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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Acquisition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Acquisition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Acquisition</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Acquisition-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Acquisition subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Acquisition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Receptive_bilingualism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Receptive_bilingualism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Receptive bilingualism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Receptive_bilingualism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Order_of_acquisition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Order_of_acquisition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Order of acquisition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Order_of_acquisition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Outcomes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Outcomes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Outcomes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Outcomes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_individuals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_individuals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>In individuals</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-In_individuals-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle In individuals subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-In_individuals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cognitive_ability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cognitive_ability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Cognitive ability</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cognitive_ability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Auditory_ability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Auditory_ability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Auditory ability</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Auditory_ability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_benefits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_benefits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Economic benefits</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_benefits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Psychology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Psychology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Psychology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Psychology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Personality</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hyperpolyglots_and_savants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hyperpolyglots_and_savants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Hyperpolyglots and savants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hyperpolyglots_and_savants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neuroscience" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neuroscience"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Neuroscience</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neuroscience-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_communities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_communities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>In communities</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_communities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interaction_between_speakers_of_different_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interaction_between_speakers_of_different_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Interaction between speakers of different languages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interaction_between_speakers_of_different_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Computing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Computing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Computing</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Computing-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Computing subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Computing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Internet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Internet</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Internet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-English-speaking_countries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#English-speaking_countries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>English-speaking countries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-English-speaking_countries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Asia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Music" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Music"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Music</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Music-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Literature</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Literature-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Literature subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fiction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fiction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.1</span> <span>Fiction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fiction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Poetry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poetry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.2</span> <span>Poetry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poetry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Film" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Film"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Film</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Film-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle See also subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Legislation_and_movements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legislation_and_movements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16.1</span> <span>Legislation and movements</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legislation_and_movements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16.2</span> <span>Education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">19</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">20</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Multilingualism</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 81 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-81" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">81 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B9%D8%AF%D8%AF_%D9%84%D8%BA%D9%88%D9%8A" title="تعدد لغوي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تعدد لغوي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6" title="বহুভাষাবাদ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="বহুভাষাবাদ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A4_arut_yatinta%C3%B1a" title="Pä arut yatintaña – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="Pä arut yatintaña" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="Aymara" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aymar aru</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87oxdillilik" title="Çoxdillilik – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Çoxdillilik" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE" title="বহুভাষিকতা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বহুভাষিকতা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Полілінгвізм – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Полілінгвізм" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82" title="Многоезичност – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Многоезичност" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liesyezhegezh" title="Liesyezhegezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Liesyezhegezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiling%C3%BCisme" title="Multilingüisme – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Multilingüisme" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilingvismus" title="Multilingvismus – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Multilingvismus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flersprogethed" title="Flersprogethed – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Flersprogethed" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehrsprachigkeit" title="Mehrsprachigkeit – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Mehrsprachigkeit" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitmekeelsus" title="Mitmekeelsus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Mitmekeelsus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CE%AF%CE%B3%CE%BB%CF%89%CF%83%CF%83%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Δίγλωσσος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Δίγλωσσος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiling%C3%BCismo_social" title="Multilingüismo social – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Multilingüismo social" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plurlingveco" title="Plurlingveco – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Plurlingveco" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleaniztasun" title="Eleaniztasun – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Eleaniztasun" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%DB%8C" title="چندزبانگی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="چندزبانگی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilinguisme" title="Multilinguisme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Multilinguisme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilteangachas" title="Ilteangachas – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Ilteangachas" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A0-ch%C3%A0nanas" title="Dà-chànanas – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Dà-chànanas" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiling%C3%BCismo" title="Multilingüismo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Multilingüismo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%85%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%88_%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Дукха метташ хилар – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Дукха метташ хилар" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ГӀалгӀай</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8B%A4%EC%A4%91%EC%96%B8%EC%96%B4" title="다중언어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="다중언어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%A1%D5%A6%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%A5%D5%A6%D5%BE%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Բազմալեզվություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Բազմալեզվություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE" title="बहुभाषिकता – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="बहुभाषिकता" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vi%C5%A1ejezi%C4%8Dnost" title="Višejezičnost – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Višejezičnost" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multibahasa" title="Multibahasa – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Multibahasa" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilinguismo" title="Multilinguismo – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Multilinguismo" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilingualism" title="Multilingualism – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="Multilingualism" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="Xhosa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiXhosa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fj%C3%B6ltyngi" title="Fjöltyngi – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Fjöltyngi" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilinguismo" title="Multilinguismo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Multilinguismo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%91-%D7%9C%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA" title="רב-לשוניות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="רב-לשוניות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%92%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="მულტილინგვიზმი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მულტილინგვიზმი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D3%A9%D0%BF%D1%82%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%B4%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA" title="Көптілділік – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Көптілділік" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pirziman%C3%AE" title="Pirzimanî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Pirzimanî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilinguismus" title="Multilinguismus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Multilinguismus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daudzvalod%C4%ABba" title="Daudzvalodība – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Daudzvalodība" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%9C%D0%B5%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82" title="Повеќејазичност – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Повеќејазичност" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilingwi%C5%BCmu" title="Multilingwiżmu – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Multilingwiżmu" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%92%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="მულტილინგვიზმი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="მულტილინგვიზმი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B9%D8%AF%D8%AF_%D9%84%D8%BA%D9%88%D9%89" title="تعدد لغوى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="تعدد لغوى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwibahasa" title="Dwibahasa – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Dwibahasa" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meertaligheid" title="Meertaligheid – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Meertaligheid" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE" title="बहुभाषिकता – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="बहुभाषिकता" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%9A%E8%A8%80%E8%AA%9E" title="多言語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="多言語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Touspr%C3%A4kih%C3%A4id" title="Touspräkihäid – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Touspräkihäid" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flerspr%C3%A5klighet" title="Flerspråklighet – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Flerspråklighet" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fleirspr%C3%A5kleg" title="Fleirspråkleg – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Fleirspråkleg" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AC%E0%A8%B9%E0%A9%81%E0%A8%AD%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A6" title="ਬਹੁਭਾਸ਼ਾਵਾਦ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਬਹੁਭਾਸ਼ਾਵਾਦ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%98%E1%80%AC%E1%82%8F%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AC%E1%82%8F%E1%80%84%E1%80%9D%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%84%E1%80%BD%E1%80%AB%E1%80%85%E1%80%BD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%99%E1%80%BA%E1%82%8F%E1%80%91%E1%80%AC%EA%A9%BB%E1%80%9A%E1%80%B0%E1%82%8F" title="ဘာႏသာႏငဝ်းငွါစွုမ်ႏထာꩻယူႏ – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="ဘာႏသာႏငဝ်းငွါစွုမ်ႏထာꩻယူႏ" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilingualismo" title="Multilingualismo – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Multilingualismo" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Papiamentu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wieloj%C4%99zyczno%C5%9B%C4%87" title="Wielojęzyczność – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wielojęzyczność" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilinguismo" title="Multilinguismo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Multilinguismo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilingvism" title="Multilingvism – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Multilingvism" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plurilinguitad" title="Plurilinguitad – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Plurilinguitad" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Rumantsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Многоязычие – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Многоязычие" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shum%C3%ABgjuh%C3%ABsia" title="Shumëgjuhësia – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Shumëgjuhësia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B6%E0%B7%84%E0%B7%94_%E0%B6%B7%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%82%E0%B7%8F" title="බහු භාෂා – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="බහු භාෂා" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilingualism" title="Multilingualism – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Multilingualism" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilingvizmus" title="Multilingvizmus – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Multilingvizmus" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%DB%95%D8%B2%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="فرەزمانی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="فرەزمانی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Мултилингвизам – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Мултилингвизам" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vi%C5%A1ejezi%C4%8Dnost" title="Višejezičnost – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Višejezičnost" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwi_Bahasa" title="Dwi Bahasa – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Dwi Bahasa" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monikielisyys" title="Monikielisyys – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Monikielisyys" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flerspr%C3%A5kighet" title="Flerspråkighet – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Flerspråkighet" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%88" title="பன்மொழிப் புலமை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பன்மொழிப் புலமை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tagetutlayt" title="Tagetutlayt – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tagetutlayt" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AC%E0%B0%B9%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%AD%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B7%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%A4%E0%B0%82" title="బహుభాషితం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="బహుభాషితం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ti mw-list-item"><a href="https://ti.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%B5%E1%88%AD%E1%89%A5_%E1%89%8B%E1%8A%95%E1%89%8B%E1%8A%90%E1%89%B5" title="ድርብ ቋንቋነት – Tigrinya" lang="ti" hreflang="ti" data-title="ድርብ ቋንቋነት" data-language-autonym="ትግርኛ" data-language-local-name="Tigrinya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ትግርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%91%D1%80%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BD%D3%A3" title="Бисёрзабонӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Бисёрзабонӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87okdillilik" title="Çokdillilik – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Çokdillilik" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Багатомовність – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Багатомовність" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%AB%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%AA" title="کثیراللسانیت – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="کثیراللسانیت" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi%C5%82enguismo" title="Multiłenguismo – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Multiłenguismo" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90a_ng%C3%B4n_ng%E1%BB%AF" title="Đa ngôn ngữ – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Đa ngôn ngữ" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%9A%E8%AF%AD%E5%88%B6" title="多语制 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="多语制" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%9A%E8%AA%9E%E7%8F%BE%E8%B1%A1" title="多語現象 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="多語現象" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%9A%E8%AF%AD%E5%88%B6" title="多语制 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="多语制" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zgh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zgh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E2%B5%9C%E2%B4%B0%E2%B4%B3%E2%B5%9C%E2%B5%93%E2%B5%9C%E2%B5%8D%E2%B4%B0%E2%B5%A2%E2%B5%9C" title="ⵜⴰⴳⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ – Standard Moroccan Tamazight" lang="zgh" hreflang="zgh" data-title="ⵜⴰⴳⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ" data-language-autonym="ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ" data-language-local-name="Standard Moroccan Tamazight" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q30081#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul 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.hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Bilingual" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Bilingual_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Bilingual (disambiguation)">Bilingual (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Trilingual" redirects here. For the alleged early medieval heresy, see <a href="/wiki/Trilingual_heresy" title="Trilingual heresy">Trilingual heresy</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Multiple languages" redirects here. For the special language code <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">mul</code>, "multiple languages", see <a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3#Special_codes" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3 § Special codes</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Constitutional_Court_South_Africa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Constitutional_Court_South_Africa.jpg/220px-Constitutional_Court_South_Africa.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Constitutional_Court_South_Africa.jpg/330px-Constitutional_Court_South_Africa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Constitutional_Court_South_Africa.jpg/440px-Constitutional_Court_South_Africa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="882" data-file-height="589" /></a><figcaption>The frontage of the <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Court_of_South_Africa" title="Constitutional Court of South Africa">Constitutional Court of South Africa</a>, with text written in eleven of <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_South_Africa" title="Languages of South Africa">South Africa's twelve official languages</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Novi_Sad_mayor_office.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Novi_Sad_mayor_office.jpg/220px-Novi_Sad_mayor_office.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Novi_Sad_mayor_office.jpg/330px-Novi_Sad_mayor_office.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Novi_Sad_mayor_office.jpg/440px-Novi_Sad_mayor_office.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1088" data-file-height="1632" /></a><figcaption>A multilingual sign outside the mayor's office in <a href="/wiki/Novi_Sad" title="Novi Sad">Novi Sad</a>, Serbia, written in the four official languages of the city: <a href="/wiki/Serbian_language" title="Serbian language">Serbian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_language" title="Hungarian language">Hungarian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slovak_language" title="Slovak language">Slovak</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pannonian_Rusyn_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Pannonian Rusyn language">Pannonian Rusyn</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Quadrilingual_danger_sign_-_Singapore_(gabbe).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Quadrilingual_danger_sign_-_Singapore_%28gabbe%29.jpg/220px-Quadrilingual_danger_sign_-_Singapore_%28gabbe%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Quadrilingual_danger_sign_-_Singapore_%28gabbe%29.jpg/330px-Quadrilingual_danger_sign_-_Singapore_%28gabbe%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Quadrilingual_danger_sign_-_Singapore_%28gabbe%29.jpg/440px-Quadrilingual_danger_sign_-_Singapore_%28gabbe%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption>A stenciled danger sign in <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a> written in English, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Malay_language" title="Malay language">Malay</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Singapore" title="Languages of Singapore">four official languages of Singapore</a>)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Logo_der_Schweizerischen_Eidgenossenschaft.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Logo_der_Schweizerischen_Eidgenossenschaft.svg/220px-Logo_der_Schweizerischen_Eidgenossenschaft.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="71" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Logo_der_Schweizerischen_Eidgenossenschaft.svg/330px-Logo_der_Schweizerischen_Eidgenossenschaft.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Logo_der_Schweizerischen_Eidgenossenschaft.svg/440px-Logo_der_Schweizerischen_Eidgenossenschaft.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="790" data-file-height="255" /></a><figcaption>The logo and name of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_administration_of_Switzerland" title="Federal administration of Switzerland">Swiss federal administration</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Switzerland" title="Languages of Switzerland">four national languages of Switzerland</a> (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Romansh_language" title="Romansh language">Romansh</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Multilingualism</b> is the use of more than one <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a>, either by an individual speaker or by a group of speakers. When the languages are just two, it is usually called <b>bilingualism</b>. It is believed that multilingual speakers outnumber <a href="/wiki/Monolingual" class="mw-redirect" title="Monolingual">monolingual</a> speakers in the <a href="/wiki/World%27s_population" class="mw-redirect" title="World's population">world's population</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More than half of all <a href="/wiki/Europeans" class="mw-redirect" title="Europeans">Europeans</a> claim to speak at least one language other than their <a href="/wiki/First_language" title="First language">mother tongue</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but many read and write in one language. Being multilingual is advantageous for people wanting to participate in trade, globalization and cultural openness.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Owing to the ease of access to information facilitated by the Internet, individuals' exposure to multiple languages has become increasingly possible. People who speak several languages are also called <i><a href="#In_individuals">polyglots</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Multilingual speakers have <a href="/wiki/Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">acquired</a> and maintained at least one language during childhood, the so-called <a href="/wiki/First_language" title="First language">first language</a> (L1). The first language (sometimes also referred to as the mother tongue) is usually acquired without formal education, by <a href="/wiki/Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">mechanisms</a> about which scholars disagree.<sup id="cite_ref-Kennison_2013_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennison_2013-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Children acquiring two languages natively from these early years are called <a href="/wiki/Simultaneous_bilingualism" title="Simultaneous bilingualism">simultaneous bilinguals</a>. It is common for young simultaneous bilinguals to be more proficient in one language than the other.<sup id="cite_ref-Taeschner_1983,_p._4_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taeschner_1983,_p._4-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>People who speak more than one language have been reported to be better at language learning when compared to monolinguals.<sup id="cite_ref-Kaushanskaya-2009_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kaushanskaya-2009-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Multilingualism in computing can be considered part of a continuum between <a href="/wiki/Internationalization_and_localization" title="Internationalization and localization">internationalization and localization</a>. Due to the status of <a href="/wiki/English_in_computing" title="English in computing">English in computing</a>, software development nearly always uses it (but not in the case of <a href="/wiki/Non-English-based_programming_languages" title="Non-English-based programming languages">non-English-based programming languages</a>). Some commercial software is initially available in an English version, and multilingual versions, if any, may be produced as alternative options based on the English original. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multilingualism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first recorded use of the word <i>multilingual</i> in the English language occurred in the 1830s. The word is a combination of <i>multi-</i> ("many") and -<i>lingual</i> ("pertaining to languages").<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The phenomenon of multilingualism is as old as the very existence of different languages.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Today, evidence of multilingualism in an area includes things such as <a href="/wiki/Bilingual_sign" title="Bilingual sign">bilingual signs</a>, which represent the same message in more than one language. Historical examples include <a href="/wiki/Gloss_(annotation)" title="Gloss (annotation)">glosses</a> in textual sources, which can provide notes in a different language from the source text; <a href="/wiki/Macaronic_language" title="Macaronic language">macaronic texts</a> which mix together two or more languages with the expectation that the reader will understand both; the existence of separate sacred and vernacular languages (such as <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Latin" title="Ecclesiastical Latin">Church Latin</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">common forms of Latin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_languages" title="Jewish languages">Jewish languages</a>); and the frequency of linguistic borrowings and other results of <a href="/wiki/Language_contact" title="Language contact">language contact</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multilingualism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Definition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bilingual_Finnish-Swedish_construction_area_sign_in_Helsinki,_Finland,_2022.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Bilingual_Finnish-Swedish_construction_area_sign_in_Helsinki%2C_Finland%2C_2022.jpg/220px-Bilingual_Finnish-Swedish_construction_area_sign_in_Helsinki%2C_Finland%2C_2022.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Bilingual_Finnish-Swedish_construction_area_sign_in_Helsinki%2C_Finland%2C_2022.jpg/330px-Bilingual_Finnish-Swedish_construction_area_sign_in_Helsinki%2C_Finland%2C_2022.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Bilingual_Finnish-Swedish_construction_area_sign_in_Helsinki%2C_Finland%2C_2022.jpg/440px-Bilingual_Finnish-Swedish_construction_area_sign_in_Helsinki%2C_Finland%2C_2022.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8256" data-file-height="5504" /></a><figcaption>A bilingual "no trespassing" sign at a construction site in <a href="/wiki/Helsinki,_Finland" class="mw-redirect" title="Helsinki, Finland">Helsinki, Finland</a> (upper text in <a href="/wiki/Finnish_language" title="Finnish language">Finnish</a>, lower text in <a href="/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p>The definition of multilingualism is a subject of debate in the same way as that of language fluency. At one end of the linguistic continuum, multilingualism may be defined as the mastery of more than one language. The speaker would have knowledge of and control over the languages equivalent to that of a native speaker. At the opposite end of the spectrum would be people who know enough phrases to get around as a tourist using the alternate language. Since 1992, <a href="/wiki/Vivian_Cook_(academic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vivian Cook (academic)">Vivian Cook</a> has argued that most multilingual speakers fall somewhere between minimal and maximal definitions. Cook calls these people <i><a href="/wiki/Multi-competence" title="Multi-competence">multi-competent</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ParadowskiBator2016_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ParadowskiBator2016-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition, there is no consistent definition of what constitutes a distinct language.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, scholars often disagree whether <a href="/wiki/Scots_language" title="Scots language">Scots</a> is a language in its own right or merely a dialect of <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, what is considered a language can change, often for purely political reasons. One example is the creation of <a href="/wiki/Serbo-Croatian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Serbo-Croatian language">Serbo-Croatian</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Standard_language" title="Standard language">standard language</a> on the basis of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Herzegovinian_dialect" title="Eastern Herzegovinian dialect">Eastern Herzegovinian dialect</a> to function as <a href="/wiki/Dachsprache" class="mw-redirect" title="Dachsprache">umbrella</a> for numerous <a href="/wiki/South_Slavic_languages" title="South Slavic languages">South Slavic</a> dialects; after the breakup of <a href="/wiki/Yugoslavia" title="Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a>, it was split into <a href="/wiki/Serbian_language" title="Serbian language">Serbian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Croatian_language" title="Croatian language">Croatian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bosnian_language" title="Bosnian language">Bosnian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Montenegrin_language" title="Montenegrin language">Montenegrin</a>. Another example is the historical dismissal of <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_language" title="Ukrainian language">Ukrainian</a> as a Russian dialect by the Russian <a href="/wiki/Tsar" title="Tsar">tsars</a> to discourage national feelings.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many small independent nations' schoolchildren are today compelled to learn multiple languages because of international interactions.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, in Finland, all children are required to learn at least three languages: the two national languages (Finnish and Swedish) and one foreign language (usually English). Many Finnish schoolchildren also study further languages, such as German or Russian.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In some large nations with multiple languages, such as <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, schoolchildren may routinely learn multiple languages based on where they reside in the country. </p><p>In many countries, bilingualism occurs through international relations, which, with English being a global <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a>, sometimes results in majority bilingualism even when the countries in question have just one domestic official language. This occurs especially in regions such as <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Benelux" title="Benelux">Benelux</a>, as well as among <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">Germanophones</a>, but the phenomenon has also been expanding into some non-Germanic countries.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Acquisition">Acquisition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multilingualism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Acquisition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">Language acquisition</a>, <a href="/wiki/Language_education" title="Language education">Language education</a>, <a href="/wiki/Second-language_acquisition" title="Second-language acquisition">Second-language acquisition</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Simultaneous_bilingualism#Bilingual_acquisition" title="Simultaneous bilingualism">Simultaneous bilingualism § Bilingual acquisition</a></div> <p>One view is that of the <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguist</a> <a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a> in what he calls the human <a href="/wiki/Language_acquisition_device" title="Language acquisition device">language acquisition device</a>—a mechanism that enables a learner to recreate correctly the rules and certain other characteristics of language used by surrounding speakers.<sup id="cite_ref-Santrock_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Santrock-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This device, according to Chomsky, wears out over time, and is not normally available by <a href="/wiki/Puberty" title="Puberty">puberty</a>, which he uses to explain the poor results some adolescents and adults have when learning aspects of a <a href="/wiki/Second_language" title="Second language">second language</a> (L2). </p><p>If language learning is a <a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">cognitive process</a>, rather than a language acquisition device, as the school led by <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Krashen" title="Stephen Krashen">Stephen Krashen</a> suggests, there would only be relative, not categorical, differences between the two types of language learning. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Rod_Ellis" title="Rod Ellis">Rod Ellis</a> quotes research finding that the earlier children learn a second language, the better off they are, in terms of <a href="/wiki/Pronunciation" title="Pronunciation">pronunciation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> European schools generally offer secondary language classes for their students early on, due to the interconnectedness among neighboring countries with different languages. Most European students now study at least two foreign languages, a process strongly encouraged by the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Based on the research in Ann Fathman's <i>The Relationship Between Age and Second Language Productive Ability</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> there is a difference in the rate of learning of English morphology, syntax and phonology based upon differences in age, but the order of acquisition in second language learning does not change with age. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Second_language" title="Second language">second language</a> class, students commonly face difficulties in thinking in the target language because they are influenced by their native language and cultural patterns. Robert B. Kaplan believes that in second language classes, foreign students' papers may seem out of focus because the foreign student employs rhetoric and sequences of thought that violate the expectations of the native reader.<sup id="cite_ref-Kaplan_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kaplan-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Foreign students who have mastered syntactic structures have still demonstrated an inability to compose adequate themes, term papers, theses, and dissertations. Robert B. Kaplan describes two key words that affect people when they learn a second language. <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a> in the popular, rather than the logician's sense of the word, is the basis of rhetoric, evolved out of a culture; it is not universal. <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">Rhetoric</a>, then, is not universal either, but varies from culture to culture and even from time to time within a given culture.<sup id="cite_ref-Kaplan_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kaplan-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Language teachers know how to predict the differences between pronunciations or constructions in different languages, but they might be less clear about the differences between rhetoric, that is, in the way they use language to accomplish various purposes, particularly in writing.<sup id="cite_ref-Gadda_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gadda-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>People who learn multiple languages may also experience <a href="/wiki/Language_transfer" title="Language transfer">positive transfer</a> – the process by which it becomes easier to learn additional languages if the <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammar</a> or <a href="/wiki/Vocabulary" title="Vocabulary">vocabulary</a> of the new language is similar to those of the languages already spoken. On the other hand, students may also experience negative transfer – interference from languages learned at an earlier stage of development while learning a new language later in life.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Translanguaging#Teachers" title="Translanguaging">Translanguaging</a> also supports the acquisition of new languages. It helps the development of new languages by forming connections from one language to another. Second language acquisition results in a lexical deficit.<sup id="cite_ref-Bylund-2023_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bylund-2023-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag needs further explanation. (October 2023)">further explanation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Receptive_bilingualism">Receptive bilingualism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multilingualism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Receptive bilingualism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Passive_speaker_(language)" title="Passive speaker (language)">Passive speaker (language)</a></div> <p>Receptive bilinguals are those who can understand a second language but who cannot speak it or whose abilities to speak it are inhibited by psychological barriers. Receptive bilingualism is frequently encountered among adult immigrants to the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">U.S.</a> who do not speak English as a native language but who have children who do speak English natively, usually in part because those children's education has been conducted in English; while the immigrant parents can understand both their native language and English, they speak only their native language to their children. If their children are likewise receptively bilingual but productively English-monolingual, throughout the conversation the parents will speak their native language and the children will speak English. If their children are productively bilingual, however, those children may answer in their parents' native language, in English, or in a combination of both languages, varying their choice of language depending on factors such as the communication's content, context or emotional intensity and the presence or absence of third-party speakers of one language or the other. The third alternative represents the phenomenon of "<a href="/wiki/Code-switching" title="Code-switching">code-switching</a>" in which the productively bilingual party to a communication switches languages in the course of that communication. Receptively bilingual persons, especially children, may rapidly achieve oral fluency by spending extended time in situations where they are required to speak the language that they theretofore understood only passively. Until both generations achieve oral fluency, not all definitions of bilingualism accurately characterize the family as a whole, but the linguistic differences between the family's generations often constitute little or no impairment to the family's functionality.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Receptive bilingualism in one language as exhibited by a speaker of another language, or even as exhibited by most speakers of that language, is not the same as <a href="/wiki/Mutual_intelligibility" title="Mutual intelligibility">mutual intelligibility</a> of languages; the latter is a property of a pair of <i>languages</i>, namely a consequence of objectively high lexical and grammatical similarities between the languages themselves (e.g., Norwegian and Swedish), whereas the former is a property of one or more <i>persons</i> and is determined by subjective or intersubjective factors such as the respective languages' prevalence in the life history (including family upbringing, educational setting, and ambient culture) of the person or persons.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Order_of_acquisition">Order of acquisition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multilingualism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Order of acquisition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Sequential_bilingualism" title="Sequential bilingualism">sequential bilingualism</a>, learners receive literacy instruction in their native language until they acquire a "threshold" literacy proficiency. Some researchers use age three as the age when a child has basic communicative competence in their first language (Kessler, 1984).<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Children may go through a process of sequential acquisition if they migrate at a young age to a country where a different language is spoken, or if the child exclusively speaks his or her heritage language at home until he or she is immersed in a school setting where instruction is offered in a different language. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Simultaneous_bilingualism" title="Simultaneous bilingualism">simultaneous bilingualism</a>, the native language and the community language are simultaneously taught. The advantage is literacy in two languages as the outcome. However, the teacher must be well-versed in both languages and also in techniques for teaching a second language. </p><p>The phases children go through during sequential acquisition are less linear than for simultaneous acquisition and can vary greatly among children. Sequential acquisition is a more complex and lengthier process, although there is no indication that non-language-delayed children end up less proficient than simultaneous bilinguals, so long as they receive adequate input in both languages.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A coordinate model posits that equal time should be spent in separate instruction of the native language and the community language. The native language class, however, focuses on basic literacy while the community language class focuses on listening and speaking skills. Being bilingual does not necessarily mean that one can speak, for example, English and French. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Outcomes">Outcomes</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multilingualism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Outcomes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Research has found that the development of competence in the native language serves as a foundation of proficiency that can be transposed to the second language – the common underlying proficiency hypothesis.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cummins' work sought to overcome the perception propagated in the 1960s that learning two languages made for two competing aims. The belief was that the two languages were mutually exclusive and that learning a second required unlearning elements and dynamics of the first to accommodate the second.<sup id="cite_ref-Hakuta-1990_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hakuta-1990-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The evidence for this perspective relied on the fact that some errors in acquiring the second language were related to the rules of the first language.<sup id="cite_ref-Hakuta-1990_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hakuta-1990-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another new development that has influenced the linguistic argument for bilingual literacy is the length of time necessary to acquire a second language. Previously, children were believed to have the ability to learn a language within a year, but today, researchers believe that within and across academic settings, the period is closer to five years.<sup id="cite_ref-Collier-1992_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Collier-1992-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-The-Ramírez-report_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The-Ramírez-report-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="It says "today researchers believe...", but the citations are from the early 1990s, i.e. 30 years ago. (June 2022)">needs update?</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>An interesting outcome of studies during the early 1990s, however, confirmed that students who do complete bilingual instruction perform better academically.<sup id="cite_ref-Collier-1992_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Collier-1992-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-The-Ramírez-report_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The-Ramírez-report-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These students exhibit more <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_flexibility" title="Cognitive flexibility">cognitive flexibility</a>, including a better ability to analyze abstract visual patterns. Students who receive bidirectional bilingual instruction where equal proficiency in both languages is required will perform at an even higher level. Examples of such programs include international and multi-national education schools. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_individuals">In individuals</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multilingualism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: In individuals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Polyglot" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Polyglot_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Polyglot (disambiguation)">Polyglot (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_polyglots" title="List of polyglots">List of polyglots</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%22Pvt._Lloyd_A._Taylor,_21-year-old_transportation_dispatcher_at_Mitchel_Field,_New_York_City,_who_knows_Latin,_Greek,_Sp_-_NARA_-_535873.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/%22Pvt._Lloyd_A._Taylor%2C_21-year-old_transportation_dispatcher_at_Mitchel_Field%2C_New_York_City%2C_who_knows_Latin%2C_Greek%2C_Sp_-_NARA_-_535873.jpg/200px-%22Pvt._Lloyd_A._Taylor%2C_21-year-old_transportation_dispatcher_at_Mitchel_Field%2C_New_York_City%2C_who_knows_Latin%2C_Greek%2C_Sp_-_NARA_-_535873.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="279" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/%22Pvt._Lloyd_A._Taylor%2C_21-year-old_transportation_dispatcher_at_Mitchel_Field%2C_New_York_City%2C_who_knows_Latin%2C_Greek%2C_Sp_-_NARA_-_535873.jpg/300px-%22Pvt._Lloyd_A._Taylor%2C_21-year-old_transportation_dispatcher_at_Mitchel_Field%2C_New_York_City%2C_who_knows_Latin%2C_Greek%2C_Sp_-_NARA_-_535873.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/%22Pvt._Lloyd_A._Taylor%2C_21-year-old_transportation_dispatcher_at_Mitchel_Field%2C_New_York_City%2C_who_knows_Latin%2C_Greek%2C_Sp_-_NARA_-_535873.jpg/400px-%22Pvt._Lloyd_A._Taylor%2C_21-year-old_transportation_dispatcher_at_Mitchel_Field%2C_New_York_City%2C_who_knows_Latin%2C_Greek%2C_Sp_-_NARA_-_535873.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2147" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>"Pvt. Lloyd A. Taylor, 21-year-old transportation <a href="/wiki/Dispatcher" title="Dispatcher">dispatcher</a> at <a href="/wiki/Mitchel_Field" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitchel Field">Mitchel Field</a>, New York City, who knows Latin, Greek, Spanish, French, German, and Japanese, studies a book on Chinese. A former medical student at <a href="/wiki/Temple_University" title="Temple University">Temple University</a>, he passes two hours a day studying languages as a hobby."<br /><small>This picture was taken during <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">World War II</a>.</small></figcaption></figure> <p>A multilingual person is someone who can communicate in more than one language actively (through speaking, writing, or signing). Multilingual people can logically speak any language they write in (aside from <a href="/wiki/Muteness" title="Muteness">mute</a> multilingual people<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), but they cannot necessarily write in any language they speak.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More specifically, bilingual and trilingual people are those in comparable situations involving two or three languages, respectively. A multilingual person is generally referred to as a <b>polyglot</b>, a term that may also refer to people who learn multiple languages as a hobby.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Erard_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Erard-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Multilingual speakers have acquired and maintained at least one language during childhood, the so-called <a href="/wiki/First_language" title="First language">first language</a> (L1). The first language (sometimes also referred to as the mother tongue) is acquired without formal education, by mechanisms heavily disputed. Children acquiring two languages in this way are called simultaneous bilinguals. Even in the case of simultaneous bilinguals, one language usually dominates over the other.<sup id="cite_ref-Hult-2014_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hult-2014-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In linguistics, first language acquisition is closely related to the concept of a "native speaker". According to a view widely held by linguists, a native speaker of a given language has in some respects a level of skill that a second (or subsequent) language learner cannot easily accomplish. Consequently, descriptive empirical studies of languages are usually carried out using only native speakers. This view is, however, slightly problematic, particularly as many non-native speakers demonstrably not only successfully engage with and in their non-native language societies, but in fact may become culturally and even linguistically important contributors (as, for example, writers, politicians, media personalities and performing artists) in their non-native language. In recent years, linguistic research has focused attention on the use of widely known world languages, such as English, as a <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a> or a shared common language of professional and commercial communities. In lingua franca situations, most speakers of the common language are functionally multilingual. </p><p>The reverse phenomenon, where people who know more than one language end up losing command of some or all of their additional languages, is called <a href="/wiki/Language_attrition" title="Language attrition">language attrition</a>. It has been documented that, under certain conditions, individuals may lose their L1 language proficiency completely, after switching to the exclusive use of another language, and effectively "become native" in a language that was once secondary after the L1 undergoes total attrition. </p><p>This is most commonly seen among <a href="/wiki/Immigrant" class="mw-redirect" title="Immigrant">immigrant</a> communities and has been the subject of substantial academic study. The most important factor in spontaneous, total L1 loss appears to be age; in the absence of neurological dysfunction or injury, only young children typically are at risk of forgetting their native language and switching to a new one.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Once they pass an age that seems to correlate closely with the <a href="/wiki/Critical_period_hypothesis" title="Critical period hypothesis">critical period</a>, around the age of 12, total loss of a native language is not typical, although it is still possible for speakers to experience diminished expressive capacity if the language is never practiced.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cognitive_ability">Cognitive ability</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multilingualism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Cognitive ability"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_effects_of_multilingualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive effects of multilingualism">Cognitive effects of multilingualism</a></div><p>There is no evidence for a bilingual advantage in executive function and there is a small bilingual disadvantage in verbal fluency.<sup id="cite_ref-Bylund-2023_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bylund-2023-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some initial reports concluded that people who use more than one language have been reported to be more adept at language learning compared to monolinguals,<sup id="cite_ref-Kaushanskaya-2009_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kaushanskaya-2009-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and this idea persisted in part due to <a href="/wiki/Publication_bias" title="Publication bias">publication bias</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Current meta-analyses find no effect.<sup id="cite_ref-Lehtonen20182_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lehtonen20182-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Individuals who are highly proficient in two or more languages have been reported to have a certain very marginally enhanced or no different <a href="/wiki/Executive_functions" title="Executive functions">executive function</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lehtonen-2018_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lehtonen-2018-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and older onset for <a href="/wiki/Dementia" title="Dementia">dementia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Atkinson2016_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Atkinson2016-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More recently, however, this claim has come under strong criticism<sup id="cite_ref-Atlantic2016_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Atlantic2016-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lehtonen2018_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lehtonen2018-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with repeated failures to replicate.<sup id="cite_ref-deBruin2014_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-deBruin2014-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Paap2015_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Paap2015-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yet, many prior studies do not reliably quantify samples of bilinguals under investigation.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An emerging perspective is that studies on bilingual and multilingual cognitive abilities need to account for validated and granular quantifications of language experience in order to identify boundary conditions of possible cognitive effects.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Second language acquisition results in a lexical deficit due to second language acquisition<sup id="cite_ref-Bylund-2023_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bylund-2023-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (July 2023)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and bilingualism results in decreased verbal fluency.<sup id="cite_ref-Lehtonen-2018_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lehtonen-2018-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Auditory_ability">Auditory ability</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multilingualism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Auditory ability"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Bilingual and multilingual individuals are shown to have superior auditory processing abilities compared to monolingual individuals.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several investigations have compared auditory processing abilities of monolingual and bilingual individuals using tasks such as gap detection, temporal ordering, pitch pattern recognition etc. In general, results of studies have reported superior performance among bilingual and multilingual individuals. Furthermore, among bilingual individuals, one's level of proficiency in one's second language was also reported to influence auditory processing abilities. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_benefits">Economic benefits</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multilingualism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Economic benefits"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Bilinguals might have important labor market advantages over monolingual individuals as bilingual people can carry out duties that monolinguals cannot,<sup id="cite_ref-Chohan_1_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chohan_1-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> such as interacting with customers who only speak a minority language. A study in Switzerland has found that multilingualism is positively correlated with an individual's salary, the productivity of firms, and the gross domestic production (GDP); the authors state that Switzerland's GDP is augmented by 10% by multilingualism.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A study in the United States by O. Agirdag found that bilingualism has substantial economic benefits, as bilingual people were found to earn around $3,000 more per year in salary than monolinguals.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Psychology">Psychology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multilingualism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Psychology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A study in 2012 has shown that using a foreign language reduces decision-making biases. It was surmised that the <a href="/wiki/Framing_effect_(psychology)" title="Framing effect (psychology)">framing effect</a> disappeared when choices are presented in a second language. As human reasoning is shaped by two distinct modes of thought: one that is systematic, analytical and cognition-intensive, and another that is fast, unconscious and emotionally charged, it was believed that a second language provides a useful cognitive distance from automatic processes, promoting analytical thought and reducing unthinking, emotional reaction. Therefore, those who speak two languages have better critical thinking and decision-making skills.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A study published a year later found that switching to a second language seems to exempt bilinguals from social norms and constraints, such as <a href="/wiki/Political_correctness" title="Political correctness">political correctness</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ParadowskiGawinkowskaBilewicz2013_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ParadowskiGawinkowskaBilewicz2013-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2014, another study showed that people using a foreign language are more likely to make utilitarian decisions when faced with moral dilemmas, such as the <a href="/wiki/Trolley_problem" title="Trolley problem">trolley problem</a> and its variations. Participants in this study chose the utilitarian option more often in the Fat Man dilemma when it was presented in a foreign language. For the related Switch Track dilemma, however, the use of a foreign language presented no significant influence on the choices participants made. The authors of this study surmised that a foreign language lacks the emotional impact of one's native language.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Personality">Personality</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multilingualism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Personality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Because it is difficult or impossible to master many of the high-level semantic aspects of a language (including but not limited to its <a href="/wiki/Idiom" title="Idiom">idioms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eponym" title="Eponym">eponyms</a>) without first understanding the culture and history of the region in which that language evolved, as a practical matter an in-depth familiarity with multiple cultures is a prerequisite for high-level multilingualism. This knowledge of cultures individually and comparatively can form an important part of both what one considers one's identity to be and what others consider that identity to be.<sup id="cite_ref-Hult-2014_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hult-2014-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some studies have found that groups of multilingual individuals get higher average scores on tests for certain personality traits such as cultural <a href="/wiki/Empathy" title="Empathy">empathy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Open-mindedness" title="Open-mindedness">open-mindedness</a> and social initiative.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The idea of <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_relativity" title="Linguistic relativity">linguistic relativity</a>, which claims that the language people speak influences the way they see the world, can be interpreted to mean that individuals who speak multiple languages have a broader, more diverse view of the world, even when speaking only one language at a time.<sup id="cite_ref-Grosjean_2011_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grosjean_2011-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some bilinguals feel that their personality changes depending on which language they are speaking;<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> thus multilingualism is said to create multiple personalities. Xiao-lei Wang states in her book <i>Growing up with Three Languages: Birth to Eleven</i>: "Languages used by speakers with one or more than one language are used not just to represent a unitary self, but to enact different kinds of selves, and different linguistic contexts create different kinds of self-expression and experiences for the same person."<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, there has been little rigorous research done on this topic and it is difficult to define "personality" in this context. <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Grosjean" title="François Grosjean">François Grosjean</a> wrote: "What is seen as a change in personality is most probably simply a shift in attitudes and behaviors that correspond to a shift in situation or context, independent of language."<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the <a href="/wiki/Sapir%E2%80%93Whorf" class="mw-redirect" title="Sapir–Whorf">Sapir–Whorf</a> hypothesis, which states that a language shapes our vision of the world, may suggest that a language learned by a grown-up may have much fewer emotional <a href="/wiki/Connotation" title="Connotation">connotations</a> and therefore allow a more serene discussion than a language learned by a child and to that respect more or less bound to a child's perception of the world. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hyperpolyglots_and_savants">Hyperpolyglots and savants<span class="anchor" id="Hyperpolyglots"></span><span class="anchor" id="Polyglots_and_hyperpolyglots"></span></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multilingualism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Hyperpolyglots and savants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many polyglots know up to five or six languages, but the frequency of polyglotism drops off sharply past this point.<sup id="cite_ref-Chohan_2_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chohan_2-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Erard_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Erard-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Those who know more languages than five or six—<a href="/wiki/Michael_Erard" title="Michael Erard">Michael Erard</a> suggests eleven or more, while Usman W. Chohan suggests six to eight (depending on proficiency) or more—are sometimes classed as <i>hyperpolyglots</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Chohan_2_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chohan_2-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hudson_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hudson-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Caspar_Mezzofanti" title="Giuseppe Caspar Mezzofanti">Giuseppe Caspar Mezzofanti</a>, for example, was an Italian priest reputed to have spoken anywhere from 30 to 72 languages.<sup id="cite_ref-Erard_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Erard-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hudson_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hudson-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The term <i>savant</i>, in a general sense, may refer to any individual with a natural or innate talent for a particular field; however, people diagnosed with <i><a href="/wiki/Savant_syndrome" title="Savant syndrome">savant syndrome</a></i> are specifically individuals with significant mental disabilities who demonstrate certain profound and <a href="/wiki/Child_prodigy" title="Child prodigy">prodigious</a> capacities or certain abilities far in excess of what would usually be considered normal,<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> occasionally including a prodigious capacity for languages. Savant syndrome is almost always associated with an increased memory capacity of some sort, which can, for certain savants, aid in storing and retrieving knowledge of different languages.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1991, for example, linguists <a href="/wiki/Neil_Smith_(linguist)" title="Neil Smith (linguist)">Neil Smith</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ianthi-Maria_Tsimpli" title="Ianthi-Maria Tsimpli">Ianthi-Maria Tsimpli</a> described a man, named Christopher, who learned sixteen languages even with a non-verbal <a href="/wiki/IQ" class="mw-redirect" title="IQ">IQ</a> between 40 and 70. Christopher was born in 1962, and he was diagnosed with brain damage approximately six months after his birth.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite being institutionalized because he was unable to take care of himself, Christopher had a verbal IQ of 89, could speak English with no impairment, and could learn subsequent languages with apparent ease. This facility with language and communication is considered to be unusual for most diagnosed with savant syndrome.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multilingualism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Neuroscience"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_multilingualism" title="Neuroscience of multilingualism">Neuroscience of multilingualism</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_communities">In communities</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multilingualism&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: In communities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions" title="List of multilingual countries and regions">List of multilingual countries and regions</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pola_07.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Pola_07.jpg/339px-Pola_07.jpg" decoding="async" width="339" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Pola_07.jpg/509px-Pola_07.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Pola_07.jpg/678px-Pola_07.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3968" data-file-height="2976" /></a><figcaption>Croatian-Italian bilingual plate on a public building in <a href="/wiki/Pula" title="Pula">Pula</a>/Pola (Istria)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Brussels_signs.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Brussels_signs.jpg/220px-Brussels_signs.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Brussels_signs.jpg/330px-Brussels_signs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Brussels_signs.jpg/440px-Brussels_signs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="552" data-file-height="368" /></a><figcaption>A bilingual sign in <a href="/wiki/Brussels" title="Brussels">Brussels</a>, the capital of <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>. In Brussels, both <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> are official languages.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Multilingual_sign_in_Macau.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Multilingual_sign_in_Macau.png/220px-Multilingual_sign_in_Macau.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Multilingual_sign_in_Macau.png/330px-Multilingual_sign_in_Macau.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Multilingual_sign_in_Macau.png/440px-Multilingual_sign_in_Macau.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="505" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Multilingual_sign" class="mw-redirect" title="Multilingual sign">multilingual sign</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong-Macau_Ferry_Pier,_Macau" class="mw-redirect" title="Hong Kong-Macau Ferry Pier, Macau">Hong Kong-Macau Ferry Pier</a> in <a href="/wiki/Macau" title="Macau">Macau</a>. At the top are <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>, which are the <a href="/wiki/Official_language" title="Official language">official languages</a> of Macau, while at the bottom are <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a> and English, which are common languages used by <a href="/wiki/Tourist" class="mw-redirect" title="Tourist">tourists</a> (English is also one of Hong Kong's two official languages).</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MultilingualismEnglishKannadaHindi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/MultilingualismEnglishKannadaHindi.jpg/220px-MultilingualismEnglishKannadaHindi.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/MultilingualismEnglishKannadaHindi.jpg/330px-MultilingualismEnglishKannadaHindi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/MultilingualismEnglishKannadaHindi.jpg/440px-MultilingualismEnglishKannadaHindi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption>A caution message in <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kannada_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kannada language">Kannada</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hindi" title="Hindi">Hindi</a> found in <a href="/wiki/Bangalore" class="mw-redirect" title="Bangalore">Bangalore</a>, India</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trisulam_railway_station_nameboard.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Trisulam_railway_station_nameboard.JPG/220px-Trisulam_railway_station_nameboard.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Trisulam_railway_station_nameboard.JPG/330px-Trisulam_railway_station_nameboard.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Trisulam_railway_station_nameboard.JPG/440px-Trisulam_railway_station_nameboard.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1021" data-file-height="961" /></a><figcaption>The three-language (<a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a>, <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hindi" title="Hindi">Hindi</a>) name board at the Tirusulam suburban railway station in <a href="/wiki/Chennai" title="Chennai">Chennai</a> (Madras). Almost all railway stations in India have signs like these in three or more languages (English, Hindi and the local language(s)).</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:YVR_intl_arrivals_signage_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/YVR_intl_arrivals_signage_2.jpg/220px-YVR_intl_arrivals_signage_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/YVR_intl_arrivals_signage_2.jpg/330px-YVR_intl_arrivals_signage_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/YVR_intl_arrivals_signage_2.jpg/440px-YVR_intl_arrivals_signage_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="2112" /></a><figcaption>Multilingual sign at <a href="/wiki/Vancouver_International_Airport" title="Vancouver International Airport">Vancouver International Airport</a>, international arrivals area. Text in English, French, and Chinese is a permanent feature of this sign, while the right panel of the sign is a video screen that rotates through additional languages.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SPM_A7786.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/SPM_A7786.jpg/220px-SPM_A7786.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/SPM_A7786.jpg/330px-SPM_A7786.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/SPM_A7786.jpg/440px-SPM_A7786.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Multilingual sign at an exit of <a href="/wiki/SM_Mall_of_Asia" title="SM Mall of Asia">SM Mall of Asia</a> in <a href="/wiki/Pasay" title="Pasay">Pasay</a>, Philippines. Three or four languages are shown: <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a>/<a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin Chinese</a> ("deguchi" or "chūkǒu", respectively), <a href="/wiki/English_language_in_the_Philippines" class="mw-redirect" title="English language in the Philippines">English</a> ("exit") and <a href="/wiki/Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean</a> ("chulgu"). While <a href="/wiki/Filipinos" title="Filipinos">Filipinos</a> themselves are <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">anglophones</a>, such signs cater to the <a href="/wiki/Koreans_in_the_Philippines" title="Koreans in the Philippines">growing number of Koreans</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Philippines" title="Demographics of the Philippines">foreigners</a> in the country.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Multilingual_message_at_a_comfort_room_in_Puerto_Princesa,_Palawan,_Philippines.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Multilingual_message_at_a_comfort_room_in_Puerto_Princesa%2C_Palawan%2C_Philippines.jpg/220px-Multilingual_message_at_a_comfort_room_in_Puerto_Princesa%2C_Palawan%2C_Philippines.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Multilingual_message_at_a_comfort_room_in_Puerto_Princesa%2C_Palawan%2C_Philippines.jpg/330px-Multilingual_message_at_a_comfort_room_in_Puerto_Princesa%2C_Palawan%2C_Philippines.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Multilingual_message_at_a_comfort_room_in_Puerto_Princesa%2C_Palawan%2C_Philippines.jpg/440px-Multilingual_message_at_a_comfort_room_in_Puerto_Princesa%2C_Palawan%2C_Philippines.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4608" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Multilingual message at a public toilet in <a href="/wiki/Puerto_Princesa" title="Puerto Princesa">Puerto Princesa</a>, Palawan, Philippines that prohibits foot washing. Text is written in six languages: English, <a href="/wiki/Filipino_language" title="Filipino language">Filipino</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cebuano_language" title="Cebuano language">Cebuano</a>, Chinese, Korean, and <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>, from top to bottom.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Quadrilingual_Train_Name_written_in_Kannada-Hindi-Tamil-English.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Quadrilingual_Train_Name_written_in_Kannada-Hindi-Tamil-English.jpg/220px-Quadrilingual_Train_Name_written_in_Kannada-Hindi-Tamil-English.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Quadrilingual_Train_Name_written_in_Kannada-Hindi-Tamil-English.jpg/330px-Quadrilingual_Train_Name_written_in_Kannada-Hindi-Tamil-English.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Quadrilingual_Train_Name_written_in_Kannada-Hindi-Tamil-English.jpg/440px-Quadrilingual_Train_Name_written_in_Kannada-Hindi-Tamil-English.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>The name of a train found in South India written in four languages: Kannada, Hindi, Tamil, and English. Boards like this are common on trains that pass through two or more states where the languages spoken are different.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:UAE_signboard.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/UAE_signboard.jpg/220px-UAE_signboard.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/UAE_signboard.jpg/330px-UAE_signboard.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/UAE_signboard.jpg/440px-UAE_signboard.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1944" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>A trilingual (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>, English and <a href="/wiki/Urdu" title="Urdu">Urdu</a>) sign in the <a href="/wiki/UAE" class="mw-redirect" title="UAE">UAE</a> in the three widely spoken languages in the UAE</figcaption></figure> <p>Widespread multilingualism is one form of <a href="/wiki/Language_contact" title="Language contact">language contact</a>. Multilingualism was common in the past: in early times, when most people were members of small language communities, it was necessary to know two or more languages for trade or any other dealings outside one's town or village, and this holds good today in places of high linguistic diversity such as <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</a> and <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>. Linguist Ekkehard Wolff estimates that 50% of the population of Africa is multilingual.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In multilingual societies, not all speakers need to be multilingual. Some states can have multilingual policies and recognize several official languages, such as <a href="/wiki/Official_bilingualism_in_Canada" title="Official bilingualism in Canada">Canada</a> (English and French). In some states, particular languages may be associated with particular regions in the state (e.g., Canada) or with particular ethnicities (e.g., Malaysia and Singapore). When all speakers are multilingual, linguists classify the community according to the functional distribution of the languages involved: </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Diglossia" title="Diglossia">Diglossia</a></b>: if there is a structural-functional distribution of the languages involved, the society is termed 'diglossic'. Typical diglossic areas are those areas in <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> where a <a href="/wiki/Regional_language" title="Regional language">regional language</a> is used in informal, usually oral, contexts, while the state language is used in more formal situations. <a href="/wiki/Frisia" title="Frisia">Frisia</a> (with <a href="/wiki/Frisian_languages" title="Frisian languages">Frisian</a> and <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a> or <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Lusatia" title="Lusatia">Lusatia</a> (with <a href="/wiki/Sorbian_languages" title="Sorbian languages">Sorbian</a> and German) are well-known examples. Some writers limit diglossia to situations where the languages are closely related and could be considered dialects of each other. This can also be observed in Scotland where, in formal situations, <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> is used. However, in informal situations in many areas, <a href="/wiki/Scots_language" title="Scots language">Scots</a> is the preferred language of choice. A similar phenomenon is also observed in Arabic-speaking regions. The effects of diglossia can be seen in the difference between written Arabic (<a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Standard Arabic</a>) and colloquial Arabic. However, as time has passed, Arabic speakers have developed what some have deemed "Middle Arabic" or "Common Arabic", somewhere between the two extremes. Because of this diversification of the language, the concept of spectroglossia<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> has been suggested.</li> <li><span class="anchor" id="ambilingualism"></span><b>Ambilingualism</b>: a region is called ambilingual if this functional distribution is not observed. In a typical ambilingual area it is nearly impossible to predict which language will be used in a given setting. True ambilingualism is rare. Ambilingual tendencies can be found in small states with multiple heritages, like <a href="/wiki/Multilingualism_in_Luxembourg" title="Multilingualism in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a>, which has a combined Franco-Germanic heritage, or <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>, which fuse the cultures of <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_Malays" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic Malays">Malays</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_people" title="Chinese people">Chinese people</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Indian_people" title="Indian people">Indians</a>, as well as in communities with high rates of deafness, like <a href="/wiki/Martha%27s_Vineyard" title="Martha's Vineyard">Martha's Vineyard</a>, where historically most inhabitants spoke both <a href="/wiki/Martha%27s_Vineyard_Sign_Language" title="Martha's Vineyard Sign Language">Martha's Vineyard Sign Language</a> and English, or southern Israel, where locals tend to speak both <a href="/wiki/Al-Sayyid_Bedouin_Sign_Language" title="Al-Sayyid Bedouin Sign Language">Al-Sayyid Bedouin Sign Language</a> and Arabic or Hebrew. Ambilingualism also can manifest in specific regions of larger states that have both a dominant state language (be it <i>de jure</i> or <i>de facto</i>) and a protected minority language that is limited in terms of the distribution of speakers within the country. This tendency is especially pronounced when, even though the local language is widely spoken, there is a reasonable assumption that all citizens speak the predominant state tongue (e.g., English in Quebec vs. all of Canada; Spanish in Catalonia vs. all of Spain). This phenomenon can also occur in border regions with many cross-border contacts.</li> <li><b>Bipart-lingualism</b>: if more than one language can be heard in a small area, but the large majority of speakers are monolinguals, who have little contact with speakers from neighboring ethnic groups, an area is called 'bipart-lingual'. An example of this is the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a>.</li></ul> <p>Note that the terms given above all refer to situations describing only two languages. In cases of an unspecified number of languages, the terms <b>polyglossia</b>, <b>omnilingualism</b>, and <b>multipart-lingualism</b> are more appropriate. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Christoffer_Taxell#Taxell's_Paradox" title="Christoffer Taxell">Taxell's paradox</a> refers to the notion that monolingual solutions are essential to the realization of functional bilingualism, with multilingual solutions ultimately leading to monolingualism. The theory is based on the observation of the <a href="/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a> language in <a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a> in environments such as schools is subordinated to the majority language <a href="/wiki/Finnish_language" title="Finnish language">Finnish</a> for practical and social reasons, despite the positive characteristics associated with mutual language learning.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Interaction_between_speakers_of_different_languages">Interaction between speakers of different languages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multilingualism&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Interaction between speakers of different languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Whenever two people meet, negotiations take place. If they want to express solidarity and sympathy, they tend to seek common features in their behavior. If speakers wish to express distance towards or even dislike of the person they are speaking to, the reverse is true, and differences are sought. This mechanism also extends to language, as described by the <a href="/wiki/Communication_accommodation_theory" title="Communication accommodation theory">communication accommodation theory</a>. </p><p>Some multilingual people use <a href="/wiki/Code-switching" title="Code-switching">code-switching</a>, which involves swapping between languages. In many cases, code-switching allows speakers to participate in more than one cultural group or environment. Code-switching may also function as a strategy where proficiency is lacking. Such strategies are common if the vocabulary of one of the languages is not very elaborated for certain fields, or if the speakers have not developed proficiency in certain lexical domains, as in the case of immigrant languages. </p><p>This code-switching appears in many forms. If a speaker has a positive attitude towards both languages and towards code-switching, many switches can be found, even within the same sentence.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If however, the speaker is reluctant to use code-switching, as in the case of a lack of proficiency, he might knowingly or unknowingly try to camouflage his attempt by converting elements of one language into elements of the other language through <a href="/wiki/Calque" title="Calque">calquing</a>. This results in speakers using terms like <i>courrier noir</i> (literally, mail that is black) in French, instead of the proper word for <a href="/wiki/Blackmail" title="Blackmail">blackmail</a> in French, <i>chantage</i>. </p><p>Sometimes <a href="/wiki/Pidgin" title="Pidgin">pidgins</a> develop. A pidgin is a fusion of two or more languages that is grammatically simplified but can be understood by native speakers of any of the original languages. Some pidgins develop into "real" <a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">creole languages</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Papiamento" title="Papiamento">Papiamento</a> in <a href="/wiki/Cura%C3%A7ao" title="Curaçao">Curaçao</a> or <a href="/wiki/Singlish" title="Singlish">Singlish</a> in <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>), while others simply evolve into <a href="/wiki/Slang" title="Slang">slangs</a> or <a href="/wiki/Jargon" title="Jargon">jargons</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Helsinki_slang" title="Helsinki slang">Helsinki slang</a>, which remains more or less <a href="/wiki/Mutually_intelligible" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutually intelligible">mutually intelligible</a> with standard Finnish and Swedish).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (July 2014)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In other cases, prolonged influence of languages on each other may have the effect of changing one or both of them to the point a new, non-creole language is born. For example, many linguists believe that the <a href="/wiki/Occitan_language" title="Occitan language">Occitan language</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Catalan_language" title="Catalan language">Catalan language</a> were formed because a population speaking a single Occitano-Romance language was divided by the political spheres of influence of France and Spain, respectively. <a href="/wiki/Yiddish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Yiddish language">Yiddish</a> is a complex blend of <a href="/wiki/Middle_High_German" title="Middle High German">Middle High German</a> with <a href="/wiki/Hebrew" class="mw-redirect" title="Hebrew">Hebrew</a> and also has borrowings from Slavic languages. </p><p>Bilingual interaction can even take place without speakers switching between languages or fusing them together. In certain areas, it is not uncommon for speakers to use a different language within the same conversation. This phenomenon is found, amongst other places, in <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a>. Most speakers of <a href="/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norwegian_language" title="Norwegian language">Norwegian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Danish_language" title="Danish language">Danish</a> can communicate with each other speaking their respective languages, while few can speak both (people used to these situations often adjust their language, avoiding words that are not found in the other language or that can be misunderstood). Using different languages is usually called <a href="/wiki/Non-convergent_discourse" title="Non-convergent discourse">non-convergent discourse</a>, a term introduced by the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_people" title="Dutch people">Dutch</a> linguist Reitze Jonkman.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> To a certain extent, this situation also exists between <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Afrikaans_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Afrikaans language">Afrikaans</a>, although everyday contact is fairly rare because of the distance between the two respective communities. Another example is the former state of <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovakia" title="Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</a>, where two closely related and mutually intelligible languages (<a href="/wiki/Czech_language" title="Czech language">Czech</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slovak_language" title="Slovak language">Slovak</a>) were in common use. Most Czechs and Slovaks understand both languages, although they would use only one of them (their respective mother tongue) when speaking. For example, in Czechoslovakia, it was common to hear two people talking on television each speaking a different language without any difficulty understanding each other. This bilingualism still exists nowadays, although it has started to deteriorate since Czechoslovakia split up.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wakkanai_Russian_sign.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Japanese, English, and Russian sign in Northern Japan"><img alt="Japanese, English, and Russian sign in Northern Japan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Wakkanai_Russian_sign.jpg/120px-Wakkanai_Russian_sign.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Wakkanai_Russian_sign.jpg/180px-Wakkanai_Russian_sign.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Wakkanai_Russian_sign.jpg/240px-Wakkanai_Russian_sign.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Japanese, English, and Russian sign in Northern Japan</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chengde_summer_palace_writings.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Mongolian, Chagatai, Chinese, Tibetan, and Manchu sign in Chengde, China"><img alt="Mongolian, Chagatai, Chinese, Tibetan, and Manchu sign in Chengde, China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Chengde_summer_palace_writings.jpg/120px-Chengde_summer_palace_writings.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Chengde_summer_palace_writings.jpg/180px-Chengde_summer_palace_writings.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Chengde_summer_palace_writings.jpg/240px-Chengde_summer_palace_writings.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Mongolian, Chagatai, Chinese, Tibetan, and Manchu sign in Chengde, China</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Languages_of_Israel.jpeg" class="mw-file-description" title="A sign at the Israeli Ministry of Interior and Ministry of Immigration and Absorption in Haifa in 2009 uses Hebrew, Arabic, English, and Russian"><img alt="A sign at the Israeli Ministry of Interior and Ministry of Immigration and Absorption in Haifa in 2009 uses Hebrew, Arabic, English, and Russian" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Languages_of_Israel.jpeg/120px-Languages_of_Israel.jpeg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Languages_of_Israel.jpeg/180px-Languages_of_Israel.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Languages_of_Israel.jpeg/240px-Languages_of_Israel.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A sign at the Israeli <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Interior_(Israel)" title="Ministry of Interior (Israel)">Ministry of Interior</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Aliyah_and_Integration" title="Ministry of Aliyah and Integration">Ministry of Immigration and Absorption</a> in Haifa in 2009 uses Hebrew, Arabic, English, and Russian</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Protected_place_sign,_Fort_Canning_Park,_Singapore_-_20081203.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A multilingual sign in Singapore's four official languages: English, Chinese, Tamil, and Malay"><img alt="A multilingual sign in Singapore's four official languages: English, Chinese, Tamil, and Malay" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Protected_place_sign%2C_Fort_Canning_Park%2C_Singapore_-_20081203.jpg/120px-Protected_place_sign%2C_Fort_Canning_Park%2C_Singapore_-_20081203.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Protected_place_sign%2C_Fort_Canning_Park%2C_Singapore_-_20081203.jpg/180px-Protected_place_sign%2C_Fort_Canning_Park%2C_Singapore_-_20081203.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Protected_place_sign%2C_Fort_Canning_Park%2C_Singapore_-_20081203.jpg/240px-Protected_place_sign%2C_Fort_Canning_Park%2C_Singapore_-_20081203.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A multilingual sign in Singapore's four official languages: English, Chinese, Tamil, and Malay</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Trilingual_road_sign_in_India.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Urdu, Hindi, and English on a road sign in India"><img alt="Urdu, Hindi, and English on a road sign in India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Trilingual_road_sign_in_India.png/120px-Trilingual_road_sign_in_India.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="46" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Trilingual_road_sign_in_India.png/180px-Trilingual_road_sign_in_India.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Trilingual_road_sign_in_India.png/240px-Trilingual_road_sign_in_India.png 2x" data-file-width="1453" data-file-height="561" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Urdu, Hindi, and English on a road sign in India</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tifinagh_writing.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="A sign in Morocco uses Arabic, Berber (written in Tifinagh), and French"><img alt="A sign in Morocco uses Arabic, Berber (written in Tifinagh), and French" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Tifinagh_writing.JPG/120px-Tifinagh_writing.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Tifinagh_writing.JPG/180px-Tifinagh_writing.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Tifinagh_writing.JPG/240px-Tifinagh_writing.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3149" data-file-height="2362" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A sign in Morocco uses Arabic, Berber (written in <a href="/wiki/Tifinagh" title="Tifinagh">Tifinagh</a>), and French</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Computing">Computing</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multilingualism&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Computing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hebkeyboard.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Hebkeyboard.JPG/220px-Hebkeyboard.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Hebkeyboard.JPG/330px-Hebkeyboard.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Hebkeyboard.JPG/440px-Hebkeyboard.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2808" data-file-height="1709" /></a><figcaption>Dual-language <a href="/wiki/Hebrew" class="mw-redirect" title="Hebrew">Hebrew</a> and English keyboard</figcaption></figure> <p>With emerging markets and expanding international cooperation, business users expect to be able to use software and applications in their own language.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Multilingualisation (or "m17n", where "17" stands for 17 omitted letters) of computer systems can be considered part of a continuum between <a href="/wiki/Internationalization_and_localization" title="Internationalization and localization">internationalization and localization</a>: </p> <ul><li>A localized system has been adapted or converted for a particular locale (other than the one it was originally developed for), including the language of the user interface, input, and display, and features such as time/date display and currency; but each instance of the system only supports a single locale.</li> <li>Multilingualised software supports multiple languages for display and input simultaneously, but generally has a single user interface language. Support for other locale features like time, date, number and currency formats may vary as the system tends towards full internationalization. Generally, a multilingual system is intended for use in a specific locale, whilst allowing for multilingual content.</li> <li>An internationalized system is equipped for use in a range of locales, allowing for the co-existence of several languages and character sets in user interfaces and displays. In particular, a system may not be considered internationalized in the fullest sense unless the interface language is selectable by the user at runtime.</li></ul> <p>Translating the user interface is usually part of the <a href="/wiki/Software_localization" class="mw-redirect" title="Software localization">software localization</a> process, which also includes adaptations such as units and date conversion. Many software applications are available in several languages, ranging from a handful (the <a href="/wiki/List_of_languages_by_number_of_native_speakers" title="List of languages by number of native speakers">most spoken languages</a>) to dozens for the most popular applications (such as <a href="/wiki/Office_suite" class="mw-redirect" title="Office suite">office suites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Web_browser" title="Web browser">web browsers</a>, etc.). Due to the status of <a href="/wiki/English_in_computing" title="English in computing">English in computing</a>, software development nearly always uses it (but see also <a href="/wiki/Non-English-based_programming_languages" title="Non-English-based programming languages">Non-English-based programming languages</a>), so almost all commercial software is initially available in an English version, and multilingual versions, if any, may be produced as alternative options based on the English original. </p><p>The Multilingual App Toolkit (MAT)<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was first released in concert with the release of Windows 8 as a way to provide developers a set of free tooling that enabled adding languages to their apps with just a few clicks, in large part due to the integration of a free, unlimited license to both the Microsoft Translator machine translation service and the Microsoft Language Platform service, along with platform extensibility to enable anyone to add translation services into MAT. Microsoft engineers and inventors of MAT Jan A. Nelson and Camerum Lerum have continued to drive the development of the tools, working with third parties and standards bodies to ensure that broad availability of multilingual app development is provided.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the release of Windows 10, MAT is now delivering support for cross-platform development for Universal Windows Platform apps as well as for iOS and Android apps. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Internet">Internet</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multilingualism&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Internet"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Languages_used_on_the_Internet" title="Languages used on the Internet">Languages used on the Internet</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="English-speaking_countries">English-speaking countries</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multilingualism&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: English-speaking countries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to Hewitt (2008)<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (June 2022)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> entrepreneurs in London from Poland, China, and Turkey tend to use English for communication with customers, suppliers, and banks but their native languages for work tasks and other social purposes. Even in English-speaking countries, immigrants can often still use their mother tongue in the workplace thanks to the presence of other immigrants in that workplace who come from the same place. Kovacs (2004) describes this phenomenon in Australia with Finnish immigrants in the construction industry who spoke Finnish during working hours.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although foreign languages may be used in the workplace, English is still a key working skill. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Asia">Asia</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multilingualism&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many Asian companies, due to increasing globalization, have recently been focusing more and more on their employees' English proficiency. Especially in <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a> since the 1990s, Asian companies have lately used different English language tests to evaluate job applicants, and the standards for these tests continue to be raised. Meanwhile, <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> ranks 53rd out of 100 countries in 2019 <a href="/wiki/EF_English_Proficiency_Index" title="EF English Proficiency Index">EF English Proficiency Index</a>, amid calls for this to improve in time for the <a href="/wiki/2020_Tokyo_Olympics" class="mw-redirect" title="2020 Tokyo Olympics">2020 Tokyo Olympics</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="It is well past the Tokyo Olympics now (June 2022)">needs update</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Within multiracial countries such as <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>, it is not unusual for one to speak two or more languages, albeit with varying degrees of fluency.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some are proficient in several Chinese varieties, given the linguistic diversity of the ethnic Chinese community in both countries. In Singapore, bilingualism is embraced in the education system with English as the medium of instruction and the official <a href="/wiki/Mother_tongue" class="mw-redirect" title="Mother tongue">mother tongue</a> taught as a second language.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Africa">Africa</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multilingualism&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Africa, knowledge of English is important not only for multinational companies but also in the fields of engineering, chemistry, electricity and aeronautics. A study directed by Hill and van Zyl (2002) shows that in South Africa young black engineers used English most often for communication and documentation. However, Afrikaans and other local languages were also used to explain particular concepts to workers in order to ensure understanding and cooperation.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Europe">Europe</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multilingualism&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Bilingualism_boosts_grades_at_Treorchy_Comprehensive.webm/220px--Bilingualism_boosts_grades_at_Treorchy_Comprehensive.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" 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kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="de" label="Deutsch ‪(de)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ABilingualism_boosts_grades_at_Treorchy_Comprehensive.webm&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ABilingualism_boosts_grades_at_Treorchy_Comprehensive.webm&lang=es&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="es" label="español ‪(es)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ABilingualism_boosts_grades_at_Treorchy_Comprehensive.webm&lang=fa&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="fa" label="فارسی ‪(fa)‬" data-dir="rtl" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ABilingualism_boosts_grades_at_Treorchy_Comprehensive.webm&lang=gl&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="gl" label="galego ‪(gl)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ABilingualism_boosts_grades_at_Treorchy_Comprehensive.webm&lang=he&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="he" label="עברית ‪(he)‬" data-dir="rtl" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ABilingualism_boosts_grades_at_Treorchy_Comprehensive.webm&lang=hi&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="hi" label="हिन्दी ‪(hi)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ABilingualism_boosts_grades_at_Treorchy_Comprehensive.webm&lang=hr&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="hr" label="hrvatski ‪(hr)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ABilingualism_boosts_grades_at_Treorchy_Comprehensive.webm&lang=it&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="it" label="italiano ‪(it)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ABilingualism_boosts_grades_at_Treorchy_Comprehensive.webm&lang=ja&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="ja" label="日本語 ‪(ja)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ABilingualism_boosts_grades_at_Treorchy_Comprehensive.webm&lang=mt&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="mt" label="Malti ‪(mt)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ABilingualism_boosts_grades_at_Treorchy_Comprehensive.webm&lang=ru&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="ru" label="русский ‪(ru)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ABilingualism_boosts_grades_at_Treorchy_Comprehensive.webm&lang=th&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="th" label="ไทย ‪(th)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></video></span><figcaption>A Welsh Government video of an English medium school in <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a>, where introducing a second language (<a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a>) has boosted the exam results</figcaption></figure> <p>Languages that are used in multiple countries include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> in Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Egypt, Sudan, Lebanon, Palestine, Syria, Iraq, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain, and Oman; and to a co-official extent in Mali, Chad, Somalia, Eritrea, Djibouti, Zanzibar, and the Comoros.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a> in China, Taiwan, Singapore, and to a co-official extent in Malaysia and Brunei.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_and_territories_where_German_is_an_official_language" title="List of countries and territories where German is an official language">German</a> in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, and Belgium.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> in Greece, Cyprus, southern Albania, Italy (in Calabria and Salento) and parts of Turkey.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_and_territories_where_French_is_an_official_language" title="List of countries and territories where French is an official language">French</a> in France, Belgium, Luxembourg, Monaco, Andorra, and Switzerland; and to a co-official extent in Canada, as well as much of Francophone Africa including Algeria, Benin, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Djibouti, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Madagascar, Mali, Mauritania, Mauritius, Morocco, Tunisia, Niger, Rwanda, Seychelles, and Togo.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a> in Portugal, Brazil, Angola, Mozambique and São Tomé e Príncipe.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_and_territories_where_English_is_an_official_language" title="List of countries and territories where English is an official language">English</a> in the United Kingdom, United States of America, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland, South Africa, Kenya, Nigeria, India, Antigua and Barbuda,The Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Botswana, Dominica, Eswatini, Fiji, the Gambia, Hong Kong, Singapore, Malaysia, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Malta.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a> in the Netherlands, Belgium, Aruba, and Suriname.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a> in Sweden and Finland.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a> in Italy, Switzerland, San Marino, and Malta.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a> in Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine; and to a co-official extent in Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Kazakhstan, Moldova, Kyrgyzstan, and Israel.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a> in Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan.</li></ul> <p>English is a commonly taught second language at schools, so it is also the most common choice for two speakers, whose native languages are different. However, some languages are so close to each other that it is generally more common when meeting to use their mother tongue rather than English. These language groups include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Danish_language" title="Danish language">Danish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Norwegian_language" title="Norwegian language">Norwegian</a></li> <li>Arabic dialectic continuum</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_language" title="Czech language">Czech</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slovak_language" title="Slovak language">Slovak</a>: during <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovakia" title="Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovak</a> times, these were considered to be two different dialects of a common <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak_language" title="Czechoslovak language">Czechoslovak language</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_language" title="Serbian language">Serbian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Croatian_language" title="Croatian language">Croatian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bosnian_language" title="Bosnian language">Bosnian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Montenegrin_language" title="Montenegrin language">Montenegrin</a>: standardized in the 19th century and throughout the existence of <a href="/wiki/Yugoslavia" title="Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a>, Croatian and Serbian were considered as Western and Eastern variants of a common, <a href="/wiki/Serbo-Croatian" title="Serbo-Croatian">Serbo-Croatian</a> language. After the <a href="/wiki/Breakup_of_Yugoslavia" title="Breakup of Yugoslavia">breakup of Yugoslavia</a>, each successor state <a href="/wiki/Language_secessionism#In_Serbo-Croatian" title="Language secessionism">proclaimed and codified</a> its own official language. In <a href="/wiki/Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">sociolinguistics</a>, however, these are still considered standardized varieties of one <a href="/wiki/Pluricentric_language" title="Pluricentric language">pluricentric language</a>, all based on <a href="/wiki/Shtokavian" title="Shtokavian">Shtokavian</a> dialect, with the biggest distinction being between the <a href="/wiki/Ekavian" class="mw-redirect" title="Ekavian">Ekavian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ijekavian" class="mw-redirect" title="Ijekavian">Ijekavian</a> pronunciation. Cyrillic and Latin writing scripts are official in Montenegrin and Serbian, while Latin is exclusively official in Bosnian and Croatian.</li></ul> <p>In multilingual countries such as Belgium (Dutch, French, and German), Finland (Finnish and Swedish), Switzerland (German, French, Italian, and Romansh), Luxembourg (Luxembourgish, French, and German), Spain (Spanish, Catalan, Basque, and Galician), and Malta (Maltese, English, and Italian), it is common to see people who have mastered two or even three of their country's chief languages. </p><p>Many minor <a href="/wiki/Russians" title="Russians">Russian</a> ethnic groups, such as <a href="/wiki/Tatars" title="Tatars">Tatars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bashkirs" title="Bashkirs">Bashkirs</a> and others, are also multilingual. Moreover, with the beginning of the compulsory study of the <a href="/wiki/Tatar_language" title="Tatar language">Tatar language</a> in <a href="/wiki/Tatarstan" title="Tatarstan">Tatarstan</a>, there has been an increase in knowledge of Tatar among the natively Russian-speaking population of the republic.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Continued global <a href="/wiki/Diversity_(business)" title="Diversity (business)">diversity</a> has led to an increasingly multilingual population. Europe has become an excellent model to observe this newly diversified culture. The expansion of the European Union with its open labour market has provided opportunities both for well-trained professionals and unskilled workers to move to new countries to seek employment. Political changes and turmoil have also led to migration and the creation of new and more complex multilingual workplaces. In most wealthy and secure countries, immigrants are found mostly in low-paid jobs but also, increasingly, in high-status positions.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Music">Music</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multilingualism&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Music"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_multilingual_bands_and_artists" title="List of multilingual bands and artists">List of multilingual bands and artists</a></div> <p>It is extremely common for music to be written in whatever the contemporary <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a> is. If a song is not written in a common tongue, then it is usually written in whatever is the predominant language in the musician's country of origin, or in another widely recognized language, such as English, German, Spanish, or French.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The bilingual song cycles "there..." and "Sing, Poetry" on the 2011 contemporary classical album <i><a href="/wiki/Troika_(Julia_Kogan_album)" title="Troika (Julia Kogan album)">Troika</a></i> consist of musical settings of Russian poems with their English self-translation by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Brodsky" title="Joseph Brodsky">Joseph Brodsky</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Nabokov" title="Vladimir Nabokov">Vladimir Nabokov</a>, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Songs with lyrics in multiple languages are known as <a href="/wiki/Macaronic_language" title="Macaronic language">macaronic verse</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Literature">Literature</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multilingualism&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fiction">Fiction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multilingualism&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Fiction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> Multilingual stories, essays, and novels are often written by immigrants and <a href="/wiki/Second-generation_immigrants_in_the_United_States" title="Second-generation immigrants in the United States">second generation American</a> authors.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Chicano" title="Chicano">Chicana</a> author <a href="/wiki/Gloria_E._Anzald%C3%BAa" class="mw-redirect" title="Gloria E. Anzaldúa">Gloria E. Anzaldúa</a>, a major figure in the fields <a href="/wiki/Third-World_Feminism" class="mw-redirect" title="Third-World Feminism">Third World Feminism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Postcolonial_feminism" title="Postcolonial feminism">Postcolonial Feminism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Latino_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Latino philosophy">Latino philosophy</a> explained the author's existential sense of obligation to write multilingual literature.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An often quoted passage, from her collection of stories and essays entitled <i><a href="/wiki/Borderlands/La_Frontera:_The_New_Mestiza" title="Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza">Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza</a></i>, states:</p><blockquote><p>"Until I am free to write bilingually and to switch codes without having always to translate, while I still have to speak English or Spanish when I would rather speak Spanglish, and as long as I have to accommodate the English speakers rather than having them accommodate me, my tongue will be illegitimate. I will no longer be made to feel ashamed of existing. I will have my voice: Indian, Spanish, white. I will have my serpent's tongue – my woman's voice, my sexual voice, my poet's voice. I will overcome the tradition of silence".<sup id="cite_ref-Fowler-2019_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fowler-2019-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p>Multilingual novels by <a href="/wiki/Chimamanda_Ngozi_Adichie" title="Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie">Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie</a> display phrases in <a href="/wiki/Igbo_language" title="Igbo language">Igbo</a> with translations, as in her early works <a href="/wiki/Purple_Hibiscus_(novel)" class="mw-redirect" title="Purple Hibiscus (novel)"><i>Purple Hibiscus</i></a> and <i><a href="/wiki/Half_of_a_Yellow_Sun" title="Half of a Yellow Sun">Half of a Yellow Sun</a></i>. However, in her later novel <i><a href="/wiki/Americanah" title="Americanah">Americanah</a></i>, the author does not offer translations of non-English passages.<sup id="cite_ref-Fowler-2019_108-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fowler-2019-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/The_House_on_Mango_Street" title="The House on Mango Street">The House on Mango Street</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Sandra_Cisneros" title="Sandra Cisneros">Sandra Cisneros</a> is an example of <a href="/wiki/Chicano_literature" title="Chicano literature">Chicano literature</a> that leaves Spanish words and phrases untranslated (though italicized) throughout the text.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>American novelists who use foreign languages (outside of their own cultural heritage) for literary effect include <a href="/wiki/Cormac_McCarthy" title="Cormac McCarthy">Cormac McCarthy</a>, who uses untranslated Spanish and <a href="/wiki/Spanglish" title="Spanglish">Spanglish</a> in his fiction.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Poetry">Poetry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multilingualism&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Poetry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Multilingualism&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2023</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Multilingual poetry is prevalent in the United States' <a href="/wiki/Latino_literature" title="Latino literature">Latino literature</a>, where <a href="/wiki/Code-switching" title="Code-switching">code-switching</a> and <a href="/wiki/Translanguaging" title="Translanguaging">translanguaging</a> between English, Spanish, and <a href="/wiki/Spanglish" title="Spanglish">Spanglish</a> is common within a single poem or throughout a book of poems.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Latino_poetry" title="Latino poetry">Latino poetry</a> is also written in Portuguese and can include phrases in <a href="/wiki/Nahuatl" title="Nahuatl">Nahuatl</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mayan_languages" title="Mayan languages">Mayan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Huichol" title="Huichol">Huichol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arawakan_languages" title="Arawakan languages">Arawakan</a>, and other indigenous languages related to the Latino experience. Contemporary multilingual Latino American poets include <a href="/wiki/Giannina_Braschi" title="Giannina Braschi">Giannina Braschi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ana_Castillo" title="Ana Castillo">Ana Castillo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sandra_Cisneros" title="Sandra Cisneros">Sandra Cisneros</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Guillermo_G%C3%B3mez-Pe%C3%B1a" title="Guillermo Gómez-Peña">Guillermo Gómez-Peña</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The British-Cuban political activist, <a href="/wiki/Surrealism" title="Surrealism">surrealist</a> poet and artist <a href="/wiki/Mary_Stanley_Low" title="Mary Stanley Low">Mary Stanley Low</a> published the trilingual poetry volume <i>Tres voces – Three Voices – Trois Vois</i> in 1957, which featured poetry in English, Spanish and French.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Film">Film</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multilingualism&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Film"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The 2021 Indian documentary film <a href="/wiki/Dreaming_of_Words" title="Dreaming of Words">Dreaming of Words</a> traces the life and work of <a href="/wiki/Njattyela_Sreedharan" title="Njattyela Sreedharan">Njattyela Sreedharan</a>, a fourth standard drop-out, who compiled a multilingual dictionary connecting four major <a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian languages</a>: <a href="/wiki/Malayalam" title="Malayalam">Malayalam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kannada" title="Kannada">Kannada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a> and <a href="/wiki/Telugu_language" title="Telugu language">Telugu</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Travelling across four states and doing extensive research, he spent twenty five years<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> making this multilingual dictionary. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multilingualism&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_diversity" title="Cultural diversity">Cultural diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childhood_Bilingualism_Research_Centre" class="mw-redirect" title="Childhood Bilingualism Research Centre">Childhood Bilingualism Research Centre</a> (in Hong Kong)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digraphia" title="Digraphia">Digraphia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_language" title="Economics of language">Economics of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguapax_Prize" title="Linguapax Prize">Linguapax Prize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions" title="List of multilingual countries and regions">List of multilingual countries and regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multilingualism_and_globalization" title="Multilingualism and globalization">Multilingualism and globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Official_multilingualism" title="Official multilingualism">Official multilingualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plurilingualism" title="Plurilingualism">Plurilingualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlinguistics" title="Interlinguistics">Interlinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_rights" title="Linguistic rights">Linguistic rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metatypy" title="Metatypy">Metatypy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multilingual_education" title="Multilingual education">Multilingual education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Multilingual_Library" title="The Multilingual Library">The Multilingual Library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_person,_one_language" title="One person, one language">One person, one language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_language_in_the_United_States" title="Spanish language in the United States">Spanish language in the United States</a></li></ul></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1088965794">@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .columns-start .column{float:left;min-width:20em}.mw-parser-output .columns-2 .column{width:50%}.mw-parser-output .columns-3 .column{width:33.3%}.mw-parser-output .columns-4 .column{width:25%}.mw-parser-output .columns-5 .column{width:20%}}</style><div class="columns-start columns-2"><div class="column"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legislation_and_movements">Legislation and movements</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multilingualism&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Legislation and movements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_Commissioner_for_Multilingualism" class="mw-redirect" title="European Commissioner for Multilingualism">European Commissioner for Multilingualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Day_of_Languages" title="European Day of Languages">European Day of Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English-only_movement" title="English-only movement">English-only movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_legislation_in_Belgium" title="Language legislation in Belgium">Language legislation in Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_European_Union" title="Languages of the European Union">Languages of the European Union</a></li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1088965794"></div><div class="column"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education">Education</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multilingualism&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multilingual_education" title="Multilingual education">Multilingual education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multilingual_education_in_Africa" title="Multilingual education in Africa">In Africa</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><div style="clear: both"></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multilingualism&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See the <a href="/wiki/Critical_period_hypothesis" title="Critical period hypothesis">critical period hypothesis</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multilingualism&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free 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A meta-analytic review of the bilingual lexical deficit"</a>. <i>Psychonomic Bulletin & Review</i>. <b>30</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">897–</span>913. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3758%2Fs13423-022-02136-7">10.3758/s13423-022-02136-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1531-5320">1531-5320</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10264296">10264296</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36327027">36327027</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychonomic+Bulletin+%26+Review&rft.atitle=Does+bilingualism+come+with+linguistic+costs%3F+A+meta-analytic+review+of+the+bilingual+lexical+deficit&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E897-%3C%2Fspan%3E913&rft.date=2023-06-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC10264296%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1531-5320&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F36327027&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3758%2Fs13423-022-02136-7&rft.aulast=Bylund&rft.aufirst=Emanuel&rft.au=Antfolk%2C+Jan&rft.au=Abrahamsson%2C+Niclas&rft.au=Olstad%2C+Anne+Marte+Haug&rft.au=Norrman%2C+Gunnar&rft.au=Lehtonen%2C+Minna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3758%2Fs13423-022-02136-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMultilingualism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNakamura2019" class="citation journal cs1">Nakamura, Janice (1 September 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/349176664">"Receptive bilingual children's use of language in interaction"</a>. <i>Studies in Language Sciences</i>. <b>18</b>. The Japanese Society for Language Sciences: <span class="nowrap">46–</span>66. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220122103522/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/349176664_Receptive_bilingual_children's_use_of_language_in_interaction">Archived</a> from the original on 22 January 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studies+in+Language+Sciences&rft.atitle=Receptive+bilingual+children%27s+use+of+language+in+interaction&rft.volume=18&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E46-%3C%2Fspan%3E66&rft.date=2019-09-01&rft.aulast=Nakamura&rft.aufirst=Janice&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F349176664&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMultilingualism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100418134038/http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=spa">"Ethnologue report for language code: spa"</a>. Ethnologue.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=spa">the original</a> on 18 April 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 July</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ethnologue+report+for+language+code%3A+spa&rft.pub=Ethnologue.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ethnologue.com%2Fshow_language.asp%3Fcode%3Dspa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMultilingualism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeitzman" class="citation web cs1">Weitzman, Elaine. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090530230334/http://www.hanen.org/web/Home/AboutHanen/NewsViews/OneLanguageorTwo/tabid/220/Default.aspx">"One Language or Two? Home Language or Not? Some Answers to Questions about Bilingualism in Language-Delayed Children"</a>. <i>hanen.org</i>. <a href="/wiki/The_Hanen_Centre" title="The Hanen Centre">The Hanen Centre</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hanen.org/web/Home/AboutHanen/NewsViews/OneLanguageorTwo/tabid/220/Default.aspx">the original</a> on 30 May 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 May</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=hanen.org&rft.atitle=One+Language+or+Two%3F+Home+Language+or+Not%3F+Some+Answers+to+Questions+about+Bilingualism+in+Language-Delayed+Children&rft.aulast=Weitzman&rft.aufirst=Elaine&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hanen.org%2Fweb%2FHome%2FAboutHanen%2FNewsViews%2FOneLanguageorTwo%2Ftabid%2F220%2FDefault.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMultilingualism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGass2008" class="citation book cs1">Gass, Susan M. (2008). <i>Second Language Acquisition: An Introductory Course</i>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0805854985" title="Special:BookSources/978-0805854985"><bdi>978-0805854985</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Second+Language+Acquisition%3A+An+Introductory+Course&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0805854985&rft.aulast=Gass&rft.aufirst=Susan+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMultilingualism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190224062558/https://www.ericdigests.org/1993/native.htm">"Developing Native Language Literacy in Language Minority Adults"</a>. <i>ericdigests.org</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ericdigests.org/1993/native.htm">the original</a> on 24 February 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 February</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ericdigests.org&rft.atitle=Developing+Native+Language+Literacy+in+Language+Minority+Adults&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ericdigests.org%2F1993%2Fnative.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMultilingualism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrudell2005" class="citation journal cs1">Trudell, Barbara (May 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sil.org/resources/archives/5099">"Language choice, education and community identity"</a>. <i>International Journal of Educational Development</i>. <b>25</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">237–</span>251. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ijedudev.2004.08.004">10.1016/j.ijedudev.2004.08.004</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200719163752/https://www.sil.org/resources/archives/5099">Archived</a> from the original on 19 July 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Educational+Development&rft.atitle=Language+choice%2C+education+and+community+identity&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E237-%3C%2Fspan%3E251&rft.date=2005-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ijedudev.2004.08.004&rft.aulast=Trudell&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sil.org%2Fresources%2Farchives%2F5099&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMultilingualism" class="Z3988"></span>; cited in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.economist.com/leaders/2019/02/23/the-perils-of-learning-in-english">"The perils of learning in English"</a>. <i>The Economist</i>. 21 February 2019. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190223145929/https://www.economist.com/leaders/2019/02/23/the-perils-of-learning-in-english">Archived</a> from the original on 23 February 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 February</span> 2019</span>. <q>Research demonstrates that children learn more when they are taught in their mother tongue than they do when they are taught in any other language. In a study of children in the first three years in 12 schools in Cameroon, those taught in Kom did better than those taught in English in all subjects. Parents might say that the point is to prepare children for the workplace and that a grasp of English is more use than sums or history. Yet by year five, the children taught in Kom outperformed English-medium children even in English. Perhaps this is because they gain a better grasp of the mechanics of reading and writing when they are learning the skills in a language they understand.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=The+perils+of+learning+in+English&rft.date=2019-02-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fleaders%2F2019%2F02%2F23%2Fthe-perils-of-learning-in-english&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMultilingualism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hakuta-1990-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hakuta-1990_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hakuta-1990_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHakuta1990" class="citation book cs1">Hakuta, Kenji (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED329635.pdf#page=46">"Language and cognition in bilingual children"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 November</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Pew+Research+Center%27s+Social+%26+Demographic+Trends+Project&rft.atitle=Second-Generation+Americans&rft.date=2013-02-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pewsocialtrends.org%2F2013%2F02%2F07%2Fsecond-generation-americans%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMultilingualism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://secondgenstories.com/">"Second Generation Stories | Literature by Children of Immigrants"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201029171756/https://secondgenstories.com/">Archived</a> from the original on 29 October 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 November</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Second+Generation+Stories+%7C+Literature+by+Children+of+Immigrants&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsecondgenstories.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMultilingualism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLunsfordOuzgane2004" class="citation book cs1">Lunsford, Andrea A.; Ouzgane, Lahoucine (1 January 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nH_9bkigKmgC&q=gloria+anzaldua+postcolonial+feminism&pg=PP1"><i>Crossing Borderlands: Composition and Postcolonial Studies</i></a>. University of Pittsburgh Pre. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8229-7253-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8229-7253-2"><bdi>978-0-8229-7253-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crossing+Borderlands%3A+Composition+and+Postcolonial+Studies&rft.pub=University+of+Pittsburgh+Pre&rft.date=2004-01-01&rft.isbn=978-0-8229-7253-2&rft.aulast=Lunsford&rft.aufirst=Andrea+A.&rft.au=Ouzgane%2C+Lahoucine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnH_9bkigKmgC%26q%3Dgloria%2Banzaldua%2Bpostcolonial%2Bfeminism%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMultilingualism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fowler-2019-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fowler-2019_108-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fowler-2019_108-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFowler2019" class="citation news cs1">Fowler, Yara Rodrigues (17 April 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/books/2019/apr/17/top-10-bilingual-books">"Top 10 bilingual books"</a>. <i>the Guardian</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201207193836/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2019/apr/17/top-10-bilingual-books">Archived</a> from the original on 7 December 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 November</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Public+Library&rft.atitle=Hispanic+Heritage+Month%3A+Recommending+Latin+American+Women+Authors&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nypl.org%2Fblog%2F2018%2F09%2F24%2Fhispanic-heritage-month-women-latin-american-authors-recommendations&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMultilingualism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMunoz" class="citation thesis cs1">Munoz, Mary Elizabeth. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rio.tamiu.edu/etds/7"><i>Thinking in Uno and Reading en Otro: Codeswitching in American Novels</i></a> (Thesis). Texas AM International University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Thinking+in+Uno+and+Reading+en+Otro%3A+Codeswitching+in+American+Novels&rft.inst=Texas+AM+International+University&rft.aulast=Munoz&rft.aufirst=Mary+Elizabeth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frio.tamiu.edu%2Fetds%2F7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMultilingualism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPérez2020" class="citation book cs1">Pérez, Rolando (2020). "The Bilingualisms of Latino/a Literatures". In <a href="/wiki/Ilan_Stavans" title="Ilan Stavans">Stavans, Ilan</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190691202.013.31"><i>The Oxford Handbook of Latino Studies</i></a>. Oxford University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">281–</span>306. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780190691202.013.31">10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190691202.013.31</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-069120-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-069120-2"><bdi>978-0-19-069120-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Plant: Obituary - Mary Stanley Low (1912-2007)"</a>. <i>www.marxists.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 January</span> 2025</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.marxists.org&rft.atitle=J.J.+Plant%3A+Obituary+-+Mary+Stanley+Low+%281912-2007%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.marxists.org%2Fhistory%2Fetol%2Frevhist%2Fbackiss%2Fvol9%2Fno4%2Fplant3.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMultilingualism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bookofachievers.com/articles/82-yo-compiles-dictionary-of-4-dravidian-languages-useful-ofcourse">"82-year-old Kerala man's Dictionary is in the four Dravidian languages. 25 long years to compile"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220331160135/https://bookofachievers.com/articles/82-yo-compiles-dictionary-of-4-dravidian-languages-useful-ofcourse">Archived</a> from the original on 31 March 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 March</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=82-year-old+Kerala+man%27s+Dictionary+is+in+the+four+Dravidian+languages.+25+long+years+to+compile&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbookofachievers.com%2Farticles%2F82-yo-compiles-dictionary-of-4-dravidian-languages-useful-ofcourse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMultilingualism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thebetterindia.com/246205/83-yo-kerala-school-dropout-creates-unique-dictionary-in-4-south-indian-languages-vid01/">"83-YO Kerala School Dropout Creates Unique Dictionary in 4 South Indian Languages"</a>. 31 December 2020. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220331160135/https://www.thebetterindia.com/246205/83-yo-kerala-school-dropout-creates-unique-dictionary-in-4-south-indian-languages-vid01/">Archived</a> from the original on 31 March 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 March</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=83-YO+Kerala+School+Dropout+Creates+Unique+Dictionary+in+4+South+Indian+Languages&rft.date=2020-12-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thebetterindia.com%2F246205%2F83-yo-kerala-school-dropout-creates-unique-dictionary-in-4-south-indian-languages-vid01%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMultilingualism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSajit2020" class="citation news cs1">Sajit, C. p. (30 October 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/for-keralites-door-opens-to-three-other-dravidian-languages/article32986464.ece">"For Keralites, door opens to three other Dravidian languages"</a>. <i>The Hindu</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220331160129/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/for-keralites-door-opens-to-three-other-dravidian-languages/article32986464.ece">Archived</a> from the original on 31 March 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 March</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Hindu&rft.atitle=For+Keralites%2C+door+opens+to+three+other+Dravidian+languages&rft.date=2020-10-30&rft.aulast=Sajit&rft.aufirst=C.+p.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thehindu.com%2Fnews%2Fnational%2Fkerala%2Ffor-keralites-door-opens-to-three-other-dravidian-languages%2Farticle32986464.ece&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMultilingualism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://silvertalkies.com/the-man-who-wrote-a-dictionary-in-four-languages/">"The Man Who Wrote A Dictionary In Four Languages – Silver Talkies"</a>. <i>silvertalkies.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220331160135/https://silvertalkies.com/the-man-who-wrote-a-dictionary-in-four-languages/">Archived</a> from the original on 31 March 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 March</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=silvertalkies.com&rft.atitle=The+Man+Who+Wrote+A+Dictionary+In+Four+Languages+%E2%80%93+Silver+Talkies&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsilvertalkies.com%2Fthe-man-who-wrote-a-dictionary-in-four-languages%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMultilingualism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multilingualism&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFValore2011" class="citation book cs1">Valore, Paolo (2011). <i>Multilingualism: language, power, and knowledge</i>. Pisa: Edistudio. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-7036-809-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-7036-809-3"><bdi>978-88-7036-809-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/863307786">863307786</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Multilingualism%3A+language%2C+power%2C+and+knowledge&rft.place=Pisa&rft.pub=Edistudio&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F863307786&rft.isbn=978-88-7036-809-3&rft.aulast=Valore&rft.aufirst=Paolo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMultilingualism" class="Z3988"></span>, <span class="languageicon">(in English and Italian)</span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBhatiaRitchie2004" class="citation book cs1">Bhatia, Tej; Ritchie, William C. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pNqVaUk4dM0C"><i>The Handbook of Bilingualism</i></a>. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-22735-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-22735-9"><bdi>978-0-631-22735-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Handbook+of+Bilingualism&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-631-22735-9&rft.aulast=Bhatia&rft.aufirst=Tej&rft.au=Ritchie%2C+William+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpNqVaUk4dM0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMultilingualism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBialystok2017" class="citation journal cs1">Bialystok, Ellen (March 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5324728">"The bilingual adaptation: How minds accommodate experience"</a>. <i>Psychological Bulletin</i>. <b>143</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">233–</span>262. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fbul0000099">10.1037/bul0000099</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5324728">5324728</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28230411">28230411</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychological+Bulletin&rft.atitle=The+bilingual+adaptation%3A+How+minds+accommodate+experience.&rft.volume=143&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E233-%3C%2Fspan%3E262&rft.date=2017-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5324728%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28230411&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Fbul0000099&rft.aulast=Bialystok&rft.aufirst=Ellen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5324728&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMultilingualism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurck2007" class="citation book cs1">Burck, Charlotte (2007). <i>Multilingual Living</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-55433-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-55433-7"><bdi>978-0-230-55433-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Multilingual+Living&rft.place=Basingstoke&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-230-55433-7&rft.aulast=Burck&rft.aufirst=Charlotte&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMultilingualism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jared_Diamond" title="Jared Diamond">Jared Diamond</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_World_Until_Yesterday" title="The World Until Yesterday">The World until Yesterday: What Can We Learn from Traditional Societies?</a></i> (especially chapter ten: "Speaking in many tongues"), Penguin Books, 2012 (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-141-02448-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-141-02448-6">978-0-141-02448-6</a>).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKomorowska2011" class="citation book cs1">Komorowska, Hanna (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://issuu.com/frse/docs/issues_in_promoting_multilingualism_internet/1"><i>Issues in Promoting Multilingualism. Teaching – Learning – Assessment</i></a>. Warsaw: Foundation for the Development of the Education System. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-62634-19-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-62634-19-4"><bdi>978-83-62634-19-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Issues+in+Promoting+Multilingualism.+Teaching+%E2%80%93+Learning+%E2%80%93+Assessment&rft.place=Warsaw&rft.pub=Foundation+for+the+Development+of+the+Education+System&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-83-62634-19-4&rft.aulast=Komorowska&rft.aufirst=Hanna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fissuu.com%2Ffrse%2Fdocs%2Fissues_in_promoting_multilingualism_internet%2F1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMultilingualism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristina_Korkman1995" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Christina Korkman (1995), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://urn.fi/urn:NBN:fi-fd2019-00022756"><i>Tvåspråkighet och skriftlig framställning : en undersökning av tvåspråkiga elevers uppsatser i den finlandssvenska grundskolan / Christina Korkman</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/Skrifter_utgivna_av_Svenska_litteraturs%C3%A4llskapet_i_Finland" title="Skrifter utgivna av Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland">Skrifter utgivna av Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland</a> (in Swedish), Helsinki: <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Swedish_Literature_in_Finland" title="Society of Swedish Literature in Finland">Society of Swedish Literature in Finland</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0039-6842">0039-6842</a>, <a href="/wiki/WDQ_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="WDQ (identifier)">Wikidata</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q113529945" class="extiw" title="d:Q113529945">Q113529945</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tv%C3%A5spr%C3%A5kighet+och+skriftlig+framst%C3%A4llning+%3A+en+unders%C3%B6kning+av+tv%C3%A5spr%C3%A5kiga+elevers+uppsatser+i+den+finlandssvenska+grundskolan+%2F+Christina+Korkman&rft.place=Helsinki&rft.series=Skrifter+utgivna+av+Svenska+litteraturs%C3%A4llskapet+i+Finland&rft.pub=Society+of+Swedish+Literature+in+Finland&rft.date=1995&rft.issn=0039-6842&rft.au=Christina+Korkman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Furn.fi%2Furn%3ANBN%3Afi-fd2019-00022756&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMultilingualism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKramsch2011" class="citation web cs1">Kramsch, Claire (3 June 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blc.berkeley.edu/index.php/blc/post/are_you_another_person_when_you_speak_another_language/">"Are You Another Person When You Speak Another Language?"</a>. <i>Berkeley Language Center</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 June</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Berkeley+Language+Center&rft.atitle=Are+You+Another+Person+When+You+Speak+Another+Language%3F&rft.date=2011-06-03&rft.aulast=Kramsch&rft.aufirst=Claire&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblc.berkeley.edu%2Findex.php%2Fblc%2Fpost%2Fare_you_another_person_when_you_speak_another_language%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMultilingualism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCatharina_Lojander-Visapää2001" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Catharina Lojander-Visapää (2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://urn.fi/urn:NBN:fi-fd2019-00022742"><i>Med rätt att välja : språkval och språkstrategier i språkligt blandade hushåll i Helsingfors / Catharina Lojander- Visapää</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/Skrifter_utgivna_av_Svenska_litteraturs%C3%A4llskapet_i_Finland" title="Skrifter utgivna av Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland">Skrifter utgivna av Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland</a> (in Swedish), Helsinki: <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Swedish_Literature_in_Finland" title="Society of Swedish Literature in Finland">Society of Swedish Literature in Finland</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0039-6842">0039-6842</a>, <a href="/wiki/WDQ_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="WDQ (identifier)">Wikidata</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q113529982" class="extiw" title="d:Q113529982">Q113529982</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Med+r%C3%A4tt+att+v%C3%A4lja+%3A+spr%C3%A5kval+och+spr%C3%A5kstrategier+i+spr%C3%A5kligt+blandade+hush%C3%A5ll+i+Helsingfors+%2F+Catharina+Lojander-+Visap%C3%A4%C3%A4&rft.place=Helsinki&rft.series=Skrifter+utgivna+av+Svenska+litteraturs%C3%A4llskapet+i+Finland&rft.pub=Society+of+Swedish+Literature+in+Finland&rft.date=2001&rft.issn=0039-6842&rft.au=Catharina+Lojander-Visap%C3%A4%C3%A4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Furn.fi%2Furn%3ANBN%3Afi-fd2019-00022742&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMultilingualism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRomaine1995" class="citation book cs1">Romaine, Suzanne (1995). <i>Bilingualism</i>. Oxford: Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-19539-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-19539-9"><bdi>978-0-631-19539-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bilingualism&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-631-19539-9&rft.aulast=Romaine&rft.aufirst=Suzanne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMultilingualism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBakerPrys1998" class="citation book cs1">Baker, Colin; Prys, Sylvia (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YgtSqB9oqDIC"><i>Encyclopedia of Bilingualism and Bilingual Education</i></a>. Multilingual Matters. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1853593628" title="Special:BookSources/978-1853593628"><bdi>978-1853593628</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Bilingualism+and+Bilingual+Education&rft.pub=Multilingual+Matters&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-1853593628&rft.aulast=Baker&rft.aufirst=Colin&rft.au=Prys%2C+Sylvia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYgtSqB9oqDIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMultilingualism" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Multilingualism&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span 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decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/multilingual" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:multilingual">multilingual</a></b></i>, <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/multilingualism" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:multilingualism">multilingualism</a></b></i>, <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bilingual" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:bilingual">bilingual</a></b></i>, or <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bilingualism" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:bilingualism">bilingualism</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Multilingualism</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=multilingualism">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=multilingualism&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" 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ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:SLA_topics" title="Template:SLA topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:SLA_topics" title="Template talk:SLA topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:SLA_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:SLA topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Second-language_acquisition372" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Second-language_acquisition" title="Second-language acquisition">Second-language acquisition</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_second-language_acquisition" title="Outline of second-language acquisition">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_language_learning" title="List of common misconceptions about language learning">Common misconceptions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Subfields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_language_attrition" class="mw-redirect" title="Second language attrition">Attrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-language_acquisition_classroom_research" title="Second-language acquisition classroom research">Classroom research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-language_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Second-language education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_language_phonology" class="mw-redirect" title="Second language phonology">Phonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_language_writing" title="Second language writing">Writing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Learners</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Multilingualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heritage_language_learning" title="Heritage language learning">Heritage language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-competence" title="Multi-competence">Multi-competence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Learner language</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contrastive_analysis" title="Contrastive analysis">Contrastive analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contrastive_rhetoric" title="Contrastive rhetoric">Contrastive rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Error_(linguistics)" title="Error (linguistics)">Error (linguistics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Error_analysis_(linguistics)" title="Error analysis (linguistics)">Error analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Error_treatment_(linguistics)" title="Error treatment (linguistics)">Error treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlanguage" title="Interlanguage">Interlanguage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_period" title="Silent period">Silent period</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Linguistic factors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Language_transfer" title="Language transfer">Language transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_universal" title="Linguistic universal">Linguistic universal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Word_lists_by_frequency" class="mw-redirect" title="Word lists by frequency">Word lists by frequency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Individual_variation_in_second_language_acquisition" class="mw-redirect" title="Individual variation in second language acquisition">Individual variation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Language-learning_aptitude" title="Language-learning aptitude">Language-learning aptitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_period_hypothesis" title="Critical period hypothesis">Critical period hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motivation_in_second-language_learning" title="Motivation in second-language learning">Motivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willingness_to_communicate" title="Willingness to communicate">Willingness to communicate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_language_anxiety" title="Foreign language anxiety">Foreign language anxiety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metalinguistic_awareness" title="Metalinguistic awareness">Metalinguistic awareness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Strategies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Language_learning_strategies" title="Language learning strategies">Language learning strategies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication_strategies_in_second_language_acquisition" class="mw-redirect" title="Communication strategies in second language acquisition">Communication strategies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code-switching" title="Code-switching">Code-switching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_language_learner_studies" title="Good language learner studies">Good language learner studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_second-language_acquisition" title="Theories of second-language acquisition">SLA hypotheses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Competition_model" title="Competition model">Competition model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comprehensible_output" title="Comprehensible output">Comprehensible output</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connectionism" title="Connectionism">Connectionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_approach_to_second_language_development" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamic approach to second language development">Dynamic Systems Theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_second-language_acquisition" title="Generative second-language acquisition">Generative second-language acquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Input_hypothesis" title="Input hypothesis">Input hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interaction_hypothesis" title="Interaction hypothesis">Interaction hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interface_hypothesis" title="Interface hypothesis">Interface hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interface_position" title="Interface position">Interface position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noticing_hypothesis" title="Noticing hypothesis">Noticing hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Processability_theory" title="Processability theory">Processability theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_of_acquisition" title="Order of acquisition">Order of acquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skill-based_theories_of_second-language_acquisition" title="Skill-based theories of second-language acquisition">Skill-based theories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Second_language_acquisition_classroom_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Second language acquisition classroom research">In the classroom</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Focus_on_form" title="Focus on form">Focus on form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Input_enhancement" title="Input enhancement">Input enhancement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Aptitude tests</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Language_Aptitude_Test" title="Modern Language Aptitude Test">MLAT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_Language_Aptitude_Battery" title="Defense Language Aptitude Battery">DLAB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pimsleur_Language_Aptitude_Battery" title="Pimsleur Language Aptitude Battery">PLAB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CANAL-F" title="CANAL-F">CANAL-F</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Notable researchers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Alderson" title="Charles Alderson">Alderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Arg%C3%BCelles" title="Alexander Argüelles">Argüelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ellen_Bialystok" title="Ellen Bialystok">Bialystok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bissell_Carroll" title="John Bissell Carroll">Carroll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scott_Crossley" title="Scott Crossley">Crossley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kata_Csiz%C3%A9r" title="Kata Csizér">Csizér</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alister_Cumming" title="Alister Cumming">Cumming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kees_de_Bot" title="Kees de Bot">de Bot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._Douglas_Brown" title="H. Douglas Brown">Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Bygate" title="Martin Bygate">Bygate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pit_Corder" title="Pit Corder">Corder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marijn_van_Dijk" title="Marijn van Dijk">van Dijk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zolt%C3%A1n_D%C3%B6rnyei" title="Zoltán Dörnyei">Dörnyei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nick_Ellis" title="Nick Ellis">Ellis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rod_Ellis" title="Rod Ellis">Ellis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_M._Ervin-Tripp" title="Susan M. Ervin-Tripp">Ervin-Tripp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suzanne_Flynn" title="Suzanne Flynn">Flynn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Gass" title="Susan Gass">Gass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_van_Geert" title="Paul van Geert">van Geert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_W._Green_(psychologist)" title="David W. Green (psychologist)">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Grosjean" title="François Grosjean">Grosjean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Guardado" title="Martin Guardado">Guardado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luke_Harding" title="Luke Harding">Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scott_Jarvis" title="Scott Jarvis">Jarvis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keith_Johnson_(applied_linguist)" title="Keith Johnson (applied linguist)">Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judit_Kormos" title="Judit Kormos">Kormos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Krashen" title="Stephen Krashen">Krashen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_F._Kroll" title="Judith F. Kroll">Kroll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_Larsen-Freeman" title="Diane Larsen-Freeman">Larsen-Freeman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ping_Li_(psychologist)" title="Ping Li (psychologist)">Li</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Long_(academic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Long (academic)">Long</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wander_Lowie" title="Wander Lowie">Lowie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alison_Mackey" title="Alison Mackey">Mackey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brian_MacWhinney" title="Brian MacWhinney">MacWhinney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Manch%C3%B3n" title="Rosa Manchón">Manchón</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viorica_Marian" title="Viorica Marian">Marian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Kei_Matsuda" title="Paul Kei Matsuda">Matsuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Matthews_(linguist)" title="Stephen Matthews (linguist)">Matthews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurgen_M._Meisel" title="Jurgen M. 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