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</div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Eines personals"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Aparença"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Aparença" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" 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href="//donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_ca.wikipedia.org&uselang=ca" class=""><span>Donatius</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Especial:Crea_compte&returnto=Cristal%C2%B7lografia+de+raigs+X" title="Us animem a crear un compte i iniciar una sessió, encara que no és obligatori" class=""><span>Crea un compte</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Especial:Registre_i_entrada&returnto=Cristal%C2%B7lografia+de+raigs+X" title="Us animem a registrar-vos, però no és obligatori [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Inicia la sessió</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu 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[n]" accesskey="n"><span>Discussió per aquest IP</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Lloc"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contingut" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contingut</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">mou a la barra lateral</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">amaga</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">Inici</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Història" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Història"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Història</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Història-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Difracció_de_raigs_X" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Difracció_de_raigs_X"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Difracció de raigs X</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Difracció_de_raigs_X-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cristal·lografia_de_macromolècules" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cristal·lografia_de_macromolècules"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Cristal·lografia de macromolècules</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cristal·lografia_de_macromolècules-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vegeu_també" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vegeu_també"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Vegeu també</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vegeu_també-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Referències" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Referències"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Referències</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Referències-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliografia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliografia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Bibliografia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliografia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contingut" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Commuta la taula de continguts." > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Commuta la taula de continguts.</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Cristal·lografia de raigs X</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Vés a un article en una altra llengua. Disponible en 51 llengües" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-51" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">51 llengües</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-straalkristallografie" title="X-straalkristallografie - afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="X-straalkristallografie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B4%D8%B9%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="دراسة البلورات بالأشعة السينية - àrab" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="دراسة البلورات بالأشعة السينية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="àrab" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cristalograf%C3%ADa_de_rayos_X" title="Cristalografía de rayos X - asturià" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Cristalografía de rayos X" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="asturià" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Рентгенова кристалография - búlgar" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Рентгенова кристалография" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="búlgar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%9E%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF_%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="রঞ্জনরশ্মি কেলাসবিজ্ঞান - bengalí" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="রঞ্জনরশ্মি কেলাসবিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="bengalí" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rendgenska_kristalografija" title="Rendgenska kristalografija - bosnià" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Rendgenska kristalografija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="bosnià" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%84%D9%88%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D8%AA%DB%8C%D8%B4%DA%A9%DB%8C_%D8%A6%DB%8E%DA%A9%D8%B3" title="بلوورناسی تیشکی ئێکس - kurd central" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="بلوورناسی تیشکی ئێکس" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="kurd central" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rentgenov%C3%A1_krystalografie" title="Rentgenová krystalografie - txec" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Rentgenová krystalografie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="txec" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristallstrukturanalyse" title="Kristallstrukturanalyse - alemany" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kristallstrukturanalyse" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="alemany" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CF%81%CF%85%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%86%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CE%B1%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%AF%CE%BD%CF%89%CE%BD_%CE%A7" title="Κρυσταλλογραφία ακτίνων Χ - grec" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κρυσταλλογραφία ακτίνων Χ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="grec" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-en mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_crystallography" title="X-ray crystallography - anglès" lang="en" hreflang="en" data-title="X-ray crystallography" data-language-autonym="English" data-language-local-name="anglès" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristalografio_de_ikso-radioj" title="Kristalografio de ikso-radioj - esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kristalografio de ikso-radioj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="article de qualitat"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cristalograf%C3%ADa_de_rayos_X" title="Cristalografía de rayos X - espanyol" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Cristalografía de rayos X" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="espanyol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B6ntgenstruktuurianal%C3%BC%C3%BCs" title="Röntgenstruktuurianalüüs - estonià" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Röntgenstruktuurianalüüs" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="estonià" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/X_izpien_bidezko_kristalografia" title="X izpien bidezko kristalografia - basc" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="X izpien bidezko kristalografia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="basc" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%86%DA%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%AA%D9%88%DB%8C_%D8%A7%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%B3" title="بلورنگاری پرتوی ایکس - persa" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بلورنگاری پرتوی ایکس" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="persa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B6ntgenkristallografia" title="Röntgenkristallografia - finès" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Röntgenkristallografia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="finès" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cristallographie_aux_rayons_X" title="Cristallographie aux rayons X - francès" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Cristallographie aux rayons X" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="francès" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criostalagrafa%C3%ADocht_x-ghathach" title="Criostalagrafaíocht x-ghathach - irlandès" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Criostalagrafaíocht x-ghathach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="irlandès" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cristalograf%C3%ADa_de_raios_X" title="Cristalografía de raios X - gallec" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Cristalografía de raios X" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="gallec" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%91%D7%A7%D7%A8%D7%A0%D7%99_%D7%A8%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%92%D7%9F" title="קריסטלוגרפיה בקרני רנטגן - hebreu" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קריסטלוגרפיה בקרני רנטגן" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="hebreu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8-%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80" title="एक्स-किरण क्रिस्टलिकी - hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="एक्स-किरण क्रिस्टलिकी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rendgenska_difrakcija_praha" title="Rendgenska difrakcija praha - croat" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Rendgenska difrakcija praha" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="croat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8C%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%BF%D5%A3%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%BC%D5%B8%D6%82%D6%81%D5%BE%D5%A1%D5%AE%D6%84%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%BE%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AC%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%AE%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Ռենտգենակառուցվածքային վերլուծություն - armeni" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ռենտգենակառուցվածքային վերլուծություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="armeni" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristalografi_sinar-X" title="Kristalografi sinar-X - indonesi" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kristalografi sinar-X" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="indonesi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cristallografia_a_raggi_X" title="Cristallografia a raggi X - italià" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Cristallografia a raggi X" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="italià" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/X%E7%B7%9A%E7%B5%90%E6%99%B6%E6%A7%8B%E9%80%A0%E8%A7%A3%E6%9E%90" title="X線結晶構造解析 - japonès" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="X線結晶構造解析" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="japonès" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%97%91%EC%8A%A4%EC%84%A0%EA%B2%B0%EC%A0%95%ED%95%99" title="엑스선결정학 - coreà" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="엑스선결정학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="coreà" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D1%82%D2%AF%D0%B7%D2%AF%D0%BC%D0%B4%D2%AF%D0%BA_%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BE" title="Рентген түзүмдүк талдоо - kirguís" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Рентген түзүмдүк талдоо" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="kirguís" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rentgendifraktometrija" title="Rentgendifraktometrija - letó" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Rentgendifraktometrija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="letó" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="article de qualitat"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Рендгенска кристалографија - macedoni" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Рендгенска кристалографија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="macedoni" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8" title="Рентген кристаллографи - mongol" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Рентген кристаллографи" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="mongol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristalografi_sinar-x" title="Kristalografi sinar-x - malai" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kristalografi sinar-x" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="malai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B6ntgenkristallografie" title="Röntgenkristallografie - neerlandès" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Röntgenkristallografie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="neerlandès" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B8ntgenkrystallografi" title="Røntgenkrystallografi - noruec nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Røntgenkrystallografi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="noruec nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B8ntgenkrystallografi" title="Røntgenkrystallografi - noruec bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Røntgenkrystallografi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="noruec bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cristallografia_de_rais_X" title="Cristallografia de rais X - occità" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Cristallografia de rais X" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="occità" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rentgenografia_strukturalna" title="Rentgenografia strukturalna - polonès" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Rentgenografia strukturalna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="polonès" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cristalografia_de_raios_X" title="Cristalografia de raios X - portuguès" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Cristalografia de raios X" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="portuguès" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cristalografie_de_raze_X" title="Cristalografie de raze X - romanès" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Cristalografie de raze X" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="romanès" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7" title="Рентгеноструктурный анализ - rus" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Рентгеноструктурный анализ" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="rus" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rendgenska_strukturna_analiza" title="Rendgenska strukturna analiza - serbocroat" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Rendgenska strukturna analiza" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="serbocroat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_crystallography" title="X-ray crystallography - Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="X-ray crystallography" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristalografia_me_rreze-X" title="Kristalografia me rreze-X - albanès" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Kristalografia me rreze-X" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="albanès" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Рендгенска кристалографија - serbi" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Рендгенска кристалографија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="serbi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B6ntgenkristallografi" title="Röntgenkristallografi - suec" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Röntgenkristallografi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="suec" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/X_%C4%B1%C5%9F%C4%B1n%C4%B1_kristalografisi" title="X ışını kristalografisi - turc" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="X ışını kristalografisi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="turc" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B7" title="Рентгеноструктурний аналіз - ucraïnès" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Рентгеноструктурний аналіз" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="ucraïnès" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rentgen_nurlarining_difraksiyasi" title="Rentgen nurlarining difraksiyasi - uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Rentgen nurlarining difraksiyasi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="uzbek" 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href="/w/index.php?title=Cristal%C2%B7lografia_de_raigs_X&action=history"><span>Mostra l'historial</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Especial:Enlla%C3%A7os/Cristal%C2%B7lografia_de_raigs_X" title="Una llista de totes les pàgines wiki que enllacen amb aquesta [j]" accesskey="j"><span>Què hi enllaça</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Especial:Seguiment/Cristal%C2%B7lografia_de_raigs_X" rel="nofollow" title="Canvis recents a pàgines enllaçades des d'aquesta pàgina [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Canvis relacionats</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Especial:P%C3%A0gines_especials" title="Llista totes les pàgines especials [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Pàgines 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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">amaga</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">De la Viquipèdia, l'enciclopèdia lliure</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(S'ha redirigit des de: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Difracci%C3%B3_de_raigs_X&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Difracció de raigs X">Difracció de raigs X</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="ca" dir="ltr"><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fitxer:Zeolite-ZSM-5-3D-vdW.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Zeolite-ZSM-5-3D-vdW.png/220px-Zeolite-ZSM-5-3D-vdW.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Zeolite-ZSM-5-3D-vdW.png/330px-Zeolite-ZSM-5-3D-vdW.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Zeolite-ZSM-5-3D-vdW.png/440px-Zeolite-ZSM-5-3D-vdW.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="1221" /></a><figcaption>La cristal·lografia de raigs X pot localitzar cada àtom en una <a href="/wiki/Zeolita" title="Zeolita">zeolita</a>, la qual és un <a href="/wiki/Aluminosilicat" title="Aluminosilicat">aluminosilicat</a> amb moltes aplicacions importants com la purificació de l'aigua.</figcaption></figure> <p>La <b>difracció</b> o <b>cristal·lografia de raigs X</b> és una tècnica per a determinar la disposició dels <a href="/wiki/%C3%80toms" class="mw-redirect" title="Àtoms">àtoms</a> dins un <a href="/wiki/Cristall" title="Cristall">cristall</a>, en aquest mètode un feix de <a href="/wiki/Raigs_X" class="mw-redirect" title="Raigs X">raigs X</a> colpeja el <a href="/wiki/Cristall" title="Cristall">cristall</a> i causa que el feix de llum s'estengui en moltes direccions específiques. Dels angles i la intensitat d'aquest feixos difractats, un <a href="/wiki/Cristal%C2%B7lografia" title="Cristal·lografia">cristal·lògraf</a> pot produir una imatge tridimensional de la densitat dels <a href="/wiki/Electrons" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrons">electrons</a> dins el cristall. D'aquesta densitat d'electrons, es pot determinar les posicions mitjanes dels àtoms en el cristall, aplicant la <a href="/wiki/Llei_de_Bragg" title="Llei de Bragg">llei de Bragg</a>, i també els seus <a href="/wiki/Enlla%C3%A7os_qu%C3%ADmics" class="mw-redirect" title="Enllaços químics">enllaços químics</a>, el seu <a href="/wiki/Entropia" title="Entropia">desordre</a> i altres informacions. </p><p>És una de les tècniques que gaudeix de major prestigi entre la comunitat científica per a dilucidar <a href="/wiki/Estructures_cristal%C2%B7lines" class="mw-redirect" title="Estructures cristal·lines">estructures cristal·lines</a>, a causa de la seva precisió i a l'experiència acumulada durant dècades, elements que la fan molt fiable. Les seves majors limitacions es deuen a la necessitat de treballar amb sistemes cristal·lins, pel que és difícilment aplicable a <a href="/wiki/Dissolucions" class="mw-redirect" title="Dissolucions">dissolucions</a>, a sistemes biològics <a href="/wiki/In_vivo" title="In vivo">in vivo</a>, i no és aplicable a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sistemes_amorfs&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sistemes amorfs (encara no existeix)">sistemes amorfs</a> o a <a href="/wiki/Gas" title="Gas">gasos</a>. És possible treballar amb <a href="/wiki/Monocristall" title="Monocristall">monocristalls</a> o amb pols microcristal·lina, aconseguint-se diferents dades en ambdós casos. </p><p>Per a la resolució dels paràmetres de la <a href="/wiki/Cel%C2%B7la_unitat" class="mw-redirect" title="Cel·la unitat">cel·la unitat</a> pot ser suficient la difracció de raigs X en pols, mentre que per a una dilucidació precisa de les posicions atòmiques és convenient la difracció de raigs X en monocristall. La cristal·lografia de raigs X va ocupar un paper essencial en la descripció de la doble hèlix de la molècula d'<a href="/wiki/ADN" class="mw-redirect" title="ADN">ADN</a>. Aquesta tècnica s'utilitza àmpliament en la determinació de les estructures de les <a href="/wiki/Prote%C3%AFnes" class="mw-redirect" title="Proteïnes">proteïnes</a>. </p><p>Com que molts materials poden formar cristalls—com les <a href="/wiki/Sal_qu%C3%ADmica" class="mw-redirect" title="Sal química">sals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metalls" class="mw-redirect" title="Metalls">metalls</a>, <a href="/wiki/Minerals" class="mw-redirect" title="Minerals">minerals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Semiconductors" class="mw-redirect" title="Semiconductors">semiconductors</a>, com també diversos materials inorgànics, orgànics i molècules biològiques—la cristal·lografia de raigs X ha estat fonamental en els desenvolupament de molts camps científics. En les seves primeres èpoques d'usar-se aquest mètode ha determinat la mida dels àtoms, la llargada i tipus dels enllaços químics, i les diferències a escala atòmica aentre diversos materials, especialment minerals i <a href="/wiki/Aliatges" class="mw-redirect" title="Aliatges">aliatges</a>. Aquest mètode també ha revelat l'estructura i funció de moltes molècules biològiques, incloent les vitamines, drogues, proteïnes i àcids nucleics com l'<a href="/wiki/ADN" class="mw-redirect" title="ADN">ADN</a>. També serveix per conèixer l'estructura atòmica dels nous materials. També es fa servir en electrònica i enginyeria (deformació dels materials). </p><p>En el mesurament per difracció dels raigs X, es munta un <a href="/wiki/Cristall" title="Cristall">cristall</a> en un <a href="/wiki/Goni%C3%B2metre" title="Goniòmetre">goniòmetre</a> i gradualment se'l fa rotar mentre és bombardejat amb raigs X, que produeix un patró de difracció de zones regularment espaiades conegudes com a <i>reflexions</i>. Les dues imatges bidimensionals preses a rotacions diferents es converteixen en un model tridimensional de la densitat d'electrons dins el cristall fent servir el model matemàtic de les <a href="/wiki/Transformacions_de_Fourier" class="mw-redirect" title="Transformacions de Fourier">transformacions de Fourier</a>, combinat amb les dades químiques conegudes de la mostra. Hi pot haver una resolució pobra (<i>fuzziness</i>) o fins i tot errors si el cristall és massa petit, o no uniforme internament. </p><p>Si el material que s'investiga només és disponible en forma de pols de nanocristalls o té una cristal·linitat pobra, es poden fer servir els mètodes de la cristal·lografia d'electrons per determinar-ne l'estructura atòmica. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Història"><span id="Hist.C3.B2ria"></span>Història</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cristal%C2%B7lografia_de_raigs_X&action=edit&section=1" title="Modifica la secció: Història"><span>modifica</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fitxer:Kepler_conjecture_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Kepler_conjecture_1.jpg/220px-Kepler_conjecture_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/Kepler_conjecture_1.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="261" data-file-height="256" /></a><figcaption>Diagrama d'un empaquetament quadrat (figura A, a dalt) i hexagonal (figura B, a sota) de l'obra de <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Kepler</a>, <i>Strena seu de Nive Sexangula</i>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Fins al segle <span title="Nombre escrit en xifres romanes" style="font-variant:small-caps;">xvii</span> no es van començar a investigar científicament l'estructura dels cristalls. <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Johannes Kepler</a> va plantejar la hipòtesi en la seva obra <i>Strena seu de Nive Sexangula</i> (1611) que la simetria hexagonal dels cristalls dels flocs de neu era deguda a un empaquetametn regular de les esfèriques partícules d'aigua.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fitxer:Snowflake8.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Snowflake8.png/220px-Snowflake8.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Snowflake8.png/330px-Snowflake8.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Snowflake8.png 2x" data-file-width="341" data-file-height="319" /></a><figcaption>Com mostra la cristal·lografia de raigs X, la simetria hexagonal dels flocs de neu resulta de la disposició tetrahèdrica dels enllaços d'hidrogen sobre cada molècula d'aigua.</figcaption></figure> <p>Els raigs X varen ser descoberts per <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Conrad_R%C3%B6ntgen" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen">Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen</a> l'any 1895, just quan havien acabat els estudis de la simetria dels cristalls. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Difracció_de_raigs_X"><span id="Difracci.C3.B3_de_raigs_X"></span>Difracció de raigs X</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cristal%C2%B7lografia_de_raigs_X&action=edit&section=2" title="Modifica la secció: Difracció de raigs X"><span>modifica</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fitxer:Bragg_diffraction_2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Bragg_diffraction_2.svg/220px-Bragg_diffraction_2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Bragg_diffraction_2.svg/330px-Bragg_diffraction_2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Bragg_diffraction_2.svg/440px-Bragg_diffraction_2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="412" /></a><figcaption>El feix d'entrada (que prové de la part superior esquerra) correctament orientat és deflectit en un angle de 2θ, produint una zona de <i>reflexió</i> en el <a href="/w/index.php?title=Patr%C3%B3_de_difracci%C3%B3&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Patró de difracció (encara no existeix)">patró de difracció</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Els àtoms dels cristalls dispersen ones de raigs X, principalment a través dels electrons dels àtoms. Els raigs X que colpegen un electró produeixen ones esfèriques circulars secundàries que emanen dels electrons. Aquest fenomen es coneix com a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dispersi%C3%B3_el%C3%A0stica&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dispersió elàstica (encara no existeix)">dispersió elàstica</a>, i l'electró es coneix com a dispersor (<i>scatterer</i>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cristal·lografia_de_macromolècules"><span id="Cristal.C2.B7lografia_de_macromol.C3.A8cules"></span>Cristal·lografia de macromolècules</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cristal%C2%B7lografia_de_raigs_X&action=edit&section=3" title="Modifica la secció: Cristal·lografia de macromolècules"><span>modifica</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Les estructures dels cristalls de les proteïnes es van començar a resoldre a la dècada de 1950 començant amb la <a href="/wiki/Mioglobina" title="Mioglobina">mioglobina</a> de l'esperma de la balena per part de <a href="/wiki/Max_Perutz" class="mw-redirect" title="Max Perutz">Max Perutz</a> i de <a href="/wiki/John_Kendrew" title="John Kendrew">Sir John Cowdery Kendrew</a>,.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Després s'han determinat milers d'estructures dels cristalls de molècules biològiques.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tanmateix la membrana intrínseca de les proteïnes segueix sent un repte per cristal·litzar-la perquè requereixen detergents per solubilitzar-les i això interfereixen amb la cristal·lització.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vegeu_també"><span id="Vegeu_tamb.C3.A9"></span>Vegeu també</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cristal%C2%B7lografia_de_raigs_X&action=edit&section=4" title="Modifica la secció: Vegeu també"><span>modifica</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Protein_Data_Bank" title="Protein Data Bank">Protein Data Bank</a> (PDB)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Referències"><span id="Refer.C3.A8ncies"></span>Referències</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cristal%C2%B7lografia_de_raigs_X&action=edit&section=5" title="Modifica la secció: Referències"><span>modifica</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="reflist {{#if: | references-column-count references-column-count-{{{col}}}" style="list-style-type: decimal;"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-1">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book" style="font-style:normal"><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Kepler J</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/kepler/strena.html"><i>Strena seu de Nive Sexangula</i></a>.  Frankfurt: G. Tampach, 1611. <span style="font-size:90%; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Especial:Fonts_bibliogr%C3%A0fiques/3321000210" title="Especial:Fonts bibliogràfiques/3321000210">ISBN 3321000210</a></span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Strena+seu+de+Nive+Sexangula&rft.au=Kepler+J&rft.date=1611&rft.pub=G.+Tampach&rft.place=Frankfurt&rft.isbn=3321000210&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thelatinlibrary.com%2Fkepler%2Fstrena.html"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-2">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation" style="font-style:normal"><a href="/wiki/John_Kendrew" title="John Kendrew">Kendrew J. C.</a>; <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Bodo</span>, G.; <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Dintzis</span>, H. M.; <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Parrish</span>, R. G.; <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Wyckoff</span>, H.; <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Phillips</span>, D. C.; 1 «A Three-Dimensional Model of the Myoglobin Molecule Obtained by X-Ray Analysis». <i>Nature</i>, 181, 4610, 08-03-1958, pàg. 662–6. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1958Natur.181..662K">1958Natur.181..662K</a>. <a href="/wiki/DOI" title="DOI">DOI</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2F181662a0">10.1038/181662a0</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a>: <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/13517261?dopt=Abstract" class="extiw" title="pmid:13517261">13517261</a>.</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-3">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation" style="font-style:normal">«<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070704045207/http://www.rcsb.org/pdb/statistics/holdings.do">Table of entries in the PDB, arranged by experimental method</a>». Arxivat de l'<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rcsb.org/pdb/statistics/holdings.do">original</a> el 2007-07-04. [Consulta: 26 abril 2012].</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-4">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation" style="font-style:normal">Lundstrom K «Structural genomics for membrane proteins». <i>Cell. Mol. Life Sci.</i>, 63, 22, 2006, pàg. 2597–607. <a href="/wiki/DOI" title="DOI">DOI</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00018-006-6252-y">10.1007/s00018-006-6252-y</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a>: <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17013556?dopt=Abstract" class="extiw" title="pmid:17013556">17013556</a>.</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-5">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation" style="font-style:normal">Lundstrom K «Structural genomics on membrane proteins: mini review». <i>Comb. Chem. High Throughput Screen.</i>, 7, 5, 2004, pàg. 431–9. <a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a>: <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15320710?dopt=Abstract" class="extiw" title="pmid:15320710">15320710</a>.</span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliografia">Bibliografia</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cristal%C2%B7lografia_de_raigs_X&action=edit&section=6" title="Modifica la secció: Bibliografia"><span>modifica</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="citation book" style="font-style:normal"> Theo Hahn. <i>International Tables for Crystallography. Volume A, Space-group Symmetry</i>. 5a edició.  Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, for the International Union of Crystallography, 2002. <span style="font-size:90%; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Especial:Fonts_bibliogr%C3%A0fiques/0792365909" title="Especial:Fonts bibliogràfiques/0792365909">ISBN 0792365909</a></span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=International+Tables+for+Crystallography.+Volume+A%2C+Space-group+Symmetry&rft.date=2002&rft.edition=5a+edici%C3%B3&rft.pub=Kluwer+Academic+Publishers%2C+for+the+International+Union+of+Crystallography&rft.place=Dordrecht&rft.isbn=0792365909"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></li> <li><span class="citation book" style="font-style:normal"> Michael G. Rossmann and Eddy Arnold. <i>International Tables for Crystallography. Volume F, Crystallography of biological molecules</i>.  Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, for the International Union of Crystallography, 2001. <span style="font-size:90%; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Especial:Fonts_bibliogr%C3%A0fiques/0792368576" title="Especial:Fonts bibliogràfiques/0792368576">ISBN 0792368576</a></span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=International+Tables+for+Crystallography.+Volume+F%2C+Crystallography+of+biological+molecules&rft.date=2001&rft.pub=Kluwer+Academic+Publishers%2C+for+the+International+Union+of+Crystallography&rft.place=Dordrecht&rft.isbn=0792368576"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></li> <li><span class="citation book" style="font-style:normal"> Theo Hahn. <i>International Tables for Crystallography. Brief Teaching Edition of Volume A, Space-group Symmetry</i>. 4a ed..  Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, for the International Union of Crystallography, 1996. <span style="font-size:90%; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Especial:Fonts_bibliogr%C3%A0fiques/0792342526" title="Especial:Fonts bibliogràfiques/0792342526">ISBN 0792342526</a></span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=International+Tables+for+Crystallography.+Brief+Teaching+Edition+of+Volume+A%2C+Space-group+Symmetry&rft.date=1996&rft.edition=4a+ed.&rft.pub=Kluwer+Academic+Publishers%2C+for+the+International+Union+of+Crystallography&rft.place=Dordrecht&rft.isbn=0792342526"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></li></ul> <table cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" style="margin:5px; padding: 5px; border:1px solid #aaaaaa; text-align:left;" class="infobox noprint plainlinks"> <tbody><tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:85%">En altres projectes de <a 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