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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Khoisan language variation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Khoisan_language_variation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Families" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Families"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Families</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Families-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Families subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Families-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hadza" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hadza"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Hadza</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hadza-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sandawe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sandawe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Sandawe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sandawe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Khoe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Khoe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Khoe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Khoe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tuu" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tuu"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Tuu</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tuu-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kxʼa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kxʼa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Kxʼa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kxʼa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classification_by_Starostin_(2013)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification_by_Starostin_(2013)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Classification by Starostin (2013)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classification_by_Starostin_(2013)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_"click_languages"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_"click_languages""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Other "click languages"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_"click_languages"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comparative_vocabulary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparative_vocabulary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Comparative vocabulary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparative_vocabulary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Khoisan languages</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 67 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-67" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">67 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khoisan-tale" title="Khoisan-tale – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Khoisan-tale" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%96%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%82" title="खोइसन भाषाएं – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="खोइसन भाषाएं" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%AE%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86" title="لغات خويسان – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="لغات خويسان" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lling%C3%BCes_de_la_familia_khoisan" title="Llingües de la familia khoisan – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Llingües de la familia khoisan" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%84%D9%84%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="خویسان دیللری – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="خویسان دیللری" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%96%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%B9" title="খোইসীয় ভাষাসমূহ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="খোইসীয় ভাষাসমূহ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Койсански езици – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Койсански езици" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yezho%C3%B9_koiek-sanek" title="Yezhoù koiek-sanek – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Yezhoù koiek-sanek" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lleng%C3%BCes_khois%C3%A0nides" title="Llengües khoisànides – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Llengües khoisànides" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kojsansk%C3%A9_jazyky" title="Kojsanské jazyky – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Kojsanské jazyky" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ieithoedd_Khoisan" title="Ieithoedd Khoisan – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Ieithoedd Khoisan" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khoisansprachen" title="Khoisansprachen – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Khoisansprachen" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khoisani_keeled" title="Khoisani keeled – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Khoisani keeled" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenguas_joisanas" title="Lenguas joisanas – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Lenguas joisanas" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kojsanaj_lingvaroj" title="Kojsanaj lingvaroj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kojsanaj lingvaroj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koisan_hizkuntzak" title="Koisan hizkuntzak – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Koisan hizkuntzak" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%AE%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86" title="زبان‌های خویسان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زبان‌های خویسان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khoisan_bhasa" title="Khoisan bhasa – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Khoisan bhasa" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langues_kho%C3%AFsan" title="Langues khoïsan – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Langues khoïsan" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koisan-talen" title="Koisan-talen – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Koisan-talen" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teangacha_Khoisan" title="Teangacha Khoisan – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Teangacha Khoisan" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguas_khoisas" title="Linguas khoisas – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Linguas khoisas" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%BD%94%EC%9D%B4%EC%82%B0_%EC%A0%9C%EC%96%B4" title="코이산 제어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="코이산 제어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harsunan_Khoisan" title="Harsunan Khoisan – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Harsunan Khoisan" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%96%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%88%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%81" title="खोईसान भाषाएँ – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="खोईसान भाषाएँ" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khojsanske_r%C4%9B%C4%8De" title="Khojsanske rěče – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Khojsanske rěče" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hornjoserbsce</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kojsanski_jezici" title="Kojsanski jezici – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kojsanski jezici" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koisanm%C3%A1l" title="Koisanmál – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Koisanmál" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingue_khoisan" title="Lingue khoisan – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingue khoisan" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%90%D7%9F" title="שפות קויסאן – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="שפות קויסאן" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%96%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%AF%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%AD%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B7%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%97%E0%B2%B3%E0%B3%81" title="ಖೋಯ್ಸಾನ್ ಭಾಷೆಗಳು – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಖೋಯ್ಸಾನ್ ಭಾಷೆಗಳು" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="კოისანური ენები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="კოისანური ენები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lugha_za_Khoisan" title="Lugha za Khoisan – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Lugha za Khoisan" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Койсан тилдери – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Койсан тилдери" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguae_Khoisanae" title="Linguae Khoisanae – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Linguae Khoisanae" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koisan%C5%B3_kalbos" title="Koisanų kalbos – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Koisanų kalbos" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengue_khoisan" title="Lengue khoisan – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Lengue khoisan" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ligure</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khoisantaole" title="Khoisantaole – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Khoisantaole" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguas_coisan" title="Linguas coisan – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Linguas coisan" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koiszan_nyelvek" title="Koiszan nyelvek – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Koiszan nyelvek" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%98%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Којсански јазици – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Којсански јазици" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vondrom-piteny_k%C3%B4is%C3%A0na" title="Vondrom-piteny kôisàna – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Vondrom-piteny kôisàna" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khoisantalen" title="Khoisantalen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Khoisantalen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B3%E3%82%A4%E3%82%B5%E3%83%B3%E8%AB%B8%E8%AA%9E" title="コイサン諸語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="コイサン諸語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khoisan_spriaken" title="Khoisan spriaken – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Khoisan spriaken" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khoisanspr%C3%A5k" title="Khoisanspråk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Khoisanspråk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khoisanspr%C3%A5k" title="Khoisanspråk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Khoisanspråk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengas_khoisan" title="Lengas khoisan – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Lengas khoisan" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D9%88%DB%90%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A_%DA%98%D8%A8%DB%90" title="خوېساني ژبې – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="خوېساني ژبې" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenghe_khoisan" title="Lenghe khoisan – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Lenghe khoisan" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyki_khoisan" title="Języki khoisan – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Języki khoisan" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADnguas_coiss%C3%A3s" title="Línguas coissãs – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Línguas coissãs" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Койсанские языки – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Койсанские языки" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A0%E1%B1%B7%E1%B1%B3%E1%B1%AD%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B1_%E1%B1%AF%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B9%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%A0%E1%B1%9A" title="ᱠᱷᱳᱭᱥᱟᱱ ᱯᱟᱹᱨᱥᱤᱠᱚ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱠᱷᱳᱭᱥᱟᱱ ᱯᱟᱹᱨᱥᱤᱠᱚ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khoisan_leids" title="Khoisan leids – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Khoisan leids" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khoisan_languages" title="Khoisan languages – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Khoisan languages" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%98%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Којсански језици – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Којсански језици" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khoisankielet" title="Khoisankielet – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Khoisankielet" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khoisanspr%C3%A5k" title="Khoisanspråk – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Khoisanspråk" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D" title="கோய்சான் மொழிகள் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கோய்சான் மொழிகள்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khoisan_dilleri" title="Khoisan dilleri – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Khoisan dilleri" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D1%96_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8" title="Койсанські мови – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Койсанські мови" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%DA%BA" title="خواسان زبانیں – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="خواسان زبانیں" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ng%E1%BB%AF_h%E1%BB%87_Khoisan" title="Ngữ hệ Khoisan – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Ngữ hệ Khoisan" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E4%BC%8A%E6%A1%91%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="科伊桑语系 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="科伊桑语系" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E4%BC%8A%E6%A1%91%E8%AA%9E%E7%B3%BB" title="科伊桑語系 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="科伊桑語系" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E4%BC%8A%E6%A1%91%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="科伊桑语系 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="科伊桑语系" 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id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Group of African language families with click consonants</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"San language" redirects here. For the Mande language spoken in Burkina Faso, see <a href="/wiki/Samo_language_(Burkina)" title="Samo language (Burkina)">Samo language (Burkina)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="width:22em;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color: goldenrod;">Khoisan</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: goldenrod;">Khoesaan</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: goldenrod;">(obsolete)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Geographic<br />distribution</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Kalahari_Desert" title="Kalahari Desert">Kalahari Desert</a>, central <a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Linguistic classification</a></th><td class="infobox-data">(term of convenience)</td></tr><tr class="plainlist"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Subdivisions</th><td class="infobox-data"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khoe%E2%80%93Kwadi_languages" title="Khoe–Kwadi languages">Khoe–Kwadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kx%CA%BCa_languages" title="Kxʼa languages">Kxʼa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuu_languages" title="Tuu languages">Tuu</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sandawe_language" title="Sandawe language">Sandawe</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hadza_language" title="Hadza language">Hadza</a></i></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: goldenrod;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-2" title="ISO 639-2">ISO 639-2</a> / <a href="/wiki/ISO_639-5" title="ISO 639-5">5</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><samp><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/khi" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:khi">khi</a></code></samp></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data">–</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><i>None</i></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Khoi-San.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Khoi-San.png/300px-Khoi-San.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="329" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/Khoi-San.png 1.5x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="438" /></a></span><div style="text-align:left;">Map showing the ancestral distribution of the Khoisan languages (yellow)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Khoisan languages</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/ɔɪ/: 'oi' in 'choice'">ɔɪ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/ɑː/: 'a' in 'father'">ɑː</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span></span>/</a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling"><span style="font-size:90%">KOY</span>-sahn</i></a>; also <b>Khoesan</b> or <b>Khoesaan</b>) are a number of <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Africa" title="Languages of Africa">African languages</a> once classified together, originally by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Greenberg" title="Joseph Greenberg">Joseph Greenberg</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-AB_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AB-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Khoisan is defined as those languages that have <a href="/wiki/Click_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Click languages">click consonants</a> and do not belong to other African <a href="/wiki/Language_families" class="mw-redirect" title="Language families">language families</a>. For much of the 20th century, they were thought to be <a href="/wiki/Genetic_relationship_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic relationship (linguistics)">genealogically related</a> to each other, but this is no longer accepted. They are now held to comprise three distinct <a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">language families</a> and two <a href="/wiki/Language_isolate" title="Language isolate">language isolates</a>. </p><p>All but two Khoisan languages are indigenous to southern Africa and belong to three language families. The <a href="/wiki/Khoi_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Khoi languages">Khoe family</a> appears to have migrated to southern Africa not long before the <a href="/wiki/Bantu_expansion" title="Bantu expansion">Bantu expansion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-GE_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GE-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ethnically, their speakers are the <a href="/wiki/Khoikhoi" class="mw-redirect" title="Khoikhoi">Khoikhoi</a> and the <a href="/wiki/San_people" title="San people">San</a> (Bushmen). Two languages of east Africa, those of the <a href="/wiki/Sandawe_people" title="Sandawe people">Sandawe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hadza_people" title="Hadza people">Hadza</a>, originally were also classified as Khoisan, although their speakers are ethnically neither Khoikhoi nor San. </p><p>Before the Bantu expansion, Khoisan languages, or languages like them, were likely spread throughout southern and eastern Africa. They are currently restricted to the <a href="/wiki/Kalahari_Desert" title="Kalahari Desert">Kalahari Desert</a>, primarily in <a href="/wiki/Namibia" title="Namibia">Namibia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Botswana" title="Botswana">Botswana</a>, and to the <a href="/wiki/East_African_Rift" title="East African Rift">Rift Valley</a> in central <a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-AB_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AB-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most of the languages are <a href="/wiki/Endangered_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Endangered languages">endangered</a>, and several are <a href="/wiki/Moribund_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Moribund language">moribund</a> or <a href="/wiki/Extinct_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Extinct languages">extinct</a>. Most have no written record. The only widespread Khoisan language is <a href="/wiki/Khoekhoe_language" title="Khoekhoe language">Khoekhoe</a> (also known as Khoekhoegowab, Nàmá or Damara) of Namibia, Botswana and South Africa, with a quarter of a million speakers; <a href="/wiki/Sandawe_language" title="Sandawe language">Sandawe</a> in Tanzania is second in number with some 40–80,000, some monolingual; and the <a href="/wiki/%C7%83Kung_language" class="mw-redirect" title="ǃKung language">ǃKung language</a> of the northern Kalahari spoken by some 16,000 or so people. Language use is quite strong among the 20,000 speakers of <a href="/wiki/Naro_language" title="Naro language">Naro</a>,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (July 2020)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> half of whom speak it as a second language. </p><p>Khoisan languages are best known for their use of <a href="/wiki/Click_consonant" title="Click consonant">click consonants</a> as <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemes</a>. These are typically written with characters such as <b><a href="/wiki/Postalveolar_click" class="mw-redirect" title="Postalveolar click">ǃ</a></b> and <b><a href="/wiki/Palatal_click" title="Palatal click">ǂ</a></b>. Clicks are quite versatile as consonants, as they involve two articulations of the tongue which can operate partially independently. Consequently, the languages with the greatest numbers of consonants in the world are Khoisan. The <a href="/wiki/Ju%C7%80%CA%BChoan_language" title="Juǀʼhoan language">Juǀʼhoan language</a> has 48 click consonants among nearly as many non-click consonants, <a href="/wiki/Strident_vowel" title="Strident vowel">strident</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">pharyngealized</a> vowels, and four tones. The <a href="/wiki/Taa_language" title="Taa language">ǃXóõ</a> and <a href="/wiki/%C7%82H%C3%B5%C3%A3_language" class="mw-redirect" title="ǂHõã language">ǂHõã</a> languages are even more complex. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Validity">Validity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khoisan_languages&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Validity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Khoisan was proposed as one of the four families of <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Africa" title="Languages of Africa">African languages</a> in <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Greenberg" title="Joseph Greenberg">Joseph Greenberg</a>'s classification (1949–1954, revised in 1963). However, linguists who study Khoisan languages reject their unity, and the name "Khoisan" is used by them as a term of convenience without any implication of linguistic validity, much as "<a href="/wiki/Papuan_languages" title="Papuan languages">Papuan</a>" and "<a href="/wiki/Australian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian languages">Australian</a>" are.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been suggested that the similarities of the Tuu and Kxʼa families are due to a southern African <a href="/wiki/Sprachbund" title="Sprachbund">Sprachbund</a> rather than a genealogical relationship, whereas the Khoe (or perhaps Kwadi–Khoe) family is a more recent migrant to the area, and may be related to Sandawe in East Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-GE_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GE-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Oswald_Johannes_Westphal" title="Ernst Oswald Johannes Westphal">Ernst Oswald Johannes Westphal</a> is known for his early rejection of the Khoisan language family (<a href="/wiki/Georgiy_Starostin" title="Georgiy Starostin">Starostin</a> 2003). Bonny Sands (1998) concluded that the family is not demonstrable with current evidence. <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Traill_(linguist)" title="Anthony Traill (linguist)">Anthony Traill</a> at first accepted Khoisan (Traill 1986), but by 1998 concluded that it could not be demonstrated with current data and methods, rejecting it as based on a single typological criterion: the presence of clicks.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dimmendaal (2008) summarized the general view with, "it has to be concluded that Greenberg's intuitions on the genetic unity of Khoisan could not be confirmed by subsequent research. Today, the few scholars working on these languages treat the three [southern groups] as independent language families that cannot or can no longer be shown to be genetically related" (p. 841). Starostin (2013) accepts a relationship between Sandawe and Khoi is plausible, as is one between Tuu and Kxʼa, but sees no indication of a relationship between Sandawe and Khoi on the one hand and Tuu and Kxʼa on the other, or between any of them and Hadza. </p><p>Janina Brutt-Griffler claims, "given that such colonial borders were generally arbitrarily drawn, they grouped large numbers of ethnic groups that spoke many languages." She hypothesizes that this took place within efforts to prevent the spread of English during European colonization and prevent the entrance of the majority into the middle class.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Khoisan_language_variation">Khoisan language variation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khoisan_languages&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Khoisan language variation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Traill_(linguist)" title="Anthony Traill (linguist)">Anthony Traill</a> noted the Khoisan languages' extreme variation.<sup id="cite_ref-AT_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AT-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite their shared clicks, the Khoisan languages diverge significantly from each other. <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Traill_(linguist)" title="Anthony Traill (linguist)">Traill</a> demonstrated this linguistic diversity in the data presented in the below table. The first two columns include words from the two Khoisan <a href="/wiki/Language_isolate" title="Language isolate">language isolates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sandawe_language" title="Sandawe language">Sandawe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hadza_language" title="Hadza language">Hadza</a>. The following three are languages from the <a href="/wiki/Khoe_languages" title="Khoe languages">Khoe family</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kx%CA%BCa_languages" title="Kxʼa languages">Kxʼa family</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Tuu_languages" title="Tuu languages">Tuu family</a>, respectively. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption style="text-align: left;">Khoisan language words, as reported in 2005 by Britannica <sup id="cite_ref-AT_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AT-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th></th> <th>Sandawe</th> <th>Hadza</th> <th>Khoe</th> <th>Ju</th> <th>ǃXóõ </th></tr> <tr> <td>'person'</td> <td>ǀnomese</td> <td>ʼúnù</td> <td>khoe</td> <td>ʒú</td> <td>tâa </td></tr> <tr> <td>'man'</td> <td>ǀnomese</td> <td>ɬeme</td> <td>kʼákhoe</td> <td>ǃhõá</td> <td>tâa á̰a </td></tr> <tr> <td>'child'</td> <td>ǁnoό</td> <td>waʼa</td> <td>ǀūá</td> <td>dama</td> <td>ʘàa </td></tr> <tr> <td>'ear'</td> <td>kéké</td> <td>ɦatʃʼapitʃʼi</td> <td>ǂée</td> <td>ǀhúí</td> <td>ǂnùhã </td></tr> <tr> <td>'eye'</td> <td>ǀgweé</td> <td>ʼákhwa</td> <td>ǂxái</td> <td>ǀgàʼá</td> <td>ǃʼûĩ </td></tr> <tr> <td>'ostrich'</td> <td>saʼútà</td> <td>kénàngu</td> <td>ǀgáro</td> <td>dsùú</td> <td>qûje </td></tr> <tr> <td>'giraffe'</td> <td>tsʼámasu</td> <td>tsʼókwàna</td> <td>ǃnábe</td> <td>ǂoah</td> <td>ǁqhūũ </td></tr> <tr> <td>'buffalo'</td> <td>ǀeu</td> <td>nákʼóma</td> <td>ǀâo</td> <td>ǀàò</td> <td>ǀqhái </td></tr> <tr> <td>'to hear'</td> <td>khéʼé</td> <td>ǁnáʼe</td> <td>kúm</td> <td>tsʼàʼá</td> <td>tá̰a </td></tr> <tr> <td>'to drink'</td> <td>tsʼee</td> <td>fá</td> <td>kxʼâa</td> <td>tʃìi</td> <td>kxʼāhã </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Families">Families</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khoisan_languages&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Families"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KhoisanLanguagesModernDistribution.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Khoisan language map" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/KhoisanLanguagesModernDistribution.png/440px-KhoisanLanguagesModernDistribution.png" decoding="async" width="440" height="395" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/KhoisanLanguagesModernDistribution.png/660px-KhoisanLanguagesModernDistribution.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/KhoisanLanguagesModernDistribution.png/880px-KhoisanLanguagesModernDistribution.png 2x" data-file-width="3722" data-file-height="3345" /></a><figcaption>Present distribution of speakers of Khoisan languages</figcaption></figure> <p>The branches that were once considered part of so-called Khoisan are now considered independent families, since it has not been demonstrated that they are related according to the <a href="/wiki/Comparative_method" title="Comparative method">standard comparative method</a>. </p><p>See <a href="/wiki/Khoe_languages" title="Khoe languages">Khoe languages</a> for speculations on the linguistic history of the region. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hadza">Hadza</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khoisan_languages&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Hadza"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hadza_language" title="Hadza language">Hadza language</a></div> <p>With about 800 speakers in Tanzania, Hadza is no longer seen as a Khoisan language and appears to be unrelated to any other language. Genetically, the Hadza people are unrelated to the Khoisan peoples of Southern Africa, and their closest relatives may be among the <a href="/wiki/Pygmies" class="mw-redirect" title="Pygmies">Pygmies</a> of Central Africa. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sandawe">Sandawe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khoisan_languages&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Sandawe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sandawe_language" title="Sandawe language">Sandawe language</a></div> <p>There is some indication that Sandawe (about 40,000 speakers in Tanzania) may be related to the Khoe family, such as a congruent pronominal system and some good <a href="/wiki/Swadesh_list" title="Swadesh list">Swadesh-list</a> matches, but not enough to establish regular sound correspondences. Sandawe is not related to Hadza, despite their proximity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Khoe">Khoe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khoisan_languages&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Khoe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Khoe%E2%80%93Kwadi_languages" title="Khoe–Kwadi languages">Khoe–Kwadi languages</a></div> <p>The Khoe family is both the most numerous and diverse family of Khoisan languages, with seven living languages and over a quarter million speakers. Although little Kwadi data is available, proto-Khoe–Kwadi reconstructions have been made for pronouns and some basic vocabulary. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1116488514">.mw-parser-output .treeview ul{padding:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .treeview li{padding:0;margin:0;list-style-type:none;list-style-image:none}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li{background:url("https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Treeview-grey-line.png")no-repeat 0 -2981px;padding-left:21px;text-indent:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li:last-child{background-position:0 -5971px}.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>.mw-empty-elt:first-child+.emptyline,.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>li:first-child{background-position:0 9px}</style><div class="treeview"> <ul><li>?<b><a href="/wiki/Khoe%E2%80%93Kwadi_languages" title="Khoe–Kwadi languages">Khoe–Kwadi</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kwadi_language" title="Kwadi language">Kwadi</a> (extinct)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoe_languages" title="Khoe languages">Khoe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khoekhoe_language" title="Khoekhoe language">Khoekhoe</a> This branch appears to have been affected by the Kxʼa–Tuu <i><a href="/wiki/Sprachbund" title="Sprachbund">sprachbund</a></i>. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nama_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Nama language">Nama</a> (ethnonyms Khoekhoen, Nama, Damara) (a dialect cluster including ǂAakhoe and Haiǁom)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eini_dialect" title="Eini dialect">Eini</a> (extinct)</li> <li>South Khoekhoe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korana_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Korana language">Korana</a> (moribund)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiri_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Xiri language">Xiri</a> (moribund; a dialect cluster)</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tshu%E2%80%93Khwe_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Tshu–Khwe languages">Tshu–Khwe</a> (or <i>Kalahari)</i> Many of these languages have undergone partial <a href="/wiki/Click_loss" class="mw-redirect" title="Click loss">click loss</a>. <ul><li>East Tshu–Khwe (East Kalahari) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shua_language" title="Shua language">Shua</a> (a dialect cluster including Deti, Tsʼixa, ǀXaise, and Ganádi)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsoa_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Tsoa language">Tsoa</a> (a dialect cluster including Cire Cire and Kua)</li></ul></li> <li>West Tshu–Khwe (West Kalahari) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kxoe_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kxoe language">Kxoe</a> (a dialect cluster including <a href="/wiki/%C7%81Ani_language" class="mw-redirect" title="ǁAni language">ǁAni</a> and Buga)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naro_language" title="Naro language">Naro</a> (a dialect cluster, including <a href="/wiki/%C7%82Haba_language" title="ǂHaba language">ǂHaba</a>)</li> <li>Gǁana–Gǀwi (a dialect cluster including <a href="/wiki/G%C7%81ana_language" title="Gǁana language">Gǁana</a> and <a href="/wiki/G%C7%80wi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gǀwi language">Gǀwi</a>)</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Hai%C7%81om_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Haiǁom people">Haiǁom</a> language is listed in most Khoisan references. A century ago the Haiǁom people spoke a Ju dialect, probably close to ǃKung, but they now speak a divergent dialect of Nama. Thus their language is variously said to be extinct or to have 18,000 speakers, to be Ju or to be Khoe. (Their numbers have been included under Nama above.) They are known as the <i>Saa</i> by the Nama, and this is the source of the word <i><a href="/wiki/San_people" title="San people">San</a></i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tuu">Tuu</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khoisan_languages&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Tuu"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tuu_languages" title="Tuu languages">Tuu languages</a></div> <p>The Tuu family consists of two language clusters, which are related to each other at about the distance of Khoekhoe and Tshukhwe within Khoe. They are typologically very similar to the Kxʼa languages (below), but have not been demonstrated to be related to them genealogically (the similarities may be an <a href="/wiki/Sprachbund" title="Sprachbund">areal</a> feature). </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1116488514"><div class="treeview"> <ul><li><b>Tuu</b> <ul><li>Taa <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C7%83Xoon_language" class="mw-redirect" title="ǃXoon language">ǃXoon</a> (4200 speakers. A dialect cluster.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Nossob_language" title="Lower Nossob language">Lower Nossob</a> (Two dialects, ǀʼAuni and ǀHaasi. Extinct.)</li></ul></li> <li>ǃKwi <ul><li><a href="/wiki/N%C7%81ng_language" title="Nǁng language">Nǁng</a> (1 speaker. A dialect cluster.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C7%80Xam_language" title="ǀXam language">ǀXam</a> (A dialect cluster. Extinct.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C7%82Ungkue_language" title="ǂUngkue language">ǂUngkue</a> (A dialect cluster. Extinct.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C7%81Xegwi_language" title="ǁXegwi language">ǁXegwi</a> (Extinct.)</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kxʼa"><span id="Kx.CA.BCa"></span>Kxʼa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khoisan_languages&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Kxʼa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kx%CA%BCa_languages" title="Kxʼa languages">Kxʼa languages</a></div> <p>The Kxʼa family is a relatively distant relationship formally demonstrated in 2010.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1116488514"><div class="treeview"> <ul><li><b>Kxʼa</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C7%82%CA%BCAmkoe_language" title="ǂʼAmkoe language">ǂʼAmkoe</a> (200 speakers, Botswana. Moribund. A dialect cluster of Nǃaqriaxe, (Eastern) ǂHoan, and Sasi).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C7%83Kung_languages" title="ǃKung languages">ǃKung</a> (also <i>ǃXun</i> or <i>Ju,</i> formerly <i>Northern Khoisan)</i> is a dialect cluster. (~45,000 speakers.) <a href="/wiki/Ju%C7%80%CA%BChoan" class="mw-redirect" title="Juǀʼhoan">Juǀʼhoan</a> is the best-known dialect.</li></ul></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classification_by_Starostin_(2013)"><span id="Classification_by_Starostin_.282013.29"></span>Classification by Starostin (2013)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khoisan_languages&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Classification by Starostin (2013)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Starostin (2013) gives the following classification of the Khoisan "<a href="/wiki/Macrofamily" title="Macrofamily">macrofamily</a>," which he considers to be a single coherent <a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">language family</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, this classification is not widely accepted. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1116488514"><div class="treeview"> <ul><li><b>Khoisan</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hadza_language" title="Hadza language">Hadza</a></li> <li>Macro-Khoisan (excl. Hadza) <ul><li>Sandawe-Khoi-Kwadi <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sandawe_language" title="Sandawe language">Sandawe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoe%E2%80%93Kwadi_languages" title="Khoe–Kwadi languages">Khoi-Kwadi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kwadi_language" title="Kwadi language">Kwadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoe_languages" title="Khoe languages">Khoe</a> (= Khoi) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khoekhoe_language" title="Khoekhoe language">Khoikhoi</a></li> <li>Kalahari Khoi</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Peripheral Khoisan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Khoisan_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Khoisan languages">Southern Khoisan</a> (= !Kwi-Taa ~ Tuu) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/!Kwi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="!Kwi language">!Kwi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taa_language" title="Taa language">Taa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ju%C7%80%CA%BChoan_language" title="Juǀʼhoan language">Ju-hoan</a> <ul><li>Western Hoan</li> <li>Northern Khoisan (= Ju)</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_"click_languages""><span id="Other_.22click_languages.22"></span>Other "click languages"</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khoisan_languages&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Other "click languages""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Click_consonant#Languages_with_clicks" title="Click consonant">Click consonant § Languages with clicks</a></div> <p>Not all languages using clicks as phonemes are considered Khoisan. Most others are neighboring <a href="/wiki/Bantu_languages" title="Bantu languages">Bantu languages</a> in southern Africa: the <a href="/wiki/Nguni_languages" title="Nguni languages">Nguni languages</a> (<a href="/wiki/Xhosa_language" title="Xhosa language">Xhosa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zulu_language" title="Zulu language">Zulu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Swazi_language" title="Swazi language">Swazi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phuthi_language" title="Phuthi language">Phuthi</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Northern_Ndebele_language" title="Northern Ndebele language">Northern Ndebele</a>); <a href="/wiki/Sotho_language" title="Sotho language">Sotho</a>; <a href="/wiki/Yeyi_language" title="Yeyi language">Yeyi</a> in <a href="/wiki/Botswana" title="Botswana">Botswana</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Mbukushu_language" title="Mbukushu language">Mbukushu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kwangali_language" title="Kwangali language">Kwangali</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gciriku_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gciriku language">Gciriku</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Caprivi_Strip" title="Caprivi Strip">Caprivi Strip</a>. Clicks are spreading to a few additional neighboring languages. Of these languages, Xhosa, Zulu, Ndebele and Yeyi have intricate systems of click consonants; the others, despite the click in the name <i>Gciriku,</i> more rudimentary ones. There is also the <a href="/wiki/South_Cushitic_languages" title="South Cushitic languages">South Cushitic</a> language <a href="/wiki/Dahalo_language" title="Dahalo language">Dahalo</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a>, which has dental clicks in a few score words, and an extinct and presumably artificial <a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_languages#Classification" title="Australian Aboriginal languages">Australian</a> ritual language called <a href="/wiki/Damin" title="Damin">Damin</a>, which had only nasal clicks. </p><p>The Bantu languages adopted the use of clicks from neighboring, displaced, or absorbed Khoisan populations (or from other Bantu languages), often through intermarriage, while the Dahalo are thought to have retained clicks from an earlier language when they <a href="/wiki/Language_shift" title="Language shift">shifted</a> to speaking a Cushitic language; if so, the pre-Dahalo language may have been something like Hadza or Sandawe. Damin is an invented ritual language, and has nothing to do with Khoisan. </p><p>These are the only languages known to have clicks in normal vocabulary. Occasionally other languages are said by laypeople to have "click" sounds. This is usually a misnomer for <a href="/wiki/Ejective_consonant" title="Ejective consonant">ejective consonants</a>, which are found across much of the world, or is a reference to <a href="/wiki/Paralinguistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Paralinguistic">paralinguistic</a> use of clicks such as English <i>tsk! tsk!</i> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Comparative_vocabulary">Comparative vocabulary</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khoisan_languages&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Comparative vocabulary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sample basic vocabulary for Khoisan language families: </p> <table class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size: 85%"> <tbody><tr> <td> </td> <th>Language</th> <th>eye</th> <th>ear</th> <th>nose</th> <th>tooth</th> <th>tongue</th> <th>mouth</th> <th>blood</th> <th>bone</th> <th>tree</th> <th>water</th> <th>eat </th></tr> <tr> <td>Proto-<a href="/wiki/Khoe_languages" title="Khoe languages">Khoe</a><sup id="cite_ref-Vossen_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vossen-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>*≠xai</td> <td>*≠ai</td> <td>*≠ui</td> <td>*//ũ</td> <td></td> <td>*kxʔam</td> <td>*/ʔao</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>*≠̃a</td> <td>*≠ʔũ</td> <td>*/xʔon </td></tr> <tr> <td>Proto-<a href="/wiki/Khoekhoe_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Khoekhoe languages">Khoekhoe</a><sup id="cite_ref-Vossen_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vossen-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>*≠xai</td> <td>*≠ai</td> <td>*≠ui</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>*//kxʔam</td> <td>*/ʔau</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>*≠ʔũ</td> <td>*/xʔon </td></tr> <tr> <td>Proto-<a href="/wiki/Khoe_languages" title="Khoe languages">Central Khoisan</a><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>*ǂxai</td> <td>*ǂae</td> <td>*ǂuii</td> <td>*ǁõõ</td> <td>*dham</td> <td>*kx’am</td> <td>*ǀ’ao</td> <td></td> <td>*zei</td> <td>*tsaa; *ǁami</td> <td>*ǂ’ũ</td> <td>*ǀkx’on </td></tr> <tr> <td>Proto-<a href="/wiki/Tuu_languages" title="Tuu languages">Tuu</a><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>*tsʼaa</td> <td>*nǂ(u)i</td> <td>*nǀu, *nǀũ</td> <td>*ǁkha(i)</td> <td>*ǀʼãri > *ǀʼani</td> <td>*thu</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>*ʘho, *nʘo, *nʘa</td> <td>*!khaa</td> <td>*ãa, *ãi</td> <td>*ǀãe, *ǁae </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ju%C7%80%CA%BChoan_language" title="Juǀʼhoan language">Žuǀʼhõansi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tsumkwe_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Tsumkwe language">Tsumkwe</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>gǀà’a̍</td> <td>ǀ’hū̍</td> <td>ts’ũ</td> <td>ts’àu</td> <td>dhārì</td> <td>ts’i</td> <td>ǀ’àng</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Sandawe_language" title="Sandawe language">Sandawe</a><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>ǀʷěː</td> <td>kéké</td> <td>ⁿǀáti̥</td> <td>!’àkʰã̌ː</td> <td>!ʰẽ̂ː</td> <td>ⁿ!ũ̂ː</td> <td>ǁ’ék’â</td> <td>!î</td> <td>tʰěː</td> <td>ts’â</td> <td>mántʃʰâ</td> <td>ǁʷâ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hadza_language" title="Hadza language">Hadza</a><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td></td> <td>ʔakʷʰa</td> <td>ɦat͜ʃ’apit͜ʃʰi</td> <td>ʔiƞtʰawe</td> <td>ʔaɦa</td> <td>ⁿǀata</td> <td>ʔawati</td> <td>ʔatʰama</td> <td>mic͜ʎ̥˔’a</td> <td>t͜s’iti</td> <td>ʔati</td> <td>seme </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khoisan_languages&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Khoisan_word_lists" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Appendix:Khoisan word lists">Khoisan word lists</a> (Wiktionary)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Botswana" title="Languages of Botswana">Languages of Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Namibia" title="Languages of Namibia">Languages of Namibia</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khoisan_languages&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Greenberg, Joseph H. 1955. ''Studies in African Linguistic Classification.'' New Haven: Compass Publishing Company. (Reprints, with minor corrections, a series of eight articles published in the ''Southwestern Journal of Anthropology'' from 1949 to 1954.)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AB-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AB_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AB_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBarnard1988" class="citation journal cs1">Barnard, A (1988). 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Elderkin (forthcoming) '<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://email.eva.mpg.de/~gueldema/pdf/Gueldemann_Elderkin.pdf">On external genealogical relationships of the Khoe family.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090325021922/http://email.eva.mpg.de/~gueldema/pdf/Gueldemann_Elderkin.pdf">Archived</a> 2009-03-25 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>' In Brenzinger, Matthias and Christa König (eds.), <i>Khoisan Languages and Linguistics: the Riezlern Symposium 2003.</i> Quellen zur Khoisan-Forschung 17. Köln: Rüdiger Köppe.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bonny Sands (1998) <i>Eastern and Southern African Khoisan: Evaluating Claims of Distant Linguistic Relationships.</i> Rüdiger Köppe Verlag, Cologne</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDimmendaal2008" class="citation journal cs1">Dimmendaal, Gerrit (2008). 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SIL Electronic Survey Reports 2007-014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sil.org/system/files/reapdata/13/72/23/137223930907147980961790077781008537281/silesr2007_014.pdf">PDF</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Miller, Kirk. 2019. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.glottopedia.org/index.php/Hadza">Hadza</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Glottopedia" title="Glottopedia">Glottopedia</a></i>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khoisan_languages&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarnard1988" class="citation journal cs1">Barnard, A (1988). "Kinship, Language and Production: a Conjectural History of Khoisan Social Structure". <i><a href="/wiki/Africa:_Journal_of_the_International_African_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Africa: Journal of the International African Institute">Africa: Journal of the International African Institute</a></i>. <b>58</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">29–</span>50. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1159869">10.2307/1159869</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1159869">1159869</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:131856340">131856340</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Africa%3A+Journal+of+the+International+African+Institute&rft.atitle=Kinship%2C+Language+and+Production%3A+a+Conjectural+History+of+Khoisan+Social+Structure&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E29-%3C%2Fspan%3E50&rft.date=1988&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A131856340%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1159869%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1159869&rft.aulast=Barnard&rft.aufirst=A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhoisan+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEhret1986" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Ehret" title="Christopher Ehret">Ehret, Christopher</a> (1986). Rottland, Franz; Vossen, Rainer (eds.). "Proposals on Khoisan Reconstruction". <i>Sprache und Geschichte in Afrika</i>. <b>7</b> (2). Hamburg: Helmut Buske Verlag: <span class="nowrap">105–</span>130.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sprache+und+Geschichte+in+Afrika&rft.atitle=Proposals+on+Khoisan+Reconstruction&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E105-%3C%2Fspan%3E130&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Ehret&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhoisan+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEhret2003" class="citation journal cs1">Ehret, Christopher (2003). Bengtson, John D.; Starostin, George (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mother-tongue-viii-2003/page/65/mode/1up">"Toward reconstructing Proto-South Khoisan"</a>. <i>Mother Tongue: Journal of the Association for the Study of Language in Prehistory</i>. <b>VIII</b> (Special Issue: Proceedings of the Linguistic Databases and Linguistic Taxonomy Workshop, Santa Fe Institute, January 6-10, 2003): <span class="nowrap">63–</span>80.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mother+Tongue%3A+Journal+of+the+Association+for+the+Study+of+Language+in+Prehistory&rft.atitle=Toward+reconstructing+Proto-South+Khoisan&rft.volume=VIII&rft.issue=Special+Issue%3A+Proceedings+of+the+Linguistic+Databases+and+Linguistic+Taxonomy+Workshop%2C+Santa+Fe+Institute%2C+January+6-10%2C+2003&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E63-%3C%2Fspan%3E80&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Ehret&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmother-tongue-viii-2003%2Fpage%2F65%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhoisan+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenberg1955" class="citation book cs1">Greenberg, Joseph H. (1955). <i>Studies in African Linguistic Classification</i>. New Haven: Compass Publishing Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+in+African+Linguistic+Classification&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pub=Compass+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1955&rft.aulast=Greenberg&rft.aufirst=Joseph+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhoisan+languages" class="Z3988"></span> (Reprints, with minor corrections, a series of eight articles published in the <i>Southwestern Journal of Anthropology</i> from 1949 to 1954.)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenberg1970" class="citation book cs1">Greenberg, Joseph H. (1970) [1st ed. 1963; 2nd revised ed.: 1966]. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Languages_of_Africa" title="The Languages of Africa">The Languages of Africa</a></i> (3rd ed.). 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"Evidence for the Genetic Unity of Southern Khoesan". <i>Cornell Working Papers in Linguistics</i>. <b>18</b>: <span class="nowrap">225–</span>245.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cornell+Working+Papers+in+Linguistics&rft.atitle=Evidence+for+the+Genetic+Unity+of+Southern+Khoesan&rft.volume=18&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E225-%3C%2Fspan%3E245&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Hastings&rft.aufirst=Rachel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhoisan+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHonken1988" class="citation book cs1">Honken, Henry (1988). "Phonetic Correspondences among Khoisan Affricates". In Vossen, Rainer (ed.). <i>New Perspectives on the Study of Khoisan</i>. Quellen zur Khoisan-Forschung. Vol. 7. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://starling.rinet.ru/Texts/khoisan.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2021-11-20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Aspects+of+Comparative+Linguistics&rft.atitle=From+modern+Khoisan+languages+to+Proto-Khoisan%3A+The+Value+of+Intermediate+Reconstructions&rft.volume=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E337-%3C%2Fspan%3E470&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Starostin&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fstarling.rinet.ru%2FTexts%2Fkhoisan.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhoisan+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStarostin2013" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Starostin, George (2013). <i>Languages of Africa: An attempt at a lexicostatistical classification</i>. Vol. I: Methodology. 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In <i>Language, Identity, and Conceptualization Among the Khoisan</i>, edited by Matthias Schladt. Köln: Rüdiger Köppe, 463–503.</li> <li>Vossen, Rainer. 1997. <i>Die Khoe-Sprachen. Ein Beitrag zur Erforschung der Sprachgeschichte Afrikas</i>. Köln: Rüdiger Köppe.</li> <li>Vossen, Rainer. 2013. <i>The Khoesan Languages</i>. Oxon: Routledge.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Oswald_Johannes_Westphal" title="Ernst Oswald Johannes Westphal">Westphal, E.O.J.</a> 1971. "The Click Languages of Southern and Eastern Africa." In <i>Current Trends in Linguistics</i>, Volume 7: <i>Linguistics in Sub-Saharan Africa</i>, edited by <a href="/wiki/T.A._Sebeok" class="mw-redirect" title="T.A. Sebeok">T.A. Sebeok</a>. Berlin: Mouton, 367–420.</li> <li>Winter, J.C. 1981. "Die Khoisan-Familie." In <i>Die Sprachen Afrikas</i>, edited by Bernd Heine, <a href="/wiki/Thilo_C._Schadeberg" title="Thilo C. Schadeberg">Thilo C. Schadeberg</a>, and Ekkehard Wolff. 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Khoisan" title="Template:Khoisan"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Khoisan" title="Template talk:Khoisan"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Khoisan" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Khoisan"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Khoisan_languages195" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Khoisan languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Khoe%E2%80%93Kwadi_languages" title="Khoe–Kwadi languages">Khoe–Kwadi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Khoe_languages" title="Khoe languages">Khoe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/G%C7%81ana_language" title="Gǁana language">Gǁana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/G%C7%80ui_dialect" title="Gǀui dialect">Gǀwi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C7%82Haba_language" title="ǂHaba language">ǂHaba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoekhoe_language" title="Khoekhoe language">Khoekhoe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C7%82Aakhoe_dialect" title="ǂAakhoe dialect">ǂAakhoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eini_dialect" title="Eini dialect"><i>Eini</i></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khwe_language" title="Khwe language">Khwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoemana" title="Khoemana">Korana/Griqua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naro_language" title="Naro language">Naro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shua_language" title="Shua language">Shua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tshwa_language" title="Tshwa language">Tshwa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Kwadi</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kwadi_language" title="Kwadi language"><i>Kwadi</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kx%CA%BCa_languages" title="Kxʼa languages">Kxʼa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%C7%83Kung_languages" title="ǃKung languages">ǃKung</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sekele_language" title="Sekele language">Sekele / Northern ǃKung</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ekoka_%C7%83Kung" title="Ekoka ǃKung">Ekoka</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_%C7%83Kung" title="Central ǃKung">Central ǃKung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ju%C7%80%CA%BChoan_language" title="Juǀʼhoan language">Juǀʼhoan / Southern ǃKung</a> (<a href="/wiki/%C7%82Kx%CA%BCao%C7%81%CA%BCae" title="ǂKxʼaoǁʼae">ǂKxʼaoǁʼae</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">ǂʼAmkoe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/%C7%82%CA%BCAmkoe_language" title="ǂʼAmkoe language">ǂʼAmkoe (ǂHoan)</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tuu_languages" title="Tuu languages">Tuu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Taa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Nossob_language" title="Lower Nossob language"><i>Lower Nossob</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taa_language" title="Taa language">Taa (ǃXoon)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">ǃKwi</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Boshof_%C7%83Ui" title="Boshof ǃUi">Boshof ǃUi</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C7%83G%C3%A3%C7%83ne_language" title="ǃGãǃne language"><i>ǃGãǃne</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C7%81K%C4%81_language" title="ǁKā language"><i>ǁKā</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C7%81ng_language" title="Nǁng language">Nǁng (Nǀuu)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seroa_language" title="Seroa language"><i>Seroa</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C7%81%C5%A8%C7%81%CA%BCe_language" title="ǁŨǁʼe language"><i>ǁŨǁʼe</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C7%82Ungkue_language" title="ǂUngkue language"><i>ǂUngkue</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C7%80Xam_language" title="ǀXam language"><i>ǀXam</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C7%81Xegwi_language" title="ǁXegwi language"><i>ǁXegwi</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Language_isolate" title="Language isolate">Isolates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sandawe_language" title="Sandawe language">Sandawe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadza_language" title="Hadza language">Hadza</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><i>Italics</i> indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct</a> languages.</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Languages_of_South_Africa452" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Languages_of_South_Africa" title="Template:Languages of South Africa"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Languages_of_South_Africa" title="Template talk:Languages of South Africa"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Languages_of_South_Africa" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Languages of South Africa"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Languages_of_South_Africa452" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_South_Africa" title="Languages of South Africa">Languages of South Africa</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pan_South_African_Language_Board" title="Pan South African Language Board">Pan South African Language Board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commission_for_the_Promotion_and_Protection_of_the_Rights_of_Cultural,_Religious_and_Linguistic_Communities" title="Commission for the Promotion and Protection of the Rights of Cultural, Religious and Linguistic Communities">Commission for Cultural, Religious and Linguistic Community Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Department_of_Arts_and_Culture_(South_Africa)" title="Department of Arts and Culture (South Africa)">Department of Arts and Culture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Official</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West Germanic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaans" title="Afrikaans">Afrikaans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_English" title="South African English">English</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Bantu_languages" title="Southern Bantu languages">Southern Bantu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sotho%E2%80%93Tswana_languages" title="Sotho–Tswana languages">Sotho–Tswana</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Sotho_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Sotho language">Northern Sotho <i>(Sesotho sa Leboa)</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sotho_language" title="Sotho language">Southern Sotho <i>(Sesotho)</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tswana_language" title="Tswana language">Tswana <i>(Setswana)</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nguni_languages" title="Nguni languages">Nguni</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Ndebele_language" title="Southern Ndebele language">Southern Ndebele <i>(isiNdebele)</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swazi_language" title="Swazi language">Swazi <i>(siSwati)</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xhosa_language" title="Xhosa language">Xhosa <i>(isiXhosa)</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zulu_language" title="Zulu language">Zulu <i>(isiZulu)</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tswa%E2%80%93Ronga_languages" title="Tswa–Ronga languages">Tswa–Ronga</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tsonga_language" title="Tsonga language">Tsonga <i>(Xitsonga)</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Venda</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Venda_language" title="Venda language">Venda <i>(Tshivenḓa)</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Recognised<br />unofficial languages<br />mentioned in the<br /><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_South_Africa" title="Constitution of South Africa">1996 constitution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Indigenous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhaca_language" title="Bhaca language">Bhaca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoe_languages" title="Khoe languages">Khoe</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Khoisan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lala_language_(South_Africa)" title="Lala language (South Africa)">Lala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lozi_language" title="Lozi language">Lozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoekhoe_language" title="Khoekhoe language">Nama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nhlangwini_language" title="Nhlangwini language">Nhlangwini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ndebele_language" title="Northern Ndebele language">Northern Ndebele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phuthi_language" title="Phuthi language">Phuthi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuu_languages" title="Tuu languages">Tuu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foreign</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_language" title="Gujarati language">Gujarati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindi" title="Hindi">Hindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malay_language" title="Malay language">Malay</a> (historical)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telugu_language" title="Telugu language">Telugu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urdu" title="Urdu">Urdu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Religious</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_slang" title="LGBTQ slang">LGBTQ slang</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gayle_language" title="Gayle language">Gayle</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/IsiNgqumo" title="IsiNgqumo">IsiNgqumo</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tsotsitaal_and_Camtho" title="Tsotsitaal and Camtho">Tsotsitaal and Camtho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oorlams_Creole" title="Oorlams Creole">Oorlams Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fanagalo" title="Fanagalo">Fanagalo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pretoria_Sotho" title="Pretoria Sotho">Pretoria Sotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scamto" title="Scamto">Scamto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Sign_Language" title="South African Sign Language">SA Sign Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angloromani_language" title="Angloromani language">Angloromani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaaps" title="Kaaps">Kaaps</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q33614#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1124" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" 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