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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Analytical_jurisprudence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Analytical_jurisprudence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Analytical jurisprudence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Analytical_jurisprudence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Connection_to_morality_and_justice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Connection_to_morality_and_justice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Connection to morality and justice </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Connection_to_morality_and_justice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 History </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legal_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legal_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Legal systems </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Legal_systems-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Legal systems subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Legal_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Civil_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civil_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Civil law </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Civil_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Common_law_and_equity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Common_law_and_equity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Common law and equity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Common_law_and_equity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religious_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Religious law </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religious_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Canon_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canon_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.1 Canon law </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canon_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sharia_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sharia_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.2 Sharia law </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sharia_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Socialist_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Socialist_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.3 Socialist law </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Socialist_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legal_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legal_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Legal methods </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legal_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legal_institutions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legal_institutions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Legal institutions </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Legal_institutions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Legal institutions subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Legal_institutions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Judiciary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Judiciary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Judiciary </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Judiciary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legislature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legislature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Legislature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legislature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Executive" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Executive"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Executive </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Executive-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military_and_police" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_and_police"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Military and police </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military_and_police-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bureaucracy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bureaucracy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Bureaucracy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bureaucracy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legal_profession" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legal_profession"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6 Legal profession </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legal_profession-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Civil_society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civil_society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.7 Civil society </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Civil_society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Areas_of_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Areas_of_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Areas of law </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Areas_of_law-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Areas of law subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Areas_of_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-International_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 International law </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Constitutional_and_administrative_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constitutional_and_administrative_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Constitutional and administrative law </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constitutional_and_administrative_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criminal_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criminal_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Criminal law </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criminal_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contract_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contract_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Contract law </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contract_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Torts_and_delicts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Torts_and_delicts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5 Torts and delicts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Torts_and_delicts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Property_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Property_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.6 Property law </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Property_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Equity_and_trusts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Equity_and_trusts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.7 Equity and trusts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Equity_and_trusts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_disciplines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_disciplines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.8 Further disciplines </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_disciplines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intersection_with_other_fields" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intersection_with_other_fields"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Intersection with other fields </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Intersection_with_other_fields-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Intersection with other fields subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Intersection_with_other_fields-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Economics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Economics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sociology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sociology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Sociology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sociology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Law</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 184 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-184" aria-hidden="true" > 184 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reg" title="Reg – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Reg" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recht" title="Recht – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Recht" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%95%E1%8C%8D" title="ሕግ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ሕግ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86" title="قانون – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="قانون" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dreito" title="Dreito – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Dreito" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%A9%DC%A2%DC%98%DC%A2%DC%90" title="ܩܢܘܢܐ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܩܢܘܢܐ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target">ܐܪܡܝܐ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BB%D6%80%D5%A1%D6%82%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D6%84" title="Իրաւունք – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Իրաւունք" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr%C3%AAt" title="Drêt – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Drêt" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Arpetan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derechu" title="Derechu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Derechu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tekoiterape" title="Tekoiterape – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Tekoiterape" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%BCquq" title="Hüquq – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Hüquq" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%88%D9%82%D9%88%D9%82" title="حوقوق – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="حوقوق" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bm mw-list-item"><a href="https://bm.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A0r%C3%ACya" title="Sàrìya – Bambara" lang="bm" hreflang="bm" data-title="Sàrìya" data-language-autonym="Bamanankan" data-language-local-name="Bambara" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bamanankan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A8" title="আইন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="আইন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoat-lu%CC%8Dt" title="Hoat-lu̍t – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hoat-lu̍t" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-map-bms mw-list-item"><a href="https://map-bms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hukum" title="Hukum – Banyumasan" lang="jv-x-bms" hreflang="jv-x-bms" data-title="Hukum" data-language-autonym="Basa Banyumasan" data-language-local-name="Banyumasan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Banyumasan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%BE%D2%A1%D1%83%D2%A1" title="Хоҡуҡ – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Хоҡуҡ" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Права – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Права" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Права – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Права" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A8" title="कानून – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="कानून" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ley" title="Ley – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Ley" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Право – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Право" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recht" title="Recht – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Recht" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%81%E0%BE%B2%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%98%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8D" title="ཁྲིམས། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="ཁྲིམས།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pravo" title="Pravo – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Pravo" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwir_(lezenn)" title="Gwir (lezenn) – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Gwir (lezenn)" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%83%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Хуули – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Хуули" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dret" title="Dret – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Dret" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B8%D0%B2%C4%95%C3%A7-%D0%B8%D1%80%C4%95%D0%BA" title="Тивĕç-ирĕк – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Тивĕç-ирĕк" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pamalaod" title="Pamalaod – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Pamalaod" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C3%A1vo" title="Právo – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Právo" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ch mw-list-item"><a href="https://ch.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lai" title="Lai – Chamorro" lang="ch" hreflang="ch" data-title="Lai" data-language-autonym="Chamoru" data-language-local-name="Chamorro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Chamoru</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutemo" title="Mutemo – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Mutemo" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drittu" title="Drittu – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Drittu" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target">Corsu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyfraith" title="Cyfraith – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Cyfraith" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jura" title="Jura – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Jura" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86" title="قانون – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="قانون" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recht" title="Recht – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Recht" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%95igus" title="Õigus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Õigus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CE%AF%CE%BA%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%BF" title="Δίκαιο – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Δίκαιο" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Права – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Права" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Эрзянь</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derecho" title="Derecho – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Derecho" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juro" title="Juro – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Juro" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derechu" title="Derechu – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Derechu" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zuzenbide" title="Zuzenbide – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Zuzenbide" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86" title="قانون – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="قانون" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanuun" title="Kanuun – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Kanuun" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Droit" title="Droit – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Droit" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rjocht" title="Rjocht – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Rjocht" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirit" title="Dirit – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Dirit" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dl%C3%AD" title="Dlí – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Dlí" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leigh" title="Leigh – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Leigh" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagh" title="Lagh – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Lagh" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dereito" title="Dereito – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Dereito" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fap-li%CC%8Dt" title="Fap-li̍t – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Fap-li̍t" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B2%95" title="법 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="법" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doka" title="Doka – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Doka" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BB%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%BE%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D6%84" title="Իրավունք – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Իրավունք" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BF" title="विधि – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="विधि" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pravo" title="Pravo – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Pravo" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yurocienco" title="Yurocienco – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Yurocienco" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linteg" title="Linteg – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Linteg" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hukum" title="Hukum – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Hukum" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derecto" title="Derecto – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Derecto" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jure" title="Jure – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Jure" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4" title="Барад – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Барад" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umthetho" title="Umthetho – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="Umthetho" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="Xhosa" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiXhosa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umthetho" title="Umthetho – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Umthetho" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiZulu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B6gfr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Lögfræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Lögfræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diritto" title="Diritto – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Diritto" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%93%D7%99%D7%9F" title="דין – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="דין" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukum" title="Ukum – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Ukum" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%82%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%81" title="ಕಾನೂನು – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಕಾನೂನು" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc mw-list-item"><a href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%8A" title="Хакъ – Karachay-Balkar" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" data-title="Хакъ" data-language-autonym="Къарачай-малкъар" data-language-local-name="Karachay-Balkar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Къарачай-малкъар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%97%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98" title="სამართალი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="სამართალი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%9A%D2%B1%D2%9B%D1%8B%D2%9B" title="Құқық – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Құқық" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagha" title="Lagha – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Lagha" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheria" title="Sheria – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Sheria" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kv mw-list-item"><a href="https://kv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D3%A7%D0%B4" title="Инӧд – Komi" lang="kv" hreflang="kv" data-title="Инӧд" data-language-autonym="Коми" data-language-local-name="Komi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Коми</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lwa_(dwa)" title="Lwa (dwa) – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Lwa (dwa)" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drw%C3%A8" title="Drwè – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Drwè" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dad" title="Dad – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Dad" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BA" title="Укук – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Укук" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirito" title="Dirito – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Dirito" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%BB%E0%BA%94%E0%BB%9D%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%8D" title="ກົດໝາຍ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ກົດໝາຍ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ius" title="Ius – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Ius" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tieslietas" title="Tieslietas – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Tieslietas" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Droit" title="Droit – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Droit" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teis%C4%97" title="Teisė – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Teisė" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diritto" title="Diritto – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Diritto" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rech" title="Rech – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Rech" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C3%A9bi-bos%C3%A9mbo" title="Zébi-bosémbo – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Zébi-bosémbo" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingála</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lege" title="Lege – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Lege" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/flalu" title="flalu – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="flalu" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target">La .lojban.</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jog" title="Jog – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Jog" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A8" title="कानून – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="कानून" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target">मैथिली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Право – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Право" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lal%C3%A0na_(mitovy_fanoratra)" title="Lalàna (mitovy fanoratra) – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Lalàna (mitovy fanoratra)" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%82" title="നിയമം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="നിയമം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dritt" title="Dritt – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Dritt" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mi mw-list-item"><a href="https://mi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ture" title="Ture – Māori" lang="mi" hreflang="mi" data-title="Ture" data-language-autonym="Māori" data-language-local-name="Māori" class="interlanguage-link-target">Māori</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE" title="कायदा – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="कायदा" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%97%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98" title="სამართალი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="სამართალი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86" title="قانون – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="قانون" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undang-undang" title="Undang-undang – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Undang-undang" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hukum" title="Hukum – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Hukum" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hu%C3%A1k-l%C5%ADk" title="Huák-lŭk – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Huák-lŭk" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dreito" title="Dreito – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Dreito" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%80%D1%85_%D0%B7%D2%AF%D0%B9" title="Эрх зүй – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Эрх зүй" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A5%E1%80%95%E1%80%92%E1%80%B1" title="ဥပဒေ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဥပဒေ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawa" title="Lawa – Fijian" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Lawa" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="Fijian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Na Vosa Vakaviti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recht" title="Recht – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Recht" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recht" title="Recht – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Recht" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A8" title="कानून – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="कानून" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B3%95_(%E6%B3%95%E5%AD%A6)" title="法 (法学) – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="法 (法学)" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%8A%D0%BE" title="Бакъо – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Бакъо" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocht" title="Rocht – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Rocht" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lov_og_rett" title="Lov og rett – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Lov og rett" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lou%C3%A9" title="Loué – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Loué" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nouormand</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drech" title="Drech – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Drech" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huquq" title="Huquq – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Huquq" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%82%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%A8" title="ਕਾਨੂੰਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਕਾਨੂੰਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86" title="قنون – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="قنون" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derecho" title="Derecho – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Derecho" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laa" title="Laa – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Laa" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%85%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%8B" title="ច្បាប់ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ច្បាប់" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lej" title="Lej – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Lej" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi mw-list-item"><a href="https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lo" title="Lo – Tok Pisin" lang="tpi" hreflang="tpi" data-title="Lo" data-language-autonym="Tok Pisin" data-language-local-name="Tok Pisin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tok Pisin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juristeree" title="Juristeree – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Juristeree" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prawo" title="Prawo – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Prawo" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direito" title="Direito – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Direito" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huq%C4%B1q" title="Huqıq – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Huqıq" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drept" title="Drept – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Drept" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiqa" title="Chiqa – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Chiqa" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Право – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Право" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Право – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Право" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D3%A9%D1%80%D2%AF%D0%BD" title="Төрүн – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Төрүн" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szy mw-list-item"><a href="https://szy.wikipedia.org/wiki/hulic" title="hulic – Sakizaya" lang="szy" hreflang="szy" data-title="hulic" data-language-autonym="Sakizaya" data-language-local-name="Sakizaya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sakizaya</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sm mw-list-item"><a href="https://sm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tul%C4%81fono" title="Tulāfono – Samoan" lang="sm" hreflang="sm" data-title="Tulāfono" data-language-autonym="Gagana Samoa" data-language-local-name="Samoan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gagana Samoa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deretu" title="Deretu – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Deretu" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law" title="Law – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Law" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-trv mw-list-item"><a href="https://trv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaya" title="Gaya – Taroko" lang="trv" hreflang="trv" data-title="Gaya" data-language-autonym="Seediq" data-language-local-name="Taroko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seediq</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligji" title="Ligji – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Ligji" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liggi" title="Liggi – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Liggi" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%93%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA" title="නීතිය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="නීතිය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law" title="Law – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Law" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86" title="قانون – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="قانون" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objekt%C3%ADvne_pr%C3%A1vo" title="Objektívne právo – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Objektívne právo" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pravo" title="Pravo – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Pravo" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharci" title="Sharci – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Sharci" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A7" title="یاسا – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="یاسا" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Право – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Право" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" 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href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%B2%D1%83%D2%9B%D1%83%D2%9B" title="Ҳуқуқ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Ҳуқуқ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8F%97%E1%8E%A7%E1%8E%BF%E1%8F%A9%E1%8F%9B%E1%8F%8D%E1%8F%97" title="ᏗᎧᎿᏩᏛᏍᏗ – Cherokee" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᏗᎧᎿᏩᏛᏍᏗ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="Cherokee" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᏣᎳᎩ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hukuk" title="Hukuk – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Hukuk" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tw mw-list-item"><a href="https://tw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mmara" title="Mmara – Twi" lang="tw" hreflang="tw" data-title="Mmara" data-language-autonym="Twi" data-language-local-name="Twi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Twi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Право – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Право" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86" title="قانون – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="قانون" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faplwd" title="Faplwd – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Faplwd" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" 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class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E5%BE%8B" title="法律 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="法律" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balaud" title="Balaud – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Balaud" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E5%BE%8B" title="法律 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="法律" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ts mw-list-item"><a href="https://ts.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nawu" 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screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1202158006">.mw-parser-output .law-sidebar .sidebar-heading{background:#aaddff;color:#000}.mw-parser-output .law-sidebar .sidebar-above{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .law-sidebar .sidebar-below{padding:0.4em;border-top:1px #aaa solid;font-weight:normal;font-size:smaller}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist law-sidebar"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Law" title="Category:Law">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Law</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Justice_scale_silhouette,_medium.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Justice_scale_silhouette%2C_medium.svg/125px-Justice_scale_silhouette%2C_medium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Justice_scale_silhouette%2C_medium.svg/188px-Justice_scale_silhouette%2C_medium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Justice_scale_silhouette%2C_medium.svg/250px-Justice_scale_silhouette%2C_medium.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="865" /></a></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Foundations and Philosophy</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Definition_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Definition of law">Definition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of law">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">History</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Legal theory</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_interpretation" title="Judicial interpretation">Judicial interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_law" title="Positive law">Positive law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">Law and economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">Sociology of law</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Methodological background</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Normative" class="mw-redirect" title="Normative">Normative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_prescription" title="Linguistic prescription">Prescriptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurimetrics" title="Jurimetrics">Jurimetrics</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Legal_debate" title="Legal debate">Legal debate</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legal_opinion" title="Legal opinion">Legal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Judicial_opinions" class="mw-redirect" title="Judicial opinions">judicial opinions</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1202158006"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist law-sidebar"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Conflict_resolution" title="Conflict resolution">Conflict resolution</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">Nonviolence</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arbitration" title="Arbitration">Arbitration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auction" title="Auction">Auction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conciliation" title="Conciliation">Conciliation</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dispute_resolution" title="Dispute resolution">Dispute resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collaborative_law" title="Collaborative law">Collaborative</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediation" title="Mediation">Mediation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Party-directed_mediation" title="Party-directed mediation">Party-directed</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolent_Communication" title="Nonviolent Communication">Nonviolent Communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negotiation" title="Negotiation">Negotiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speaking_truth_to_power" title="Speaking truth to power">Speaking truth to power</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Workplace</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_management" title="Conflict management">Conflict management</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Violence" title="Violence">Violence</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communal_violence" title="Communal violence">Communal violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_escalation" title="Conflict escalation">Conflict escalation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De-escalation" title="De-escalation">De-escalation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Just_war_theory" title="Just war theory">Just war theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_studies" title="War studies">studies</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">International relations</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appeasement" title="Appeasement">Appeasement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armistice" title="Armistice">Armistice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brinkmanship" title="Brinkmanship">Brinkmanship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceasefire" title="Ceasefire">Ceasefire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomacy" title="Diplomacy">Diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deterrence_theory" title="Deterrence theory">Deterrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multilateralism" title="Multilateralism">Multilateralism</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Nuclear</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" title="Nuclear warfare">Nuclear warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_blackmail" title="Nuclear blackmail">Nuclear blackmail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutual_assured_destruction" title="Mutual assured destruction">Mutual assured destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_disarmament" title="Nuclear disarmament">Nuclear disarmament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_proliferation" title="Nuclear proliferation">Nuclear proliferation</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Other</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_dispute_resolution" title="Alternative dispute resolution">Alternative dispute resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-war_movement" title="Anti-war movement">Anti-war movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_avoidance" title="Conflict avoidance">Conflict avoidance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_continuum" title="Conflict continuum">Conflict continuum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_style_inventory" title="Conflict style inventory">Conflict style inventory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_therapy" title="Family therapy">Family therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_(alternative_dispute_resolution)" title="Forum (alternative dispute resolution)">Forum (alternative dispute resolution)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Game_theory" title="Game theory">Game theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner%27s_dilemma" title="Prisoner's dilemma">Prisoner's dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_tolerance" title="Paradox of tolerance">Paradox of tolerance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liaison_officer" title="Liaison officer">Liaison officer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-aggression_principle" title="Non-aggression principle">Non-aggression principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_and_conflict_studies" title="Peace and conflict studies">Peace and conflict studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_process" title="Peace process">Peace process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_treaty" title="Peace treaty">Peace treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peacebuilding" title="Peacebuilding">Peacebuilding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peacemaking" title="Peacemaking">Peacemaking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_man" title="Rule of man">Rule of man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Track_II_diplomacy" title="Track II diplomacy">Track II diplomacy</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Conflict_resolution_sidebar" title="Template:Conflict resolution sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Conflict_resolution_sidebar" title="Template talk:Conflict resolution sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Conflict_resolution_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Conflict resolution sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Law is a set of rules that are created and are <a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement" title="Law enforcement">enforceable</a> by social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobertson200690-1">[1]</a> with its precise definition a matter of longstanding debate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillis1926-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> It has been variously described as a <a href="/wiki/Social_science#Law" title="Social science">science</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> and as the art of justice.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECohen1992-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerger1953525-9">[9]</a> State-enforced laws can be made by members of a <a href="/wiki/Legislature" title="Legislature">legislature</a> or by a single legislator, resulting in <a href="/wiki/Statute" title="Statute">statutes</a>; by the executive through <a href="/wiki/Decree" title="Decree">decrees</a> and <a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">regulations</a>; or established by judges through <a href="/wiki/Precedent" title="Precedent">precedent</a>, usually in <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> jurisdictions. Private individuals may create legally binding <a href="/wiki/Contract" title="Contract">contracts</a>, including arbitration agreements that adopt <a href="/wiki/Alternative_dispute_resolution" title="Alternative dispute resolution">alternative ways of resolving disputes</a> to standard court litigation. The creation of laws themselves may be influenced by a <a href="/wiki/Constitution" title="Constitution">constitution</a>, written or tacit, and the <a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">rights</a> encoded therein. The law shapes <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">politics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a> and <a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">society</a> in various ways and also serves as a mediator of relations between people. Legal systems vary between <a href="/wiki/Jurisdiction_(area)" title="Jurisdiction (area)">jurisdictions</a>, with their differences analysed in <a href="/wiki/Comparative_law" title="Comparative law">comparative law</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">civil law</a> jurisdictions, a legislature or other central body <a href="/wiki/Codification_(law)" title="Codification (law)">codifies and consolidates</a> the law. In common law systems, judges may make <a href="/wiki/Legally_binding" class="mw-redirect" title="Legally binding">binding</a> case law through precedent,<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> although on occasion this may be overturned by a higher court or the legislature.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> Historically, <a href="/wiki/Religious_law" title="Religious law">religious law</a> has influenced secular matters and is, as of the 21st century, still in use in some religious communities.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sharia_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Sharia law">Sharia law</a> based on <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islamic</a> principles is used as the primary legal system in several countries, including <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> The scope of law can be divided into two domains: <a href="/wiki/Public_law" title="Public law">public law</a> concerns government and society, including <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_law" title="Constitutional law">constitutional law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Administrative_law" title="Administrative law">administrative law</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Criminal_law" title="Criminal law">criminal law</a>; while <a href="/wiki/Private_law" title="Private law">private law</a> deals with legal disputes between parties in areas such as <a href="/wiki/Contracts" class="mw-redirect" title="Contracts">contracts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">property</a>, <a href="/wiki/Torts" class="mw-redirect" title="Torts">torts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Delicts" class="mw-redirect" title="Delicts">delicts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Commercial_law" title="Commercial law">commercial law</a>.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> This distinction is stronger in civil law countries, particularly those with a separate system of <a href="/wiki/Administrative_courts" class="mw-redirect" title="Administrative courts">administrative courts</a>;<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> by contrast, the public-private law divide is less pronounced in common law jurisdictions.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> Law provides a source of scholarly inquiry into <a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">legal history</a>,<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>,<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> <a href="/wiki/Economic_analysis_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic analysis of law">economic analysis</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">sociology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> Law also raises important and complex issues concerning equality, fairness, and <a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">justice</a>.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div> The word law, attested in <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a> as lagu, comes from the <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a> word lǫg. The singular form lag meant 'something laid or fixed' while its plural meant 'law'.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philosophy_of_law">Philosophy of law</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of law">Philosophy of law</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:22em; ; color: #202122;background-color: #c6dbf7;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> But what, after all, is a law? [...] When I say that the object of laws is always general, I mean that law considers subjects en masse and actions in the abstract, and never a particular person or action. [...] On this view, we at once see that it can no longer be asked whose business it is to make laws, since they are acts of the <a href="/wiki/General_will" title="General will">general will</a>; nor whether the prince is above the law, since he is a member of the State; nor whether the law can be unjust, since no one is unjust to himself; nor how we can be both free and subject to the laws, since they are but registers of our wills. </blockquote> <cite class="left-aligned" style="">Jean-Jacques Rousseau, <a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a>, II, 6.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></cite> </div> The philosophy of law is commonly known as jurisprudence. Normative jurisprudence asks "what should law be?", while analytic jurisprudence asks "what is law?" <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Analytical_jurisprudence">Analytical jurisprudence</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Analytical_jurisprudence" title="Analytical jurisprudence">Analytical jurisprudence</a></div> There have been several attempts to produce "a universally acceptable definition of law". In 1972, <a href="/wiki/Dennis_Lloyd,_Baron_Lloyd_of_Hampstead" title="Dennis Lloyd, Baron Lloyd of Hampstead">Baron Hampstead</a> suggested that no such definition could be produced.<a href="#cite_note-Jurisprudence._Third_Edition_1972._Page_39-30">[30]</a> McCoubrey and White said that the question "what is law?" has no simple answer.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> <a href="/wiki/Glanville_Williams" title="Glanville Williams">Glanville Williams</a> said that the meaning of the word "law" depends on the context in which that word is used. He said that, for example, "<a href="/wiki/Early_customary_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Early customary law">early customary law</a>" and "<a href="/wiki/Municipal_law" title="Municipal law">municipal law</a>" were contexts where the word "law" had two different and irreconcilable meanings.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> <a href="/wiki/Thurman_Arnold" title="Thurman Arnold">Thurman Arnold</a> said that it is obvious that it is impossible to define the word "law" and that it is also equally obvious that the struggle to define that word should not ever be abandoned.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold193536-33">[33]</a> It is possible to take the view that there is no need to define the word "law" (e.g. "let's forget about generalities and get down to <a href="/wiki/Case_law" title="Case law">cases</a>").<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> One definition is that law is a system of rules and guidelines which are enforced through social institutions to govern behaviour.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobertson200690-1">[1]</a> In <a href="/wiki/The_Concept_of_Law" title="The Concept of Law">The Concept of Law</a>, <a href="/wiki/H._L._A._Hart" title="H. L. A. Hart">H. L. A. Hart</a> argued that law is a "system of rules";<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbell1993184-35">[35]</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Austin_(legal_philosopher)" title="John Austin (legal philosopher)">John Austin</a> said law was "the command of a sovereign, backed by the threat of a sanction";<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBix2022-36">[36]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Ronald Dworkin</a> describes law as an "interpretive concept" to achieve <a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">justice</a> in his text titled <a href="/wiki/Law%27s_Empire" title="Law's Empire">Law's Empire</a>;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDworkin1986410-37">[37]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Raz" title="Joseph Raz">Joseph Raz</a> argues law is an "authority" to mediate people's interests.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaz19793–36-38">[38]</a> <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Wendell_Holmes_Jr." title="Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.">Oliver Wendell Holmes</a> defined law as "the prophecies of what the courts will do in fact, and nothing more pretentious."<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> In his <a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Law" title="Treatise on Law">Treatise on Law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> argues that law is a rational ordering of things, which concern the common good, that is promulgated by whoever is charged with the care of the community.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> This definition has both <a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">positivist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">naturalist</a> elements.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Connection_to_morality_and_justice">Connection to morality and justice</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Rule_according_to_higher_law" title="Rule according to higher law">Rule according to higher law</a></div><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jeremy_Bentham_by_Henry_William_Pickersgill_detail.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Jeremy_Bentham_by_Henry_William_Pickersgill_detail.jpg/220px-Jeremy_Bentham_by_Henry_William_Pickersgill_detail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="299" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Jeremy_Bentham_by_Henry_William_Pickersgill_detail.jpg/330px-Jeremy_Bentham_by_Henry_William_Pickersgill_detail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Jeremy_Bentham_by_Henry_William_Pickersgill_detail.jpg/440px-Jeremy_Bentham_by_Henry_William_Pickersgill_detail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="536" data-file-height="728" /></a><figcaption>Bentham's utilitarian theories remained dominant in law until the 20th century.</figcaption></figure> Definitions of law often raise the question of the extent to which law incorporates morality.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Austin_(legal_philosopher)" title="John Austin (legal philosopher)">John Austin</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">utilitarian</a> answer was that law is "commands, backed by threat of sanctions, from a sovereign, to whom people have a habit of obedience".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBix2022-36">[36]</a> <a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural lawyers</a>, on the other hand, such as <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a>, argue that law reflects essentially moral and unchangeable laws of nature. The concept of "natural law" emerged in ancient <a href="/wiki/Greek_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek philosophy">Greek philosophy</a> concurrently and in connection with the notion of justice, and re-entered the mainstream of <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western culture</a> through the writings of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a>, notably his <a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Law" title="Treatise on Law">Treatise on Law</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Hugo Grotius</a>, the founder of a purely rationalistic system of natural law, argued that law arises from both a social impulse—as Aristotle had indicated—and reason.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> believed a moral imperative requires laws "be chosen as though they should hold as universal laws of nature".<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a> and his student Austin, following <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a>, believed that this conflated the <a href="/wiki/Is-ought_problem" class="mw-redirect" title="Is-ought problem">"is" and what "ought to be"</a> problem. Bentham and Austin argued for law's <a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">positivism</a>; that real law is entirely separate from "morality".<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> Kant was also criticised by <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a>, who rejected the principle of equality, and believed that law emanates from the <a href="/wiki/Will_to_power" title="Will to power">will to power</a>, and cannot be labeled as "moral" or "immoral".<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> In 1934, the Austrian philosopher <a href="/wiki/Hans_Kelsen" title="Hans Kelsen">Hans Kelsen</a> continued the positivist tradition in his book the <a href="/wiki/Pure_Theory_of_Law" title="Pure Theory of Law">Pure Theory of Law</a>.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> Kelsen believed that although law is separate from morality, it is endowed with "normativity", meaning we ought to obey it. While laws are positive "is" statements (e.g. the fine for reversing on a highway is €500); law tells us what we "should" do. Thus, each legal system can be hypothesised to have a <a href="/wiki/Basic_norm" title="Basic norm">'basic norm'</a> (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: Grundnorm) instructing us to obey. Kelsen's major opponent, <a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Carl Schmitt</a>, rejected both positivism and the idea of the <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">rule of law</a> because he did not accept the primacy of abstract normative principles over concrete political positions and decisions.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> Therefore, Schmitt advocated a jurisprudence of the exception (<a href="/wiki/State_of_emergency" title="State of emergency">state of emergency</a>), which denied that legal norms could encompass all of the political experience.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinn1991170–171-51">[51]</a> Later in the 20th century, <a href="/wiki/H._L._A._Hart" title="H. L. A. Hart">H. L. A. Hart</a> attacked Austin for his simplifications and Kelsen for his fiction in <a href="/wiki/The_Concept_of_Law" title="The Concept of Law">The Concept of Law</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBayles199221-52">[52]</a> Hart argued law is a system of rules, divided into primary (rules of conduct) and secondary ones (rules addressed to officials to administer primary rules). Secondary rules are further divided into rules of adjudication (to resolve legal disputes), rules of change (allowing laws to be varied) and the rule of recognition (allowing laws to be identified as valid). Two of Hart's students continued the debate: In his book <a href="/wiki/Law%27s_Empire" title="Law's Empire">Law's Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Ronald Dworkin</a> attacked Hart and the positivists for their refusal to treat law as a moral issue. Dworkin argues that law is an "<a href="/wiki/Interpretivism_(legal)" title="Interpretivism (legal)">interpretive</a> concept"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDworkin1986410-37">[37]</a> that requires judges to find the best fitting and most just solution to a legal dispute, given their Anglo-American constitutional traditions. <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Raz" title="Joseph Raz">Joseph Raz</a>, on the other hand, defended the positivist outlook and criticised Hart's "soft social thesis" approach in The Authority of Law.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaz19793–36-38">[38]</a> Raz argues that law is authority, identifiable purely through social sources and without reference to moral reasoning. In his view, any categorisation of rules beyond their role as authoritative instruments in mediation is best left to <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>, rather than jurisprudence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaz197937-53">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">Legal history</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Milkau_Oberer_Teil_der_Stele_mit_dem_Text_von_Hammurapis_Gesetzescode_369-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Milkau_Oberer_Teil_der_Stele_mit_dem_Text_von_Hammurapis_Gesetzescode_369-2.jpg/220px-Milkau_Oberer_Teil_der_Stele_mit_dem_Text_von_Hammurapis_Gesetzescode_369-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="273" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Milkau_Oberer_Teil_der_Stele_mit_dem_Text_von_Hammurapis_Gesetzescode_369-2.jpg/330px-Milkau_Oberer_Teil_der_Stele_mit_dem_Text_von_Hammurapis_Gesetzescode_369-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Milkau_Oberer_Teil_der_Stele_mit_dem_Text_von_Hammurapis_Gesetzescode_369-2.jpg/440px-Milkau_Oberer_Teil_der_Stele_mit_dem_Text_von_Hammurapis_Gesetzescode_369-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="576" data-file-height="714" /></a><figcaption>King <a href="/wiki/Hammurabi" title="Hammurabi">Hammurabi</a> is revealed the <a href="/wiki/Code_of_Hammurabi" title="Code of Hammurabi">code of laws</a> by the Mesopotamian sun god <a href="/wiki/Shamash" title="Shamash">Shamash</a>, also revered as the god of justice.</figcaption></figure> The history of law links closely to the development of <a href="/wiki/Civilization" title="Civilization">civilization</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egyptian</a> law, dating as far back as 3000 BC, was based on the concept of <a href="/wiki/Ma%27at" class="mw-redirect" title="Ma'at">Ma'at</a> and characterised by tradition, <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetorical</a> speech, social equality and impartiality.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> By the 22nd century BC, the ancient <a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumerian</a> ruler <a href="/wiki/Ur-Nammu" title="Ur-Nammu">Ur-Nammu</a> had formulated the first <a href="/wiki/Code_of_Ur-Nammu" title="Code of Ur-Nammu">law code</a>, which consisted of <a href="/wiki/Casuistry" title="Casuistry">casuistic</a> statements ("if … then ..."). Around 1760 BC, <a href="/wiki/Hammurabi" title="Hammurabi">King Hammurabi</a> further developed <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_law" title="Babylonian law">Babylonian law</a>, by codifying and inscribing it in stone. Hammurabi placed several copies of his law code throughout the kingdom of Babylon as <a href="/wiki/Stele" title="Stele">stelae</a>, for the entire public to see; this became known as the <a href="/wiki/Code_of_Hammurabi" title="Code of Hammurabi">Codex Hammurabi</a>. The most intact copy of these stelae was discovered in the 19th century by British <a href="/wiki/Assyriologists" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyriologists">Assyriologists</a>, and has since been fully <a href="/wiki/Transliterated" class="mw-redirect" title="Transliterated">transliterated</a> and translated into various languages, including English, Italian, German, and French.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardson200411-57">[57]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a> dates back to 1280 BC and takes the form of moral imperatives as recommendations for a good society. The small <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greek</a> city-state, ancient <a href="/wiki/History_of_Athens" title="History of Athens">Athens</a>, from about the 8th century BC was the first society to be based on broad inclusion of its citizenry, excluding women and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Greece" title="Slavery in ancient Greece">enslaved people</a>. However, Athens had no legal science or single word for "law",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKelly19925–6-58">[58]</a> relying instead on the three-way distinction between divine law (thémis), human decree (nomos) and custom (díkē).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallory1997346-59">[59]</a> Yet <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_law" title="Ancient Greek law">Ancient Greek law</a> contained major <a href="/wiki/Solonian_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Solonian Constitution">constitutional</a> innovations in the development of <a href="/wiki/Athenian_democracy" title="Athenian democracy">democracy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOber1996121-60">[60]</a> <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a> was heavily influenced by Greek philosophy, but its detailed rules were developed by professional jurists and were highly sophisticated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKelly199239-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStein19991-62">[62]</a> Over the centuries between the rise and decline of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, law was adapted to cope with the changing social situations and underwent major codification under <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_II" title="Theodosius II">Theodosius II</a> and <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a>.<a href="#cite_note-63">[a]</a> Although codes were replaced by <a href="/wiki/Custom_(law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Custom (law)">custom</a> and <a href="/wiki/Case_law" title="Case law">case law</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a>, Roman law was rediscovered around the 11th century when medieval legal scholars began to research Roman codes and adapt their concepts to the <a href="/wiki/Canon_law_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Canon law of the Catholic Church">canon law</a>, giving birth to the <a href="/wiki/Jus_commune" title="Jus commune">jus commune</a>. Latin <a href="/wiki/Legal_maxim" title="Legal maxim">legal maxims</a> (called <a href="/wiki/Brocard_(law)" title="Brocard (law)">brocards</a>) were compiled for guidance. In medieval England, royal courts developed a body of <a href="/wiki/Precedent" title="Precedent">precedent</a> which later became the <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a>. A Europe-wide <a href="/wiki/Law_Merchant" class="mw-redirect" title="Law Merchant">Law Merchant</a> was formed so that merchants could trade with common standards of practice rather than with the many splintered facets of local laws. The Law Merchant, a precursor to modern commercial law, emphasised the freedom to contract and alienability of property.<a href="#cite_note-64">[63]</a> As <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalism</a> grew in the 18th and 19th centuries, the Law Merchant was incorporated into countries' local law under new civil codes. The <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Code" title="Napoleonic Code">Napoleonic</a> and <a href="/wiki/B%C3%BCrgerliches_Gesetzbuch" title="Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch">German</a> Codes became the most influential. In contrast to English common law, which consists of enormous tomes of case law, codes in small books are easy to export and easy for judges to apply. However, today there are signs that civil and common law are converging.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMattei199771-65">[64]</a> EU law is codified in treaties, but develops through de facto precedent laid down by the <a href="/wiki/European_Court_of_Justice" title="European Court of Justice">European Court of Justice</a>.<a href="#cite_note-66">[65]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Constitution_of_India.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Constitution_of_India.jpg/220px-Constitution_of_India.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="295" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Constitution_of_India.jpg/330px-Constitution_of_India.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Constitution_of_India.jpg/440px-Constitution_of_India.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2985" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_India" title="Constitution of India">Constitution of India</a> is the longest written constitution for a country, containing 444 articles, 12 schedules, numerous amendments and 117,369 words.</figcaption></figure> Ancient <a href="/wiki/Law_of_India" title="Law of India">India</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_law" title="Chinese law">China</a> represent distinct traditions of law, and have historically had independent schools of legal theory and practice. The <a href="/wiki/Arthashastra" title="Arthashastra">Arthashastra</a>, probably compiled around 100 AD (although it contains older material), and the <a href="/wiki/Manusmriti" title="Manusmriti">Manusmriti</a> (c. 100–300 AD) were foundational treatises in India, and comprise texts considered authoritative legal guidance.<a href="#cite_note-67">[66]</a> Manu's central philosophy was tolerance and <a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_philosophy)" title="Pluralism (political philosophy)">pluralism</a>, and was cited across Southeast Asia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGlenn2000276-68">[67]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquests_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent">Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">sharia</a> was established by the Muslim sultanates and empires, most notably <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Fatawa-e-Alamgiri" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatawa-e-Alamgiri">Fatawa-e-Alamgiri</a>, compiled by emperor <a href="/wiki/Aurangzeb" title="Aurangzeb">Aurangzeb</a> and various scholars of Islam.<a href="#cite_note-69">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[69]</a> In India, the <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hindu</a> legal tradition, along with Islamic law, were both supplanted by common law when India <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">became part</a> of the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGlenn2000273-71">[70]</a> Malaysia, Brunei, <a href="/wiki/Law_of_Singapore" title="Law of Singapore">Singapore</a> and <a href="/wiki/Law_of_Hong_Kong" title="Law of Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a> also adopted the common law system. The Eastern Asia legal tradition reflects a unique blend of secular and religious influences.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGlenn2000287-72">[71]</a> Japan was the first country to begin modernising its legal system along Western lines, by importing parts of the <a href="/wiki/Code_Civil" class="mw-redirect" title="Code Civil">French</a>, but mostly the German Civil Code.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGlenn2000304-73">[72]</a> This partly reflected Germany's status as a rising power in the late 19th century. Similarly, <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_law" title="Traditional Chinese law">traditional Chinese law</a> gave way to westernisation towards the final years of the <a href="/wiki/Qing_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Qing Dynasty">Qing Dynasty</a> in the form of six private law codes based mainly on the Japanese model of German law.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGlenn2000305-74">[73]</a> Today <a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of the Republic of China">Taiwanese law</a> retains the closest affinity to the codifications from that period, because of the split between <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a>'s nationalists, who fled there, and <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a>'s communists who won control of the mainland in 1949. The current legal infrastructure in the People's Republic of China was heavily influenced by <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a> <a href="/wiki/Socialist_law" title="Socialist law">Socialist law</a>, which essentially prioritises <a href="/wiki/Administrative_law" title="Administrative law">administrative law</a> at the expense of private law rights.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGlenn2000307-75">[74]</a> Due to rapid industrialisation, today China is undergoing a process of reform, at least in terms of economic, if not social and political, rights. A new contract code in 1999 represented a move away from administrative domination.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGlenn2000309-76">[75]</a> Furthermore, after negotiations lasting fifteen years, in 2001 China joined the <a href="/wiki/World_Trade_Organization" title="World Trade Organization">World Trade Organization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarah2006263–304-77">[76]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legal_systems">Legal systems</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Comparative_law" title="Comparative law">Comparative law</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_national_legal_systems" title="List of national legal systems">List of national legal systems</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Comparative_legal_history" title="Comparative legal history">Comparative legal history</a></div>In general, legal systems can be split between civil law and common law systems.<a href="#cite_note-78">[77]</a> Modern scholars argue that the significance of this distinction has progressively declined. The numerous <a href="/wiki/Legal_transplants" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal transplants">legal transplants</a>, typical of modern law, result in the sharing of many features traditionally considered typical of either common law or civil law.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMattei199771-65">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-79">[78]</a> The third type of legal system is religious law, based on <a href="/wiki/Scripture" class="mw-redirect" title="Scripture">scriptures</a>. The specific system that a country is ruled by is often determined by its history, connections with other countries, or its adherence to international standards. The <a href="/wiki/Sources_of_law" title="Sources of law">sources</a> that jurisdictions adopt as authoritatively binding are the defining features of any legal system.<figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_the_Legal_systems_of_the_world_(en).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Map_of_the_Legal_systems_of_the_world_%28en%29.png/550px-Map_of_the_Legal_systems_of_the_world_%28en%29.png" decoding="async" width="550" height="289" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Map_of_the_Legal_systems_of_the_world_%28en%29.png/825px-Map_of_the_Legal_systems_of_the_world_%28en%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Map_of_the_Legal_systems_of_the_world_%28en%29.png/1100px-Map_of_the_Legal_systems_of_the_world_%28en%29.png 2x" data-file-width="3564" data-file-height="1870" /></a><figcaption>Colour-coded map of the legal systems around the world, showing civil, common law, religious, customary and mixed legal systems.<a href="#cite_note-80">[79]</a> Common law systems are shaded pink, and civil law systems are shaded blue/turquoise.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Civil_law">Civil law</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">Civil law (legal system)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Code_Civil_1804.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Code_Civil_1804.png/220px-Code_Civil_1804.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Code_Civil_1804.png/330px-Code_Civil_1804.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Code_Civil_1804.png/440px-Code_Civil_1804.png 2x" data-file-width="636" data-file-height="762" /></a><figcaption>First page of the 1804 edition of the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Code" title="Napoleonic Code">Napoleonic Code</a></figcaption></figure> Civil law is the legal system used in most countries around the world today. In civil law the sources recognised as authoritative are, primarily, <a href="/wiki/Legislation" title="Legislation">legislation</a>—especially <a href="/wiki/Codification_(law)" title="Codification (law)">codifications</a> in constitutions or <a href="/wiki/Statute" title="Statute">statutes</a> passed by government—and <a href="/wiki/Custom_(law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Custom (law)">custom</a>.<a href="#cite_note-81">[b]</a> Codifications date back millennia, with one early example being the <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_law" title="Babylonian law">Babylonian</a> <a href="/wiki/Code_of_Hammurabi" title="Code of Hammurabi">Codex Hammurabi</a>. Modern civil law systems essentially derive from legal codes issued by <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> Emperor <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a> in the 6th century, which were rediscovered by 11th century Italy.<a href="#cite_note-82">[80]</a> Roman law in the days of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> and Empire was heavily procedural, and lacked a professional legal class.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGordleyvon_Mehren200618-83">[81]</a> Instead a lay <a href="/wiki/Magistrate" title="Magistrate">magistrate</a>, iudex, was chosen to adjudicate. Decisions were not published in any systematic way, so any case law that developed was disguised and almost unrecognised.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGordleyvon_Mehren200621-84">[82]</a> Each case was to be decided afresh from the laws of the State, which mirrors the (theoretical) unimportance of judges' decisions for future cases in civil law systems today. From 529 to 534 AD the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> Emperor <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a> codified and consolidated Roman law up until that point, so that what remained was one-twentieth of the mass of legal texts from before.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStein199932-85">[83]</a> This became known as the <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Juris_Civilis" title="Corpus Juris Civilis">Corpus Juris Civilis</a>. As one legal historian wrote, "Justinian consciously looked back to the golden age of Roman law and aimed to restore it to the peak it had reached three centuries before."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStein199935-86">[84]</a> The Justinian Code remained in force in the East until the fall of the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>. Western Europe, meanwhile, relied on a mix of the <a href="/wiki/Codex_Theodosianus" title="Codex Theodosianus">Theodosian Code</a> and Germanic customary law until the Justinian Code was rediscovered in the 11th century, which scholars at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Bologna" title="University of Bologna">University of Bologna</a> used to interpret their own laws.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStein199943-87">[85]</a> Civil law codifications based closely on Roman law, alongside some influences from <a href="/wiki/Religious_law" title="Religious law">religious laws</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">canon law</a>, continued to spread throughout Europe until the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a>. Then, in the 19th century, both France, with the <a href="/wiki/Code_Civil" class="mw-redirect" title="Code Civil">Code Civil</a>, and Germany, with the <a href="/wiki/B%C3%BCrgerliches_Gesetzbuch" title="Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch">Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch</a>, modernised their legal codes. Both these codes heavily influenced not only the law systems of the countries in continental Europe but also the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_Japan" title="Law of Japan">Japanese</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">Korean</a> legal traditions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatzis2002253–263-88">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDemirgüç-KuntLevine2001204-89">[87]</a> Today, countries that have civil law systems range from Russia and Turkey to most of <a href="/wiki/Central_America" title="Central America">Central</a> and <a href="/wiki/Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin America</a>.<a href="#cite_note-90">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Common_law_and_equity">Common law and equity</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">Common law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Equity_(law)" title="Equity (law)">Equity (law)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:King_John_signing_the_Great_Charter_(Magna_Carta)_by_English_School.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/King_John_signing_the_Great_Charter_%28Magna_Carta%29_by_English_School.png/220px-King_John_signing_the_Great_Charter_%28Magna_Carta%29_by_English_School.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="308" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/King_John_signing_the_Great_Charter_%28Magna_Carta%29_by_English_School.png/330px-King_John_signing_the_Great_Charter_%28Magna_Carta%29_by_English_School.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/King_John_signing_the_Great_Charter_%28Magna_Carta%29_by_English_School.png/440px-King_John_signing_the_Great_Charter_%28Magna_Carta%29_by_English_School.png 2x" data-file-width="732" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>King <a href="/wiki/John_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="John of England">John of England</a> signs <a href="/wiki/Magna_Carta" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta</a>.</figcaption></figure> In <a href="/wiki/Common_law#1._Common_law_as_opposed_to_statutory_law_and_regulatory_law" title="Common law">common law</a> legal systems, decisions by courts are explicitly acknowledged as "law" on equal footing with legislative <a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">statutes</a> and executive <a href="/wiki/Primary_and_secondary_legislation" title="Primary and secondary legislation">regulations</a>. The "doctrine of precedent", or <a href="/wiki/Stare_decisis" class="mw-redirect" title="Stare decisis">stare decisis</a> (Latin for "to stand by decisions") means that decisions by higher courts bind lower courts to assure that similar cases reach similar results. In <a href="/wiki/Common_law#2._Common_law_legal_systems_as_opposed_to_civil_law_legal_systems" title="Common law">contrast</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">civil law</a> systems, legislative statutes are typically more detailed, and judicial decisions are shorter and less detailed because the adjudicator is only writing to decide the single case, rather than to set out reasoning that will guide future courts. Common law originated from England and has been inherited by almost every country once tied to the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> (except Malta, <a href="/wiki/Law_of_Scotland" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Scotland">Scotland</a>, the U.S. state of <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Louisiana law">Louisiana</a>, and the Canadian province of <a href="/wiki/Quebec_law" title="Quebec law">Quebec</a>). In medieval England during the <a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman conquest</a>, the law varied shire-to-shire based on disparate tribal customs. The concept of a "common law" developed during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Henry_II_of_England" title="Henry II of England">Henry II</a> during the late 12th century, when Henry appointed judges who had the authority to create an institutionalised and unified system of law common to the country. The next major step in the evolution of the common law came when <a href="/wiki/John,_King_of_England" title="John, King of England">King John</a> was forced by his barons to sign a document limiting his authority to pass laws. This "great charter" or <a href="/wiki/Magna_Carta" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta</a> of 1215 also required that the King's entourage of judges hold their courts and judgments at "a certain place" rather than dispensing autocratic justice in unpredictable places about the country.<a href="#cite_note-91">[89]</a> A concentrated and elite group of judges acquired a dominant role in law-making under this system, and compared to its European counterparts the English judiciary became highly centralised. In 1297, for instance, while the highest court in France had fifty-one judges, the <a href="/wiki/English_Court_of_Common_Pleas" class="mw-redirect" title="English Court of Common Pleas">English Court of Common Pleas</a> had five.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGordleyvon_Mehren20064-92">[90]</a> This powerful and tight-knit judiciary gave rise to a systematised process of developing common law.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGordleyvon_Mehren20063-93">[91]</a> As time went on, many felt that the common law was overly systematised and inflexible, and increasing numbers of citizens petitioned the King to override the common law. On the King's behalf, the <a href="/wiki/Lord_Chancellor" title="Lord Chancellor">Lord Chancellor</a> started giving judgments to do what was equitable in a case. From the time of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">Sir Thomas More</a>, the first <a href="/wiki/Lawyer" title="Lawyer">lawyer</a> to be appointed as Lord Chancellor, a systematic body of <a href="/wiki/Equity_(law)" title="Equity (law)">equity</a> grew up alongside the rigid common law, and developed its own <a href="/wiki/Court_of_Chancery" title="Court of Chancery">Court of Chancery</a>. At first, equity was often criticised as erratic.<a href="#cite_note-94">[92]</a> Over time, courts of equity developed solid <a href="/wiki/Maxims_of_equity" title="Maxims of equity">principles</a>, especially under <a href="/wiki/John_Scott,_1st_Earl_of_Eldon" title="John Scott, 1st Earl of Eldon">Lord Eldon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-95">[93]</a> In the 19th century in England, and in <a href="/wiki/West_Coast_Hotel_Co._v._Parrish" title="West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish">1937 in the U.S.</a>, the two systems were <a href="/wiki/Common_law#1870_through_20th_century,_and_the_procedural_merger_of_law_and_equity" title="Common law">merged</a>. In developing the common law, <a href="/wiki/Common_law#Contrasting_role_of_treatises_and_academic_writings_in_common_law_and_civil_law_systems" title="Common law">academic writings</a> have always played an important part, both to collect overarching principles from dispersed case law and to argue for change. <a href="/wiki/William_Blackstone" title="William Blackstone">William Blackstone</a>, from around 1760, was the first scholar to collect, describe, and teach the common law.<a href="#cite_note-96">[94]</a> But merely in describing, scholars who sought explanations and underlying structures slowly changed the way the law actually worked.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGordleyvon_Mehren200617-97">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religious_law">Religious law</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Religious_law" title="Religious law">Religious law</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Law_and_religion" title="Law and religion">Law and religion</a></div> Religious law is explicitly based on religious precepts. Examples include the Jewish <a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Halakha</a> and Islamic <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia</a>—both of which translate as the "path to follow". Christian <a href="/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">canon law</a> also survives in some church communities. Often the implication of religion for law is unalterability because the word of God cannot be amended or legislated against by judges or governments.<a href="#cite_note-98">[96]</a> Nonetheless, most religious jurisdictions rely on further human elaboration to provide for thorough and detailed legal systems. For instance, the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a> has some law, and it acts as a source of further law through interpretation, <a href="/wiki/Qiyas" title="Qiyas">Qiyas</a> (reasoning by analogy), <a href="/wiki/Ijma" title="Ijma">Ijma</a> (consensus) and <a href="/wiki/Precedent" title="Precedent">precedent</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGlenn2000159-99">[97]</a> This is mainly contained in a body of law and jurisprudence known as <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Fiqh</a> respectively. Another example is the <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a> or <a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Pentateuch" class="mw-redirect" title="Pentateuch">Pentateuch</a> or Five Books of Moses. This contains the basic code of Jewish law, which some Israeli communities choose to use. The <a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Halakha</a> is a code of Jewish law that summarizes some of the Talmud's interpretations. A number of countries are sharia jurisdictions. <a href="/wiki/Israeli_law" title="Israeli law">Israeli law</a> allows <a href="/wiki/Litigant" class="mw-redirect" title="Litigant">litigants</a> to use religious laws only if they choose. Canon law is only in use by members of the <a href="/wiki/Canon_law_(Catholic_Church)" class="mw-redirect" title="Canon law (Catholic Church)">Catholic Church</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodox Church</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Anglican_Communion" title="Anglican Communion">Anglican Communion</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Canon_law">Canon law</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">Canon law</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Graverat_titelblad_till_%22Kanonisk_r%C3%A4tt%22_-_Skoklosters_slott_-_93238.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Graverat_titelblad_till_%22Kanonisk_r%C3%A4tt%22_-_Skoklosters_slott_-_93238.tif/lossy-page1-220px-Graverat_titelblad_till_%22Kanonisk_r%C3%A4tt%22_-_Skoklosters_slott_-_93238.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Graverat_titelblad_till_%22Kanonisk_r%C3%A4tt%22_-_Skoklosters_slott_-_93238.tif/lossy-page1-330px-Graverat_titelblad_till_%22Kanonisk_r%C3%A4tt%22_-_Skoklosters_slott_-_93238.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Graverat_titelblad_till_%22Kanonisk_r%C3%A4tt%22_-_Skoklosters_slott_-_93238.tif/lossy-page1-440px-Graverat_titelblad_till_%22Kanonisk_r%C3%A4tt%22_-_Skoklosters_slott_-_93238.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2162" data-file-height="2800" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Juris_Canonici" title="Corpus Juris Canonici">Corpus Juris Canonici</a>, the fundamental collection of canon law for over 750 years</figcaption></figure> Canon law (<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: κανών, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Ancient_Greek" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanization of Ancient Greek">romanized</a>: kanon, <a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> 'a straight measuring rod; a <a href="/wiki/Ruler" title="Ruler">ruler</a>') is a set of ordinances and regulations made by <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_jurisdiction" title="Ecclesiastical jurisdiction">ecclesiastical authority</a>, for the government of a Christian organisation or church and its members. It is the internal <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical" title="Ecclesiastical">ecclesiastical</a> law governing the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodox Church</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodox_Churches" title="Oriental Orthodox Churches">Oriental Orthodox Churches</a>, and the individual national churches within the <a href="/wiki/Anglican_Communion" title="Anglican Communion">Anglican Communion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-100">[98]</a> The way that such church law is <a href="/wiki/Legislative_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Legislative power">legislated</a>, interpreted and at times <a href="/wiki/Court" title="Court">adjudicated</a> varies widely among these three bodies of churches. In all three traditions, a <a href="/wiki/Canon_(canon_law)" title="Canon (canon law)">canon</a> was originally<a href="#cite_note-101">[99]</a> a rule adopted by a <a href="/wiki/Church_council" class="mw-redirect" title="Church council">church council</a>; these canons formed the foundation of canon law. The Catholic Church has the oldest continuously functioning legal system in the <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">western world</a>,<a href="#cite_note-102">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-White-103">[101]</a> predating the evolution of modern European <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">civil law</a> and common law systems. The <a href="/wiki/1983_Code_of_Canon_Law" title="1983 Code of Canon Law">1983 Code of Canon Law</a> governs the <a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin Church</a> <a href="/wiki/Sui_iuris" title="Sui iuris">sui juris</a>. The Eastern Catholic Churches, which developed different disciplines and practices, are governed by the <a href="/wiki/Code_of_Canons_of_the_Eastern_Churches" title="Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches">Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches</a>.<a href="#cite_note-104">[102]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Canon_law_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Canon law of the Catholic Church">canon law of the Catholic Church</a> influenced the <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> during the medieval period through its preservation of <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a> doctrine such as the <a href="/wiki/Presumption_of_innocence" title="Presumption of innocence">presumption of innocence</a>.<a href="#cite_note-105">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-107">[c]</a> Roman Catholic canon law is a fully developed legal system, with all the necessary elements: <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_court" title="Ecclesiastical court">courts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canon_lawyer" class="mw-redirect" title="Canon lawyer">lawyers</a>, judges, a fully articulated legal code, principles of legal interpretation, and coercive penalties, though it lacks civilly-binding force in most secular jurisdictions.<a href="#cite_note-108">[105]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sharia_law">Sharia law</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Sources_of_Sharia" title="Sources of Sharia">Sources of Sharia</a></div> Until the 18th century, Sharia law was practiced throughout the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a> in a non-codified form, with the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Mecelle" title="Mecelle">Mecelle</a> code in the 19th century being a first attempt at <a href="/wiki/Codification_(law)" title="Codification (law)">codifying</a> elements of Sharia law. Since the mid-1940s, efforts have been made, in country after country, to bring Sharia law more into line with modern conditions and conceptions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson195643-109">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiannoulatos1975274–275-110">[107]</a> In modern times, the legal systems of many Muslim countries draw upon both civil and common law traditions as well as Islamic law and custom. The constitutions of certain Muslim states, such as Egypt and Afghanistan, recognise Islam as the religion of the state, obliging legislature to adhere to Sharia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESherif2005157–158-111">[108]</a> <a href="/wiki/Legal_system_of_Saudi_Arabia" title="Legal system of Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia recognises the Quran as its constitution</a>, and is governed on the basis of Islamic law.<a href="#cite_note-112">[109]</a> Iran has also witnessed a reiteration of Islamic law into <a href="/wiki/Legal_system_of_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal system of Iran">its legal system</a> after 1979.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAkhlaghi2005127-113">[110]</a> During the last few decades, one of the fundamental features of the movement of <a href="/wiki/Islamic_resurgence" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic resurgence">Islamic resurgence</a> has been the call to restore the Sharia, which has generated a vast amount of literature and affected <a href="/wiki/Global_politics" title="Global politics">world politics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHallaq20051-114">[111]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Socialist_law">Socialist law</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Socialist_law" title="Socialist law">Socialist law</a></div> Socialist law is the legal systems in <a href="/wiki/Communist_state" title="Communist state">communist states</a> such as the former <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> and the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarkovits2007-115">[112]</a> Academic opinion is divided on whether it is a separate system from civil law, given major deviations based on <a href="/wiki/Marxist%E2%80%93Leninist" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxist–Leninist">Marxist–Leninist</a> ideology, such as subordinating the judiciary to the executive ruling party.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarkovits2007-115">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-117">[114]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legal_methods">Legal methods</h2></div> There are distinguished methods of legal reasoning (applying the law) and methods of interpreting (construing) the law. The former are <a href="/wiki/Legal_syllogism" title="Legal syllogism">legal syllogism</a>, which holds sway in civil law legal systems, <a href="/wiki/Analogy" title="Analogy">analogy</a>, which is present in common law legal systems, especially in the US, and argumentative theories that occur in both systems. The latter are different rules (directives) of legal interpretation such as directives of linguistic interpretation, teleological interpretation or systemic interpretation as well as more specific rules, for instance, <a href="/wiki/Golden_rule" class="mw-redirect" title="Golden rule">golden rule</a> or <a href="/wiki/Mischief_rule" title="Mischief rule">mischief rule</a>. There are also many other arguments and cannons of interpretation which altogether make <a href="/wiki/Statutory_interpretation" title="Statutory interpretation">statutory interpretation</a> possible. Law professor and former <a href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney_General" title="United States Attorney General">United States Attorney General</a> <a href="/wiki/Edward_H._Levi" title="Edward H. Levi">Edward H. Levi</a> noted that the "basic pattern of legal reasoning is reasoning by example"—that is, reasoning by comparing outcomes in cases resolving similar legal questions.<a href="#cite_note-118">[115]</a> In a U.S. Supreme Court case regarding procedural efforts taken by a debt collection company to avoid errors, Justice <a href="/wiki/Sonia_Sotomayor" title="Sonia Sotomayor">Sotomayor</a> cautioned that "legal reasoning is not a mechanical or strictly linear process".<a href="#cite_note-119">[116]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jurimetrics" title="Jurimetrics">Jurimetrics</a> is the formal application of quantitative methods, especially <a href="/wiki/Probability_theory" title="Probability theory">probability</a> and <a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">statistics</a>, to legal questions. The use of statistical methods in court cases and law review articles has grown massively in importance in the last few decades.<a href="#cite_note-120">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-121">[118]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legal_institutions">Legal institutions</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:22em; ; color: #202122;background-color: #c6dbf7;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> It is a real unity of them all in one and the same person, made by covenant of every man with every man, in such manner as if every man should say to every man: I authorise and give up my right of governing myself to this man, or to this assembly of men, on this condition; that thou givest up, thy right to him, and authorise all his actions in like manner. </blockquote> <cite class="left-aligned" style="">Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/phl302/texts/hobbes/leviathan-c.html#CHAPTERXVII">XVII</a></cite> </div> The main institutions of law in industrialised countries are independent <a href="/wiki/Courts" class="mw-redirect" title="Courts">courts</a>, representative parliaments, an accountable executive, the military and police, <a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">bureaucratic</a> organisation, the <a href="/wiki/Legal_profession" title="Legal profession">legal profession</a> and <a href="/wiki/Civil_society" title="Civil society">civil society</a> itself. John Locke, in his <a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises of Government</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Secondat,_Baron_de_Montesquieu" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu">Baron de Montesquieu</a> in <a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_the_Laws" class="mw-redirect" title="The Spirit of the Laws">The Spirit of the Laws</a>, advocated for a <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">separation of powers</a> between the political, legislature and executive bodies.<a href="#cite_note-122">[119]</a> Their principle was that no person should be able to usurp all powers of the <a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">state</a>, in contrast to the <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">absolutist</a> theory of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a>' <a href="/wiki/Leviathan_(Hobbes_book)" title="Leviathan (Hobbes book)">Leviathan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-123">[120]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun Yat-sen</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Constitution_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Provisional Constitution of the Republic of China">Five Power Constitution</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of China">Republic of China</a> took the separation of powers further by having two additional branches of government—a <a href="/wiki/Control_Yuan" title="Control Yuan">Control Yuan</a> for auditing oversight and an <a href="/wiki/Examination_Yuan" title="Examination Yuan">Examination Yuan</a> to manage the employment of public officials.<a href="#cite_note-124">[121]</a> <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a> and others reshaped thinking on the extension of state. Modern military, policing and bureaucratic power over ordinary citizens' daily lives pose special problems for accountability that earlier writers such as Locke or Montesquieu could not have foreseen. The custom and practice of the legal profession is an important part of people's access to <a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">justice</a>, whilst civil society is a term used to refer to the social institutions, communities and partnerships that form law's political basis. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Judiciary">Judiciary</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Judiciary" title="Judiciary">Judiciary</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Israeli_supreme_court_judges.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Israeli_supreme_court_judges.jpg/220px-Israeli_supreme_court_judges.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Israeli_supreme_court_judges.jpg/330px-Israeli_supreme_court_judges.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Israeli_supreme_court_judges.jpg/440px-Israeli_supreme_court_judges.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1413" data-file-height="943" /></a><figcaption>Six judges of the <a href="/wiki/Israel_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="Israel Supreme Court">Israel Supreme Court</a> sitting at their <a href="/wiki/Bench_(law)" title="Bench (law)">bench</a> in 1953</figcaption></figure> A judiciary is a number of judges mediating disputes to determine outcome. Most countries have systems of appeal courts, with an <a href="/wiki/Supreme_court" title="Supreme court">apex court</a> as the ultimate judicial authority. In the United States, this authority is the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a>;<a href="#cite_note-125">[122]</a> in Australia, the <a href="/wiki/High_Court_of_Australia" title="High Court of Australia">High Court</a>; in India, <a href="/wiki/The_Supreme_Court_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="The Supreme Court of India">the Supreme Court of India</a>; in the UK, the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Supreme Court of the United Kingdom">Supreme Court</a>;<a href="#cite_note-126">[123]</a> in Germany, the <a href="/wiki/Bundesverfassungsgericht" class="mw-redirect" title="Bundesverfassungsgericht">Bundesverfassungsgericht</a>; and in France, the <a href="/wiki/Cour_de_cassation_(France)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cour de cassation (France)">Cour de Cassation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-127">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-128">[125]</a> For most European countries the European Court of Justice in Luxembourg can overrule national law, when EU law is relevant. The European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg allows citizens of the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Europe" title="Council of Europe">Council of Europe</a> member states to bring cases relating to human rights issues before it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldhaber20071–2-129">[126]</a> Some countries allow their highest judicial authority to overrule legislation they determine to be <a href="/wiki/Constitutionality" title="Constitutionality">unconstitutional</a>. For example, in <a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a>, the United States Supreme Court nullified many state statutes that had established <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">racially segregated</a> schools, finding such statutes to be incompatible with the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a> to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson2001-130">[127]</a> A judiciary is theoretically bound by the constitution, just as all other government bodies are. In most countries judges may only <a href="/wiki/Interpretivism_(legal)" title="Interpretivism (legal)">interpret</a> the constitution and all other laws. But in common law countries, where matters are not constitutional, the judiciary may also create law under the <a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_precedent" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctrine of precedent">doctrine of precedent</a>. The UK, Finland and New Zealand assert the ideal of <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_sovereignty" title="Parliamentary sovereignty">parliamentary sovereignty</a>, whereby the unelected judiciary may not overturn law passed by a democratic legislature.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDicey200537–82-131">[128]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Communist_state" title="Communist state">communist states</a>, such as China, the courts are often regarded as parts of the executive, or subservient to the legislature; governmental institutions and actors exert thus various forms of influence on the judiciary.<a href="#cite_note-132">[d]</a> In Muslim countries, courts often examine whether state laws adhere to the Sharia: the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Constitutional_Court_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Constitutional Court of Egypt">Supreme Constitutional Court of Egypt</a> may invalidate such laws,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESherif2005158-133">[129]</a> and in Iran the <a href="/wiki/Guardian_Council" title="Guardian Council">Guardian Council</a> ensures the compatibility of the legislation with the "criteria of Islam".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESherif2005158-133">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERasekh2005115–116-134">[130]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legislature">Legislature</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Legislature" title="Legislature">Legislature</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chamber_of_the_House_of_Representatives_of_Japan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Chamber_of_the_House_of_Representatives_of_Japan.jpg/220px-Chamber_of_the_House_of_Representatives_of_Japan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Chamber_of_the_House_of_Representatives_of_Japan.jpg/330px-Chamber_of_the_House_of_Representatives_of_Japan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Chamber_of_the_House_of_Representatives_of_Japan.jpg/440px-Chamber_of_the_House_of_Representatives_of_Japan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption>The Chamber of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Representatives_(Japan)" title="House of Representatives (Japan)">House of Representatives</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Lower_house" title="Lower house">lower house</a> in the <a href="/wiki/National_Diet" title="National Diet">National Diet</a> of <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a></figcaption></figure> Prominent examples of legislatures are the <a href="/wiki/Houses_of_Parliament" class="mw-redirect" title="Houses of Parliament">Houses of Parliament</a> in London, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> in Washington, D.C., the <a href="/wiki/Bundestag" title="Bundestag">Bundestag</a> in Berlin, the <a href="/wiki/Duma" title="Duma">Duma</a> in Moscow, the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Parliament of Italy">Parlamento Italiano</a> in Rome and the <a href="/wiki/National_Assembly_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="National Assembly of France">Assemblée nationale</a> in Paris. By the principle of representative government people vote for politicians to carry out their wishes. Although countries like Israel, Greece, Sweden and China are <a href="/wiki/Unicameralism" title="Unicameralism">unicameral</a>, most countries are <a href="/wiki/Bicameralism" title="Bicameralism">bicameral</a>, meaning they have two separately appointed legislative houses.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiker1992101-135">[131]</a> In the 'lower house' politicians are elected to represent smaller <a href="/wiki/Constituency" class="mw-redirect" title="Constituency">constituencies</a>. The 'upper house' is usually elected to represent states in a <a href="/wiki/Federal_republic" title="Federal republic">federal</a> system (as in Australia, Germany or the United States) or different voting configuration in a unitary system (as in France). In the UK the upper house is appointed by the government as a <a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords" title="House of Lords">house of review</a>. One criticism of bicameral systems with two elected chambers is that the upper and lower houses may simply mirror one another. The traditional justification of bicameralism is that an upper chamber acts as a house of review. This can minimise arbitrariness and injustice in governmental action.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiker1992101-135">[131]</a> To pass legislation, a majority of the members of a legislature must <a href="/wiki/Vote" class="mw-redirect" title="Vote">vote</a> for a <a href="/wiki/Bill_(proposed_law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bill (proposed law)">bill (proposed law)</a> in each house. Normally there will be several readings and amendments proposed by the different political factions. If a country has an entrenched constitution, a special majority for changes to the constitution may be required, making changes to the law more difficult. A government usually leads the process, which can be formed from Members of Parliament (e.g. the UK or Germany). However, in a presidential system, the government is usually formed by an executive and his or her appointed cabinet officials (e.g. the United States or Brazil).<a href="#cite_note-136">[e]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Executive">Executive</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Executive_(government)" title="Executive (government)">Executive (government)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:London_Summit_2009-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/London_Summit_2009-1.jpg/220px-London_Summit_2009-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/London_Summit_2009-1.jpg/330px-London_Summit_2009-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/London_Summit_2009-1.jpg/440px-London_Summit_2009-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="494" data-file-height="272" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/G-20_major_economies" class="mw-redirect" title="G-20 major economies">G20</a> meetings are composed of representatives of each country's executive branch.</figcaption></figure> The executive in a legal system serves as the centre of political <a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">authority</a> of the <a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">State</a>. In a <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_system" title="Parliamentary system">parliamentary system</a>, as with Britain, Italy, Germany, India, and Japan, the executive is known as the cabinet, and composed of members of the legislature. The executive is led by the <a href="/wiki/Head_of_government" title="Head of government">head of government</a>, whose office holds power under the <a href="/wiki/Motion_of_no_confidence" title="Motion of no confidence">confidence</a> of the legislature. Because popular elections appoint political parties to govern, the leader of a party can change in between elections.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaggardShugart200171-137">[132]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Head_of_state" title="Head of state">head of state</a> is apart from the executive, and symbolically enacts laws and acts as representative of the nation. Examples include the <a href="/wiki/President_of_Germany" title="President of Germany">President of Germany</a> (appointed by <a href="/wiki/Federal_Convention_(Germany)" title="Federal Convention (Germany)">members of federal and state legislatures</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Queen_of_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Queen of the United Kingdom">Queen of the United Kingdom</a> (an <a href="/wiki/Hereditary_monarchy" title="Hereditary monarchy">hereditary office</a>), and the <a href="/wiki/President_of_Austria" title="President of Austria">President of Austria</a> (elected by popular vote). The other important model is the <a href="/wiki/Presidential_system" title="Presidential system">presidential system</a>, found in the <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">United States</a> and in <a href="/wiki/President_of_Brazil" title="President of Brazil">Brazil</a>. In presidential systems, the executive acts as both head of state and head of government, and has power to appoint an unelected cabinet. Under a presidential system, the executive branch is separate from the legislature to which it is not accountable.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaggardShugart200171-137">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-138">[133]</a> Although the role of the executive varies from country to country, usually it will propose the majority of legislation, and propose government agenda. In presidential systems, the executive often has the power to veto legislation. Most executives in both systems are responsible for <a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy" title="Foreign policy">foreign relations</a>, the military and police, and the bureaucracy. <a href="/wiki/Minister_(government)" title="Minister (government)">Ministers</a> or other officials head a country's public offices, such as a <a href="/wiki/Foreign_minister" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign minister">foreign ministry</a> or <a href="/wiki/Defence_minister" class="mw-redirect" title="Defence minister">defence ministry</a>. The election of a different executive is therefore capable of revolutionising an entire country's approach to government. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military_and_police">Military and police</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Police" title="Police">Police</a> and <a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">Military</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:South_african_police_may_2010.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/South_african_police_may_2010.jpg/220px-South_african_police_may_2010.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/South_african_police_may_2010.jpg/330px-South_african_police_may_2010.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/South_african_police_may_2010.jpg/440px-South_african_police_may_2010.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1974" data-file-height="1347" /></a><figcaption>Officers of the <a href="/wiki/South_African_Police_Service" title="South African Police Service">South African Police Service</a> in <a href="/wiki/Johannesburg" title="Johannesburg">Johannesburg</a>, 2010</figcaption></figure> While military organisations have existed as long as government itself, the idea of a standing police force is a relatively modern concept. For example, <a href="/wiki/Medieval_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval England">Medieval England</a>'s system of travelling <a href="/wiki/Criminal_law" title="Criminal law">criminal courts</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Assize_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="Assize Court">assizes</a>, used <a href="/wiki/Show_trial" title="Show trial">show trials</a> and public executions to instill communities with fear to maintain control.<a href="#cite_note-139">[134]</a> The first modern police were probably those in 17th-century Paris, in the court of <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XIV of France">Louis XIV</a>,<a href="#cite_note-140">[135]</a> although the Paris Prefecture of Police claim they were the world's first uniformed policemen.<a href="#cite_note-141">[136]</a> <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a> famously argued that the state is that which controls the <a href="/wiki/Monopoly_on_the_legitimate_use_of_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Monopoly on the legitimate use of force">monopoly on the legitimate use of force</a>.<a href="#cite_note-142">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-143">[138]</a> The military and police carry out enforcement at the request of the government or the courts. The term <a href="/wiki/Failed_state" title="Failed state">failed state</a> refers to states that cannot implement or enforce policies; their police and military no longer control security and order and society moves into anarchy, the absence of government.<a href="#cite_note-144">[f]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yamen-sitzung.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Yamen-sitzung.jpg/220px-Yamen-sitzung.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Yamen-sitzung.jpg/330px-Yamen-sitzung.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Yamen-sitzung.jpg/440px-Yamen-sitzung.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2210" data-file-height="1575" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_(bureaucrat)" title="Mandarin (bureaucrat)">mandarins</a> were powerful bureaucrats in imperial China (photograph shows a <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> official with <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_square" title="Mandarin square">mandarin square</a> visible).</figcaption></figure> The etymology of bureaucracy derives from the French word for office (bureau) and the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> for word power (kratos).<a href="#cite_note-145">[139]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] Like the military and police, a legal system's government servants and bodies that make up its bureaucracy carry out the directives of the executive. One of the earliest references to the concept was made by <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Melchior,_baron_von_Grimm" class="mw-redirect" title="Friedrich Melchior, baron von Grimm">Baron de Grimm</a>, a German author who lived in France. In 1765, he wrote: <blockquote>The real spirit of the laws in France is that bureaucracy of which the late Monsieur de Gournay used to complain so greatly; here the offices, clerks, secretaries, inspectors and intendants are not appointed to benefit the public interest, indeed the public interest appears to have been established so that offices might exist.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlbrow197016-146">[140]</a></blockquote> Cynicism over "officialdom" is still common, and the workings of public servants is typically contrasted to <a href="/wiki/Private_enterprise" class="mw-redirect" title="Private enterprise">private enterprise</a> motivated by <a href="/wiki/Maximization_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Maximization (economics)">profit</a>.<a href="#cite_note-147">[141]</a> In fact private companies, especially large ones, also have bureaucracies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKettl2006367-148">[142]</a> Negative perceptions of "<a href="/wiki/Red_tape" title="Red tape">red tape</a>" aside, public services such as schooling, health care, policing or public transport are considered a crucial state function making public bureaucratic action the locus of government power.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKettl2006367-148">[142]</a> Writing in the early 20th century, Max Weber believed that a definitive feature of a developed state had come to be its bureaucratic support.<a href="#cite_note-149">[143]</a> Weber wrote that the typical characteristics of modern bureaucracy are that officials define its mission, the scope of work is bound by rules, and management is composed of career experts who manage top down, communicating through writing and binding public servants' discretion with rules.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKettl2006371-150">[144]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legal_profession">Legal profession</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Legal_profession" title="Legal profession">Legal profession</a></div>A corollary of the rule of law is the existence of a legal profession sufficiently autonomous to invoke the authority of the independent judiciary; the right to assistance of a <a href="/wiki/Barrister" title="Barrister">barrister</a> in a court proceeding emanates from this corollary—in England the function of barrister or advocate is distinguished from legal counselor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHazardDondi20041-151">[145]</a> As the European Court of Human Rights has stated, the law should be adequately accessible to everyone and people should be able to foresee how the law affects them.<a href="#cite_note-152">[146]</a> In order to maintain professionalism, the <a href="/wiki/Practice_of_law" title="Practice of law">practice of law</a> is typically overseen by either a government or independent regulating body such as a <a href="/wiki/Bar_association" title="Bar association">bar association</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bar_council" title="Bar council">bar council</a> or <a href="/wiki/Law_society" title="Law society">law society</a>. Modern lawyers achieve distinct professional identity through specified legal procedures (e.g. successfully passing a qualifying examination), are required by law to have a special qualification (a legal education earning the student a <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Laws" title="Bachelor of Laws">Bachelor of Laws</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Civil_Law" title="Bachelor of Civil Law">Bachelor of Civil Law</a>, or a <a href="/wiki/Juris_Doctor" title="Juris Doctor">Juris Doctor</a> degree. Higher academic degrees may also be pursued. Examples include a <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Laws" title="Master of Laws">Master of Laws</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Legal_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Master of Legal Studies">Master of Legal Studies</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Bar_Professional_Training_Course" title="Bar Professional Training Course">Bar Professional Training Course</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctor of Laws">Doctor of Laws</a>.), and are constituted in office by legal forms of appointment (<a href="/wiki/Admission_to_the_bar" class="mw-redirect" title="Admission to the bar">being admitted to the bar</a>). There are few titles of respect to signify famous lawyers, such as <a href="/wiki/Esquire" title="Esquire">Esquire</a>, to indicate barristers of greater dignity,<a href="#cite_note-153">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-154">[148]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctor of law">Doctor of law</a>, to indicate a person who obtained a <a href="/wiki/PhD" class="mw-redirect" title="PhD">PhD</a> in Law. Many Muslim countries have developed similar rules about legal education and the legal profession, but some still allow lawyers with training in traditional Islamic law to practice law before personal status law courts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhmad2009-155">[149]</a> In China and other developing countries there are not sufficient professionally trained people to staff the existing judicial systems, and, accordingly, formal standards are more relaxed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHazardDondi200422–23-156">[150]</a> Once accredited, a lawyer will often work in a <a href="/wiki/Law_firm" title="Law firm">law firm</a>, in a <a href="/wiki/Barristers%27_chambers" title="Barristers' chambers">chambers</a> as a sole practitioner, in a government post or in a private corporation as an internal <a href="/wiki/Counsel" title="Counsel">counsel</a>. In addition a lawyer may become a <a href="/wiki/Legal_research" title="Legal research">legal researcher</a> who provides on-demand legal research through a library, a commercial service or freelance work. Many people trained in law put their skills to use outside the legal field entirely.<a href="#cite_note-Fine364-157">[151]</a> Significant to the practice of law in the common law tradition is the legal research to determine the current state of the law. This usually entails exploring <a href="/wiki/Law_report" title="Law report">case-law reports</a>, <a href="/wiki/Legal_periodical" title="Legal periodical">legal periodicals</a> and legislation. Law practice also involves drafting documents such as court <a href="/wiki/Pleading" title="Pleading">pleadings</a>, persuasive <a href="/wiki/Brief_(law)" title="Brief (law)">briefs</a>, contracts, or <a href="/wiki/Will_(law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Will (law)">wills</a> and trusts. Negotiation and <a href="/wiki/Dispute_resolution" title="Dispute resolution">dispute resolution</a> skills (including <a href="/wiki/Alternative_dispute_resolution" title="Alternative dispute resolution">ADR</a> techniques) are also important to legal practice, depending on the field.<a href="#cite_note-Fine364-157">[151]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Civil_society">Civil society</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Civil_society" title="Civil society">Civil society</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1963_march_on_washington.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/1963_march_on_washington.jpg/220px-1963_march_on_washington.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/1963_march_on_washington.jpg/330px-1963_march_on_washington.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/1963_march_on_washington.jpg/440px-1963_march_on_washington.jpg 2x" data-file-width="587" data-file-height="395" /></a><figcaption>A march in <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a> during the American <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">civil rights movement</a> in 1963</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Classical_republicanism" title="Classical republicanism">Classical republican</a> concept of "civil society" dates back to Hobbes and Locke.<a href="#cite_note-158">[152]</a> Locke saw civil society as people who have "a common established law and judicature to appeal to, with authority to decide controversies between them."<a href="#cite_note-159">[153]</a> German philosopher <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel</a> distinguished the "state" from "civil society" (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: bürgerliche Gesellschaft) in <a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a>.<a href="#cite_note-160">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKarkatsoulis2004277–278-161">[155]</a> Hegel believed that <a href="/wiki/Civil_society" title="Civil society">civil society</a> and the <a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">state</a> were polar opposites, within the scheme of his dialectic theory of history. The modern dipole state–civil society was reproduced in the theories of <a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Alexis de Tocqueville</a> and <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>.<a href="#cite_note-162">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-163">[157]</a> In post-modern theory, civil society is necessarily a source of law, by being the basis from which people form opinions and lobby for what they believe law should be. As Australian barrister and author <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Robertson_QC" class="mw-redirect" title="Geoffrey Robertson QC">Geoffrey Robertson QC</a> wrote of international law, "one of its primary modern sources is found in the responses of ordinary men and women, and of the non-governmental organizations which many of them support, to the human rights abuses they see on the television screen in their living rooms."<a href="#cite_note-164">[158]</a> <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Freedom of speech</a>, <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_association" title="Freedom of association">freedom of association</a> and many other <a href="/wiki/Individual_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Individual rights">individual rights</a> allow people to gather, discuss, criticise and hold to account their governments, from which the basis of a <a href="/wiki/Deliberative_democracy" title="Deliberative democracy">deliberative democracy</a> is formed. The more people are involved with, concerned by and capable of changing how political power is exercised over their lives, the more acceptable and <a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_(political)" title="Legitimacy (political)">legitimate</a> the law becomes to the people. The most familiar institutions of civil society include economic markets, profit-oriented firms, families, trade unions, hospitals, universities, schools, charities, <a href="/wiki/Cogers" title="Cogers">debating clubs</a>, non-governmental organisations, neighbourhoods, churches, and religious associations. There is no clear legal definition of the civil society, and of the institutions it includes. Most of the institutions and bodies who try to give a list of institutions (such as the <a href="/wiki/European_Economic_and_Social_Committee" title="European Economic and Social Committee">European Economic and Social Committee</a>) exclude the political parties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJakobs20045–6-165">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-166">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKarkatsoulis2004282–283-167">[161]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Areas_of_law">Areas of law</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_areas_of_law" title="List of areas of law">List of areas of law</a></div> All legal systems deal with the same basic issues, but jurisdictions categorise and identify their legal topics in different ways. A common distinction is that between "<a href="/wiki/Public_law" title="Public law">public law</a>" (a term related closely to the <a href="/wiki/State_(law)" class="mw-redirect" title="State (law)">state</a>, and including constitutional, administrative and criminal law), and "<a href="/wiki/Private_law" title="Private law">private law</a>" (which covers contract, <a href="/wiki/Tort" title="Tort">tort</a> and property).<a href="#cite_note-168">[g]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">civil law</a> systems, contract and tort fall under a general <a href="/wiki/Law_of_obligations" title="Law of obligations">law of obligations</a>, while trusts law is dealt with under statutory regimes or <a href="/wiki/Hague_Convention_on_the_Law_Applicable_to_Trusts_and_on_their_Recognition" class="mw-redirect" title="Hague Convention on the Law Applicable to Trusts and on their Recognition">international conventions</a>. International, constitutional and administrative law, criminal law, contract, tort, property law and <a href="/wiki/Trust_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Trust law">trusts</a> are regarded as the "traditional core subjects",<a href="#cite_note-169">[h]</a> although there are many <a href="#Further_disciplines">further disciplines</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="International_law">International law</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">International law</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Sources_of_international_law" title="Sources of international law">Sources of international law</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_laws" title="Conflict of laws">Conflict of laws</a>, <a href="/wiki/European_Union_law" class="mw-redirect" title="European Union law">European Union law</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Public_international_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Public international law">Public international law</a></div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Consolidated_version_of_the_Treaty_on_European_Union" title="Search Wikisource"><img alt="Search Wikisource" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article: <div style="margin-left: 10px; margin-top: 4px;"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Consolidated_version_of_the_Treaty_on_European_Union" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Consolidated version of the Treaty on European Union">Consolidated version of the Treaty on European Union</a></div><div style="margin-left: 10px; margin-top: 4px;"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Consolidated_version_of_the_Treaty_on_the_Functioning_of_the_European_Union" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Consolidated version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union">Consolidated version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union</a></div></div></div> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:United_Nations_Security_Council_(2005).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/United_Nations_Security_Council_%282005%29.jpg/220px-United_Nations_Security_Council_%282005%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/United_Nations_Security_Council_%282005%29.jpg/330px-United_Nations_Security_Council_%282005%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/United_Nations_Security_Council_%282005%29.jpg/440px-United_Nations_Security_Council_%282005%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3504" data-file-height="2336" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council" title="United Nations Security Council">United Nations Security Council</a> in 2005</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">International law</a> can refer to three things: public international law, private international law or conflict of laws and the law of supranational organisations. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_international_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Public international law">Public international law</a> concerns relationships between sovereign nations. The <a href="/wiki/Sources_of_international_law" title="Sources of international law">sources</a> for public international law development are <a href="/wiki/Custom_(law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Custom (law)">custom</a>, practice and treaties between sovereign nations, such as the <a href="/wiki/Geneva_Conventions" title="Geneva Conventions">Geneva Conventions</a>. Public international law can be formed by <a href="/wiki/International_organisations" class="mw-redirect" title="International organisations">international organisations</a>, such as the United Nations (which was established after the failure of the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> to prevent World War II),<a href="#cite_note-171">[i]</a> the <a href="/wiki/International_Labour_Organization" title="International Labour Organization">International Labour Organisation</a>, the <a href="/wiki/World_Trade_Organization" title="World Trade Organization">World Trade Organisation</a> (WTO), or the <a href="/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund" title="International Monetary Fund">International Monetary Fund</a>. Public international law has a special status as law because there is no international police force, and courts (e.g. the <a href="/wiki/International_Court_of_Justice" title="International Court of Justice">International Court of Justice</a> as the primary UN judicial organ) lack the capacity to penalise disobedience. The prevailing manner of enforcing international law is still essentially "self help"; that is the reaction by states to alleged breaches of international obligations by other states.<a href="#cite_note-172">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobertson200690-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-173">[164]</a> However, a few bodies, such as the WTO, have effective systems of binding arbitration and dispute resolution backed up by trade sanctions.<a href="#cite_note-174">[165]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_laws" title="Conflict of laws">Conflict of laws</a>, or private international law in <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">civil law</a> countries, concerns which <a href="/wiki/Jurisdiction" title="Jurisdiction">jurisdiction</a> a legal dispute between private parties should be heard in and which jurisdiction's law should be applied. Today, businesses are increasingly capable of shifting <a href="/wiki/Capital_(economics)" title="Capital (economics)">capital</a> and <a href="/wiki/Labour_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Labour (economics)">labour</a> supply chains across borders, as well as trading with overseas businesses, making the question of which country has jurisdiction even more pressing. Increasing numbers of businesses opt for commercial arbitration under the <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_the_Recognition_and_Enforcement_of_Foreign_Arbitral_Awards" title="Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards">New York Convention 1958</a>.<a href="#cite_note-175">[166]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union_law" class="mw-redirect" title="European Union law">European Union law</a> is the first and so far the only example of a <a href="/wiki/Supranational_law" title="Supranational law">supranational law</a>, i.e. an internationally accepted legal system, other than the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> and the <a href="/wiki/World_Trade_Organization" title="World Trade Organization">World Trade Organization</a>. Given the trend of increasing global economic integration, many regional agreements—especially the <a href="/wiki/African_Union" title="African Union">African Union</a>—seek to follow a similar model.<a href="#cite_note-176">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-177">[168]</a> In the EU, sovereign nations have gathered their authority in a system of courts and the <a href="/wiki/European_Parliament" title="European Parliament">European Parliament</a>. These institutions are allowed the ability to enforce legal norms both against or for member states and citizens in a manner which is not possible through public international law.<a href="#cite_note-178">[169]</a> As the <a href="/wiki/European_Court_of_Justice" title="European Court of Justice">European Court of Justice</a> noted in its 1963 <a href="/wiki/Van_Gend_en_Loos_v_Nederlandse_Administratie_der_Belastingen" title="Van Gend en Loos v Nederlandse Administratie der Belastingen">Van Gend en Loos decision</a>, European Union law constitutes "a new legal order of international law" for the mutual social and economic benefit of the member states.<a href="#cite_note-179">[170]</a><a href="#cite_note-180">[171]</a><a href="#cite_note-181">[172]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Constitutional_and_administrative_law">Constitutional and administrative law</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Administrative_law" title="Administrative law">Administrative law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_law" title="Constitutional law">Constitutional law</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man_and_of_the_Citizen_in_1789.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man_and_of_the_Citizen_in_1789.jpg/220px-Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man_and_of_the_Citizen_in_1789.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="279" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man_and_of_the_Citizen_in_1789.jpg/330px-Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man_and_of_the_Citizen_in_1789.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man_and_of_the_Citizen_in_1789.jpg/440px-Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man_and_of_the_Citizen_in_1789.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3657" data-file-height="4636" /></a><figcaption>The French <a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man_and_of_the_Citizen" title="Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen">Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen</a></figcaption></figure> Constitutional and administrative law govern the affairs of the state. Constitutional law concerns both the relationships between the executive, legislature and judiciary and the human rights or <a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">civil liberties</a> of individuals against the state. Most jurisdictions, like the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_United_States" title="Law of the United States">United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Law_of_France" title="Law of France">France</a>, have a single codified constitution with a <a href="/wiki/Bill_of_rights" title="Bill of rights">bill of rights</a>. A few, like the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Law of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, have no such document. A "constitution" is simply those laws which constitute the <a href="/wiki/Body_politic" title="Body politic">body politic</a>, from <a href="/wiki/Statute" title="Statute">statute</a>, <a href="/wiki/Case_law" title="Case law">case law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_convention_(political_custom)" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitutional convention (political custom)">convention</a>. The fundamental constitutional principle, inspired by <a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">John Locke</a>, holds that <a href="/wiki/Everything_which_is_not_forbidden_is_allowed" title="Everything which is not forbidden is allowed">the individual can do anything except that which is forbidden by law</a>, and the state may do nothing except that which is authorised by law.<a href="#cite_note-182">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-183">[174]</a> Administrative law is the chief method for people to hold state bodies to account. People (wheresoever allowed) may potentially have prerogative to legally challenge (or sue) an agency, local council, public service, or government ministry for <a href="/wiki/Judicial_review" title="Judicial review">judicial review</a> of the offending <a href="/wiki/Edict" title="Edict">edict</a> (law, ordinance, policy order). Such challenge vets the ability of actionable authority under the law, and that the government entity observed required procedure. The first specialist administrative court was the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_State_(France)" class="mw-redirect" title="Council of State (France)">Conseil d'État</a> set up in 1799, as <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_I_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon I of France">Napoleon</a> assumed power in France.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAuby200275-184">[175]</a> A sub-discipline of constitutional law is <a href="/wiki/Election_law" title="Election law">election law</a>. It along with <a href="/w/index.php?title=Elections_commission&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Elections commission (page does not exist)">Elections commissions</a>, councils, or committees deal with policy and procedures facilitating elections. These rules settle disputes or enable the translation of the will of the people into functioning <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democracies</a>. Election law addresses issues who is entitled to <a href="/wiki/Voting" title="Voting">vote</a>, <a href="/wiki/Voter_registration" title="Voter registration">voter registration</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ballot_access" title="Ballot access">ballot access</a>, <a href="/wiki/Campaign_finance" title="Campaign finance">campaign finance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Political_party_funding" title="Political party funding">party funding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Redistribution_(election)" title="Redistribution (election)">redistricting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Apportionment_(politics)" title="Apportionment (politics)">apportionment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electronic_voting" title="Electronic voting">electronic voting</a> and <a href="/wiki/Voting_machine" title="Voting machine">voting machines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Accessibility" title="Accessibility">accessibility</a> of elections, <a href="/wiki/Electoral_system" title="Electoral system">election systems</a> and formulas, <a href="/wiki/Vote_counting" title="Vote counting">vote counting</a>, election disputes, <a href="/wiki/Referendum" title="Referendum">referendums</a>, and issues such as <a href="/wiki/Electoral_fraud" title="Electoral fraud">electoral fraud</a> and <a href="/wiki/Election_silence" title="Election silence">electoral silence</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Criminal_law">Criminal law</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Criminal_law" title="Criminal law">Criminal law</a></div> Criminal law, also known as penal law, pertains to crimes and punishment.<a href="#cite_note-185">[176]</a> It thus regulates the definition of and penalties for offences found to have a sufficiently deleterious social impact but, in itself, makes no moral judgment on an offender nor imposes restrictions on society that physically prevent people from committing a crime in the first place.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrodyAckerLogan20012-186">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson20032-187">[178]</a> Investigating, apprehending, charging, and trying suspected offenders is regulated by the law of <a href="/wiki/Criminal_procedure" title="Criminal procedure">criminal procedure</a>.<a href="#cite_note-188">[179]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Paradigm" title="Paradigm">paradigm</a> case of a crime lies in the proof, <a href="/wiki/Legal_burden_of_proof" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal burden of proof">beyond reasonable doubt</a>, that a person is guilty of two things. First, the accused must commit an act which is deemed by society to be criminal, or <a href="/wiki/Actus_reus" title="Actus reus">actus reus</a> (guilty act).<a href="#cite_note-189">[180]</a> Second, the accused must have the requisite <a href="/wiki/Intention_(criminal_law)" title="Intention (criminal law)">malicious intent</a> to do a criminal act, or <a href="/wiki/Mens_rea" title="Mens rea">mens rea</a> (guilty mind). However, for so called "<a href="/wiki/Strict_liability_(criminal)" title="Strict liability (criminal)">strict liability</a>" crimes, an actus reus is enough.<a href="#cite_note-190">[181]</a> Criminal systems of the civil law tradition distinguish between intention in the broad sense (dolus directus and dolus eventualis), and negligence. Negligence does not carry criminal responsibility unless a particular crime provides for its punishment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDörmannDoswald-BeckKolb2003491-191">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaiser2005333-192">[183]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Adolf_Eichmann_is_sentenced_to_death_at_the_conclusion_of_the_Eichmann_Trial_USHMM_65289.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Adolf_Eichmann_is_sentenced_to_death_at_the_conclusion_of_the_Eichmann_Trial_USHMM_65289.jpg/220px-Adolf_Eichmann_is_sentenced_to_death_at_the_conclusion_of_the_Eichmann_Trial_USHMM_65289.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Adolf_Eichmann_is_sentenced_to_death_at_the_conclusion_of_the_Eichmann_Trial_USHMM_65289.jpg/330px-Adolf_Eichmann_is_sentenced_to_death_at_the_conclusion_of_the_Eichmann_Trial_USHMM_65289.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Adolf_Eichmann_is_sentenced_to_death_at_the_conclusion_of_the_Eichmann_Trial_USHMM_65289.jpg/440px-Adolf_Eichmann_is_sentenced_to_death_at_the_conclusion_of_the_Eichmann_Trial_USHMM_65289.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2436" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Eichmann" title="Adolf Eichmann">Adolf Eichmann</a> (standing in glass booth at left) being <a href="/wiki/Eichmann_trial" title="Eichmann trial">tried and sentenced to death</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Israeli_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="Israeli Supreme Court">Israeli Supreme Court</a> in 1961, an example of a criminal law proceeding</figcaption></figure> Examples of crimes include murder, assault, fraud and theft. In exceptional circumstances defences can apply to specific acts, such as killing in <a href="/wiki/Self-defense_(theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-defense (theory)">self defence</a>, or pleading <a href="/wiki/Insanity_defense" title="Insanity defense">insanity</a>. Another example is in the 19th-century English case of <a href="/wiki/R_v_Dudley_and_Stephens" title="R v Dudley and Stephens">R v Dudley and Stephens</a>, which tested a defence of "<a href="/wiki/Necessity_(criminal_law)" title="Necessity (criminal law)">necessity</a>".<a href="#cite_note-193">[184]</a> Criminal law offences are viewed as offences against not just individual victims, but the community as well.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrodyAckerLogan20012-186">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson20032-187">[178]</a> The state, usually with the help of police, takes the lead in prosecution, which is why in common law countries cases are cited as "The People v ..." or "R (for <a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Rex</a> or <a href="/wiki/Queen_regnant" title="Queen regnant">Regina</a>) v ...". Also, lay <a href="/wiki/Jury" title="Jury">juries</a> are often used to determine the guilt of defendants on points of fact: juries cannot change legal rules. Some developed countries still condone capital punishment for criminal activity, but the normal punishment for a crime will be <a href="/wiki/Prison" title="Prison">imprisonment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fine_(penalty)" title="Fine (penalty)">fines</a>, state supervision (such as probation), or <a href="/wiki/Community_service" title="Community service">community service</a>. Modern criminal law has been affected considerably by the social sciences, especially with respect to <a href="/wiki/Sentence_(law)" title="Sentence (law)">sentencing</a>, legal research, legislation, and <a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_(penology)" title="Rehabilitation (penology)">rehabilitation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-194">[185]</a> On the international field, 111 countries are <a href="/wiki/States_Parties_to_the_Rome_Statute_of_the_International_Criminal_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="States Parties to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court">members</a> of the <a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court" title="International Criminal Court">International Criminal Court</a>, which was established to try people for <a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">crimes against humanity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-195">[186]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contract_law">Contract law</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Contract" title="Contract">Contract</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carbolic_smoke_ball_co.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Carbolic_smoke_ball_co.jpg/220px-Carbolic_smoke_ball_co.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="308" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Carbolic_smoke_ball_co.jpg/330px-Carbolic_smoke_ball_co.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/Carbolic_smoke_ball_co.jpg 2x" data-file-width="417" data-file-height="583" /></a><figcaption>The famous Carbolic Smoke Ball advertisement to cure <a href="/wiki/Influenza" title="Influenza">influenza</a> was held to be a <a href="/wiki/Unilateral_contract" class="mw-redirect" title="Unilateral contract">unilateral contract</a>.</figcaption></figure> Contract law concerns enforceable promises, and can be summed up in the Latin phrase <a href="/wiki/Pacta_sunt_servanda" title="Pacta sunt servanda">pacta sunt servanda</a> (agreements must be kept).<a href="#cite_note-196">[187]</a> In common law jurisdictions, three key elements to the creation of a contract are necessary: <a href="/wiki/Offer_and_acceptance" title="Offer and acceptance">offer and acceptance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Consideration" title="Consideration">consideration</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Intention_to_create_legal_relations" title="Intention to create legal relations">intention to create legal relations</a>. Consideration indicates the fact that all parties to a contract have exchanged something of value. Some common law systems, including Australia, are moving away from the idea of consideration as a requirement. The idea of <a href="/wiki/Estoppel" title="Estoppel">estoppel</a> or culpa in contrahendo, can be used to create obligations during pre-contractual negotiations.<a href="#cite_note-197">[188]</a> Civil law jurisdictions treat contracts differently in a number of respects, with a more interventionist role for the state in both the formation and enforcement of contracts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPargendler2018-198">[189]</a> Compared to common law jurisdictions, civil law systems incorporate more mandatory terms into contracts, allow greater latitude for courts to interpret and revise contract terms and impose a stronger <a href="/wiki/Good_faith_(law)" title="Good faith (law)">duty of good faith</a>, but are also more likely to enforce <a href="/wiki/Penalty_clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Penalty clause">penalty clauses</a> and <a href="/wiki/Specific_performance" title="Specific performance">specific performance</a> of contracts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPargendler2018-198">[189]</a> They also do not require consideration for a contract to be binding.<a href="#cite_note-199">[190]</a> In France, an ordinary contract is said to form simply on the basis of a "meeting of the minds" or a "concurrence of wills". <a href="/wiki/Law_of_Germany" title="Law of Germany">Germany</a> has a special approach to contracts, which ties into property law. Their '<a href="/wiki/Abstraction_principle_(law)" title="Abstraction principle (law)">abstraction principle</a>' (Abstraktionsprinzip) means that the personal obligation of contract forms separately from the title of property being conferred. When contracts are invalidated for some reason (e.g. a car buyer is so drunk that he lacks legal capacity to contract)<a href="#cite_note-200">[191]</a> the contractual obligation to pay can be invalidated separately from the proprietary title of the car. <a href="/wiki/Unjust_enrichment" class="mw-redirect" title="Unjust enrichment">Unjust enrichment</a> law, rather than contract law, is then used to restore title to the rightful owner.<a href="#cite_note-201">[192]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Torts_and_delicts">Torts and delicts</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Delict" title="Delict">Delict</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tort" title="Tort">Tort</a></div>Certain <a href="/wiki/Civil_wrong" title="Civil wrong">civil wrongs</a> are grouped together as <a href="/wiki/Tort" title="Tort">torts</a> under common law systems and <a href="/wiki/Delict" title="Delict">delicts</a> under civil law systems.<a href="#cite_note-202">[193]</a> To have acted tortiously, one must have breached a duty to another person, or infringed some pre-existing legal right. A simple example might be unintentionally hitting someone with a ball.<a href="#cite_note-203">[194]</a> Under the law of <a href="/wiki/Negligence" title="Negligence">negligence</a>, the most common form of tort, the injured party could potentially claim compensation for their injuries from the party responsible. The principles of negligence are illustrated by <a href="/wiki/Donoghue_v_Stevenson" title="Donoghue v Stevenson">Donoghue v Stevenson</a>.<a href="#cite_note-DvS-204">[j]</a> A friend of Donoghue ordered an opaque bottle of <a href="/wiki/Ginger_beer" title="Ginger beer">ginger beer</a> (intended for the consumption of Donoghue) in a café in <a href="/wiki/Paisley,_Renfrewshire" title="Paisley, Renfrewshire">Paisley</a>. Having consumed half of it, Donoghue poured the remainder into a tumbler. The decomposing remains of a snail floated out. She claimed to have suffered from shock, fell ill with gastroenteritis and sued the manufacturer for carelessly allowing the drink to be contaminated. The <a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords" title="House of Lords">House of Lords</a> decided that the manufacturer was liable for Mrs Donoghue's illness. <a href="/wiki/Lord_Atkin" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Atkin">Lord Atkin</a> took a distinctly moral approach and said: <blockquote>The liability for negligence [...] is no doubt based upon a general public sentiment of moral wrongdoing for which the offender must pay. [...] The rule that you are to love your neighbour becomes in law, you must not injure your neighbour; and the <a href="/wiki/Lawyer" title="Lawyer">lawyer</a>'s question, Who is my neighbour? receives a restricted reply. You must take reasonable care to avoid acts or omissions which you can reasonably foresee would be likely to injure your neighbour.<a href="#cite_note-205">[195]</a></blockquote> This became the basis for the four principles of negligence, namely that: <ol><li>Stevenson owed Donoghue a <a href="/wiki/Duty_of_care" title="Duty of care">duty of care</a> to provide safe drinks;</li> <li>he <a href="/wiki/Breach_of_duty_in_English_law" title="Breach of duty in English law">breached</a> his duty of care;</li> <li>the harm would not have occurred <a href="/wiki/Causation_(law)" title="Causation (law)">but for</a> his breach; and</li> <li>his act was the <a href="/wiki/Proximate_cause" title="Proximate cause">proximate cause</a> of her harm.<a href="#cite_note-DvS-204">[j]</a></li></ol> Another example of tort might be a neighbour making excessively loud noises with machinery on his property.<a href="#cite_note-Sturges-206">[196]</a> Under a <a href="/wiki/Nuisance" title="Nuisance">nuisance</a> claim the noise could be stopped. Torts can also involve intentional acts such as <a href="/wiki/Assault_(tort)" title="Assault (tort)">assault</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battery_(tort)" title="Battery (tort)">battery</a> or <a href="/wiki/Trespass" title="Trespass">trespass</a>. A better known tort is <a href="/wiki/Slander_and_libel" class="mw-redirect" title="Slander and libel">defamation</a>, which occurs, for example, when a newspaper makes unsupportable allegations that damage a politician's reputation.<a href="#cite_note-207">[197]</a> More infamous are economic torts, which form the basis of <a href="/wiki/Labour_law" title="Labour law">labour law</a> in some countries by making trade unions liable for strikes,<a href="#cite_note-208">[198]</a> when statute does not provide immunity.<a href="#cite_note-209">[k]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Property_law">Property law</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">Property law</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Edward_Matthew_Ward_(1816-1879)_-_The_South_Sea_Bubble,_a_Scene_in_%27Change_Alley_in_1720_-_N00432_-_National_Gallery.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Edward_Matthew_Ward_%281816-1879%29_-_The_South_Sea_Bubble%2C_a_Scene_in_%27Change_Alley_in_1720_-_N00432_-_National_Gallery.jpg/220px-Edward_Matthew_Ward_%281816-1879%29_-_The_South_Sea_Bubble%2C_a_Scene_in_%27Change_Alley_in_1720_-_N00432_-_National_Gallery.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Edward_Matthew_Ward_%281816-1879%29_-_The_South_Sea_Bubble%2C_a_Scene_in_%27Change_Alley_in_1720_-_N00432_-_National_Gallery.jpg/330px-Edward_Matthew_Ward_%281816-1879%29_-_The_South_Sea_Bubble%2C_a_Scene_in_%27Change_Alley_in_1720_-_N00432_-_National_Gallery.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Edward_Matthew_Ward_%281816-1879%29_-_The_South_Sea_Bubble%2C_a_Scene_in_%27Change_Alley_in_1720_-_N00432_-_National_Gallery.jpg/440px-Edward_Matthew_Ward_%281816-1879%29_-_The_South_Sea_Bubble%2C_a_Scene_in_%27Change_Alley_in_1720_-_N00432_-_National_Gallery.jpg 2x" data-file-width="964" data-file-height="658" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/The_South_Sea_Bubble" title="The South Sea Bubble">The South Sea Bubble</a> by <a href="/wiki/Edward_Matthew_Ward" title="Edward Matthew Ward">Edward Matthew Ward</a>. The <a href="/wiki/South_Sea_Bubble" class="mw-redirect" title="South Sea Bubble">South Sea Bubble</a> in 1720, one of the world's first ever speculations and crashes, led to strict regulation on share trading.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris1994610–627-210">[199]</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a> law governs ownership and possession. <a href="/wiki/Real_property" title="Real property">Real property</a>, sometimes called 'real estate', refers to ownership of land and things attached to it.<a href="#cite_note-211">[200]</a> <a href="/wiki/Personal_property" title="Personal property">Personal property</a>, refers to everything else; movable objects, such as computers, cars, jewelry or intangible rights, such as <a href="/wiki/Share_(finance)" title="Share (finance)">stocks and shares</a>. A right <a href="/wiki/In_rem" class="mw-redirect" title="In rem">in rem</a> is a right to a specific piece of property, contrasting to a right <a href="/wiki/In_personam" title="In personam">in personam</a> which allows compensation for a loss, but not a particular thing back. Land law forms the basis for most kinds of property law, and is the most complex. It concerns <a href="/wiki/Mortgage_law" title="Mortgage law">mortgages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leasehold_estate" title="Leasehold estate">rental agreements</a>, <a href="/wiki/License" title="License">licences</a>, <a href="/wiki/Covenant_(law)" title="Covenant (law)">covenants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Easement" title="Easement">easements</a> and the statutory systems for land registration. Regulations on the use of personal property fall under intellectual property, <a href="/wiki/Company_(law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Company (law)">company law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trust_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Trust law">trusts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Commercial_law" title="Commercial law">commercial law</a>. An example of a basic case of most property law is <a href="/wiki/Armory_v_Delamirie" title="Armory v Delamirie">Armory v Delamirie</a> [1722].<a href="#cite_note-212">[201]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Chimney_sweep" title="Chimney sweep">chimney sweep</a>'s boy found a jewel encrusted with precious stones. He took it to a goldsmith to have it valued. The goldsmith's apprentice looked at it, sneakily removed the stones, told the boy it was worth three <a href="/wiki/Halfpenny_(British_coin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Halfpenny (British coin)">halfpence</a> and that he would buy it. The boy said he would prefer the jewel back, so the apprentice gave it to him, but without the stones. The boy sued the goldsmith for his apprentice's attempt to cheat him. <a href="/wiki/Lord_Chief_Justice_Pratt" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Chief Justice Pratt">Lord Chief Justice Pratt</a> ruled that even though the boy could not be said to own the jewel, he should be considered the rightful keeper ("finders keepers") until the original owner is found. In fact the apprentice and the boy both had a right of <a href="/wiki/Possession_(law)" title="Possession (law)">possession</a> in the jewel (a technical concept, meaning evidence that something could belong to someone), but the boy's possessory interest was considered better, because it could be shown to be first in time. Possession may be nine-tenths of the law, but not all. This case is used to support the view of property in common law jurisdictions, that the person who can show the best claim to a piece of property, against any contesting party, is the owner.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthews1995251–274-213">[202]</a> By contrast, the classic civil law approach to property, propounded by <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Carl_von_Savigny" title="Friedrich Carl von Savigny">Friedrich Carl von Savigny</a>, is that it is a right good against the world. Obligations, like contracts and torts, are conceptualised as rights good between individuals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESavigny180325-214">[203]</a> The idea of property raises many further philosophical and political issues. Locke argued that our "lives, liberties and estates" are our property because we own our bodies and <a href="/wiki/Labour_theory_of_property" class="mw-redirect" title="Labour theory of property">mix our labour</a> with our surroundings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELocke1689Section_123-215">[204]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Equity_and_trusts">Equity and trusts</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Equity_(law)" title="Equity (law)">Equity (law)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trust_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Trust law">Trust law</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Microcosm_of_London_Plate_022_-_Court_of_Chancery,_Lincoln%27s_Inn_Hall_edited.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Microcosm_of_London_Plate_022_-_Court_of_Chancery%2C_Lincoln%27s_Inn_Hall_edited.jpg/220px-Microcosm_of_London_Plate_022_-_Court_of_Chancery%2C_Lincoln%27s_Inn_Hall_edited.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Microcosm_of_London_Plate_022_-_Court_of_Chancery%2C_Lincoln%27s_Inn_Hall_edited.jpg/330px-Microcosm_of_London_Plate_022_-_Court_of_Chancery%2C_Lincoln%27s_Inn_Hall_edited.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Microcosm_of_London_Plate_022_-_Court_of_Chancery%2C_Lincoln%27s_Inn_Hall_edited.jpg/440px-Microcosm_of_London_Plate_022_-_Court_of_Chancery%2C_Lincoln%27s_Inn_Hall_edited.jpg 2x" data-file-width="841" data-file-height="631" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Court_of_Chancery" title="Court of Chancery">Court of Chancery</a>, London, England, early 19th century</figcaption></figure> Equity is a body of rules that developed in England separately from the "common law". The common law was administered by judges and barristers. The <a href="/wiki/Lord_Chancellor" title="Lord Chancellor">Lord Chancellor</a> on the other hand, as the King's keeper of conscience, could overrule the judge-made law if he thought it equitable to do so.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGhee20007-216">[205]</a> This meant equity came to operate more through <a href="/wiki/Maxims_of_equity" title="Maxims of equity">principles</a> than rigid rules. Whereas neither the common law nor civil law systems allow people to split the ownership from the control of one piece of property, equity allows this through an arrangement known as a trust. Trustees control property whereas the beneficial, or equitable, ownership of trust property is held by people known as beneficiaries. Trustees owe duties to their beneficiaries to take good care of the entrusted property.<a href="#cite_note-217">[206]</a> Another example of a trustee's duty might be to invest property wisely or sell it.<a href="#cite_note-218">[207]</a> This is especially the case for pension funds, the most important form of trust, where investors are trustees for people's savings until retirement. But trusts can also be set up for <a href="/wiki/Charitable_trust" title="Charitable trust">charitable purposes</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Further_disciplines">Further disciplines</h3></div> <dl><dt>Law and society</dt></dl> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Unison_strike_rally_Oxford_20060328.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Unison_strike_rally_Oxford_20060328.jpg/220px-Unison_strike_rally_Oxford_20060328.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Unison_strike_rally_Oxford_20060328.jpg/330px-Unison_strike_rally_Oxford_20060328.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Unison_strike_rally_Oxford_20060328.jpg/440px-Unison_strike_rally_Oxford_20060328.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1760" data-file-height="1168" /></a><figcaption>A trade union protest by <a href="/wiki/UNISON" class="mw-redirect" title="UNISON">UNISON</a> while on strike</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Labour_law" title="Labour law">Labour law</a> is the study of a tripartite industrial relationship between worker, employer and trade union. This involves <a href="/wiki/Collective_bargaining" title="Collective bargaining">collective bargaining</a> regulation, and the right to strike. Individual employment law refers to workplace rights, such as <a href="/wiki/Job_security" title="Job security">job security</a>, <a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">health and safety</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Minimum_wage" title="Minimum wage">minimum wage</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a>, <a href="/wiki/Civil_and_political_rights" title="Civil and political rights">civil rights</a> and <a href="/wiki/Human_rights_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Human rights law">human rights law</a>. These are laid down in codes such as the <a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a>, the <a href="/wiki/European_Convention_on_Human_Rights" title="European Convention on Human Rights">European Convention on Human Rights</a> (which founded the <a href="/wiki/European_Court_of_Human_Rights" title="European Court of Human Rights">European Court of Human Rights</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">U.S. Bill of Rights</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Lisbon" title="Treaty of Lisbon">Treaty of Lisbon</a> makes the <a href="/wiki/Charter_of_Fundamental_Rights_of_the_European_Union" title="Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union">Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union</a> legally binding in all member states <a href="/wiki/Opt-outs_in_the_European_Union#Charter_of_Fundamental_Rights_of_the_European_Union_–_Poland" title="Opt-outs in the European Union">except Poland and the United Kingdom</a>.<a href="#cite_note-219">[208]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_procedure" title="Civil procedure">Civil procedure</a> and <a href="/wiki/Criminal_procedure" title="Criminal procedure">criminal procedure</a> concern the rules that courts must follow as a trial and appeals proceed. Both concern a citizen's <a href="/wiki/Right_to_a_fair_trial" title="Right to a fair trial">right to a fair trial</a> or hearing.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_(law)" title="Evidence (law)">Evidence law</a> involves which materials are admissible in courts for a case to be built.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_law" title="Immigration law">Immigration law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nationality_law" title="Nationality law">nationality law</a> concern the rights of foreigners to live and work in a nation-state that is not their own and to acquire or lose <a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">citizenship</a>. Both also involve the <a href="/wiki/Right_of_asylum" title="Right of asylum">right of asylum</a> and the problem of <a href="/wiki/Statelessness" title="Statelessness">stateless</a> individuals.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_law" title="Family law">Family law</a> covers marriage and divorce proceedings, the rights of children and rights to property and money in the event of separation.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transactional_law" title="Transactional law">Transactional law</a> is the practice of law concerning business and money.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biolaw" title="Biolaw">Biolaw</a> focuses on the intersection of law and the biosciences.</li></ul> <dl><dt>Law and commerce</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Company_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Company law">Company law</a> sprang from the law of trusts, on the principle of separating ownership of property and control.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerle1932-220">[209]</a> The law of the modern <a href="/wiki/Company_(law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Company (law)">company</a> began with the <a href="/wiki/Joint_Stock_Companies_Act_1856" title="Joint Stock Companies Act 1856">Joint Stock Companies Act 1856</a>, passed in the United Kingdom, which provided investors with a simple registration procedure to gain <a href="/wiki/Limited_liability" title="Limited liability">limited liability</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Juristic_person" class="mw-redirect" title="Juristic person">separate legal personality</a> of the corporation.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_law" title="Commercial law">Commercial law</a> covers complex contract and property law. The law of <a href="/wiki/Law_of_agency" title="Law of agency">agency</a>, <a href="/wiki/Insurance_law" title="Insurance law">insurance law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Negotiable_instrument" title="Negotiable instrument">bills of exchange</a>, <a href="/wiki/Insolvency" title="Insolvency">insolvency</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bankruptcy_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Bankruptcy law">bankruptcy law</a> and sales law trace back to the medieval <a href="/wiki/Law_Merchant" class="mw-redirect" title="Law Merchant">Law Merchant</a>. The UK <a href="/wiki/Sale_of_Goods_Act_1979" title="Sale of Goods Act 1979">Sale of Goods Act 1979</a> and the US <a href="/wiki/Uniform_Commercial_Code" title="Uniform Commercial Code">Uniform Commercial Code</a> are examples of codified common law commercial principles.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Admiralty_law" title="Admiralty law">Admiralty law</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Convention_on_the_Law_of_the_Sea" title="United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea">sea law</a> lay a basic framework for free trade and commerce across the world's oceans and seas, where outside of a country's zone of control. Shipping companies operate through ordinary principles of commercial law, generalised for a global market. Admiralty law also encompasses specialised issues such as <a href="/wiki/Marine_salvage" title="Marine salvage">salvage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lien#Maritime_liens" title="Lien">maritime liens</a>, and injuries to passengers.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Intellectual property law">Intellectual property law</a> aims at safeguarding creators and other producers of intellectual goods and services. These are legal rights (<a href="/wiki/Copyright" title="Copyright">copyrights</a>, trademarks, patents, and <a href="/wiki/Related_right" class="mw-redirect" title="Related right">related rights</a>) which result from intellectual activity in the industrial, literary and artistic fields.<a href="#cite_note-221">[210]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_law" title="Space law">Space law</a> is a relatively new field dealing with aspects of international law regarding human activities in Earth orbit and outer space. While at first addressing space relations of countries via treaties, increasingly it is addressing areas such as <a href="/wiki/Commercialization_of_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Commercialization of space">space commercialisation</a>, property, liability, and other issues.</li></ul> <dl><dt>Law and regulation</dt></dl> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1930-67B.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/1930-67B.png/220px-1930-67B.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/1930-67B.png/330px-1930-67B.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/1930-67B.png/440px-1930-67B.png 2x" data-file-width="683" data-file-height="540" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/New_York_Stock_Exchange" title="New York Stock Exchange">New York Stock Exchange</a> trading floor after the <a href="/wiki/Wall_Street_Crash_of_1929" class="mw-redirect" title="Wall Street Crash of 1929">Wall Street Crash of 1929</a>, before tougher <a href="/wiki/Banking_regulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Banking regulation">banking regulation</a> was introduced</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tax_law" title="Tax law">Tax law</a> involves regulations that concern <a href="/wiki/Value_added_tax" class="mw-redirect" title="Value added tax">value added tax</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corporate_tax" title="Corporate tax">corporate tax</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Income_tax" title="Income tax">income tax</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bank_regulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Bank regulation">Banking law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Financial_regulation" title="Financial regulation">financial regulation</a> set minimum standards on the amounts of capital banks must hold, and rules about best practice for investment. This is to insure against the risk of economic crises, such as the <a href="/wiki/Wall_Street_Crash_of_1929" class="mw-redirect" title="Wall Street Crash of 1929">Wall Street Crash of 1929</a>.</li> <li>Regulation deals with the provision of <a href="/wiki/Public_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Public services">public services</a> and utilities. <a href="/wiki/Water_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Water law">Water law</a> is one example. Especially since <a href="/wiki/Privatisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Privatisation">privatisation</a> became popular and took management of services away from public law, private companies doing the jobs previously controlled by government have been bound by varying degrees of social responsibility. <a href="/wiki/Energy_policy" title="Energy policy">Energy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ofgem" class="mw-redirect" title="Ofgem">gas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Telecommunication_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunication policy">telecomms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Water_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Water law">water</a> are regulated industries in most <a href="/wiki/Organisation_for_Economic_Co-operation_and_Development" class="mw-redirect" title="Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development">OECD</a> countries.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competition_law" title="Competition law">Competition law</a>, known in the United States as <a href="/wiki/Antitrust" class="mw-redirect" title="Antitrust">antitrust</a> law, is an evolving field that traces as far back as <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> decrees against <a href="/wiki/Price_fixing" title="Price fixing">price fixing</a> and the English <a href="/wiki/Restraint_of_trade" title="Restraint of trade">restraint of trade</a> doctrine. Modern competition law derives from the U.S. anti-cartel and anti-monopoly statutes (the <a href="/wiki/Sherman_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Sherman Act">Sherman Act</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clayton_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Clayton Act">Clayton Act</a>) of the turn of the 20th century. It is used to control businesses who attempt to use their economic influence to distort market prices at the expense of <a href="/wiki/Consumer_welfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Consumer welfare">consumer welfare</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_protection" title="Consumer protection">Consumer law</a> could include anything from regulations on unfair <a href="/wiki/Contractual_terms" class="mw-redirect" title="Contractual terms">contractual terms</a> and clauses to directives on airline baggage insurance.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_law" title="Environmental law">Environmental law</a> is increasingly important, especially in light of the <a href="/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol" title="Kyoto Protocol">Kyoto Protocol</a> and the potential danger of <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>. Environmental protection also serves to penalise <a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">polluters</a> within domestic legal systems.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_law" title="Aviation law">Aviation law</a> deals with all regulations and technical standards applicable to the safe operation of aircraft, and is an essential part both of pilots' training and pilot's operations. It is framed by national civil aviation acts (or laws), themselves mostly aligned with the recommendations or mandatory standards of the <a href="/wiki/International_Civil_Aviation_Organization" title="International Civil Aviation Organization">International Civil Aviation Organisation</a> or ICAO.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Intersection_with_other_fields">Intersection with other fields</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economics">Economics</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">Law and economics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Richard_Posner_at_Harvard_University.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Richard_Posner_at_Harvard_University.jpg/220px-Richard_Posner_at_Harvard_University.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Richard_Posner_at_Harvard_University.jpg/330px-Richard_Posner_at_Harvard_University.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Richard_Posner_at_Harvard_University.jpg/440px-Richard_Posner_at_Harvard_University.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2008" data-file-height="2465" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Richard_Posner" title="Richard Posner">Richard Posner</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Law_School" title="University of Chicago Law School">University of Chicago Law School</a> professor and the most cited legal scholar, until 2014 ran a blog with <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Memorial_Prize_in_Economic_Sciences" title="Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences">Nobel Prize</a> winning economist <a href="/wiki/Gary_Becker" title="Gary Becker">Gary Becker</a>.<a href="#cite_note-222">[211]</a></figcaption></figure> In the 18th century, <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a> presented a philosophical foundation for explaining the relationship between law and economics.<a href="#cite_note-223">[l]</a> The discipline arose partly out of a critique of trade unions and U.S. <a href="/wiki/Antitrust" class="mw-redirect" title="Antitrust">antitrust</a> law. The most influential proponents, such as <a href="/wiki/Richard_Posner" title="Richard Posner">Richard Posner</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oliver_E._Williamson" title="Oliver E. Williamson">Oliver Williamson</a> and the so-called <a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chicago school (economics)">Chicago School</a> of economists and lawyers including <a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Milton Friedman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gary_Becker" title="Gary Becker">Gary Becker</a>, are generally advocates of <a href="/wiki/Deregulation" title="Deregulation">deregulation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Privatisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Privatisation">privatisation</a>, and are hostile to state regulation or what they see as restrictions on the operation of <a href="/wiki/Free_market" title="Free market">free markets</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJakoby200553-224">[212]</a> The most prominent economic analyst of law is 1991 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel Prize in Economics">Nobel Prize</a> winner <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Coase" title="Ronald Coase">Ronald Coase</a>, whose first major article, <a href="/wiki/The_Nature_of_the_Firm" title="The Nature of the Firm">The Nature of the Firm</a> (1937), argued that the reason for the existence of firms (companies, partnerships, etc.) is the existence of <a href="/wiki/Transaction_cost" title="Transaction cost">transaction costs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoase1937386–405-225">[213]</a> <a href="/wiki/Homo_economicus" title="Homo economicus">Rational individuals</a> trade through bilateral contracts on open markets until the costs of transactions mean that using corporations to produce things is more cost-effective. His second major article, <a href="/wiki/The_Problem_of_Social_Cost" title="The Problem of Social Cost">The Problem of Social Cost</a> (1960), argued that if we lived in a world without transaction costs, people would <a href="/wiki/Bargaining" title="Bargaining">bargain</a> with one another to create the same allocation of resources, regardless of the way a court might rule in property disputes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoase19601–44-226">[214]</a> Coase used the example of a <a href="/wiki/Nuisance" title="Nuisance">nuisance</a> case named <a href="/wiki/Sturges_v_Bridgman" title="Sturges v Bridgman">Sturges v Bridgman</a>, where a noisy sweetmaker and a quiet doctor were neighbours and went to court to see who should have to move.<a href="#cite_note-Sturges-206">[196]</a> Coase said that regardless of whether the judge ruled that the sweetmaker had to stop using his machinery, or that the doctor had to put up with it, they could strike a mutually beneficial bargain about who moves that reaches the same outcome of resource distribution. Only the existence of <a href="/wiki/Transaction_costs" class="mw-redirect" title="Transaction costs">transaction costs</a> may prevent this.<a href="#cite_note-227">[215]</a> So the law ought to pre-empt what would happen, and be guided by the most <a href="/wiki/Efficiency_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Efficiency (economics)">efficient</a> solution. The idea is that law and regulation are not as important or effective at helping people as lawyers and government planners believe.<a href="#cite_note-228">[216]</a> Coase and others like him wanted a change of approach, to put the burden of proof for positive effects on a government that was intervening in the market, by analysing the costs of action.<a href="#cite_note-229">[217]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sociology">Sociology</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">Sociology of law</a></div> The sociology of law examines the interaction of law with society and overlaps with jurisprudence, philosophy of law, social theory and more specialised subjects such as <a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">criminology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECotterrell1992-230">[218]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJaryJary1995636-231">[219]</a> It is a transdisciplinary and multidisciplinary study focused on the theorisation and empirical study of legal practices and experiences as social phenomena. The institutions of <a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">social construction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_norms" class="mw-redirect" title="Social norms">social norms</a>, dispute processing and <a href="/wiki/Legal_culture" title="Legal culture">legal culture</a> are key areas for inquiry in this knowledge field. In the United States, the field is usually called law and society studies; in Europe, it is more often referred to as socio-legal studies. At first, jurists and legal philosophers were suspicious of sociology of law. Kelsen attacked one of its founders, <a href="/wiki/Eugen_Ehrlich" title="Eugen Ehrlich">Eugen Ehrlich</a>, who sought to make clear the differences and connections between positive law, which lawyers learn and apply, and other forms of 'law' or social norms that regulate everyday life, generally preventing conflicts from reaching lawyers and courts.<a href="#cite_note-232">[220]</a> Contemporary research in the sociology of law is concerned with the way that law develops outside discrete state jurisdictions, being produced through social interaction in social arenas, and acquiring a diversity of sources of authority in national and transnational communal networks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECotterrell2006-233">[221]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Max_Weber,_1918.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Max_Weber%2C_1918.jpg/220px-Max_Weber%2C_1918.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="301" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Max_Weber%2C_1918.jpg/330px-Max_Weber%2C_1918.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Max_Weber%2C_1918.jpg/440px-Max_Weber%2C_1918.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1169" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a>, who began his career as a lawyer, and is regarded as one of the founders of sociology and sociology of law</figcaption></figure> Around 1900, <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a> defined his "scientific" approach to law, identifying the "legal rational form" as a type of domination, not attributable to personal authority but to the authority of abstract norms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERheinstein1954336-234">[222]</a> Formal legal rationality was his term for the key characteristic of the kind of coherent and calculable law that was a precondition for modern political developments and the modern bureaucratic state. Weber saw this law as having developed in parallel with the growth of capitalism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECotterrell1992-230">[218]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJaryJary1995636-231">[219]</a> Another sociologist, <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a>, wrote in his classic work The Division of Labour in Society that as society becomes more complex, the body of civil law concerned primarily with restitution and compensation grows at the expense of criminal laws and penal sanctions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECotterrell1999-235">[223]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson1995156-236">[224]</a> Other notable early legal sociologists included <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Sinzheimer" title="Hugo Sinzheimer">Hugo Sinzheimer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theodor_Geiger" title="Theodor Geiger">Theodor Geiger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georges_Gurvitch" title="Georges Gurvitch">Georges Gurvitch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leon_Petra%C5%BCycki" title="Leon Petrażycki">Leon Petrażycki</a> in Europe, and <a href="/wiki/William_Graham_Sumner" title="William Graham Sumner">William Graham Sumner</a> in the U.S.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGurvitchHunt2001142-237">[225]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPapachristou199981–82-238">[226]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Balance,_by_David.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/30px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/46px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/61px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="606" data-file-height="558" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Law" title="Portal:Law">Law portal</a></li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about Law <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Law">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Law&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/By-law" title="By-law">By-law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_dictionary" title="Law dictionary">Law dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_research_in_the_United_States" title="Legal research in the United States">Legal research in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_treatise" title="Legal treatise">Legal treatise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_law" title="Outline of law">Outline of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">Political science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudolaw" title="Pseudolaw">Pseudolaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_interest_law" title="Public interest law">Public interest law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_law" title="Social law">Social law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sources_of_law" title="Sources of law">Sources of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translating_%22law%22_to_other_European_languages" title="Translating "law" to other European languages">Translating "law" to other European languages</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> As a legal system, Roman law has affected the development of law worldwide. It also forms the basis for the law codes of most countries of continental Europe and has played an important role in the creation of the idea of a common European culture (Stein, Roman Law in European History, 2, 104–107). </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> Civil law jurisdictions recognise custom as "the other source of law"; hence, scholars tend to divide the civil law into the broad categories of "written law" (ius scriptum) or legislation, and "unwritten law" (ius non-scriptum) or custom. Yet they tend to dismiss custom as being of slight importance compared to legislation (Georgiadis, General Principles of Civil Law, 19; Washofsky, Taking Precedent Seriously, 7). </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> «In one of his elaborate orations in the United States Senate Mr. Charles Sumner spoke of "the generous presumption of the common law in favor of the innocence of an accused person;" yet it must be admitted that such a presumption cannot be found in Anglo-Saxon law, where sometimes the presumption seems to have been the other way. And in a very recent case in the Supreme Court of the United States, the case of Coffin, 156 U. S. 432, it is pointed out that this presumption was fully established in the Roman law, and was preserved in the canon law.»<a href="#cite_note-106">[104]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> E.g., the court president is a political appointee (Jensen–Heller, Introduction, 11–12). About the notion of "judicial independence" in China, see Findlay, Judiciary in the PRC, 282–284 </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> About "cabinet accountability" in both presidential and parliamentary systems, see Shugart–Haggard, Presidential Systems, 67 etc. </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> In these cases sovereignty is eroded, and often warlords acquire excessive powers (Fukuyama, State-Building, 166–167). </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> Although many scholars argue that "the boundaries between public and private law are becoming blurred", and that this distinction has become mere "folklore" (Bergkamp, Liability and Environment, 1–2). </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> E.g. in England these seven subjects, with EU law substituted for international law, make up a "qualifying law degree". For criticism, see <a href="/wiki/Peter_Birks" title="Peter Birks">Peter Birks</a>' poignant comments attached to a previous version of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webjcli.ncl.ac.uk/articles1/birks1.html#appendix">Notice to Law Schools</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090620065248/http://webjcli.ncl.ac.uk/articles1/birks1.html#appendix">Archived</a> 20 June 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> (The Hinge of Fate, 719) comments on the League of Nations' failure: "It was wrong to say that the League failed. It was rather the member states who had failed the League."<a href="#cite_note-170">[162]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-DvS-204">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DvS_204-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DvS_204-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Donoghue_v_Stevenson" title="Donoghue v Stevenson">Donoghue v Stevenson</a> (<a href="/wiki/Case_citation#England_and_Wales" title="Case citation">[1932] A.C. 532, 1932 S.C. (H.L.) 31, [1932] All ER Rep 1</a>). See the original text of the case in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.leeds.ac.uk/law/hamlyn/donoghue.htm">UK Law Online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070216044953/http://www.leeds.ac.uk/law/hamlyn/donoghue.htm">Archived</a> 16 February 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> In the UK, <a href="/wiki/Trade_Union_and_Labour_Relations_(Consolidation)_Act_1992" title="Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992">Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992</a>; c.f. in the U.S., <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="National Labor Relations Act">National Labor Relations Act</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a> According to Malloy, Smith established "a classical liberal philosophy that made individuals the key referential sign while acknowledging that we live not alone but in community with others".(Law and Economics, 114) </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERobertson200690-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobertson200690_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobertson200690_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobertson200690_1-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFRobertson2006">Robertson 2006</a>, p. 90. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillis1926-2"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillis1926_2-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWillis1926">Willis 1926</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGibbs1968" class="citation journal cs1">Gibbs, Jack P. (1968). "Definitions of Law and Empirical Questions". 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Revus. Journal for Constitutional Theory and Philosophy of Law / Revija za ustavno teorijo in filozofijo prava (19): 53–81. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4000%2Frevus.2449">10.4000/revus.2449</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1581-7652">1581-7652</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191231075003/https://journals.openedition.org/revus/2449">Archived</a> from the original on 31 December 2019. 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A.; Hooley, R. J. A.; Munday, R. J. C.; Sealy, L. S.; Tettenborn, A. M.; Turner, P. G. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hgapDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA14">Commercial Law</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199692088" title="Special:BookSources/9780199692088"><bdi>9780199692088</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210415014329/https://books.google.com/books?id=hgapDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA14">Archived</a> from the original on 15 April 2021. 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"Precedent at the Court of Justice of the European Union: The Linguistic Aspect". In Michael Freeman; Fiona Smith (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200101105552/https://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199673667.001.0001/acprof-9780199673667-chapter-29">Law and Language: Current Legal Issues, Volume 15</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199673667" title="Special:BookSources/9780199673667"><bdi>9780199673667</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199673667.001.0001/acprof-9780199673667-chapter-29">the original</a> on 1 January 2020. Retrieved 1 January 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Precedent+at+the+Court+of+Justice+of+the+European+Union%3A+The+Linguistic+Aspect&rft.btitle=Law+and+Language%3A+Current+Legal+Issues%2C+Volume+15&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013-02-21&rft.isbn=9780199673667&rft.aulast=McAuliffe&rft.aufirst=Karen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordscholarship.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780199673667.001.0001%2Facprof-9780199673667-chapter-29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> For discussion of the composition and dating of these sources, see Olivelle, Manu's Code of Law, 18–25. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGlenn2000276-68"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGlenn2000276_68-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGlenn2000">Glenn 2000</a>, p. 276. </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChapra2014" class="citation book cs1">Chapra, Muhammad Umer (2014). 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Retrieved 1 January 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Yale+Law+Journal&rft.atitle=Torts+and+Delicts&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=721-730&rft.date=1918-04&rft.issn=0044-0094&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F786478%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F786478&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=R.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigitalcommons.law.yale.edu%2Fylj%2Fvol27%2Fiss6%2F1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a> Bolton v Stone [1951] AC 850 </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Donoghue_v_Stevenson" title="Donoghue v Stevenson">Donoghue v Stevenson</a> [1932] AC 532, 580 </li> <li id="cite_note-Sturges-206">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sturges_206-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sturges_206-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Sturges_v_Bridgman" title="Sturges v Bridgman">Sturges v Bridgman</a> (1879) 11 Ch D 852 </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a> e.g. concerning a British politician and the Iraq War, <a href="/wiki/George_Galloway#Daily_Telegraph_libel_case" title="George Galloway">George Galloway v Telegraph Group Ltd</a> [2004] EWHC 2786 </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Taff_Vale_Railway_Co_v_Amalgamated_Society_of_Railway_Servants" class="mw-redirect" title="Taff Vale Railway Co v Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants">Taff Vale Railway Co v Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants</a> [1901] AC 426 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris1994610–627-210"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris1994610–627_210-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarris1994">Harris 1994</a>, pp. 610–627. </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a> e.g. <a href="/wiki/Hunter_v_Canary_Wharf_Ltd" title="Hunter v Canary Wharf Ltd">Hunter v Canary Wharf Ltd</a> [1997] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld199697/ldjudgmt/jd970424/hunter01.htm">2 All ER 426</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170922164352/https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld199697/ldjudgmt/jd970424/hunter01.htm">Archived</a> 22 September 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Armory_v_Delamirie" title="Armory v Delamirie">Armory v Delamirie</a> (1722) 93 ER 664, 1 Strange 505 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthews1995251–274-213"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMatthews1995251–274_213-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMatthews1995">Matthews 1995</a>, pp. 251–274. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESavigny180325-214"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESavigny180325_214-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSavigny1803">Savigny 1803</a>, p. 25. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELocke1689Section_123-215"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELocke1689Section_123_215-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLocke1689">Locke 1689</a>, Section 123. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGhee20007-216"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcGhee20007_216-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcGhee2000">McGhee 2000</a>, p. 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a> <cite><a href="/wiki/Bristol_and_West_Building_Society_v_Mothew" class="mw-redirect" title="Bristol and West Building Society v Mothew">Bristol and West Building Society v Mothew</a></cite> (1998). </li> <li id="cite_note-218"><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Nestl%C3%A9_v_National_Westminster_Bank_plc" class="mw-redirect" title="Nestlé v National Westminster Bank plc">Nestlé v National Westminster Bank plc</a> [1993] 1 WLR 1260 </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080910001253/http://www.lawsociety.org.uk/documents/downloads/guide_to_treaty_of_lisbon.pdf">"A Guide to the Treaty of Lisbon"</a> (PDF). The Law Society. January 2008. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lawsociety.org.uk/documents/downloads/guide_to_treaty_of_lisbon.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 10 September 2008. Retrieved 1 September 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Guide+to+the+Treaty+of+Lisbon&rft.pub=The+Law+Society&rft.date=2008-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lawsociety.org.uk%2Fdocuments%2Fdownloads%2Fguide_to_treaty_of_lisbon.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerle1932-220"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBerle1932_220-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBerle1932">Berle 1932</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-221"><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a> WIPO, Intellectual Property, 3 </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uchicagolaw.typepad.com/beckerposner/">"The Becker-Posner Blog"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100519191011/http://uchicagolaw.typepad.com/beckerposner/">Archived</a> from the original on 19 May 2010. Retrieved 20 May 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Becker-Posner+Blog&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fuchicagolaw.typepad.com%2Fbeckerposner%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJakoby200553-224"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJakoby200553_224-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJakoby2005">Jakoby 2005</a>, p. 53. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoase1937386–405-225"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoase1937386–405_225-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCoase1937">Coase 1937</a>, pp. 386–405. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoase19601–44-226"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoase19601–44_226-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCoase1960">Coase 1960</a>, pp. 1–44. </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a> Coase, The Problem of Social Cost, IV, 7 </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a> Coase, The Problem of Social Cost, V, 9 </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a> Coase, The Problem of Social Cost, VIII, 23 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECotterrell1992-230">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECotterrell1992_230-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECotterrell1992_230-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFCotterrell1992">Cotterrell 1992</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJaryJary1995636-231">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJaryJary1995636_231-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJaryJary1995636_231-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFJaryJary1995">Jary & Jary 1995</a>, p. 636. </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a> Ehrlich, Fundamental Principles, Hertogh, Living Law, Rottleuthner, La Sociologie du Droit en Allemagne, 109, Rottleuthner, Rechtstheoritische Probleme der Sociologie des Rechts, 521 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECotterrell2006-233"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECotterrell2006_233-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCotterrell2006">Cotterrell 2006</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERheinstein1954336-234"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERheinstein1954336_234-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRheinstein1954">Rheinstein 1954</a>, p. 336. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECotterrell1999-235"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECotterrell1999_235-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCotterrell1999">Cotterrell 1999</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson1995156-236"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson1995156_236-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJohnson1995">Johnson 1995</a>, p. 156. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGurvitchHunt2001142-237"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGurvitchHunt2001142_237-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGurvitchHunt2001">Gurvitch & Hunt 2001</a>, p. 142. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPapachristou199981–82-238"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPapachristou199981–82_238-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPapachristou1999">Papachristou 1999</a>, pp. 81–82. </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 35em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAhmad2009" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Ahmad, Ahmad Atif (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090326034212/http://www.macalester.edu/~ahmad/Lawyers.pdf">"Lawyers: Islamic Law"</a> (PDF). 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American Philosophical Society. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87169-432-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87169-432-4"><bdi>978-0-87169-432-4</bdi></a>. <q>Roman ars boni et aequi.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedic+Dictionary+of+Roman+Law&rft.pub=American+Philosophical+Society&rft.date=1953&rft.isbn=978-0-87169-432-4&rft.aulast=Berger&rft.aufirst=Adolf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbub_gb_oR0LAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBergkamp2001" class="citation book cs1">Bergkamp, Lucas (2001). "Introduction". Liability and Environment. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-411-1645-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-411-1645-1"><bdi>978-90-411-1645-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Liability+and+Environment&rft.pub=Martinus+Nijhoff+Publishers&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-90-411-1645-1&rft.aulast=Bergkamp&rft.aufirst=Lucas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerle1932" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Berle" class="mw-redirect" title="Adolf Berle">Berle, Adolf</a> (1932). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/moderncorporatio00berl">Modern Corporation and Private Property</a>. New York, Chicago, Commerce Clearing House, Loose leaf Service division of the Corporation Trust Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Corporation+and+Private+Property&rft.pub=New+York%2C+Chicago%2C+Commerce+Clearing+House%2C+Loose+leaf+Service+division+of+the+Corporation+Trust+Co.&rft.date=1932&rft.aulast=Berle&rft.aufirst=Adolf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmoderncorporatio00berl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBix2022" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Bix, Brian (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/austin-john/">"John Austin"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070626133909/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/austin-john/">Archived</a> from the original on 26 June 2007. Retrieved 4 August 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=John+Austin&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.date=2022&rft.aulast=Bix&rft.aufirst=Brian&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Faustin-john%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlackstone1765–69" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-year-range-abbreviated"><a href="/wiki/William_Blackstone" title="William Blackstone">Blackstone, William</a> (1765–69). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/blackstone_bk1ch1.asp">Commentaries on the Laws of England</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110705141310/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/blackstone_bk1ch1.asp">Archived</a> from the original on 5 July 2011. Retrieved 20 May 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Commentaries+on+the+Laws+of+England&rft.date=1765%2F1769&rft.aulast=Blackstone&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Favalon.law.yale.edu%2F18th_century%2Fblackstone_bk1ch1.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrodyAckerLogan2001" class="citation book cs1">Brody, David C.; Acker, James R.; Logan, Wayne A. (2001). "Introduction to the Study of Criminal Law". Criminal Law. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8342-1083-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8342-1083-7"><bdi>978-0-8342-1083-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction+to+the+Study+of+Criminal+Law&rft.btitle=Criminal+Law&rft.pub=Jones+%26+Bartlett+Publishers&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-8342-1083-7&rft.aulast=Brody&rft.aufirst=David+C.&rft.au=Acker%2C+James+R.&rft.au=Logan%2C+Wayne+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbell1993" class="citation book cs1">Campbell, Tom D. (1993). "The Contribution of Legal Studies". In Robert E. Goodin; Philip Pettit (eds.). A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-19951-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-19951-9"><bdi>978-0-631-19951-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Contribution+of+Legal+Studies&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Contemporary+Political+Philosophy&rft.place=Malden%2C+Mass.&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-631-19951-9&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=Tom+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChurchill1986" class="citation book cs1">Churchill, Winston (1986). "Problems of War and Peace". The Hinge of Fate. Houghton Mifflin Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-395-41058-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-395-41058-5"><bdi>978-0-395-41058-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Problems+of+War+and+Peace&rft.btitle=The+Hinge+of+Fate&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin+Books&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-395-41058-5&rft.aulast=Churchill&rft.aufirst=Winston&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClarkeLinzey,_Andrew1996" class="citation book cs1">Clarke, Paul A. B.; Linzey, Andrew (1996). Dictionary of Ethics, Theology and Society. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-06212-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-06212-1"><bdi>978-0-415-06212-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Ethics%2C+Theology+and+Society&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-415-06212-1&rft.aulast=Clarke&rft.aufirst=Paul+A.+B.&rft.au=Linzey%2C+Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoase1937" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ronald_H._Coase" class="mw-redirect" title="Ronald H. Coase">Coase, Ronald H.</a> (November 1937). "The Nature of the Firm". 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Coase">Coase, Ronald H.</a> (October 1960). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/9932210/becker%2cbergstresser%2csubramanian-Does_Shareholder_Proxy.pdf?sequence=1">"The Problem of Social Cost (this online version excludes some parts)"</a> (PDF). Journal of Law and Economics. 3: 1–44. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F466560">10.1086/466560</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:222331226">222331226</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181104170230/https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/9932210/becker%2cbergstresser%2csubramanian-Does_Shareholder_Proxy.pdf?sequence=1">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 4 November 2018. Retrieved 4 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Law+and+Economics&rft.atitle=The+Problem+of+Social+Cost+%28this+online+version+excludes+some+parts%29&rft.volume=3&rft.pages=1-44&rft.date=1960-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F466560&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A222331226%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Coase&rft.aufirst=Ronald+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdash.harvard.edu%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F1%2F9932210%2Fbecker%252cbergstresser%252csubramanian-Does_Shareholder_Proxy.pdf%3Fsequence%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohen1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Morris_L._Cohen" title="Morris L. Cohen">Cohen, Morris L.</a> (1992). Law : the Art of Justice. Beaux Arts Editions. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780883633120" title="Special:BookSources/9780883633120"><bdi>9780883633120</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Law+%3A+the+Art+of+Justice&rft.pub=Beaux+Arts+Editions&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=9780883633120&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=Morris+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCotterrell1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Cotterrell" title="Roger Cotterrell">Cotterrell, Roger</a> (1992). The Sociology of Law: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-406-51770-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-406-51770-8"><bdi>978-0-406-51770-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sociology+of+Law%3A+An+Introduction&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-406-51770-8&rft.aulast=Cotterrell&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCotterrell1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Cotterrell" title="Roger Cotterrell">Cotterrell, Roger</a> (1999). Emile Durkheim: Law in a Moral Domain. Edinburgh University Press/ Stanford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-1339-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-1339-7"><bdi>978-0-7486-1339-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Emile+Durkheim%3A+Law+in+a+Moral+Domain&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press%2F+Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-7486-1339-7&rft.aulast=Cotterrell&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCotterrell2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Cotterrell" title="Roger Cotterrell">Cotterrell, Roger</a> (2006). Law, Culture and Society: Legal Ideas in the Mirror of Social Theory. Ashgate. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-2511-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-2511-7"><bdi>978-0-7546-2511-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Law%2C+Culture+and+Society%3A+Legal+Ideas+in+the+Mirror+of+Social+Theory&rft.pub=Ashgate&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-7546-2511-7&rft.aulast=Cotterrell&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCurtinWessel,_Ramses_A.2005" class="citation book cs1">Curtin, Deirdre; Wessel, Ramses A. (2005). "A Survey of the Content of Good Governance for some International Organisations". Good Governance and the European Union: Reflections on Concepts, Institutions and Substance. Intersentia nv. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-5095-381-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-5095-381-8"><bdi>978-90-5095-381-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+Survey+of+the+Content+of+Good+Governance+for+some+International+Organisations&rft.btitle=Good+Governance+and+the+European+Union%3A+Reflections+on+Concepts%2C+Institutions+and+Substance&rft.pub=Intersentia+nv&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-90-5095-381-8&rft.aulast=Curtin&rft.aufirst=Deirdre&rft.au=Wessel%2C+Ramses+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDemirgüç-KuntLevine2001" class="citation book cs1">Demirgüç-Kunt, Asli; Levine, Ross (2001). Financial Structures and Economic Growth. 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Adamant Media Corporation. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4021-8555-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4021-8555-7"><bdi>978-1-4021-8555-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Parliamentary+Sovereignty+and+Federalism&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+the+Study+of+the+Law+of+the+Constitution&rft.pub=Adamant+Media+Corporation&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-4021-8555-7&rft.aulast=Dicey&rft.aufirst=Albert+Venn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDörmannDoswald-BeckKolb2003" class="citation book cs1">Dörmann, Knut; Doswald-Beck, Louise; Kolb, Robert (2003). "Appendix". Elements of War Crimes. 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Oxford University Press US. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517957-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517957-6"><bdi>978-0-19-517957-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Criminal+Responsibility+and+Criminal+Law&rft.btitle=Law+101&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press+US&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-19-517957-6&rft.aulast=Feinman&rft.aufirst=Jay+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flaw10100fein&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFindlay1999" class="citation book cs1">Findlay, Marc (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lawcapitalismpow0000unse">"'Independence' and the Judiciary in the PRC"</a>. 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Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-505738-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-505738-6"><bdi>978-0-19-505738-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Constitutional+Dissolution+in+the+Weimar+Republic&rft.btitle=Constitutions+in+Crisis%3A+Political+Violence+and+the+Rule+of+Law&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-19-505738-6&rft.aulast=Finn&rft.aufirst=John+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fconstitutionsinc00john&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrance1894" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Anatole_France" title="Anatole France">France, Anatole</a> (1894). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.online-literature.com/anatole-france/red-lily/">The Red Lily (Le lys rouge)</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210417174333/http://www.online-literature.com/anatole-france/red-lily/">Archived</a> from the original on 17 April 2021. 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The New Parliaments of Central and Eastern Europe. Frank Cass (UK). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7146-4261-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7146-4261-1"><bdi>978-0-7146-4261-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Legislatures+in+Democratic+Transition&rft.btitle=The+New+Parliaments+of+Central+and+Eastern+Europe&rft.pub=Frank+Cass+%28UK%29&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-7146-4261-1&rft.aulast=Olson&rft.aufirst=David+M.&rft.au=Norton%2C+Philip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnewparliamentsof0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPapachristou1999" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Papachristou, T.K. (1999). 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Sakkoulas Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-960-15-0106-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-960-15-0106-2"><bdi>978-960-15-0106-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Sociological+Approach+of+Law&rft.btitle=Sociology+of+Law&rft.place=Athens&rft.pub=A.N.+Sakkoulas+Publishers&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-960-15-0106-2&rft.aulast=Papachristou&rft.aufirst=T.K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPargendler2018" class="citation journal cs1">Pargendler, Maria (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cpb-us-w2.wpmucdn.com/campuspress.yale.edu/dist/8/1581/files/2018/02/143_The-Role-of-the-State-in-Contract-Law-2416e28.pdf">"The Role of the State in Contract Law: The Common-Civil Law Divide"</a> (PDF). Yale Journal of International Law. 43 (1): 143–189. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2139%2Fssrn.2848886">10.2139/ssrn.2848886</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3548111">3548111</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200103122939/https://cpb-us-w2.wpmucdn.com/campuspress.yale.edu/dist/8/1581/files/2018/02/143_The-Role-of-the-State-in-Contract-Law-2416e28.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 3 January 2020. 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New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-515632-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-515632-4"><bdi>978-0-19-515632-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Brown+v.+Board+of+Education%3A+A+Civil+Rights+Milestone+and+Its+Troubled+Legacy&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-515632-4&rft.aulast=Patterson&rft.aufirst=James+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbrownvboardofedu00patt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPelczynski1984" class="citation book cs1">Pelczynski, A.Z. (1984). The State and Civil Society. 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Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-411-0933-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-411-0933-0"><bdi>978-90-411-0933-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Rule+of+Law+and+Constitutionalism&rft.btitle=The+GATT%2FWTO+Dispute+Settlement+System&rft.pub=Martinus+Nijhoff+Publishers&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-90-411-0933-0&rft.aulast=Petersmann&rft.aufirst=Ernst-Ulrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRasekh2005" class="citation book cs1">Rasekh, Mohammad (2005). "Are Islamism and Republicanism Compatible?". In Yassari, Nadjma (ed.). The Sharīʻa in the Constitutions of Afghanistan, Iran, and Egypt. 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Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-825493-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-825493-5"><bdi>978-0-19-825493-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Authority+of+Law%2C+Essays+on+Law+and+Morality&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-19-825493-5&rft.aulast=Raz&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRedfem2004" class="citation book cs1">Redfem, Alan (2004). "Regulation of International Arbitration". Law and Practice of International Commercial Arbitration. 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"Understanding Criminal Law". Criminal Law. Pearson Education. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-47301-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-582-47301-0"><bdi>978-0-582-47301-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Understanding+Criminal+Law&rft.btitle=Criminal+Law&rft.pub=Pearson+Education&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-582-47301-0&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWillis1926" class="citation journal cs1">Willis, Hugh Evander (January 1926). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.repository.law.indiana.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2248&context=facpub">"A Definition of Law"</a>. Virginia Law Review. 12 (3): 203–214. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1065717">10.2307/1065717</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1065717">1065717</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200212165001/https://www.repository.law.indiana.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2248&context=facpub">Archived</a> from the original on 12 February 2020. Retrieved 3 January 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Virginia+Law+Review&rft.atitle=A+Definition+of+Law&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=203-214&rft.date=1926-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1065717&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1065717%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Willis&rft.aufirst=Hugh+Evander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.repository.law.indiana.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D2248%26context%3Dfacpub&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWorld_Intellectual_Property_Organization1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/World_Intellectual_Property_Organization" title="World Intellectual Property Organization">World Intellectual Property Organization</a> (1997). "The System of Intellectual Property". Introduction to Intellectual Property. Kluwer Law International. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-411-0938-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-411-0938-5"><bdi>978-90-411-0938-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+System+of+Intellectual+Property&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Intellectual+Property&rft.pub=Kluwer+Law+International&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-90-411-0938-5&rft.au=World+Intellectual+Property+Organization&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaolo2014" class="citation web cs1">Paolo, Silvestri (11 June 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220225080826/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2447898">"The ideal of good government in Luigi Einaudi's Thought and Life: Between Law and Freedom"</a>. <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2447898">2447898</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2447898">the original</a> on 25 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+ideal+of+good+government+in+Luigi+Einaudi%27s+Thought+and+Life%3A+Between+Law+and+Freedom&rft.date=2014-06-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D2447898%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft.aulast=Paolo&rft.aufirst=Silvestri&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D2447898&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld/ldjudgmt.htm">"House of Lords Judgments"</a>. House of Lords. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061110101131/http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld/ldjudgmt.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2006. Retrieved 10 November 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=House+of+Lords+Judgments&rft.pub=House+of+Lords&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpublications.parliament.uk%2Fpa%2Fld%2Fldjudgmt.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/slipopinion">Opinions of the Supreme Court of the United States</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dictionary.law.com/default2.asp?selected=1111&bold=">"law"</a>. Law.com Dictionary. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090105160609/http://dictionary.law.com/default2.asp?selected=1111&bold=">Archived</a> from the original on 5 January 2009. Retrieved 10 February 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Law.com+Dictionary&rft.atitle=law&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdictionary.law.com%2Fdefault2.asp%3Fselected%3D1111%26bold%3D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=law&searchmode=none">"law"</a>. Online Etymology Dictionary. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170702150018/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=law&searchmode=none">Archived</a> from the original on 2 July 2017. Retrieved 9 February 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft.atitle=law&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Findex.php%3Fsearch%3Dlaw%26searchmode%3Dnone&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/legal">"legal"</a>. Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051226162041/http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/legal">Archived</a> from the original on 26 December 2005. Retrieved 9 February 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Merriam-Webster%27s+Online+Dictionary&rft.atitle=legal&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Flegal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output 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class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/54px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Law" class="extiw" title="wikt:Special:Search/Law">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, 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class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Law" class="extiw" title="q:Law">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/39px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/51px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/Law" class="extiw" title="s:Special:Search/Law">Texts</a> from Wikisource</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/27px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/41px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/54px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Subject:Law" class="extiw" title="b:Subject:Law">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/27px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/41px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/54px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:Search/Law" class="extiw" title="v:Special:Search/Law">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nyls.edu/library/research_tools_and_sources/dragnet/">DRAGNET: Search of free legal databases from New York Law School</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130903005743/http://www.nyls.edu/library/research_tools_and_sources/dragnet/">Archived</a> 3 September 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/">World Legal Information Institute</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.commonlii.org/">Commonwealth Legal Information Institute</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.asianlii.org/">Asian 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href="/wiki/Legal_doctrine" title="Legal doctrine">Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equity_(law)" title="Equity (law)">Equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_(law)" title="Evidence (law)">Evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">International law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_obligations" title="Law of obligations">Law of obligations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_law" title="Private law">Private law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procedural_law" title="Procedural law">Procedure</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_procedure" title="Civil procedure">Civil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_procedure" title="Criminal procedure">Criminal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">Property law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_law" title="Public law">Public law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punishment" title="Punishment">Punishment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corporal_punishment" title="Corporal punishment">Corporal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restitution_and_unjust_enrichment" title="Restitution and unjust enrichment">Restitution and unjust enrichment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tort" title="Tort">Tort</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_law" title="Abortion law">Abortion law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_law" title="Agricultural law">Agricultural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_law" title="Aviation law">Aviation law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amnesty_law" title="Amnesty law">Amnesty law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bank_regulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Bank regulation">Banking law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bankruptcy" title="Bankruptcy">Bankruptcy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_law" title="Commercial law">Commercial law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competition_law" title="Competition law">Competition law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_laws" title="Conflict of laws">Conflict of laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_law" title="Construction law">Construction law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_protection" title="Consumer protection">Consumer protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_law" title="Corporate law">Corporate law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IT_law" class="mw-redirect" title="IT law">Cyberlaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy" title="Drug policy">Drugs law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_law" title="Election law">Election law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_law" title="Energy law">Energy law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entertainment_law" title="Entertainment law">Entertainment law</a> (Media law)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_law" title="Environmental law">Environmental law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_law" title="Family law">Family law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_law" title="Financial law">Financial law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_regulation" title="Financial regulation">Financial regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_law" title="Health law">Health law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_law" title="Immigration law">Immigration law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">Intellectual property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">International criminal law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_human_rights_law" title="International human rights law">International human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_international_law" title="Slavery in international law">International slavery laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_trade_law" title="International trade law">International trade law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurimetrics" title="Jurimetrics">Jurimetrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_law" title="Labour law">Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landlord%E2%80%93tenant_law" title="Landlord–tenant law">Landlord–tenant law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_war" title="Law of war">Law of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_archaeology" title="Legal archaeology">Legal archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_fiction" title="Legal fiction">Legal fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Admiralty_law" title="Admiralty law">Maritime law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_law" title="Marriage law">Marriage law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_justice" title="Military justice">Military law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationality_law" title="Nationality law">Nationality law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Probate" title="Probate">Probate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estate_(law)" title="Estate (law)">Estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_and_testament" title="Will and testament">Will and testament</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Product_liability" title="Product liability">Product liability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">Public international law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refugee_law" title="Refugee law">Refugee law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reparation_(legal)" title="Reparation (legal)">Reparations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_law" title="Space law">Space law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_law_in_the_United_States" title="Sports law in the United States">Sports law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_emergency" title="State of emergency">State of emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_law" title="Tax law">Tax law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_law" title="Transport law">Transport law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trust_(law)" title="Trust (law)">Trust law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unenforced_law" title="Unenforced law">Unenforced law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sources_of_law" title="Sources of law">Sources of law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charter" title="Charter">Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_law" title="Code of law">Legal code</a> / <a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution" title="Constitution">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">Custom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divine_law" title="Divine law">Divine law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Letters_patent" title="Letters patent">Letters patent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_rights_and_legal_rights" title="Natural rights and legal rights">Natural and legal rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_law" title="Case law">Case law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Precedent" title="Precedent">Precedent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_report" title="Law report">Law reports</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_treatise" title="Legal treatise">Legal treatise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lawmaking" title="Lawmaking">Law making</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Referendum" title="Referendum">Ballot measure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Codification_(law)" title="Codification (law)">Codification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decree" title="Decree">Decree</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edict" title="Edict">Edict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_order_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Executive order (disambiguation)">Executive order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclamation" title="Proclamation">Proclamation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legislation" title="Legislation">Legislation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_and_secondary_legislation" title="Primary and secondary legislation">Delegated legislation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rulemaking" title="Rulemaking">Rulemaking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promulgation" title="Promulgation">Promulgation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratification" title="Ratification">Ratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repeal" title="Repeal">Repeal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty" title="Treaty">Treaty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concordat" title="Concordat">Concordat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statute" title="Statute">Statute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_of_parliament" title="Act of parliament">Act of parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_of_Congress" title="Act of Congress">Act of Congress</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_structure_doctrine" title="Basic structure doctrine">Basic structure doctrine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_legal_systems" title="List of national legal systems">Legal systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">Civil law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">Common law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_law" title="Chinese law">Chinese law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_pluralism" title="Legal pluralism">Legal pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_law" title="Religious law">Religious law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">Canon law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canon_law_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Canon law of the Catholic Church">Catholic canon law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_law" title="Hindu law">Hindu law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_law" title="Jain law">Jain law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Jewish law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parsi_law" title="Parsi law">Parsi law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_law" title="Byzantine law">Byzantine law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_law" title="Socialist law">Socialist law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xeer" title="Xeer">Xeer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yassa" title="Yassa">Yassa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Legal theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_law" title="Anarchist law">Anarchist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contract_theory" title="Contract theory">Contract theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_law" title="Comparative law">Comparative law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressive_function_of_law" title="Expressive function of law">Expressive function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_legal_theory" title="Feminist legal theory">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">Law and economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_formalism" title="Legal formalism">Legal formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_theories_of_law" title="Libertarian theories of law">Libertarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_legal_theories" title="International legal theories">International legal theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legality" title="Legality">Principle of legality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_typicality" title="Principle of typicality">Principle of typicality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudolaw" title="Pseudolaw">Pseudolaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_man" title="Rule of man">Rule of man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">Sociology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adjudication" title="Adjudication">Adjudication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administration_of_justice" title="Administration of justice">Administration of justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_justice" title="Criminal justice">Criminal justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court-martial" title="Court-martial">Court-martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dispute_resolution" title="Dispute resolution">Dispute resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Fiqh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawsuit" title="Lawsuit">Lawsuit/Litigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_opinion" title="Legal opinion">Legal opinion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_remedy" title="Legal remedy">Legal remedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judge" title="Judge">Judge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Justice_of_the_peace" title="Justice of the peace">Justice of the peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magistrate" title="Magistrate">Magistrate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judgment_(law)" title="Judgment (law)">Judgment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_review" title="Judicial review">Judicial review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisdiction" title="Jurisdiction">Jurisdiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jury" title="Jury">Jury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practice_of_law" title="Practice of law">Practice of law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attorney_at_law" title="Attorney at law">Attorney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barrister" title="Barrister">Barrister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counsel" title="Counsel">Counsel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawyer" title="Lawyer">Lawyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_(legal)" title="Defense (legal)">Legal representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosecutor" title="Prosecutor">Prosecutor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solicitor" title="Solicitor">Solicitor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Question_of_law#Question_of_fact" title="Question of law">Question of fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Question_of_law" title="Question of law">Question of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial" title="Trial">Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial_advocacy" title="Trial advocacy">Trial advocacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trier_of_fact" title="Trier of fact">Trier of fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verdict" title="Verdict">Verdict</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Legal institutions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barristers%27_chambers" title="Barristers' chambers">Barristers' chambers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar_(law)" title="Bar (law)">The bar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bench_(law)" title="Bench (law)">The bench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_society" title="Civil society">Civil society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court" title="Court">Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court_of_equity" title="Court of equity">Court of equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_commission" title="Election commission">Election commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_(government)" title="Executive (government)">Executive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary" title="Judiciary">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement" title="Law enforcement">Law enforcement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_agency" title="Law enforcement agency">Agency</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_education" title="Legal education">Legal education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_school" title="Law school">Law school</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legislature" title="Legislature">Legislature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police" title="Police">Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_party" title="Political party">Political party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribunal" title="Tribunal">Tribunal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_legal_profession" title="History of the legal profession">History of the legal profession</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_American_legal_profession" title="History of the American legal profession">History of the American legal profession</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_law" title="Women in law">Women in law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Balance,_by_David.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/30px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/46px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/61px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="606" data-file-height="558" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Law" title="Portal:Law">Law portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" 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style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="Law_by_region" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Law by region</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px"> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Law_of_Africa" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Africa_topic" 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href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Angola&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Angola (page does not exist)">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Benin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Benin (page does not exist)">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Botswana&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Botswana (page does not exist)">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Burkina_Faso&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Burkina Faso (page does not exist)">Burkina Faso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Burundi" title="Law of Burundi">Burundi</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Cameroon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Cameroon (page does not exist)">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Cape_Verde&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Cape Verde (page does not exist)">Cape Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_Central_African_Republic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of the Central African Republic (page does not exist)">Central African Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Chad&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Chad (page does not exist)">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_Comoros" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of the Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (page does not exist)">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of the Republic of the Congo (page does not exist)">Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Djibouti&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Djibouti (page does not exist)">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Egypt" title="Law of Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Equatorial_Guinea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Equatorial Guinea (page does not exist)">Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Eritrea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Eritrea (page does not exist)">Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Eswatini&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Eswatini (page does not exist)">Eswatini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Ethiopia" title="Law of Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Gabon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Gabon (page does not exist)">Gabon</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_Gambia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of the Gambia (page does not exist)">The Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Ghana&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Ghana (page does not exist)">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Guinea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Guinea (page does not exist)">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Guinea-Bissau&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Guinea-Bissau (page does not exist)">Guinea-Bissau</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Ivory_Coast&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Ivory Coast (page does not exist)">Ivory Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Kenya&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Kenya (page does not exist)">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Lesotho&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Lesotho (page does not exist)">Lesotho</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Liberia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Liberia (page does not exist)">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Libya" title="Law of Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Madagascar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Madagascar (page does not exist)">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Malawi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Malawi (page does not exist)">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Mali&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Mali (page does not exist)">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Mauritania&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Mauritania (page does not exist)">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Mauritius&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Mauritius (page does not exist)">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Morocco" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Mozambique&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Mozambique (page does not exist)">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Namibia" title="Law of Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Niger" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Nigeria" title="Law of Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Rwanda&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Rwanda (page does not exist)">Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" title="Law of São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Senegal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Senegal (page does not exist)">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Seychelles&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Seychelles (page does not exist)">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Sierra_Leone&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Sierra Leone (page does not exist)">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_South_Africa" title="Law of South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_South_Sudan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of South Sudan (page does not exist)">South Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Sudan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Sudan (page does not exist)">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Tanzania&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Tanzania (page does not exist)">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Togo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Togo (page does not exist)">Togo</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Tunisia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Tunisia (page does not exist)">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Uganda" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Uganda">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Zambia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Zambia (page does not exist)">Zambia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Zimbabwe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Zimbabwe (page does not exist)">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">States with limited recognition</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_Sahrawi_Arab_Democratic_Republic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (page does not exist)">Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Somaliland" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Somaliland">Somaliland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Dependencies and other territories</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_Canary_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of the Canary Islands (page does not exist)">Canary Islands</a> / <a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Ceuta&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Ceuta (page does not exist)">Ceuta</a> / <a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Melilla&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Melilla (page does not exist)">Melilla</a>  (Spain)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Madeira&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Madeira (page does not exist)">Madeira</a> (Portugal)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Mayotte&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Mayotte (page does not exist)">Mayotte</a> / <a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_R%C3%A9union&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Réunion (page does not exist)">Réunion</a> (France)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Saint_Helena&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Saint Helena (page does not exist)">Saint Helena</a> / <a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Ascension_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Ascension Island (page does not exist)">Ascension Island</a> / <a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Tristan_da_Cunha&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Tristan da Cunha (page does not exist)">Tristan da Cunha</a> (United Kingdom)</li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Law_of_North_America" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:North_America_topic" title="Template:North America topic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:North_America_topic" title="Template talk:North America topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:North_America_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:North America topic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Law_of_North_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Law_of_North_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of North America">Law of North America </a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Antigua_and_Barbuda&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Antigua and Barbuda (page does not exist)">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_Bahamas" title="Law of the Bahamas">Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Barbados" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Barbados">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Belize&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Belize (page does not exist)">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Canada" title="Law of Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Costa_Rica&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Costa Rica (page does not exist)">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Cuba" title="Law of Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Dominica&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Dominica (page does not exist)">Dominica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Law of the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_El_Salvador&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of El Salvador (page does not exist)">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Grenada&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Grenada (page does not exist)">Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Guatemala&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Guatemala (page does not exist)">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Haiti" title="Law of Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Honduras&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Honduras (page does not exist)">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Jamaica&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Jamaica (page does not exist)">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Mexico" title="Law of Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Nicaragua&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Nicaragua (page does not exist)">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Panama" title="Law of Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Saint Kitts and Nevis (page does not exist)">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Saint_Lucia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Saint Lucia (page does not exist)">Saint Lucia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (page does not exist)">Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Trinidad and Tobago (page does not exist)">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_United_States" title="Law of the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Dependencies and other territories</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Anguilla" title="Law of Anguilla">Anguilla</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Aruba&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Aruba (page does not exist)">Aruba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Bermuda" title="Law of Bermuda">Bermuda</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Bonaire&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Bonaire (page does not exist)">Bonaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_British_Virgin_Islands" title="Law of the British Virgin Islands">British Virgin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_Cayman_Islands" title="Law of the Cayman Islands">Cayman Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Cura%C3%A7ao&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Curaçao (page does not exist)">Curaçao</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Greenland&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Greenland (page does not exist)">Greenland</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Guadeloupe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Guadeloupe (page does not exist)">Guadeloupe</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Martinique&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Martinique (page does not exist)">Martinique</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Montserrat&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Montserrat (page does not exist)">Montserrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Puerto_Rico" title="Law of Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Saint_Barth%C3%A9lemy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Saint Barthélemy (page does not exist)">Saint Barthélemy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_Collectivity_of_Saint_Martin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of the Collectivity of Saint Martin (page does not exist)">Saint Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Saint_Pierre_and_Miquelon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Saint Pierre and Miquelon (page does not exist)">Saint Pierre and Miquelon</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Saba_(island)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Saba (island) (page does not exist)">Saba</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Sint_Eustatius&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Sint Eustatius (page does not exist)">Sint Eustatius</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Sint_Maarten&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Sint Maarten (page does not exist)">Sint Maarten</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_Turks_and_Caicos_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of the Turks and Caicos Islands (page does not exist)">Turks and Caicos Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of the United States Virgin Islands">United States Virgin Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Law_of_South_America" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:South_America_topic" title="Template:South America topic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:South_America_topic" title="Template talk:South America topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:South_America_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:South America topic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Law_of_South_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Law_of_South_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of South America">Law of South America </a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states" title="List of sovereign states">Sovereign states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Argentina" title="Law of Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Bolivia" title="Law of Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Brazil" title="Law of Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Chile" title="Law of Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Colombia" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Ecuador" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Guyana" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Paraguay" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Peru" title="Law of Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Suriname&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Suriname (page does not exist)">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Uruguay" title="Law of Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Venezuela" title="Law of Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and other territories</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_Falkland_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of the Falkland Islands (page does not exist)">Falkland Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_French_Guiana&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of French Guiana (page does not exist)">French Guiana</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (page does not exist)">South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Law_of_Asia" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Asia_topic" title="Template:Asia topic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Asia_topic" title="Template talk:Asia topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Asia_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Asia topic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Law_of_Asia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Asia">Law of Asia </a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states" title="List of sovereign states">Sovereign states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Afghanistan" title="Law of Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Armenia" title="Law of Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Azerbaijan" title="Law of Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Bahrain" title="Law of Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Bangladesh" title="Law of Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Bhutan" title="Law of Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Brunei&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Brunei (page does not exist)">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Cambodia" title="Law of Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Cyprus" title="Law of Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_East_Timor" title="Law of East Timor">East Timor (Timor-Leste)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Egypt" title="Law of Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Georgia_(country)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Georgia (country) (page does not exist)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_India" title="Law of India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Indonesia" title="Law of Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Iraq" title="Law of Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_law" title="Israeli law">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Japan" title="Law of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Jordan" title="Law of Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Kazakhstan" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_North_Korea" title="Law of North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_South_Korea" title="Law of South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Kuwait&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Kuwait (page does not exist)">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Kyrgyzstan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Kyrgyzstan (page does not exist)">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Laos" title="Law of Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Lebanon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Lebanon (page does not exist)">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Malaysia" title="Law of Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_Maldives&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of the Maldives (page does not exist)">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Mongolia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Mongolia (page does not exist)">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Myanmar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Myanmar (page does not exist)">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Nepal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Nepal (page does not exist)">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Oman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Oman (page does not exist)">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Pakistan" title="Law of Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_Philippines&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of the Philippines (page does not exist)">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Qatar" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Russia" title="Law of Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Saudi_Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Singapore" title="Law of Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Sri_Lanka" title="Law of Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Syria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Syria (page does not exist)">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Tajikistan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Tajikistan (page does not exist)">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Thailand" title="Law of Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Turkey" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Turkmenistan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Turkmenistan (page does not exist)">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of the United Arab Emirates (page does not exist)">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Uzbekistan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Uzbekistan (page does not exist)">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Vietnam" title="Law of Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Yemen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Yemen (page does not exist)">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition" title="List of states with limited recognition">States with limited recognition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Abkhazia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Abkhazia (page does not exist)">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Northern_Cyprus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Northern Cyprus (page does not exist)">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_State_of_Palestine" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of the State of Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_South_Ossetia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of South Ossetia (page does not exist)">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Taiwan" title="Law of Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and other territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_British_Indian_Ocean_Territory&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of the British Indian Ocean Territory (page does not exist)">British Indian Ocean Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Christmas_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Christmas Island (page does not exist)">Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands (page does not exist)">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Hong_Kong" title="Law of Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Macau" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Macau">Macau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Asia" title="Category:Asia">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Asia" title="Portal:Asia">Asia portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Law_in_Europe" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Law_in_Europe" title="Template:Law in Europe"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Law_in_Europe" title="Template talk:Law in Europe"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Law_in_Europe" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Law in Europe"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Law_in_Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Law_in_Europe" title="Law in Europe">Law in Europe</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Albania" title="Law of Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Andorra" title="Law of Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Armenia" title="Law of Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Austria" title="Law of Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Azerbaijan" title="Law of Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Belarus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Belarus (page does not exist)">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Belgium" title="Law of Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Bosnia and Herzegovina (page does not exist)">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Bulgaria" title="Law of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Croatia" title="Law of Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Cyprus" title="Law of Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_Czech_Republic" title="Law of the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Denmark" title="Law of Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Estonia" title="Law of Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Finland" title="Law of Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_France" title="Law of France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Georgia_(country)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Georgia (country) (page does not exist)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Germany" title="Law of Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Hungary" title="Law of Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Iceland" title="Law of Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Law of the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Italy" title="Law of Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Kazakhstan" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Latvia" title="Law of Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Liechtenstein&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Liechtenstein (page does not exist)">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Lithuania" title="Law of Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Luxembourg" title="Law of Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Malta" title="Law of Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Moldova&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Moldova (page does not exist)">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Monaco&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Monaco (page does not exist)">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Montenegro&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Montenegro (page does not exist)">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_Netherlands" title="Law of the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_North_Macedonia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of North Macedonia (page does not exist)">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Norway" title="Law of Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Poland" title="Law of Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Portugal" title="Law of Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Romania" title="Law of Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Russia" title="Law of Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_San_Marino&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of San Marino (page does not exist)">San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Serbia" title="Law of Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Slovakia" title="Law of Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Slovenia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Slovenia (page does not exist)">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Spain" title="Law of Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Sweden" title="Law of Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Switzerland" title="Law of Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Turkey" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Ukraine" title="Law of Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Law of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of England">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Northern_Ireland" title="Law of Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Scotland" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Scotland">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Wales" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Wales">Wales</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Vatican_City" title="Law of Vatican City">Vatican City</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States with limited recognition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Abkhazia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Abkhazia (page does not exist)">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Kosovo" title="Law of Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Northern_Cyprus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Northern Cyprus (page does not exist)">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_South_Ossetia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of South Ossetia (page does not exist)">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Transnistria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Transnistria (page does not exist)">Transnistria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dependencies and other entities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_%C3%85land&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Åland (page does not exist)">Åland</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_Faroe_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of the Faroe Islands (page does not exist)">Faroe Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Gibraltar" title="Law of Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Guernsey" title="Law of Guernsey">Guernsey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_Isle_of_Man" title="Law of the Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Jersey" title="Law of Jersey">Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Svalbard&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Svalbard (page does not exist)">Svalbard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other entities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_European_Union" title="Law of the European Union">European Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Law_of_Oceania" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Oceania_topic" title="Template:Oceania topic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Oceania_topic" title="Template talk:Oceania topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Oceania_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Oceania topic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Law_of_Oceania" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Oceania" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Oceania">Law of Oceania </a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of the Federated States of Micronesia (page does not exist)">Federated States of Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Fiji&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Fiji (page does not exist)">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Kiribati&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Kiribati (page does not exist)">Kiribati</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_Marshall_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of the Marshall Islands (page does not exist)">Marshall Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Nauru" title="Law of Nauru">Nauru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_New_Zealand" title="Law of New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Palau&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Palau (page does not exist)">Palau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Law of Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Samoa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Samoa (page does not exist)">Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Solomon_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Solomon Islands (page does not exist)">Solomon Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Tonga&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Tonga (page does not exist)">Tonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Tuvalu" title="Law of Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Vanuatu" title="Law of Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Associated states of New Zealand</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_Cook_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of the Cook Islands (page does not exist)">Cook Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Niue&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Niue (page does not exist)">Niue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dependencies and other territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_American_Samoa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of American Samoa (page does not exist)">American Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Christmas_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Christmas Island (page does not exist)">Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands (page does not exist)">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Easter_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Easter Island (page does not exist)">Easter Island</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_French_Polynesia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of French Polynesia (page does not exist)">French Polynesia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Guam&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Guam (page does not exist)">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Hawaii&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Hawaii (page does not exist)">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_New_Caledonia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of New Caledonia (page does not exist)">New Caledonia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Norfolk_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Norfolk Island (page does not exist)">Norfolk Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands" title="Law of the Northern Mariana Islands">Northern Mariana Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_Pitcairn_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of the Pitcairn Islands (page does not exist)">Pitcairn Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Tokelau&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Tokelau (page does not exist)">Tokelau</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Wallis_and_Futuna&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Wallis and Futuna (page does not exist)">Wallis and Futuna</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Links_to_related_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="Links_to_related_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Links to related articles</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px"> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Humanities" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Humanities" title="Template:Humanities"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Humanities" title="Template talk:Humanities"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Humanities" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Humanities"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Humanities" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;height:2.5em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">Classical studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_arts#Literary_arts" title="The arts">Language arts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">Rhetoric</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performing_arts" title="Performing arts">Performing arts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dance" title="Dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musicology" title="Musicology">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre" title="Theatre">Theatre</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_studies" title="Religious studies">Religious studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_arts" title="Visual arts">Visual arts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Filmmaking" title="Filmmaking">Filmmaking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Painting" title="Painting">Painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sculpture" title="Sculpture">Sculpture</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Interdisciplinary_fields" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interdisciplinary fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_humanities" title="Digital humanities">Digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_humanities" title="Environmental humanities">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_humanities" title="Health humanities">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_humanities" title="Medical humanities">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_humanities" title="Public humanities">Public</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Themes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abductive_reasoning" title="Abductive reasoning">Abductive reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">Antipositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_arts" title="The arts">The arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beauty" title="Beauty">Beauty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belles-lettres" title="Belles-lettres">Belles-lettres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bildung" title="Bildung">Bildung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creativity" title="Creativity">Creativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism" title="Criticism">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_literacy" title="Cultural literacy">Cultural literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/High_culture" title="High culture">High</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_knowledge" title="General knowledge">General knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_condition" title="Human condition">Human condition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanitas" title="Humanitas">Humanitas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_arts_education" title="Liberal arts education">Liberal arts education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trivium" title="Trivium">Trivium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrivium" title="Quadrivium">Quadrivium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_character" title="Moral character">Moral character</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-realization" title="Self-realization">Self-realization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-reflection" title="Self-reflection">Self-reflection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wisdom" title="Wisdom">Wisdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_of_art" title="Work of art">Work of art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Journals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Journal_of_Archaeology" title="American Journal of Archaeology">American Journal of Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daedalus_(journal)" title="Daedalus (journal)">Daedalus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Humanities" title="History of Humanities">History of Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanitas_(journal)" title="Humanitas (journal)">Humanitas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities_and_Social_Sciences_Communications" title="Humanities and Social Sciences Communications">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Controversial_Ideas" title="Journal of Controversial Ideas">Journal of Controversial Ideas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_Royal_Asiatic_Society" title="Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society">Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_(journal)" title="Leonardo (journal)">Leonardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nova_Religio" title="Nova Religio">Nova Religio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revue_des_%C3%89tudes_Arm%C3%A9niennes" title="Revue des Études Arméniennes">Revue des Études Arméniennes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teaching_Philosophy" title="Teaching Philosophy">Teaching Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_humanities_journals" title="List of humanities journals">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arts_and_Humanities_Research_Council" title="Arts and Humanities Research Council">Arts and Humanities Research Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_science" title="Human science">Human science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geisteswissenschaft" title="Geisteswissenschaft">Geisteswissenschaft</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities,_arts,_and_social_sciences" title="Humanities, arts, and social sciences">Humanities, arts, and social sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_of_Humanities" title="Master of Humanities">Master of Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moscow_University_for_the_Humanities" title="Moscow University for the Humanities">Moscow University for the Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Endowment_for_the_Humanities" title="National Endowment for the Humanities">National Endowment for the Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Humanities_Medal" title="National Humanities Medal">National Humanities Medal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Antihumanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philistinism" title="Philistinism">Philistinism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_culture#Criticism" title="Popular culture">Criticism of mass culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_essentialism" title="Educational essentialism">Educational essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities_in_the_United_States" title="Humanities in the United States">Humanities in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_considered_a_founder_in_a_Humanities_field" class="mw-redirect" title="List of people considered a founder in a Humanities field">List of people considered a founder in a Humanities field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_humanities" title="Outline of the humanities">Outline of the humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_school#Studia_Humanitatis" title="Latin school">Studia Humanitatis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Social_sciences" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Social_sciences" title="Template:Social sciences"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Social_sciences" title="Template talk:Social sciences"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Social_sciences" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Social sciences"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Social_sciences" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social sciences</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_social_science" title="Outline of social science">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_social_sciences" title="History of the social sciences">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles" title="Index of sociology articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Primary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical anthropology">physical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microeconomics" title="Microeconomics">microeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">macroeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Econometrics" title="Econometrics">econometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_economics" title="Mathematical economics">mathematical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">Geography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">physical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_geography" title="Technical geography">technical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_geography" title="Integrated geography">integrated</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history" title="Cultural history">cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_sciences_of_history" title="Auxiliary sciences of history">auxiliary sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_history_(field)" title="World history (field)">human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history" title="Military history">military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history" title="Political history">political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_history" title="Social history">social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">legal history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_legal_systems" title="List of national legal systems">legal systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_law" title="Public law">public law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_law" title="Private law">private law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">semiotics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">Political science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">international relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_politics" title="Comparative politics">comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">public policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">public administration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">Psychology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abnormal_psychology" title="Abnormal psychology">abnormal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">developmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personality_psychology" title="Personality psychology">personality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_Internet" title="Sociology of the Internet">internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_sociology" title="Rural sociology">rural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_sociology" title="Urban sociology">urban</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interdisciplinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Administration <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_administration" title="Business administration">business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthrozoology" title="Anthrozoology">Anthrozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Area_studies" title="Area studies">Area studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_studies" title="Business studies">Business studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">Cognitive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication_studies" title="Communication studies">Communication studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_studies" title="Community studies">Community studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_studies" title="Cultural studies">Cultural studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_studies" title="Development studies">Development studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">Education</a></li> <li>Environmental <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_social_science" title="Environmental social science">social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_studies" title="Environmental studies">studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_studies" title="Food studies">Food studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_studies" title="Gender studies">Gender studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_studies" title="Global studies">Global studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_sociology" title="Historical sociology">Historical sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_ecology" title="Human ecology">Human ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_science" title="Information science">Information science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">International studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management" title="Management">Management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li> <li>Philosophies <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_economics" title="Philosophy and economics"> economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">social science</a></li></ul></li> <li>Planning <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land-use_planning" title="Land-use planning">land use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_planning" title="Regional planning">regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">urban</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ecology" title="Political ecology">Political ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">Political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_sociology" title="Political sociology">Political sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_science" title="Regional science">Regional science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies" title="Science and technology studies">Science and technology studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science studies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_social_science" title="Quantum social science">Quantum social science</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_work" title="Social work">Social work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegan_studies" title="Vegan studies">Vegan studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">List</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_social_science_journals" title="List of social science journals">List of social science journals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other categorizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavioral sciences">Behavioral sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geisteswissenschaft" title="Geisteswissenschaft">Geisteswissenschaft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_science" title="Human science">Human science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Social_sciences" title="Category:Social sciences">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Social_sciences" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Social sciences">Commons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Social_sciences.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/32px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/48px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/64px-Social_sciences.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="122" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Wikiversity page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/16px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/24px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/32px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></a> <a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Portal:Social_Sciences" class="extiw" title="wikiversity:Portal:Social Sciences">Wikiversity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Political_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Political_philosophy" title="Template talk:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Political_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">Citizenship‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite" title="Elite">Elite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">Hegemony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy" title="Hierarchy">Hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_(political)" title="Legitimacy (political)">Legitimacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">Monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obedience_(human_behavior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Obedience (human behavior)">Obedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People" title="People">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_philosophy)" title="Pluralism (political philosophy)">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progress" title="Progress">Progress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime" title="Regime">Regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruling_class" title="Ruling class">Ruling class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopia" title="Utopia">Utopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">Dictatorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">Oligarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutocracy" title="Plutocracy">Plutocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_political_theory" title="Feminist political theory">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Localism_(politics)" title="Localism (politics)">Localism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">Social Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(international_relations)" title="Balance of power (international relations)">Balance of power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bellum_omnium_contra_omnes" title="Bellum omnium contra omnes">Bellum omnium contra omnes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_politic" title="Body politic">Body politic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clash_of_Civilizations" title="Clash of Civilizations">Clash of civilizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right of kings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_as_a_model_for_the_state" title="Family as a model for the state">Family as a model for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly_on_violence" title="Monopoly on violence">Monopoly on violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_and_positive_rights" title="Negative and positive rights">Negative and positive rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night-watchman_state" title="Night-watchman state">Night-watchman state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_lie" title="Noble lie">Noble lie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noblesse_oblige" title="Noblesse oblige">Noblesse oblige</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_society" title="Open society">Open society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordered_liberty" title="Ordered liberty">Ordered liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_position" title="Original position">Original position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overton_window" title="Overton window">Overton window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">State of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statolatry" title="Statolatry">Statolatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyranny_of_the_majority" title="Tyranny of the majority">Tyranny of the majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_philosophers" title="List of political philosophers">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antiquity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_political_philosophy" title="Plato's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Tzu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle Ages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Alpharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsilius_of_Padua" title="Marsilius of Padua">Marsilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nizam_al-Mulk" title="Nizam al-Mulk">Nizam al-Mulk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">Ockham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Anshi" title="Wang Anshi">Wang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_de_La_Bo%C3%A9tie" title="Étienne de La Boétie">Boétie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bodin" title="Jean Bodin">Bodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-B%C3%A9nigne_Bossuet" title="Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet">Bossuet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Campanella" title="Tommaso Campanella">Campanella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Filmer" title="Robert Filmer">Filmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hobbes%27s_moral_and_political_philosophy" title="Hobbes's moral and political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Bakunin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_St_John,_1st_Viscount_Bolingbroke" title="Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke">Bolingbroke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Donoso_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Juan Donoso Cortés">Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_von_Haller" title="Karl Ludwig von Haller">Haller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal" title="Muhammad Iqbal">Iqbal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal%27s_political_philosophy" title="Muhammad Iqbal's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy_of_Immanuel_Kant" title="Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_de_Saint-Simon" title="Henri de Saint-Simon">Saint-Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tucker" title="Benjamin Tucker">Tucker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein" title="Eduard Bernstein">Bernstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnham" title="James Burnham">Burnham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dmowski" title="Roman Dmowski">Dmowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Dugin" title="Aleksandr Dugin">Dugin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Dworkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama" title="Francis Fukuyama">Fukuyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_P._Huntington" title="Samuel P. Huntington">Huntington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Kautsky" title="Karl Kautsky">Kautsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau">Laclau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Luxemburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Mansfield" title="Harvey Mansfield">Mansfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Maurras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Michels" title="Robert Michels">Michels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Mosca" title="Gaetano Mosca">Mosca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chantal_Mouffe" title="Chantal Mouffe">Mouffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Qutb" title="Sayyid Qutb">Qutb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Sorel" title="Georges Sorel">Sorel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Othmar_Spann" title="Othmar Spann">Spann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a> (c. 375 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a> (c. 350 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_re_publica" title="De re publica">De re publica</a> (51 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Law" title="Treatise on Law">Treatise on Law</a> (c. 1274)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchia" title="Monarchia">Monarchia</a> (1313)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Prince" title="The Prince">The Prince</a> (1532)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leviathan_(Hobbes_book)" title="Leviathan (Hobbes book)">Leviathan</a> (1651)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises of Government</a> (1689)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a> (1748)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a> (1762)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France" title="Reflections on the Revolution in France">Reflections on the Revolution in France</a> (1790)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights_of_Man" title="Rights of Man">Rights of Man</a> (1791)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a> (1820)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a> (1835–1840)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Communist_Manifesto" title="The Communist Manifesto">The Communist Manifesto</a> (1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Liberty" title="On Liberty">On Liberty</a> (1859)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Revolt_of_the_Masses" title="The Revolt of the Masses">The Revolt of the Masses</a> (1929)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Road_to_Serfdom" title="The Road to Serfdom">The Road to Serfdom</a> (1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Open_Society_and_Its_Enemies" title="The Open Society and Its Enemies">The Open Society and Its Enemies</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Origins_of_Totalitarianism" title="The Origins of Totalitarianism">The Origins of Totalitarianism</a> (1951)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_End_of_History_and_the_Last_Man" title="The End of History and the Last Man">The End of History and the Last Man</a> (1992)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_organization#Collectivism_and_individualism" title="Social organization">Collectivism and individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contractualism" title="Contractualism">Contractualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite_theory" title="Elite theory">Elite theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_political_thought" title="History of political thought">History of political thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_for_the_state" title="Justification for the state">Justification for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machiavellianism_(politics)" title="Machiavellianism (politics)">Machiavellianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ethics" title="Political ethics">Political ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_spectrum" title="Political spectrum">Political spectrum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">Left-wing politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrism" title="Centrism">Centrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">Right-wing politics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_theology" title="Political theology">Political theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_violence" title="Political violence">Political violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separatism" title="Separatism">Separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statism" title="Statism">Statism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_social_and_political_philosophy_articles" title="Index of social and political philosophy articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_philosophy" title="Category:Political philosophy">Category:Political philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7748#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7748#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7748#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4048737-4">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85075119">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph115914&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX526381">Spain</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000037720&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lod.nl.go.kr/resource/KSH1998003033">Korea</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007558011205171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div 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[\"CITEREFBlessed_John_Paul_II,_Ap._Const.1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBor1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoudinhon1910\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrodyAckerLogan2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCaldwell2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCampbell1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChalmersBarroso2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChapra2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChurchill1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClarkeHooleyMundaySealy2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClarkeLinzey,_Andrew1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoase1937\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoase1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCohen1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCotterrell1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCotterrell1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCotterrell2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCox2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCurtinWessel,_Ramses_A.2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFD\u0026#039;Amato2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDemirgüç-KuntLevine2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDevins2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDicey2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDurkheim1893\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDworkin1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDörmannDoswald-BeckKolb2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEhrlich2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFarah2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFeinman2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFerrari2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFindlay1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFine2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFinn1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFoxSandler2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrance1894\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFukuyama2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGaffey2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGeorgiadis1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGiannoulatos1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGibbs1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGlenn2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldhaber2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGordley2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGordleyvon_Mehren2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreen\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGurvitchHunt2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaggardShugart2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHallaq2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarlow1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarris1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHart1961\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHatzis2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHayek1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHazardDondi2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHegel1820\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeinze2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeise1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHertogh2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHobbes1651\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHorwitz1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJackson2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJakobs2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJakoby2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJaryJary1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJensenHeller,_Thomas_C.2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnson1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaiser2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaldorAnheier,_HelmutGlasius,_Marlies2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKant1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKarkatsoulis2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKazantzakis1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKelly1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKettl2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLee1918\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLinarelli2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLippert2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLocke1689\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLuban2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMallory1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMalloy1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarkovits2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarmor1934\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMason1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMattei1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatthews1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcAuliffe2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcGhee2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMerryman1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMises1962\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMontesquieu1748\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNietzsche1887\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNúñez_Vaquero2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOber1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOlivelle2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOlsonNorton1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOtto2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaolo2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPapachristou1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPargendler2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPatterson2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPejovic2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPelczynski1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeters\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPetersmann1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPosner2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPound1914\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQuigley1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRaisch\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRasekh2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRaz1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRedfem2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRheinstein1954\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichardson2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRiker1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobertson2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoeber2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRottleuthner1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRottleuthner1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRousseau1762\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRubin\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRubin2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSaiman2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSalazar2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSamuel1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSaratKearns1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSavigny1803\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchermersBlokker,_Niels_M.1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSealyHooley,_R.J.A.2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSherif2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimpson1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpooner1882\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStein1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStone1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTamanaha2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylor1896\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThéodoridés\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThéodoridés1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVerSteeg2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWarren1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWashofsky2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeber1919\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeber1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeber1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWehberg1959\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWiesner-Hanks2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWillis1926\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilson2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWorld_Intellectual_Property_Organization1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZaleski2008\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Africa in topic\"] = 1,\n [\"Asia in topic\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Better source needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Cbignore\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite OED\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 106,\n [\"Cite court\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 10,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 45,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 31,\n [\"Cite wikisource\"] = 3,\n [\"Conflict resolution sidebar\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 13,\n [\"Gloss\"] = 3,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 1,\n [\"Humanities\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 3,\n [\"Lang\"] = 4,\n [\"Langx\"] = 3,\n [\"Law\"] = 1,\n [\"Law of Europe\"] = 1,\n [\"Law sidebar\"] = 1,\n [\"Library resources box\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 26,\n [\"Navboxes\"] = 2,\n [\"North America in topic\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Oceania in topic\"] = 1,\n [\"Other uses\"] = 1,\n [\"Political philosophy\"] = 1,\n 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