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title="Criminology">Criminology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Penology" title="Penology">penology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding:0.5em 1.0em 1.0em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pentonvilleiso19.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Pentonvilleiso19.jpg/220px-Pentonvilleiso19.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Pentonvilleiso19.jpg/330px-Pentonvilleiso19.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Pentonvilleiso19.jpg/440px-Pentonvilleiso19.jpg 2x" data-file-width="797" data-file-height="525" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Theory</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.75em;padding-right:0.75em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anomie" title="Anomie">Anomie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosocial_criminology" title="Biosocial criminology">Biosocial criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broken_windows_theory" title="Broken windows theory">Broken windows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_efficacy" title="Collective efficacy">Collective efficacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_analysis" title="Crime analysis">Crime analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminalization" title="Criminalization">Criminalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_association" title="Differential association">Differential association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">Deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressive_function_of_law" title="Expressive function of law">Expressive function of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labeling_theory" title="Labeling theory">Labeling theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychopathy" title="Psychopathy">Psychopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rational_choice_theory_(criminology)" title="Rational choice theory (criminology)">Rational choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_and_actuarial_criminology" title="Risk and actuarial criminology">Risk & actuarial criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_control_theory" title="Social control theory">Social control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_learning_theory" title="Social learning theory">Social learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strain_theory_(sociology)" title="Strain theory (sociology)">Strain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subcultural_theory" title="Subcultural theory">Subculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_interactionism" title="Symbolic interactionism">Symbolic interactionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimology" title="Victimology">Victimology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Major theorists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Eysenck" title="Hans Eysenck">Hans Eysenck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Ferri_(criminologist)" title="Enrico Ferri (criminologist)">Enrico Ferri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Lacassagne" title="Alexandre Lacassagne">Alexandre Lacassagne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Lombroso" title="Cesare Lombroso">Cesare Lombroso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archibald_Reiss" title="Archibald Reiss">Archibald Reiss</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Types of <a href="/wiki/Crime" title="Crime">crime</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li>Against <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">Humanity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offence_against_the_person" title="Offence against the person">Person</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offence_against_the_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Offence against the state">State</a></li></ul></li> <li>Class <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue-collar_crime" title="Blue-collar crime">Blue-collar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White-collar_crime" title="White-collar crime">White-collar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_case" title="Cold case">Cold case</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perfect_crime" title="Perfect crime">Perfect</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_crime" title="Corporate crime">Corporate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">Hate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juvenile_delinquency" title="Juvenile delinquency">Juvenile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organized_crime" title="Organized crime">Organized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_crime" title="Political crime">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public-order_crime" title="Public-order crime"><span class="nowrap">Public-order</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_crime" title="State crime">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-corporate_crime" title="State-corporate crime">State-corporate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnational_crime" title="Transnational crime">Transnational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimless_crime" title="Victimless crime">Victimless</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">War</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Methods</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_historical_research" title="Comparative historical research">Comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offender_profiling" title="Offender profiling">Profiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniform_Crime_Reports" title="Uniform Crime Reports">Uniform Crime Reports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_mapping" title="Crime mapping">Crime mapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_statistics" title="Crime statistics">Crime statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivist_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Positivist school">Positivist school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_research" title="Quantitative research">Quantitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Justice_Statistics" title="Bureau of Justice Statistics">BJS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Incident-Based_Reporting_System" title="National Incident-Based Reporting System">NIBRS</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Penology" title="Penology">Penology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Denunciation_(penology)" title="Denunciation (penology)">Denunciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deterrence_(penology)" title="Deterrence (penology)">Deterrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incapacitation_(penology)" title="Incapacitation (penology)">Incapacitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial" title="Trial">Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison" title="Prison">Prison</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prison_abolition_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Prison abolition movement">abolition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_prison" title="Open prison">open</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_reform" title="Prison reform">reform</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner" title="Prisoner">Prisoner</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner_abuse" title="Prisoner abuse">Prisoner abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoners%27_rights" title="Prisoners' rights">Prisoners' rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_(penology)" title="Rehabilitation (penology)">Rehabilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recidivism" title="Recidivism">Recidivism</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e9e9ff;font-weight:normal;padding-bottom:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a> in penology</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.6em;;padding-bottom:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Participatory_justice" title="Participatory justice">Participatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restorative_justice" title="Restorative justice">Restorative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformative_justice" title="Transformative justice">Transformative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retributive_justice" title="Retributive justice">Retributive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice#Utilitarian_justice" title="Justice">Utilitarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solitary_confinement" title="Solitary confinement">Solitary confinement</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Schools</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_criminology" title="Anarchist criminology">Anarchist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_(sociology)" title="Chicago school (sociology)">Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_school_(criminology)" title="Classical school (criminology)">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_criminology" title="Conflict criminology">Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_criminology" title="Critical criminology">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_criminology" title="Environmental criminology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_school_of_criminology" title="Feminist school of criminology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrative_criminology" title="Integrative criminology">Integrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_school_of_criminology" title="Italian school of criminology">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_criminology" title="Marxist criminology">Marxist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-classical_school_(criminology)" title="Neo-classical school (criminology)">Neo-classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivist_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Positivist school">Positivist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodernist_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Postmodernist school">Postmodernist</a></li> <li>Realism <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left_realism" title="Left realism">Left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_realism" title="Right realism">Right</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Subfields</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Criminology" title="American Society of Criminology">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_criminology" title="Anthropological criminology">Anthropological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosocial_criminology" title="Biosocial criminology">Biosocial criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_criminology" title="Conflict criminology">Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_criminology" title="Critical criminology">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_criminology" title="Cultural criminology">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybercrime" title="Cybercrime"> Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_theory" title="Development theory">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_criminology" title="Environmental criminology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_criminology" title="Experimental criminology">Experimental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_theory" title="Organizational theory">Organizational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_crime" title="Political crime">Political</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_criminology" title="Radical criminology">Radical criminology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Browse</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_criminology_articles" title="Index of criminology articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Criminology_journals" title="Category:Criminology journals">Journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Criminology_organizations" title="Category:Criminology organizations">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_criminologists" title="List of criminologists">People</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Criminology_and_penology" title="Template:Criminology and penology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Criminology_and_penology" title="Template talk:Criminology and penology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Criminology_and_penology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Criminology and penology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Public criminology</b> is an approach to <a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">criminology</a> that disseminates criminological research beyond academia to broader audiences, such as criminal justice practitioners and the general public.<sup id="cite_ref-:14_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:14-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Public criminology is closely tied with “<a href="/wiki/Public_sociology" title="Public sociology">public sociology</a>”,<sup id="cite_ref-:4_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and draws on a long line of intellectuals engaging in public interventions related to crime and justice.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:11_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:13_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:12_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some forms of public criminology are conducted through methods such as classroom education, academic conferences, public lectures, “news-making criminology”,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> government hearings, newspapers, radio and television broadcasting and press releases.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Advocates of public criminology argue that the energies of criminologists should be directed towards "conducting and disseminating research on crime, law, and deviance in dialogue with affected communities."<sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Public criminologists focus on reshaping the image of the criminal and work with communities to find answers to pressing questions.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Proponents of public criminology see it as potentially narrowing "the yawning gap between public perceptions and the best available scientific evidence on issues of public concern",<sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a problem they see as especially pertinent to matters of crime and punishment.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The general response to public criminology has been positive,<sup id="cite_ref-:2_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rock2010_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rock2010-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however several authors have voiced a number of concerns: one set of concerns focuses on the ability of public criminologists to effectively impact policy decisions;<sup id="cite_ref-:5_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:6_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rock2010_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rock2010-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:7_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:8_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> another set of concerns suggests that initial forays into public criminology have been blind to the political-economic structures that shape <a href="/wiki/Criminal_justice" title="Criminal justice">Criminal Justice Systems</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-:9_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a third concern centers on the barriers that remain for participating in public criminology.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:10_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_criminology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first use of the term “public criminology” can be traced to a publication by Eamonn Carrabine, Maggy Lee, and Nigel South.<sup id="cite_ref-Turner_2013_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Turner_2013-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More recent criminologists, building on <a href="/wiki/Michael_Burawoy" title="Michael Burawoy">Michael Burawoy</a>'s notion of <a href="/wiki/Public_sociology" title="Public sociology">public sociology</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-:4_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have developed the concept. For example, <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Uggen" title="Christopher Uggen">Uggen</a> and Inderbitzin<sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have expanded the scope of the term by suggesting it should place greater emphasis on work that informs public understandings about issues such as crime, punishment, criminal law, and criminal justice. Their work was in part motivated by the belief that there is a problematically wide gap between criminological research and public opinion and in part by a belief that the approach can inspire a future generation of criminologists to address the problem.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this sense, Uggen and Inderbitizin believe that public criminology can open a dialogue between academic criminologists and the public in a way that can reshape public debates and policy while bringing new perspectives on crime to the table. Ian Loader and Richard Sparks have also expanded Burawoy's ideas regarding public criminology in <i>Public Criminology?</i>, which grounds concerns of public engagement in larger questions about criminology's value to wider society.<sup id="cite_ref-:14_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:14-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.routledge.com/Routledge-Handbook-of-Public-Criminologies-1st-Edition/Henne-Shah/p/book/9781138479296">Routledge Handbook of Public Criminologies</a></i>, edited by Kathryn Henne and Rita Shah and published in 2020, offers a more contemporary take on public criminology, addressing the wide range of public criminological practices, scholarly debates, and emergent political challenges.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_antecedents">Historical antecedents</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_criminology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Historical antecedents"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While the term "public criminology" itself is relatively recent, many scholars acting under that moniker trace their efforts to a longer line of intellectuals engaging in public interventions related to crime and justice. For example Uggen and Inderbitzin<sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> find inspiration in the work of <a href="/wiki/Clifford_Shaw" title="Clifford Shaw">Clifford R. Shaw</a>, who studied the relationship between neighborhoods and crime in <a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a> starting the 1920s.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His research formulated what is now known as Social Disorganization theory, which links crime rates in a neighborhood to other ecological characteristics. In the course of his research he involved residents of the communities in order to both learn <i>from</i> them and communicate his own research findings <i>to</i> them. As a result of this dialogue, Shaw founded the <a href="/wiki/Chicago_Area_Project" title="Chicago Area Project">Chicago Area Project</a> which was geared to reduce conditions that resulted in high delinquency.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Uggen and Inderbitzin find similar inspiration in the work of Elliott Currie,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> a professor of criminology, law and society at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Irvine" title="University of California, Irvine">University of California at Irvine</a> who works on policy and specializes in cases of <a href="/wiki/Violent_crime" title="Violent crime">violent crime</a>, the social context of delinquency, etiology of <a href="/wiki/Substance_abuse" title="Substance abuse">drug abuse</a> and the assessment of <a href="/wiki/Drug_policy" title="Drug policy">drug policy</a>, race and criminal justice,<sup id="cite_ref-:11_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and George Kirkham, a police officer-turned-<a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">criminologist</a> who wrote a book entitled "Signal Zero."<sup id="cite_ref-:13_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Overseas, public criminology was institutionalized in at least two locations, the Home Office Research Unit and the Cambridge Institute of Criminology. The first was created by Tom Lodge, an actuarial statistician, and the second was founded by Leon Radzinowicz. Lodge's institution focused on altering the methods of criminology and the way it was taught. Radzinowicz also altered the ideas of criminology. His institution focused on researching problems related to trends in crime, the treatment of offenders, and the reform of substantive criminal law and criminal procedure. In 1964, the Cambridge Institute of Criminology held the first national conference in criminology.<sup id="cite_ref-:14_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:14-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>    </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticisms">Criticisms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_criminology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Criticisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The response to calls for public criminology has generally been positive, though several authors have expressed a number of concerns. One set of concerns has focused on the ability of public criminologists to effectively impact policy decisions. For example, Michael Tonry has pointed out there exists a broad indifference on the part of policy makers to criminological insights,<sup id="cite_ref-:8_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while Daniel Mears illustrates a similar indifference on the part of academic criminology for policy-making issues.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Likewise, British Criminologist <a href="/wiki/Paul_Rock" title="Paul Rock">Paul Rock</a> has voiced concerns regarding criminologist's lack of experience in <a href="/wiki/Policy_making" class="mw-redirect" title="Policy making">policy-making</a>, as well as questioning the integrity of public criminology if it is to be subject to the <a href="/wiki/Political_spectrum" title="Political spectrum">political spectrum</a>. He argues that "...criminology itself often plays so small a role in what is done. It might be far less important that criminologists endorse a measure than that, at the outset, the judiciary, or heads of other government departments, or chiefs of police, and then later, politicians on both sides of the <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Westminster" title="Palace of Westminster">Houses of Parliament</a> do so.” <sup id="cite_ref-Rock2010_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rock2010-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Finally, many public criminologists have taken issue with how little criminologists engage in news reporting. For example, Daniel Crépault acknowledges that while criminological news and research is frequently reported, it is often being picked through to serve a partisan agenda and then reported by non-criminologists.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a similar way, <a href="/wiki/Anthropologist" title="Anthropologist">anthropologist</a> Sindre Bangstad recognizes social media as an easy way to perform public scholarship, but worries that the soul of academic disciplines who engage will be lost in the vast sea of information.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another set of concerns suggests that initial forays into public criminology have been blind to the political-economic agenda that shapes the Criminal Justice system. For example, French Sociologist <a href="/wiki/Lo%C3%AFc_Wacquant" title="Loïc Wacquant">Loïc Wacquant</a> believes that the "public" label of public criminology is nothing more than an American sideshow, hindering debates on crime and justice, confusing professional politics with normal citizen life, and normalizing "law and order" politics on both the Left and Right.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, criminologist Emma Bell takes issue not with public criminology itself, but with the system under which it operates.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Believing that in order for public criminology to be effective it must shed light on the problematic <a href="/wiki/Criminal_justice_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Criminal justice system">criminal justice system</a> itself, she argues that a truly transformative public criminology that offers an ‘exit strategy’ must "move beyond neoliberalism <i>and</i> to move beyond the punitive penal policies." </p><p>A third concern centers on the barriers that remain for participating in public criminology. For example, <a href="/wiki/Uggen,_Christopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Uggen, Christopher">Christopher Uggen</a> and Michelle Inderbitzin highlight the structural <a href="/wiki/Disincentive" title="Disincentive">disincentives</a> towards practicing public criminology, starting in initial graduate training.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, Kenneth Land stresses his concern that there are few employment opportunities for public criminology, causing economic barriers for those who might choose to pursue it.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Likewise when criminologists Carrie Sanders and Lauren Eisler opened up a college course on criminology to the public, the attendees did not find some of the subject matter engaging.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such problems have led some authors to suggest that the core effort of public criminology should be towards creating inclusive, democratic spaces in which such conversations might take place.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Turner_2013_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Turner_2013-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contemporary_examples">Contemporary examples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_criminology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Contemporary examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Whos_watching_who.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="whos watching who" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Whos_watching_who.jpg/220px-Whos_watching_who.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Whos_watching_who.jpg/330px-Whos_watching_who.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Whos_watching_who.jpg/440px-Whos_watching_who.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4608" data-file-height="3072" /></a><figcaption>New America's <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/newamerica/albums/72157653152268102">"Who's watching who?"</a> conference brought together police officers, community activists and criminologists. </figcaption></figure> <p>Beyond the clarion calls to public criminology outlined above, there have been several forays into its actual praxis, with many groups and organizations dedicated to connecting public debates about the criminal justice system to contemporary research in criminology. For example, <a href="/wiki/The_Marshall_Project" title="The Marshall Project">The Marshall Project</a> was founded in 2014 by Neil <a href="/wiki/Neil_Barsky" title="Neil Barsky">Barsky</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bill_Keller" title="Bill Keller">Bill Keller</a> as a way to "create and sustain a sense of national urgency about the U.S. criminal justice system."<sup id="cite_ref-about_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-about-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-nieman_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nieman-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-huffpo_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-huffpo-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-nyt_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nyt-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-newsonomics_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-newsonomics-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another example is the "Public Criminology" blog on public criminology created by Michelle Inderbitzin, <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Uggen" title="Christopher Uggen">Chris Uggen</a>, and Sara Wakefield, which intends to inform the public on crime, law, and justice in the contemporary United States.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, Ian Loader and Richard Sparks provide a sociological evaluation of criminologists and the way they shape their position to fit into social and political controversies to correctly illustrate them for the public to view.<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor_&_Francis_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor_&_Francis_-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They use public criminology to advocate for the rehabilitation of offenders rather than the incarceration of them, prevent crime, and make the justice system so it is more efficient and ethical.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Finally, The Center for Public Criminology, which is a segment at the <a href="/wiki/Arizona_State_University" title="Arizona State University">Arizona State University</a> School of Criminology, is dedicated to breaking the veil between the public and those professionals in the criminal justice field. They do this by educating both the public and professionals, while also addressing the stigmas and concerns that each group may have.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A recent example of an individual researcher taking on the task of public criminology is Lisa Martino-Taylor. She is currently professor of Sociology at Southern Illinois University Edwards. In 2017 published “Behind the Fog: How the U.S. Cold War Radiological Weapons Program Exposed Innocent Americans.” <sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Her independent research, using the <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_Information_Act_(United_States)" title="Freedom of Information Act (United States)">Freedom of Information Act</a>, she uncovered the correspondence and notes from the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> scientists. These include the project <a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer" title="J. Robert Oppenheimer">Director J. Robert Oppenheimer</a> and other scientists, such as Louis Hempelmann, about the specifics of projects being carried out on US Citizens in the name of national defense.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Congressional investigations were called in response to the research exposure the cold war secret.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another example is, Eduardo González-Castillo and Martin Goyette (chapter 10) provide a critical analysis of community interventions among young people in Montreal using a Gramscian analysis. On the basis of ethnographic interviews and observations carried out in the borough of Montréal-Nord, the authors describe a heterogeneous milieu of interventions and document the ways in which various civil society actors contribute to state control mechanisms through paradoxical community interventions, which aim to be helpful but are nonetheless stigmatizing.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_criminology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_sociology" title="Public sociology">Public sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Burawoy" title="Michael Burawoy">Michael Burawoy</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_criminology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:14-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:14_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:14_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:14_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRock2013" class="citation journal cs1">Rock, Paul (2013-11-11). "The public faces of public criminology". <i>Criminology & Criminal Justice</i>. <b>14</b> (4): 412–433. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1748895813509638">10.1177/1748895813509638</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145267427">145267427</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Criminology+%26+Criminal+Justice&rft.atitle=The+public+faces+of+public+criminology&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=412-433&rft.date=2013-11-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1748895813509638&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145267427%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Rock&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+criminology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurawoy2004" class="citation journal cs1">Burawoy, M. 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