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</button> <ul id="toc-Associated_phenomena-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In-group_favoritism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In-group_favoritism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>In-group favoritism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In-group_favoritism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neural_mechanisms_of_in-group_favoritism_and_out-group_bias" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neural_mechanisms_of_in-group_favoritism_and_out-group_bias"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Neural mechanisms of in-group favoritism and out-group bias</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neural_mechanisms_of_in-group_favoritism_and_out-group_bias-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Group_homogeneity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Group_homogeneity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Group homogeneity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Group_homogeneity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Out-group_derogation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Out-group_derogation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Out-group derogation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Out-group_derogation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_influence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_influence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Social influence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_influence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Group_polarization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Group_polarization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Group polarization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Group_polarization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Postulated_role_in_human_evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Postulated_role_in_human_evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Postulated role in human evolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Postulated_role_in_human_evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label 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Available in 17 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-17" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">17 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%A9_%D9%88%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AC_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%A9" title="من الجماعة وخارج الجماعة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="من الجماعة وخارج الجماعة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Clensk%C3%A1_skupina" title="Členská skupina – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Členská skupina" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigengruppe_und_Fremdgruppe" title="Eigengruppe und Fremdgruppe – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Eigengruppe und Fremdgruppe" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endogrupo_y_exogrupo" title="Endogrupo y exogrupo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Endogrupo y exogrupo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86_%DA%AF%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%87%DB%8C_%D9%88_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86_%DA%AF%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%87%DB%8C" title="درون گروهی و برون گروهی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="درون گروهی و برون گروهی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groupes_interne_et_externe_(sociologie)" title="Groupes interne et externe (sociologie) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Groupes interne et externe (sociologie)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%82%B4%EC%A7%91%EB%8B%A8%EA%B3%BC_%EC%99%B8%EC%A7%91%EB%8B%A8" title="내집단과 외집단 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="내집단과 외집단" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%91%D7%95%D7%A6%D7%AA_%D7%A4%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%9D_%D7%95%D7%A7%D7%91%D7%95%D7%A6%D7%AA_%D7%97%D7%95%D7%A5" title="קבוצת פנים וקבוצת חוץ – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קבוצת פנים וקבוצת חוץ" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/In-groep_en_uit-groep" title="In-groep en uit-groep – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="In-groep en uit-groep" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endogrupo_e_exogrupo" title="Endogrupo e exogrupo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Endogrupo e exogrupo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%B8_%D1%87%D1%83%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%B9" title="Свой и чужой – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Свой и чужой" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingrupp" title="Ingrupp – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Ingrupp" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B8%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%83%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B8%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%81" title="กลุ่มในและกลุ่มนอก – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="กลุ่มในและกลุ่มนอก" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0%C3%A7_grup_ve_d%C4%B1%C5%9F_grup" title="İç grup ve dış grup – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="İç grup ve dış grup" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Sociological notions</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Us and them" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Us_and_Them_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Us and Them (disambiguation)">Us and Them</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For use in cladistics, see <a href="/wiki/Outgroup_(cladistics)" title="Outgroup (cladistics)">Ingroup and outgroup (cladistics)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:091507-USCNeb-MemorialStadium.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/091507-USCNeb-MemorialStadium.jpg/306px-091507-USCNeb-MemorialStadium.jpg" decoding="async" width="306" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/091507-USCNeb-MemorialStadium.jpg/459px-091507-USCNeb-MemorialStadium.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/091507-USCNeb-MemorialStadium.jpg/612px-091507-USCNeb-MemorialStadium.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>Multiple layers of in-groups and out-groups in an <a href="/wiki/American_football" title="American football">American football</a> stadium:<ul> <li>People in this stadium form an in-group of <a href="/wiki/American_football" title="American football">American football</a> fans and professionals vs. those who are not fans of the sport.</li> <li>Fans in attendance at the stadium vs. people spectating the match via external means, e.g. television/radio coverage.</li> <li>Fans and professionals affiliated with one team vs. those affiliated with the opposing team.</li> <li>Professionals on the field (players, officials, coaches, mascots and cheerleaders) vs. the paying customers in the stands who are denied access to the facility's secure nucleus except by invitation from a high-status individual.</li> <li>Ranks of the wealthy ownership and their senior executive staff, with access to private box suites vs. high-priced talent.</li> <li>Technical staff involved in facilities maintenance and operations vs. sporting staff (referees, timekeepers, statisticians and in-game adjudicators).</li> <li>Media with organizational endorsement and affiliation who enjoy special player access to one team vs. non-affiliated media.</li> </ul></figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">social psychology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>, an <b>in-group</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Social_group" title="Social group">social group</a> to which a person <a href="/wiki/Self-categorization_theory" title="Self-categorization theory">psychologically identifies</a> as being a member. By contrast, an <b>out-group</b> is a social group with which an individual does not identify. People may for example identify with their <a href="/wiki/Peer_group" title="Peer group">peer group</a>, <a href="/wiki/Family" title="Family">family</a>, <a href="/wiki/Community" title="Community">community</a>, sports team, political party, gender, sexual orientation, religion, or nation. It has been found that the psychological membership of social groups and categories is associated with a wide variety of phenomena. </p><p>The terminology was made popular by <a href="/wiki/Henri_Tajfel" title="Henri Tajfel">Henri Tajfel</a> and colleagues beginning in the 1970s during his work in formulating <a href="/wiki/Social_identity_theory" title="Social identity theory">social identity theory</a>. The significance of in-group and out-group categorization was identified using a method called the <a href="/wiki/Minimal_group_paradigm" title="Minimal group paradigm">minimal group paradigm</a>. Tajfel and colleagues found that people can form self-preferencing in-groups within a matter of minutes and that such groups can form even on the basis of completely arbitrary and invented discriminatory characteristics, such as preferences for certain paintings.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Neurology" title="Neurology">neurology</a>, there is an established literature<sup id="cite_ref-Sapolsky2107_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sapolsky2107-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> about the innate propensity of the human brain to divide the world into <b>us and them</b> valence categories, where the exact membership of the in-group and out-group are socially contingent (hence vulnerable to the instruments of <a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">propaganda</a>), and the intensity exists along a spectrum from mild to complete <a href="/wiki/Dehumanization" title="Dehumanization">dehumanization</a> of the "<a href="/wiki/Other_(philosophy)" title="Other (philosophy)">othered</a>" group (such as through <a href="/wiki/Pseudospeciation" title="Pseudospeciation">pseudospeciation</a>). </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Associated_phenomena">Associated phenomena</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=In-group_and_out-group&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Associated phenomena"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The psychological categorization of people into in-group and out-group members is associated with a variety of phenomena. The following examples have all received a great deal of academic attention. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In-group_favoritism">In-group favoritism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=In-group_and_out-group&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: In-group favoritism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/In-group_favoritism" title="In-group favoritism">In-group favoritism</a>; <a href="/wiki/Closure_(sociology)" title="Closure (sociology)">Closure (sociology)</a>; and <a href="/wiki/You_are_either_with_us,_or_against_us" title="You are either with us, or against us">You are either with us, or against us</a></div> <p>This refers to the fact that under certain conditions, people will prefer and have affinity for one's in-group over the out-group, or anyone viewed as outside the in-group. This can be expressed in one's evaluation of others, linking, allocation of resources, and many other ways.<sup id="cite_ref-aronson_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aronson-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> How we perceive the actions of others are also affected by in-group favoritism. People may perceive the same action very differently depending on whether the action was executed by a member of the same group or a member of a different group.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In fact, people tend to evaluate actions of their own group or team members much more favorably than those of outgroup members.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An illustrative example of the way this phenomenon takes place can be demonstrated just by arbitrarily assigning a person to a distinct and objectively meaningless novel group; this alone is sufficient to create intergroup biases in which members of the perceiver's own group are preferentially favored.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This phenomenon was demonstrated in an empirical study conducted by Molenberghs and colleagues in 2013.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the study, participants were arbitrarily divided into two teams where they watched videos of individuals of competing teams and individuals from their own team perform hand actions. Participants were then asked to judge the speed of the hand movements.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On average participants judged members of their own teams to be faster, although the hand movements were the exact same speed across the board. Similarly, Hastorf and Cantril conducted a pioneering study in 1954, where students of both Princeton and Dartmouth viewed a contentious football game between their two teams.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although they had watched the same motion picture of the game, their versions of what transpired were so starkly different it appeared as though they had watched two totally different games.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neural_mechanisms_of_in-group_favoritism_and_out-group_bias">Neural mechanisms of in-group favoritism and out-group bias</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=In-group_and_out-group&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Neural mechanisms of in-group favoritism and out-group bias"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some may wonder why in-group favoritism takes place, even in arbitrarily assigned groups where group members have nothing in common other than the group to which they were assigned. Research points to unconscious decision-making processes that takes place at the <a href="/wiki/Neurological" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurological">neurological</a> level, where in-group favoritism and out-group bias occurs very early in perception. This process can begin by simply viewing a person's face.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Research indicates that individuals are faster and more accurate at recognizing faces of ingroup vs. outgroup members.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, researchers in a cross-race recognition study recorded blood oxygenation level-dependent signal (BOLD) activity from black and white participants while they viewed and attempted to remember pictures of unfamiliar black faces, white faces and objects.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They found that participants in this study exhibited greater activity in the <a href="/wiki/Fusiform_face_area" title="Fusiform face area">fusiform face area</a> (FFA), an area of the <a href="/wiki/Fusiform_gyrus" title="Fusiform gyrus">fusiform gyrus</a> located in the inferior temporal cortex of the brain linked to object and face recognition, when viewing same race faces compared to other race faces.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lower activity in the FFA reflects a failure to encode outgroup members at the individual level rather than the categorical level, which comes at the expense of encoding individuating information.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This suggests out-group or unfamiliar faces may not be "faces" with the same intensity as in-group faces.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prior research has also shown that the devaluation and dehumanization of outgroup members is exacerbated when the initial encoding and configural processing of an outgroup face is impeded.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> So not only does this initial encoding process dehumanize outgroup members, it also contributes to a homogeneity effect, whereby outgroup members are perceived as more similar to each other than ingroup members.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Group_homogeneity">Group homogeneity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=In-group_and_out-group&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Group homogeneity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Outgroup_homogeneity" class="mw-redirect" title="Outgroup homogeneity">Outgroup homogeneity</a></div> <p>Categorization of people into social groups increases the perception that group members are similar to one another. An outcome of this is the out-group homogeneity effect. This refers to the perception of members of an out-group as being homogenous, while members of one's in-group are perceived as being diverse, e.g. "they are alike; we are diverse".<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Quattrone_&_Jones_(1980)_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Quattrone_&_Jones_(1980)-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is especially likely to occur in regard to negative characteristics. Under certain conditions, in-group members can be perceived as being similar to one another in regard to positive characteristics. This effect is called in-group homogeneity.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Out-group_derogation">Out-group derogation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=In-group_and_out-group&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Out-group derogation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Discrimination between in-groups and out-groups is a matter of favoritism towards an in-group and the absence of equivalent favoritism towards an out-group.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Out-group derogation is the phenomenon in which an out-group is perceived as being threatening to the members of an in-group.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This phenomenon often accompanies in-group favoritism, as it requires one to have an affinity towards their in-group. Some research suggests that out-group derogation occurs when an out-group is perceived as blocking or hindering the goals of an in-group. It has also been argued that out-group derogation is a natural consequence of the categorization process.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_influence">Social influence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=In-group_and_out-group&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Social influence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Social_influence" title="Social influence">Social influence</a></div> <p>People have been shown to be differentially influenced by in-group members. That is, under conditions where group categorization is psychologically salient, people will shift their beliefs in line with in-group <a href="/wiki/Norm_(social)" class="mw-redirect" title="Norm (social)">social norms</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Group_polarization">Group polarization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=In-group_and_out-group&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Group polarization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Group_polarization" title="Group polarization">Group polarization</a></div> <p>This generally refers to the tendency of groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclination of its members, although polarization toward the most central beliefs has also been observed. It has been shown that this effect is related to a psychologically salient in-group and outgroup categorization. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Postulated_role_in_human_evolution">Postulated role in human evolution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=In-group_and_out-group&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Postulated role in human evolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">evolutionary psychology</a>, in-group favoritism is seen as an evolved mechanism selected for the advantages of <a href="/wiki/Coalition" title="Coalition">coalition</a> affiliation.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been argued that characteristics such as gender and <a href="/wiki/Ethnicity" title="Ethnicity">ethnicity</a> are inflexible or even <a href="/wiki/Essentialism" title="Essentialism">essential</a> features of such systems.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, there is evidence that elements of favoritism are flexible in that they can be erased by changes in social categorization.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One study in the field of <a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">behavioural genetics</a> suggests that biological mechanisms may exist which favor a coexistence of both flexible and <a href="/wiki/Essentialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Essentialist">essentialist</a> systems.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=In-group_and_out-group&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allosemitism" title="Allosemitism">Allosemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amity-enmity_complex" class="mw-redirect" title="Amity-enmity complex">Amity-enmity complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antilocution" title="Antilocution">Antilocution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambivalent_prejudice" title="Ambivalent prejudice">Ambivalent prejudice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autarky" title="Autarky">Autarky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bandwagon_effect" title="Bandwagon effect">Bandwagon effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basking_in_reflected_glory" title="Basking in reflected glory">Basking in reflected glory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belongingness" title="Belongingness">Belongingness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benevolent_prejudice" title="Benevolent prejudice">Benevolent prejudice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_identity" title="Cultural identity">Cultural identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cronyism" title="Cronyism">Cronyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_narcissism" title="Collective narcissism">Collective narcissism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_ingroup_identity" title="Common ingroup identity">Common ingroup identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_standard" title="Double standard">Double standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endogamy" title="Endogamy">Endogamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_consensus_effect" title="False consensus effect">False consensus effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groupthink" title="Groupthink">Groupthink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homophobia" title="Homophobia">Homophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hostile_prejudice" title="Hostile prejudice">Hostile prejudice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_terms_for_ethnic_out-groups" title="List of terms for ethnic out-groups">List of terms for ethnic out-groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microculture" title="Microculture">Microculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepotism" title="Nepotism">Nepotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_tolerance" title="Paradox of tolerance">Paradox of tolerance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positional_good" title="Positional good">Positional good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prejudice" title="Prejudice">Prejudice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scapegoating" title="Scapegoating">Scapegoating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexism" title="Sexism">Sexism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shibboleth" title="Shibboleth">Shibboleth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">Social class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_dominance_orientation" title="Social dominance orientation">Social dominance orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subculture" title="Subculture">Subculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribalism" title="Tribalism">Tribalism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Uchi-soto" class="mw-redirect" title="Uchi-soto">Uchi-soto</a></i></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=In-group_and_out-group&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See "Kandinsky versus Klee experiment", <a href="/wiki/Henri_Tajfel" title="Henri Tajfel">Tajfel</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Et_al." class="mw-redirect" title="Et al.">et al.</a></i> (1971) in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.holah.karoo.net/tajfestudy.htm">Tajfel, H. (1970). Experiments in Intergroup Discrimination</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFTaijfel1970" class="citation journal cs1">Taijfel, H. (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191206013420/https://asfranthompson.files.wordpress.com/2011/11/tajfel-1970-experiments-in-intergroup-discrimination.pdf">"Experiments in intergroup discrimination"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Scientific American</i>. <b>223</b> (5): 96–102. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1970SciAm.223e..96T">1970SciAm.223e..96T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican1170-96">10.1038/scientificamerican1170-96</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24927662">24927662</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5482577">5482577</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://asfranthompson.files.wordpress.com/2011/11/tajfel-1970-experiments-in-intergroup-discrimination.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2019-12-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=Experiments+in+intergroup+discrimination&rft.volume=223&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=96-102&rft.date=1970&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fscientificamerican1170-96&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F5482577&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24927662%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1970SciAm.223e..96T&rft.aulast=Taijfel&rft.aufirst=H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fasfranthompson.files.wordpress.com%2F2011%2F11%2Ftajfel-1970-experiments-in-intergroup-discrimination.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIn-group+and+out-group" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTajfelBilligBundyFlament1971" class="citation journal cs1">Tajfel, Henri; Billig, M. G.; Bundy, R. P.; Flament, Claude (1971). "Social categorization and intergroup behaviour". <i>European Journal of Social Psychology</i>. <b>1</b> (2): 149–178. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fejsp.2420010202">10.1002/ejsp.2420010202</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+Social+Psychology&rft.atitle=Social+categorization+and+intergroup+behaviour&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=149-178&rft.date=1971&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fejsp.2420010202&rft.aulast=Tajfel&rft.aufirst=Henri&rft.au=Billig%2C+M.+G.&rft.au=Bundy%2C+R.+P.&rft.au=Flament%2C+Claude&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIn-group+and+out-group" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTajfel1974" class="citation journal cs1">Tajfel, H. (1974). "Social identity and intergroup behaviour". <i>Social Science Information</i>. <b>13</b> (2): 65–93. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F053901847401300204">10.1177/053901847401300204</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143666442">143666442</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Science+Information&rft.atitle=Social+identity+and+intergroup+behaviour&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=65-93&rft.date=1974&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F053901847401300204&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143666442%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Tajfel&rft.aufirst=H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIn-group+and+out-group" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sapolsky2107-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sapolsky2107_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSapolsky2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Sapolsky" title="Robert Sapolsky">Sapolsky, Robert</a> (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tPTGDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA38"><i>Behave: The Biology of Humans at Our Best and Worst</i></a>. Penguin. pp. 38–39, 84–93, 116–117, 387–493, 570–632. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59420-507-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59420-507-1"><bdi>978-1-59420-507-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Behave%3A+The+Biology+of+Humans+at+Our+Best+and+Worst&rft.pages=38-39%2C+84-93%2C+116-117%2C+387-493%2C+570-632&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-59420-507-1&rft.aulast=Sapolsky&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtPTGDgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA38&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIn-group+and+out-group" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-aronson-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-aronson_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAronsonWilsonAkertSommers2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Elliot_Aronson" title="Elliot Aronson">Aronson, E.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Timothy_Wilson" title="Timothy Wilson">Wilson, T. D.</a>; Akert, R. D.; Sommers, S. R. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nIVHrgEACAAJ"><i>Social psychology</i></a> (9th, illustrated, revised ed.). London: <a href="/wiki/Pearson_Education" title="Pearson Education">Pearson Education</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13393654-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13393654-4"><bdi>978-0-13393654-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Social+psychology&rft.place=London&rft.edition=9th%2C+illustrated%2C+revised&rft.pub=Pearson+Education&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-13393654-4&rft.aulast=Aronson&rft.aufirst=E.&rft.au=Wilson%2C+T.+D.&rft.au=Akert%2C+R.+D.&rft.au=Sommers%2C+S.+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnIVHrgEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIn-group+and+out-group" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMolenberghsHalászMattingleyVanman2013" class="citation journal cs1">Molenberghs, Pascal; Halász, Veronika; Mattingley, Jason B.; Vanman, Eric J.; Cunnington, Ross (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6870530">"Seeing is believing: Neural mechanisms of action–perception are biased by team membership"</a>. <i>Human Brain Mapping</i>. <b>34</b> (9): 2055–2068. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fhbm.22044">10.1002/hbm.22044</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1097-0193">1097-0193</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6870530">6870530</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22290781">22290781</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Human+Brain+Mapping&rft.atitle=Seeing+is+believing%3A+Neural+mechanisms+of+action%E2%80%93perception+are+biased+by+team+membership&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=2055-2068&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6870530%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1097-0193&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22290781&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fhbm.22044&rft.aulast=Molenberghs&rft.aufirst=Pascal&rft.au=Hal%C3%A1sz%2C+Veronika&rft.au=Mattingley%2C+Jason+B.&rft.au=Vanman%2C+Eric+J.&rft.au=Cunnington%2C+Ross&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6870530&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIn-group+and+out-group" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTajfelBilligBundyFlament1971" class="citation journal cs1">Tajfel, Henri; Billig, M. 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