia protein">PML</a>,17 <a href="/wiki/Retinoic_acid_receptor_alpha" title="Retinoic acid receptor alpha">RARA</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acute_megakaryoblastic_leukemia" title="Acute megakaryoblastic leukemia">Acute megakaryoblastic leukemia</a> t(1 <a href="/wiki/RBM15" title="RBM15">RBM15</a>;22 <a href="/wiki/MKL1" title="MKL1">MKL1</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ewing_sarcoma" title="Ewing sarcoma">Ewing sarcoma</a> t(11 <a href="/wiki/FLI1" title="FLI1">FLI1</a>; 22 <a href="/wiki/RNA-binding_protein_EWS" title="RNA-binding protein EWS">EWS</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synovial_sarcoma" title="Synovial sarcoma">Synovial sarcoma</a> t(x <a href="/wiki/SYT1" title="SYT1">SYT</a>;18 <a href="/wiki/Synovial_sarcoma,_X_breakpoint" title="Synovial sarcoma, X breakpoint">SSX</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dermatofibrosarcoma_protuberans" title="Dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans">Dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans</a> t(17 <a href="/wiki/Collagen,_type_I,_alpha_1" title="Collagen, type I, alpha 1">COL1A1</a>;22 <a href="/wiki/PDGFB" title="PDGFB">PDGFB</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myxoid_liposarcoma" title="Myxoid liposarcoma">Myxoid liposarcoma</a> t(12 <a href="/wiki/DNA_damage-inducible_transcript_3" title="DNA damage-inducible transcript 3">DDIT3</a>; 16 <a href="/wiki/RNA-binding_protein_FUS" title="RNA-binding protein FUS">FUS</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desmoplastic_small-round-cell_tumor" title="Desmoplastic small-round-cell tumor">Desmoplastic small-round-cell tumor</a> t(11 <a href="/wiki/Wilms_tumor_protein" title="Wilms tumor protein">WT1</a>; 22 <a href="/wiki/RNA-binding_protein_EWS" title="RNA-binding protein EWS">EWS</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_rhabdomyosarcoma" title="Alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma">Alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma</a> t(2 <a href="/wiki/PAX3" title="PAX3">PAX3</a>; 13 <a href="/wiki/Forkhead_box_protein_O1" title="Forkhead box protein O1">FOXO1</a>) t (1 <a href="/wiki/PAX7" title="PAX7">PAX7</a>; 13 <a href="/wiki/Forkhead_box_protein_O1" title="Forkhead box protein O1">FOXO1</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fragile_X_syndrome" title="Fragile X syndrome">Fragile X syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniparental_disomy" title="Uniparental disomy">Uniparental disomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XX_male_syndrome" title="XX male syndrome">XX male syndrome</a>/<a href="/wiki/XX_male_syndrome" title="XX male syndrome">46,XX testicular disorders of sex development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marker_chromosome" title="Marker chromosome">Marker chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_chromosome" title="Ring chromosome">Ring chromosome</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ring_chromosome_6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ring chromosome 6 (page does not exist)">6</a>; <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ring_chromosome_9&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ring chromosome 9 (page does not exist)">9</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ring_chromosome_14_syndrome" title="Ring chromosome 14 syndrome">14</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ring_chromosome_15" title="Ring chromosome 15">15</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ring_chromosome_18" title="Ring chromosome 18">18</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ring_chromosome_20_syndrome" title="Ring chromosome 20 syndrome">20</a>; <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ring_chromosome_21&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ring chromosome 21 (page does not exist)">21</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ring_chromosome_22" title="Ring chromosome 22">22</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Disability" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color: #bbbbff; box-shadow: inset 1px 1px 0 #000055, inset -1px -1px 0 #000055;;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Disability_navbox" title="Template:Disability navbox"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Disability_navbox" title="Template talk:Disability navbox"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Disability_navbox" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Disability navbox"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Disability" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Disability" title="Disability">Disability</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: #bbbbff; box-shadow: inset 1px 1px 0 #000055, inset -1px -1px 0 #000055;;;width:1%">Main topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disability" title="Disability">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_studies" title="Disability studies">Disability studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_model_of_disability" title="Medical model of disability">Medical model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_model_of_disability" title="Social model of disability">Social model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: #bbbbff; box-shadow: inset 1px 1px 0 #000055, inset -1px -1px 0 #000055;;;width:1%">Approaches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Individualized_Education_Program" title="Individualized Education Program">IEP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inclusion_(disability_rights)" title="Inclusion (disability rights)">Inclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Learning_disability" title="Learning disability">Learning disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mainstreaming_(education)" title="Mainstreaming (education)">Mainstreaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_therapy" title="Physical therapy">Physical therapy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Driver_rehabilitation" title="Driver rehabilitation">driver rehabilitation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_needs" title="Special needs">Special needs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Special_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Special school">school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_education" title="Special education">education</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: #bbbbff; box-shadow: inset 1px 1px 0 #000055, inset -1px -1px 0 #000055;;;width:1%">Rights, law, support</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rights</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ableism" title="Ableism">Ableism/disablism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_rights_movement" title="Disability rights movement">Disability rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_disability-related_terms_that_developed_negative_connotations" class="mw-redirect" title="List of disability-related terms that developed negative connotations">Pejorative terms</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Law</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accessibility_for_Ontarians_with_Disabilities_Act,_2005" title="Accessibility for Ontarians with Disabilities Act, 2005">AODA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americans_with_Disabilities_Act_of_1990" title="Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990">ADA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_on_the_Rights_of_Persons_with_Disabilities" title="Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities">Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_on_the_Rights_of_Disabled_Persons" title="Declaration on the Rights of Disabled Persons">Declaration on the Rights of Disabled Persons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Classification_of_Functioning,_Disability_and_Health" title="International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health">International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Services</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Services_for_mental_disorders" title="Services for mental disorders">Services for mental disorders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Services_and_supports_for_people_with_disabilities" title="Services and supports for people with disabilities">Services for disabled people</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Support</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disability_Living_Allowance" title="Disability Living Allowance">DLA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontario_Disability_Support_Program" title="Ontario Disability Support Program">ODSP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disabled_Persons_Railcard" title="Disabled Persons Railcard">Rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Security_Disability_Insurance" title="Social Security Disability Insurance">SSDI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supplemental_Security_Income" title="Supplemental Security Income">SSI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disabled_students_allowance" class="mw-redirect" title="Disabled students allowance">Students</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CNIB_Foundation" title="CNIB Foundation">CNIB</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Activist groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Council_for_Canadians_with_Disabilities" title="Council for Canadians with Disabilities">CCD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disabled_Peoples%27_International" title="Disabled Peoples' International">DPI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movement_for_the_Intellectually_Disabled_of_Singapore" title="Movement for the Intellectually Disabled of Singapore">MINDS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reach_Canada" title="Reach Canada">Reach Canada</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: #bbbbff; box-shadow: inset 1px 1px 0 #000055, inset -1px -1px 0 #000055;;;width:1%">Structural and assistive</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accessible_toilet" title="Accessible toilet">Accessible toilet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Activities_of_daily_living" title="Activities of daily living">Activities of daily living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assistive_technology" title="Assistive technology">Assistive technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_living" title="Independent living">Independent living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobility_aid" title="Mobility aid">Mobility aid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthotics" title="Orthotics">Orthotics and braces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unlicensed_assistive_personnel" title="Unlicensed assistive personnel">Personal Care Assistant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accessibility" title="Accessibility">Physical accessibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosthesis" title="Prosthesis">Prosthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_design" title="Universal design">Universal design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_accessibility" title="Web accessibility">Web accessibility</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: #bbbbff; box-shadow: inset 1px 1px 0 #000055, inset -1px -1px 0 #000055;;;width:1%">Social issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augmentative_and_alternative_communication" title="Augmentative and alternative communication">Augmentative and alternative communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_or_behavioral_disability" title="Emotional or behavioral disability">Emotional or behavioral disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invisible_disability" title="Invisible disability">Invisible disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_and_disasters" title="Disability and disasters">Disability and disasters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_and_LGBT_identities" class="mw-redirect" title="Disability and LGBT identities">Disability and LGBT identities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_and_religion" title="Disability and religion">Disability and religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_and_poverty" title="Disability and poverty">Disability and poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disproportionality_in_special_education" title="Disproportionality in special education">Disproportionality in special education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_and_disability" title="Sexuality and disability">Sexuality and disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Youth_and_disability" title="Youth and disability">Youth and disability</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: #bbbbff; box-shadow: inset 1px 1px 0 #000055, inset -1px -1px 0 #000055;;;width:1%">Disability studies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Models_of_disability" title="Models of disability">Models of disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inspiration_porn" title="Inspiration porn">Inspiration porn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodymind_(disability_studies)" title="Bodymind (disability studies)">Bodymind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crip_(disability_term)#Crip_theory" title="Crip (disability term)">Crip as verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroqueer_theory" title="Neuroqueer theory">Neuroqueer theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deaf_studies" title="Deaf studies">Deaf studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_anthropology" title="Disability anthropology">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_disability" title="Geography of disability">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_studies_in_education" title="Disability studies in education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_disability_studies_journals" title="List of disability studies journals">Journals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: #bbbbff; box-shadow: inset 1px 1px 0 #000055, inset -1px -1px 0 #000055;;;width:1%">Arts, media, culture, sport</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disability_culture" title="Disability culture">Disability culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_art" title="Disability art">Disability art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_in_the_arts" title="Disability in the arts">Disability in the arts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disability_in_children%27s_literature" title="Disability in children's literature">Disability in children's literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_in_horror_films" title="Disability in horror films">Disability in horror films</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_in_the_media" title="Disability in the media">Disability in the media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasports" title="Parasports">Parasports</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deaflympics" title="Deaflympics">Deaflympics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paralympic_Games" title="Paralympic Games">Paralympics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Olympics" title="Special Olympics">Special Olympics</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="background-color: #bbbbff; box-shadow: inset 1px 1px 0 #000055, inset -1px -1px 0 #000055;;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Disability" title="Category:Disability">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Disability-related_lists" title="Category:Disability-related lists">Lists</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Infants_and_their_care" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#FFCBA4;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Infants_and_their_care" title="Template:Infants and their care"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Infants_and_their_care" title="Template talk:Infants and their care"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Infants_and_their_care" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Infants and their care"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Infants_and_their_care" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Infant" title="Infant">Infants</a> and their care</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Health (<a href="/wiki/Pediatrics" title="Pediatrics">Pediatrics</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baby_food" title="Baby food">Baby food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_weight" title="Birth weight">Birth weight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breast_pump" title="Breast pump">Breast pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding" title="Breastfeeding">Breastfeeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding_and_medications" title="Breastfeeding and medications">Breastfeeding and medications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding_and_mental_health" title="Breastfeeding and mental health">Breastfeeding and mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bottle_feeding" class="mw-redirect" title="Bottle feeding">Bottle feeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baby_colic" title="Baby colic">Colic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cradle_cap" title="Cradle cap">Cradle cap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esotropia" title="Esotropia">Esotropia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Failure_to_thrive" title="Failure to thrive">Failure to thrive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunization" title="Immunization">Immunization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_and_toddler_safety" title="Infant and toddler safety">Infant and toddler safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_bathing" class="mw-redirect" title="Infant bathing">Infant bathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_feeding" title="Infant feeding">Infant feeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_food_safety" title="Infant food safety">Infant food safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_formula" title="Infant formula">Infant formula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_massage" title="Infant massage">Infant massage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_respiratory_distress_syndrome" title="Infant respiratory distress syndrome">Infant respiratory distress syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_sleep_training" title="Infant sleep training">Infant sleep training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neonatal_intensive_care_unit" title="Neonatal intensive care unit">Neonatal intensive care unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newborn_care_and_safety" title="Newborn care and safety">Newborn care and safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_rehydration_therapy" title="Oral rehydration therapy">Oral rehydration therapy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pedialyte" title="Pedialyte">Pedialyte</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preterm_birth" title="Preterm birth">Preterm birth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaken_baby_syndrome" title="Shaken baby syndrome">Shaken baby syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soy_formula" title="Soy formula">Soy formula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SIDS" title="SIDS">SIDS</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Development</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_parenting" title="Attachment parenting">Attachment parenting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baby-led_weaning" title="Baby-led weaning">Baby-led weaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baby_talk" title="Baby talk">Baby talk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babbling" title="Babbling">Babbling</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Birth defect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childbirth" title="Childbirth">Childbirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crawling_(human)" title="Crawling (human)">Crawling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gestational_age" title="Gestational age">Gestational age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_visual_development" title="Infant visual development">Infant visual development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irritant_diaper_dermatitis" title="Irritant diaper dermatitis">Irritant diaper dermatitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_cognitive_development" title="Infant cognitive development">Infant cognitive development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_crying" title="Infant crying">Infant crying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kangaroo_care" title="Kangaroo care">Kangaroo care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mother" title="Mother">Mother</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nursery_rhyme" title="Nursery rhyme">Nursery rhyme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object_permanence" title="Object permanence">Object permanence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parent" title="Parent">Parent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parenting" title="Parenting">Parenting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peekaboo" title="Peekaboo">Peekaboo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Play_(activity)" title="Play (activity)">Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prenatal_development" title="Prenatal development">Prenatal development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Prenatal_development_table.svg" title="File:Prenatal development table.svg">Prenatal development table</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teething" title="Teething">Teething</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gross_motor_skill#Learning_to_walk" title="Gross motor skill">Walking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weaning" title="Weaning">Weaning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Socialization and Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_theory" title="Attachment theory">Attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babysitting" title="Babysitting">Babysitting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_abuse" title="Child abuse">Child abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_care" title="Child care">Child care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_custody" title="Child custody">Child custody</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_rights" title="Children's rights">Children's rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convention_on_the_Rights_of_the_Child" title="Convention on the Rights of the Child">UN Child rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circumcision" title="Circumcision">Circumcision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foster_care" title="Foster care">Foster care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grandparent_visitation" title="Grandparent visitation">Grandparent visitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_swimming" title="Infant swimming">Infant swimming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_milk_banking_in_North_America" title="Human milk banking in North America">Milk bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanny" title="Nanny">Nanny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_nurse" title="Wet nurse">Wet nurse</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Infant care and equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baby_jumper" title="Baby jumper">Baby bouncer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baby_gate" title="Baby gate">Baby gate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baby_monitor" title="Baby monitor">Baby monitor</a>/<a href="/wiki/Hidden_camera" title="Hidden camera">Hidden camera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baby_powder" title="Baby powder">Baby powder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baby_shampoo" title="Baby shampoo">Baby shampoo</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Baby_toy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Baby toy (page does not exist)">Baby toy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baby_walker" title="Baby walker">Baby walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bib_(garment)" title="Bib (garment)">Bib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swing_(seat)" title="Swing (seat)">Baby swing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baby_transport" title="Baby transport">Baby transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bassinet" title="Bassinet">Bassinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Car_seat_safety" class="mw-redirect" title="Car seat safety">Car seat safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloth_diaper" title="Cloth diaper">Cloth diaper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cradle_board" class="mw-redirect" title="Cradle board">Cradle board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diaper" title="Diaper">Diaper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diaper_bag" title="Diaper bag">Diaper bag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baby_wipes" class="mw-redirect" title="Baby wipes">Baby wipes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haberman_Feeder" title="Haberman Feeder">Haberman Feeder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_chair" title="High chair">High chair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_bed" title="Infant bed">Infant bed</a> (American 'crib' and 'cradle', British 'cot')</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_carrier" class="mw-redirect" title="Infant carrier">Infant carrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_clothing" title="Infant clothing">Infant clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacifier" title="Pacifier">Pacifier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Playpen" title="Playpen">Playpen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stroller" class="mw-redirect" title="Stroller">Stroller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supplemental_nursing_system" title="Supplemental nursing system">Supplemental nursing system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swaddling" title="Swaddling">Swaddling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swim_diaper" title="Swim diaper">Swim diaper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teether" title="Teether">Teether</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Travel_cot" title="Travel cot">Travel cot</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baby_shower" title="Baby shower">Baby shower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babywearing" title="Babywearing">Babywearing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_neglect" title="Child neglect">Child neglect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Closed_adoption" title="Closed adoption">Closed adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cry_room" title="Cry room">Cry room</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_ear_piercing" title="Infant ear piercing">Infant ear piercing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_adoption" title="Open adoption">Open adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prenatal_cocaine_exposure" title="Prenatal cocaine exposure">Prenatal cocaine exposure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neonatal_withdrawal" title="Neonatal withdrawal">Neonatal withdrawal syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_child_abduction" title="Parental child abduction">Parental child abduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_responsibility_(access_and_custody)" title="Parental responsibility (access and custody)">Parental responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parenting_plan" title="Parenting plan">Parenting plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paternity_law" title="Paternity law">Paternity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paternity_fraud" title="Paternity fraud">Paternity fraud</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link 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