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vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#19th_century_and_early_firefighting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>19th century and early firefighting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-19th_century_and_early_firefighting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Suppression_as_a_rule" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Suppression_as_a_rule"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Suppression as a rule</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Suppression_as_a_rule-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Changes_to_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Changes_to_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Changes to policy</span> </div> </a> <ul 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searchaux" style="display:none">Aspect of US history</div> <p><b>Wildfire suppression in the United States</b> has had a long and varied history. For most of the 20th century, any form of <a href="/wiki/Wildland" class="mw-redirect" title="Wildland">wildland</a> fire, whether it was naturally caused or otherwise, was quickly suppressed for fear of uncontrollable and destructive conflagrations such as the <a href="/wiki/Peshtigo_Fire" class="mw-redirect" title="Peshtigo Fire">Peshtigo Fire</a> in 1871 and the <a href="/wiki/Great_Fire_of_1910" title="Great Fire of 1910">Great Fire of 1910</a>. In the 1960s, policies governing wildfire suppression changed due to ecological studies that recognized fire as a natural process necessary for new growth. Today, policies advocating complete fire suppression have been exchanged for those who encourage wildland fire use, or the allowing of fire to act as a tool, such as the case with <a href="/wiki/Controlled_burn" title="Controlled burn">controlled burns</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fire_Suppression_and_Settler_Colonialism">Fire Suppression and Settler Colonialism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_wildfire_suppression_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Fire Suppression and Settler Colonialism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Remington_The_Grass_Fire_1908.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Remington_The_Grass_Fire_1908.jpg/220px-Remington_The_Grass_Fire_1908.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Remington_The_Grass_Fire_1908.jpg/330px-Remington_The_Grass_Fire_1908.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Remington_The_Grass_Fire_1908.jpg/440px-Remington_The_Grass_Fire_1908.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1933" data-file-height="1296" /></a><figcaption><i>The Grass Fire</i> (1908) by <a href="/wiki/Frederic_Remington" title="Frederic Remington">Frederic Remington</a> depicts Native American men setting fire to a grassy plain</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Native_American_use_of_fire_in_ecosystems" title="Native American use of fire in ecosystems">Native American use of fire in ecosystems</a> are part of the environmental cycles and maintenance of wildlife habitats that sustain the cultures and economies of the <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a>. Indigenous peoples have used burning practices to manage, protect, and relate to their surrounds since time immemorial. According to sociologist <a href="/wiki/Kari_Norgaard" title="Kari Norgaard">Kari Norgaard</a>: "Indigenous peoples have long set low-intensity fires to manage eco-cultural resources and reduce the buildup of fuels – flammable trees, grasses and brush – that cause larger, hotter and more dangerous fires, like the ones that have burned across the West in recent years. Before fire suppression, forests in the West experienced a mix of low- to high-severity fires for millennia. Large, high-severity fires played an important ecological role, yet their spread was limited by low-severity fires set by indigenous peoples"<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, "Fire suppression was mandated by the very first session of the California Legislature in 1850," and with the institution of the <a href="/wiki/Weeks_Act" title="Weeks Act">Weeks Act</a> in 1911, "cultural uses of fire" were essentially made "illegal and for the many decades following, less and less burning occurred while more and more vegetation grew. Over a century of policies of fire suppression have created the conditions for the catastrophic, high-intensity wildfires we are seeing today" according to the <a href="/wiki/Karuk_Tribe" title="Karuk Tribe">Karuk Tribe</a> of Northern California's Climate Adaptation Plan.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because many Indigenous groups viewed fire as a tool for <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_management" title="Ecosystem management">ecosystem management</a>, education, and a way of life, such suppression would lead to decreased food availability and breakdown of social and familial structures.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been argued by numerous scholars that such suppression should be seen as a form of "Colonial Ecological Violence," "which results in particular risks and harms experienced by Native peoples and communities."<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Eventually, without small-scale managerial fires set by Indigenous peoples, wildfires would grow in size and severity because of buildup of vegetation on the forest floor in combination with <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the U.S. Forest Service and environmental scientists come to understand the long-term damage that such suppression has done, Indigenous peoples have provided the Forest Service a better understanding of how traditional burning practices are necessary for forests and people.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="19th_century_and_early_firefighting">19th century and early firefighting</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_wildfire_suppression_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: 19th century and early firefighting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the eastern United States, with its significant rainfall, wildfires are relatively small and have rarely posed great risk to life and property. As settlements moved further west into drier areas, the first large scale fires were encountered. Range fires on the <a href="/wiki/Great_Plains" title="Great Plains">Great Plains</a> and forest fires in the <a href="/wiki/Rocky_Mountains" title="Rocky Mountains">Rocky Mountains</a> were far larger and more destructive than what had ever been seen in the east. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Yellowstone_National_Park" title="Yellowstone National Park">Yellowstone National Park</a> was established in 1872 as the world's first national park. For the next several years, administration of the park languished until 1886 when the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">U. S. Army</a> was assigned the responsibility for its protection. Upon its arrival in the park, the Army found numerous fires burning in developed areas as well as in areas where it was not reasonable to control them. The commanding officer decided that human-caused fires along roads posed the biggest threat and that the Army would concentrate its suppression efforts on the control of those fires. There were not enough soldiers to fight all of the fires. Thus, came the first conscious decision by a manager of federal land to allow some fires to burn while others were controlled. The policy of fire suppression was also applied to <a href="/wiki/Sequoia_National_Park" title="Sequoia National Park">Sequoia</a>, <a href="/wiki/General_Grant_National_Park" class="mw-redirect" title="General Grant National Park">General Grant</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Yosemite_National_Park" title="Yosemite National Park">Yosemite</a> national parks when they were established in 1890, and Army patrols were initiated to guard against fires, livestock trespass, and illegal logging.<sup id="cite_ref-vW2007_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vW2007-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Illustration_-_Peshtigo_Fire_in_WI,_10-8-1871_(22139919004).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Illustration_-_Peshtigo_Fire_in_WI%2C_10-8-1871_%2822139919004%29.jpg/220px-Illustration_-_Peshtigo_Fire_in_WI%2C_10-8-1871_%2822139919004%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Illustration_-_Peshtigo_Fire_in_WI%2C_10-8-1871_%2822139919004%29.jpg/330px-Illustration_-_Peshtigo_Fire_in_WI%2C_10-8-1871_%2822139919004%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Illustration_-_Peshtigo_Fire_in_WI%2C_10-8-1871_%2822139919004%29.jpg/440px-Illustration_-_Peshtigo_Fire_in_WI%2C_10-8-1871_%2822139919004%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2796" data-file-height="1860" /></a><figcaption>An illustration of people fleeing from the 1871 Peshtigo fire</figcaption></figure> <p>A number of catastrophic fire events over the years greatly influenced fire management policies. The worst loss of life in United States history due to a wildfire occurred in 1871 when the <a href="/wiki/Peshtigo_Fire" class="mw-redirect" title="Peshtigo Fire">Peshtigo Fire</a> swept through <a href="/wiki/Wisconsin" title="Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a>, killing more than 1500 people.<sup id="cite_ref-Peshtigo_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peshtigo-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Santiago_Canyon_Fire_of_1889" class="mw-redirect" title="Santiago Canyon Fire of 1889">Santiago Canyon Fire of 1889</a> in <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a> and especially the <a href="/wiki/Great_Fire_of_1910" title="Great Fire of 1910">Great Fire of 1910</a> in <a href="/wiki/Montana" title="Montana">Montana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Idaho" title="Idaho">Idaho</a> contributed to the philosophy that fire was a danger that needed to be suppressed.<sup id="cite_ref-Aplet_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aplet-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Great Fire of 1910 had burned 3,000,000 acres (12,000 km<sup>2</sup>), destroyed a number of communities and killed 86 people, and this event prompted various land management agencies to emphasize wildfire suppression. <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">U.S. Government</a> land agencies, including the National Park Service, generally followed the fire management policies established by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Forest_Service" title="United States Forest Service">U.S. Forest Service</a>, which oversees the majority of the nation's forestlands. (See "The Big Burn" a 2014 PBS documentary <a href="/wiki/American_Experience_(season_27)" class="mw-redirect" title="American Experience (season 27)">American Experience (season 27)</a>). This would lead to the passage of the 1911 <a href="/wiki/Weeks_Act" title="Weeks Act">Weeks Act</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Suppression_as_a_rule">Suppression as a rule</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_wildfire_suppression_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Suppression as a rule"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Motorcycle_firefighter.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Motorcycle_firefighter.jpg/220px-Motorcycle_firefighter.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Motorcycle_firefighter.jpg/330px-Motorcycle_firefighter.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Motorcycle_firefighter.jpg/440px-Motorcycle_firefighter.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="392" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/US_Forest_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="US Forest Service">US Forest Service</a> motorcycle firefighter, with equipment in <a href="/wiki/Sidecar" title="Sidecar">sidecar</a>, 1917</figcaption></figure> <p>Before the middle of the 20th century, most forest managers believed that fires should be suppressed at all times.<sup id="cite_ref-NRDC_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NRDC-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1935, the U.S. Forest Service's fire management policy stipulated that all wildfires were to be suppressed by 10 am the morning after they were first spotted.<sup id="cite_ref-policy_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-policy-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fire fighting crews were established throughout public lands, and generally staffed by young men during fire seasons. By 1940, firefighters known as <a href="/wiki/Smokejumper" title="Smokejumper">smokejumpers</a> would parachute out of airplanes to extinguish flames in remote locations. By the beginning of World War II, over 8,000 <a href="/wiki/Fire_lookout_tower" title="Fire lookout tower">fire lookout towers</a> had been constructed in the United States. Though many have been torn down due to increased use of airplanes for fire spotting, three are still used each year in Yellowstone.<sup id="cite_ref-lookouts_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lookouts-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-lookouts2_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lookouts2-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Firefighting efforts were highly successful, with the area burned by wildfires reduced from an annual average of 30,000,000 acres (120,000 km<sup>2</sup>) during the 1930s, to between 2,000,000 acres (8,100 km<sup>2</sup>) and 5,000,000 acres (20,000 km<sup>2</sup>) by the 1960s.<sup id="cite_ref-NRDC_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NRDC-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The need for lumber during World War II was high and fires that destroyed timberland were deemed unacceptable. In 1944, the U.S. Forest Service developed an ad campaign to help educate the public that all fires were detrimental, using a cartoon <a href="/wiki/American_black_bear" title="American black bear">black bear</a> named <a href="/wiki/Smokey_Bear" title="Smokey Bear">Smokey Bear</a>. This iconic firefighting bear can still be seen on posters with the catchphrase "Only you can prevent wildfires".<sup id="cite_ref-Young_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Young-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Smokey_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smokey-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early posters of Smokey Bear misled the public into believing that western wildfires were predominantly human-caused. In Yellowstone, human-caused fires average between 6 and 10 annually, while 35 wildfires are ignited by lightning.<sup id="cite_ref-lookouts2_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lookouts2-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some researchers, as well as some timber companies and private citizens, understood that fire was a natural state of affairs in many ecosystems. Fire would help clean out the <a href="/wiki/Understory" title="Understory">understory</a> and dead plant matter, allowing economically important tree species to grow with less competition for nutrients. <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a> would often burn woodlands to reduce overgrowth and increase grasslands for large prey animals such as <a href="/wiki/Bison" title="Bison">bison</a> and <a href="/wiki/Elk" title="Elk">elk</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Indians_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Indians-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Smokey_Bear_Only_You_campaign_hat.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Smokey_Bear_Only_You_campaign_hat.jpg/220px-Smokey_Bear_Only_You_campaign_hat.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="281" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Smokey_Bear_Only_You_campaign_hat.jpg/330px-Smokey_Bear_Only_You_campaign_hat.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Smokey_Bear_Only_You_campaign_hat.jpg/440px-Smokey_Bear_Only_You_campaign_hat.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1359" data-file-height="1737" /></a><figcaption>During the 20th century, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Forest_Service" title="United States Forest Service">US Forest Service</a> used the character <a href="/wiki/Smokey_Bear" title="Smokey Bear">Smokey Bear</a> to spread awareness about wildfire prevention<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>When the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Forest_Service" title="United States Forest Service">U.S. Forest Service</a> was established in 1905, it became the primary task of the Forest Service to suppress all fires on the forest reserves it administered. In 1916, the <a href="/wiki/National_Park_Service" title="National Park Service">National Park Service</a> was established and took over park management from the Army. Following the Forest Service approach, fire suppression became the only fire policy and remained in the national parks for the next five decades. Some foresters questioned the economic logic of such suppression efforts. However, the extensive <a href="/wiki/Great_Fire_of_1910" title="Great Fire of 1910">fires of 1910</a> solidified the Forest Service as the premier fire control organization and fire suppression remained the only fire policy for all federal land management agencies until the late 1960s.<sup id="cite_ref-Graham_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Graham-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Complete fire suppression was the objective, even though these early efforts were less than successful until the advent of vehicles, equipment, and roads (see <a href="/wiki/Fire_trail" title="Fire trail">Fire trail</a>) during the 1940s.<sup id="cite_ref-Graham_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Graham-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As early as 1924, environmentalist <a href="/wiki/Aldo_Leopold" title="Aldo Leopold">Aldo Leopold</a> argued that wildfires were beneficial to ecosystems, and were necessary for the natural <a href="/wiki/Plant_propagation" title="Plant propagation">propagation</a> of numerous tree and plant species. Over the next 40 years, increasing numbers of <a href="/wiki/Forester" title="Forester">foresters</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ecologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecologist">ecologists</a> concurred about the benefits of wildfire to ecosystems. Some managers allowed low intensity fires to spread in remote areas unless they threatened valuable resources or facilities, but by 1934 a policy of extinguishing all fires by 10:00 am of the next burning period was implemented.<sup id="cite_ref-vW2007_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vW2007-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-strategy_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-strategy-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This resulted in the buildup of fuels in some ecosystems such as <a href="/wiki/Ponderosa_pine" class="mw-redirect" title="Ponderosa pine">ponderosa pine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Douglas_fir" title="Douglas fir">Douglas fir</a> forests.<sup id="cite_ref-Graham_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Graham-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Changes_to_policy">Changes to policy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_wildfire_suppression_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Changes to policy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Giant_Forest.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Giant_Forest.jpg/220px-Giant_Forest.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Giant_Forest.jpg/330px-Giant_Forest.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Giant_Forest.jpg/440px-Giant_Forest.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Giant sequioa in California rely on wildfires in order to grow</figcaption></figure> <p>The policy began to be questioned in the 1960s, when it was realized that no new <a href="/wiki/Giant_sequoia" class="mw-redirect" title="Giant sequoia">giant sequoia</a> had grown in the forests of California, because fire is an essential part of their life cycle.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1962, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Interior" title="United States Secretary of the Interior">Secretary of the Interior</a> <a href="/wiki/Stewart_Udall" title="Stewart Udall">Stewart Udall</a> assembled a Special Advisory Board on Wildlife Management to look into wildlife management problems in the national parks. This Advisory Board wrote what is now referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Leopold_Report" title="Leopold Report">Leopold Report</a>, named after its chair, zoologist and conservationist <a href="/wiki/A._Starker_Leopold" title="A. Starker Leopold">A. Starker Leopold</a>, which did not confine its report to wildlife, but took the broader ecological view that parks should be managed as ecosystems. The passage of the 1964 <a href="/wiki/Wilderness_Act" title="Wilderness Act">Wilderness Act</a> encouraged the allowance of natural processes to occur, including fire.<sup id="cite_ref-strategy_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-strategy-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Afterwards, the National Park Service changed its policy in 1968 to recognize fire as an ecological process. Fires were to be allowed to run their courses as long as they could be contained within fire management units and accomplished approved management objectives. Several parks established fire use programs, and policies were gradually changed from fire control to fire management. The Forest Service enacted similar measures in 1974 by changing its policy from fire control to fire management, allowing lightning fires to burn in wilderness areas. This included both naturally caused fire and intentional <a href="/wiki/Prescribed_fire" class="mw-redirect" title="Prescribed fire">prescribed fire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-vW2007_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vW2007-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1978, the Forest Service abandoned the 10:00 am policy in favor of a new policy that encouraged the use of wildland fire by prescription.<sup id="cite_ref-vW2007_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vW2007-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-strategy_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-strategy-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Three events between 1978 and 1988 precipitated a major fire use policy review in 1989: the <a href="/wiki/Ouzel_Fire" title="Ouzel Fire">Ouzel Fire</a> in <a href="/wiki/Rocky_Mountain_National_Park" title="Rocky Mountain National Park">Rocky Mountain National Park</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Yellowstone_fires_of_1988" title="Yellowstone fires of 1988">Yellowstone fires of 1988</a> in and around Yellowstone National Park, and the Canyon Creek fire in the <a href="/wiki/Bob_Marshall_Wilderness" title="Bob Marshall Wilderness">Bob Marshall Wilderness</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_National_Forest" title="Lewis and Clark National Forest">Lewis and Clark National Forest</a>. In all three cases, monitored fires burned until they threatened developed areas. While none of the Yellowstone fires of 1988 were caused by controlled burns, later investigations proved the fire use policy was appropriate, though needing strengthening and improvement.<sup id="cite_ref-strategy_26-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-strategy-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Secretaries of Agriculture and the Interior convened a fire policy review team to evaluate the National Park Service and Forest Service wilderness fire policies. The team reaffirmed the fundamental importance of fire’s natural role but recommended that fire management plans be strengthened by establishing clear decision criteria and accountability, and that interagency cooperation be improved. Wildland fire use programs restarted slowly after the 1989 review. Eventually the Forest Service and National Park Service programs began to grow as the number of fires and area burned increased.<sup id="cite_ref-vW2007_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vW2007-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="21st_Century">21st Century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_wildfire_suppression_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: 21st Century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Two_tanks_marked_Fire_Water_sit_in_readiness_to_be_used,_as_a_California_brush_fire_burns_in_the_background,_2010.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Two_tanks_marked_Fire_Water_sit_in_readiness_to_be_used%2C_as_a_California_brush_fire_burns_in_the_background%2C_2010.jpg/220px-Two_tanks_marked_Fire_Water_sit_in_readiness_to_be_used%2C_as_a_California_brush_fire_burns_in_the_background%2C_2010.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Two_tanks_marked_Fire_Water_sit_in_readiness_to_be_used%2C_as_a_California_brush_fire_burns_in_the_background%2C_2010.jpg/330px-Two_tanks_marked_Fire_Water_sit_in_readiness_to_be_used%2C_as_a_California_brush_fire_burns_in_the_background%2C_2010.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Two_tanks_marked_Fire_Water_sit_in_readiness_to_be_used%2C_as_a_California_brush_fire_burns_in_the_background%2C_2010.jpg/440px-Two_tanks_marked_Fire_Water_sit_in_readiness_to_be_used%2C_as_a_California_brush_fire_burns_in_the_background%2C_2010.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3872" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Tanks filled with water await possible use as a fire burns on the crest of a hill in <a href="/wiki/Lebec,_California" title="Lebec, California">Lebec, California</a>, 2010.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tumbleweed_Fire,_Los_Angeles_County_2021,_Part_2.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Tumbleweed_Fire%2C_Los_Angeles_County_2021%2C_Part_2.JPG/220px-Tumbleweed_Fire%2C_Los_Angeles_County_2021%2C_Part_2.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Tumbleweed_Fire%2C_Los_Angeles_County_2021%2C_Part_2.JPG/330px-Tumbleweed_Fire%2C_Los_Angeles_County_2021%2C_Part_2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Tumbleweed_Fire%2C_Los_Angeles_County_2021%2C_Part_2.JPG/440px-Tumbleweed_Fire%2C_Los_Angeles_County_2021%2C_Part_2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="2500" /></a><figcaption>Numerous <a href="/wiki/Fire_engines" class="mw-redirect" title="Fire engines">fire engines</a> beside burnt brush, at the <a href="/wiki/Tumbleweed_Fire" class="mw-redirect" title="Tumbleweed Fire">Tumbleweed Fire</a> north of Los Angeles in July 2021</figcaption></figure> <p>Suppressive action taken during the <a href="/wiki/South_Canyon_Fire" title="South Canyon Fire">South Canyon Fire</a>, which was ignited by lightning in a fire exclusion zone on July 2, 1994, caused controversy after a blow-up killed 14 firefighters two days after the initial blaze. An interagency team was formed and issued their report in August. They cited several direct and contributory causes of the fatalities including fire behavior, personnel profiles, and incident management procedures. The South Canyon incident led to the first comprehensive review and update of federal wildland fire policy in decades. The report reiterated that the first priority of all federal wildland fire programs was <a href="/wiki/Firefighting" title="Firefighting">firefighter</a> and public safety. With regard to prescribed fires and prescribed natural fires, the report stated that, "Wildland fire will be used to protect, maintain, and enhance resources and, as nearly as possible, be allowed to function in its natural ecological role." In 1998, a new procedures guide used the term "wildland fire use" to describe what had previously been prescribed natural fires. By the end of the decade, a 1995 policy had reinvigorated “wildland fire use” programs and given managers the support they needed to enable the programs to continue to grow and mature.<sup id="cite_ref-vW2007_12-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vW2007-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FireOverview_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FireOverview-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fire management benefits began to appear, such as the 2000 Hash Rock fire which burned almost all of the <a href="/wiki/Mill_Creek_Wilderness" title="Mill Creek Wilderness">Mill Creek Wilderness</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Ochoco_National_Forest" title="Ochoco National Forest">Ochoco National Forest</a> in Oregon before it was suppressed. When the wildfire reached the 1996 Mill Creek fire, which had been managed under the wildland fire use program, it went out. Use of fire presently varies in various federal agencies, partially due to differing influences such as land proximity to urban areas.<sup id="cite_ref-vW2007_12-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vW2007-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In response to growing threats of fire in California, Jackie Fielder, an indigenous organizer and politician, proposed the creation of an indigenous wildfire task force as a part of her 2020 state senate campaign.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The plan draws on ideas behind the Karuk tribeś work around <a href="/wiki/Cultural_burning" title="Cultural burning">cultural burning</a> and climate adaptation, and would create a path for more cultural burning to take place. <sup id="cite_ref-:0_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bill Tripp, working directly with policy for the Karuk tribe, has noted more education and growing awareness of indigenous practices can lead to promising alternatives to modern-day fire suppression. <sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Karuk tribe have been a leader in restoring and expanding cultural burning in the American West, carrying out cultural burns in order to reduce wildfire risk and promote the growth of culturally important flora.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fielders proposal aims to reduce the threat of wildfire, as well as return more oversight of land management to indigenous people. It also has the potential to provide more job opportunities to indigenous and rural Californians. <sup id="cite_ref-:0_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fielder's campaign gained traction at least in part due to bold proposals like this.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scott Wiener, Fielder's opponent and current California State Senator for District 11, has stated that he is interested in supporting a task force similar to the one which Fielder proposed.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This would represent a divergence from the incumbent's past approach, as Wiener's approach to wildfire management in the past has largely focused on shifting new construction away from the wildland urban interface.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_wildfire_suppression_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Smokejumper" title="Smokejumper">Smokejumpers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hotshot_crew" title="Hotshot crew">Hotshot Crew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helitack" title="Helitack">Helitack</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_wildfire_suppression_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free 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"The Big Burn: Teddy Roosevelt and the Fire that Saved America". Mariner Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0547394608" title="Special:BookSources/0547394608">0547394608</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_wildfire_suppression_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.foresthistory.org/ASPNET/Policy/Fire/index.aspx">Fire and the U.S. Forest Service</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100219100047/http://www.foresthistory.org/ASPNET/Policy/Fire/index.aspx">Archived</a> 2010-02-19 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (<a href="/wiki/Forest_History_Society" title="Forest History Society">Forest History Society</a> USFS History Pages)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Firefighting" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse 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4em"><a href="/wiki/Firefighting" title="Firefighting">Firefighting</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Firefighter" title="Firefighter">Personnel and organization</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battalion_chief" title="Battalion chief">Battalion chief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_fire_officer" title="Chief fire officer">Chief fire officer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_captain" title="Fire captain">Fire captain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_chief" title="Fire chief">Fire chief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Station_officer" title="Station officer">Station officer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retained_firefighter" title="Retained firefighter">Retained firefighter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_marshal" title="Fire marshal">Fire marshal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_police" title="Fire police">Fire police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firefighter_assist_and_search_team" title="Firefighter assist and search team">Firefighter assist and search team</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Handcrew" title="Handcrew">Handcrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_operations_firefighter" title="Special operations firefighter">Special operations firefighter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volunteer_fire_department" title="Volunteer fire department">Volunteer fire department</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_firefighting" title="Women in firefighting">Women in firefighting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_comparative_firefighting_ranks" title="List of comparative firefighting ranks">Fire department ranks by country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Facilities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drill_tower" title="Drill tower">Drill tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_department" title="Fire department">Fire department</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fire_departments" title="List of fire departments">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_lookout_tower" title="Fire lookout tower">Fire lookout tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_station" title="Fire station">Fire station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hose_tower" title="Hose tower">Hose tower</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Firefighting_apparatus" title="Firefighting apparatus">Apparatus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airport_crash_tender" title="Airport crash tender">Airport crash tender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_command_vehicle" title="Fire command vehicle">Fire command vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_engine" title="Fire engine">Fire engine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_motorcycle" title="Fire motorcycle">Fire motorcycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fireboat" title="Fireboat">Fireboat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firefighting_apparatus" title="Firefighting apparatus">Firefighting apparatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazardous_materials_apparatus" title="Hazardous materials apparatus">Hazardous materials apparatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_and_air_unit" title="Light and air unit">Light and air unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quint_(fire_apparatus)" title="Quint (fire apparatus)">Quint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rescue_vehicle" title="Rescue vehicle">Rescue vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_tender" title="Water tender">Water tender</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_firefighting_equipment" title="Glossary of firefighting equipment">Equipment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bunker_gear" title="Bunker gear">Bunker gear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Escape_chair" title="Escape chair">Escape chair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_blanket" title="Fire blanket">Fire blanket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_brigade_key" title="Fire brigade key">Fire brigade keys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_bucket" title="Fire bucket">Fire bucket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_extinguisher" title="Fire extinguisher">Fire extinguisher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_hose" title="Fire hose">Fire hose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_hydrant" title="Fire hydrant">Fire hydrant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_proximity_suit" title="Fire proximity suit">Fire proximity suit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_retardant" title="Fire retardant">Fire retardant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_shelter" title="Fire shelter">Fire shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fireman%27s_pole" title="Fireman's pole">Fireman's pole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fireman%27s_switch" title="Fireman's switch">Fireman's switch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flame_retardant" title="Flame retardant">Flame retardant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fog_nozzle" title="Fog nozzle">Fog nozzle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halligan_bar" title="Halligan bar">Halligan bar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard_suction_hose" title="Hard suction hose">Hard suction hose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazmat_suit" title="Hazmat suit">Hazmat suit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_detector" title="Heat detector">Heat detector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hose_bridge" title="Hose bridge">Hose bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_rescue_tool" title="Hydraulic rescue tool">Hydraulic rescue tool</a> ("Jaws of life")</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelly_tool" title="Kelly tool">Kelly tool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nomex" title="Nomex">Nomex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_roof_hook" title="New York roof hook">New York roof hook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PASS_device" title="PASS device">PASS device</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_pig_(tool)" title="The pig (tool)">The pig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portable_water_tank" title="Portable water tank">Portable water tank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotary_saw" title="Rotary saw">Rotary saw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secure_information_box" title="Secure information box">Secure information box</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-contained_breathing_apparatus" title="Self-contained breathing apparatus">Self-contained breathing apparatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siren_(alarm)" title="Siren (alarm)">Siren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoke_detector" title="Smoke detector">Smoke detector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_imaging_camera" title="Thermal imaging camera">Thermal imaging camera</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_firefighting" title="Glossary of firefighting">Terminology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Backdraft" title="Backdraft">Backdraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barn_fire" title="Barn fire">Barn fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chimney_fire" title="Chimney fire">Chimney fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dead_man_zone" title="Dead man zone">Dead man zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deluge_gun" title="Deluge gun">Deluge gun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Door_breaching" title="Door breaching">Door breaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Draft_(water)" title="Draft (water)">Draft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_alarm" title="False alarm">False alarm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_class" title="Fire class">Fire class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_control" title="Fire control">Fire control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_safety" title="Fire safety">Fire safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_triangle" title="Fire triangle">Fire triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fireman%27s_carry" title="Fireman's carry">Fireman's carry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firewall_(construction)" title="Firewall (construction)">Firewall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flash_fire" title="Flash fire">Flash fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flashover" title="Flashover">Flashover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaseous_fire_suppression" title="Gaseous fire suppression">Gaseous fire suppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple-alarm_fire" title="Multiple-alarm fire">Multiple-alarm fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rollover_(fire)" title="Rollover (fire)">Rollover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stop,_drop_and_roll" title="Stop, drop and roll">Stop, drop and roll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structure_fire" title="Structure fire">Structure fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-in,_two-out" title="Two-in, two-out">Two-in, two-out</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ventilation_(firefighting)" title="Ventilation (firefighting)">Ventilation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Candidate_Physical_Ability_Test" title="Candidate Physical Ability Test">Candidate Physical Ability Test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_camp" title="Fire camp">Fire camp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_engine_red" title="Fire engine red">Fire engine red</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_photography" title="Fire photography">Fire photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_protection_engineering" title="Fire protection engineering">Fire protection engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_firefighting" title="Geography of firefighting">Geography of firefighting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_firefighting" title="History of firefighting">History of firefighting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_of_Fire_Fighters" title="International Association of Fire Fighters">International Association of Fire Fighters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Firefighters%27_Day" title="International Firefighters' Day">International Firefighters' Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_firefighting_films" title="List of firefighting films">List of firefighting films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muster_(event)" title="Muster (event)">Muster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Florian" title="Saint Florian">Saint Florian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Firefighters_Games" title="World Firefighters Games">World Firefighters Games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Police_and_Fire_Games" title="World Police and Fire Games">World Police and Fire Games</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">Wildfires</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wildfire_emergency_management" title="Wildfire emergency management">Wildfire emergency management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildfire_suppression" title="Wildfire suppression">Wildfire suppression</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Equipment <br />and tactics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerial_firefighting" title="Aerial firefighting">Aerial firefighting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Controlled_burn" title="Controlled burn">Controlled burn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Driptorch" title="Driptorch">Driptorch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_flapper" title="Fire flapper">Fire flapper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_hose" title="Fire hose">Fire hose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_lookout_tower" title="Fire lookout tower">Fire lookout tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_rake" title="Fire rake">Fire rake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_retardant" title="Fire retardant">Fire retardant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_retardant_gel" title="Fire retardant gel">Fire retardant gel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_trail" title="Fire trail">Fire trail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firebreak" title="Firebreak">Firebreak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firefighting_apparatus" title="Firefighting apparatus">Firefighting apparatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firefighting_foam" title="Firefighting foam">Firefighting foam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helicopter_bucket" title="Helicopter bucket">Helicopter bucket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hose_pack" title="Hose pack">Hose pack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McLeod_(tool)" title="McLeod (tool)">McLeod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modular_Airborne_FireFighting_System" title="Modular Airborne FireFighting System">Modular Airborne FireFighting System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulaski_(tool)" title="Pulaski (tool)">Pulaski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildfire_suppression_equipment_and_personnel" title="Wildfire suppression equipment and personnel">Wildfire suppression equipment and personnel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildland_fire_engine" title="Wildland fire engine">Wildland fire engine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildland_water_tender" title="Wildland water tender">Wildland water tender</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Personnel</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fire_lookout" title="Fire lookout">Fire lookout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Handcrew" title="Handcrew">Handcrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helitack" title="Helitack">Helitack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hotshot_crew" title="Hotshot crew">Hotshot crew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smokejumper" title="Smokejumper">Smokejumper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildland_fire_module" title="Wildland fire module">Wildland fire module</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By location</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Firefighting_in_ancient_Rome" title="Firefighting in ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bushfires_in_Australia" title="Bushfires in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildfires_in_the_United_States" title="Wildfires in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_California_wildfires" title="List of California wildfires">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Washington_wildfires" title="List of Washington wildfires">Washington</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_wildfire_terms" title="Glossary of wildfire terms">Glossary of wildfire terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wildfires" title="List of wildfires">List of wildfires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Fire" title="Template:Fire">Template:Fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Fire_protection" title="Template:Fire protection">Template:Fire protection</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Firefighting" title="Category:Firefighting"><b>Category</b></a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Firefighting" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Firefighting"><b>Commons</b></a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e0/Symbol_question.svg/16px-Symbol_question.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e0/Symbol_question.svg/23px-Symbol_question.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e0/Symbol_question.svg/31px-Symbol_question.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_firefighting" title="Glossary of firefighting"><b>Glossary</b></a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e0/Symbol_question.svg/16px-Symbol_question.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e0/Symbol_question.svg/23px-Symbol_question.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e0/Symbol_question.svg/31px-Symbol_question.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_firefighting_articles" title="Index of firefighting articles"><b>Index</b></a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" 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