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id="toc-Childhood_and_youth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Childhood_and_youth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Childhood and youth</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Childhood_and_youth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Columbia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Columbia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Columbia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Columbia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-College" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#College"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.1</span> <span>College</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-College-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Influence_of_Boas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influence_of_Boas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.2</span> <span>Influence of Boas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Influence_of_Boas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_fieldwork" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_fieldwork"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.3</span> <span>Early fieldwork</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_fieldwork-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_Ottawa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_Ottawa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>In Ottawa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_Ottawa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Canada's_Geological_Survey" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canada's_Geological_Survey"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.1</span> <span>Canada's Geological Survey</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canada's_Geological_Survey-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Work_with_Ishi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Work_with_Ishi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.2</span> <span>Work with Ishi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Work_with_Ishi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Moving_on" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Moving_on"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.3</span> <span>Moving on</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Moving_on-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chicago_years" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chicago_years"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Chicago years</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chicago_years-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-At_Yale" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#At_Yale"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>At Yale</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-At_Yale-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anthropological_thought" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anthropological_thought"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Anthropological thought</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anthropological_thought-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Breadth_of_languages_studied" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Breadth_of_languages_studied"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Breadth of languages studied</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Breadth_of_languages_studied-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Selected_publications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Selected_publications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Selected publications</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Selected_publications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Selected publications subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Selected_publications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Books" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Books"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Books</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Books-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Essays_and_articles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Essays_and_articles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Essays and articles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Essays_and_articles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biographies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biographies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Biographies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biographies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Correspondence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Correspondence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Correspondence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Correspondence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Edward Sapir</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 56 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-56" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">56 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1" title="إدوارد سابير – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="إدوارد سابير" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%B1" title="ادوارد ساپیر – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="ادوارد ساپیر" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%8F%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%93%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A1_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B0" title="এডওয়ার্ড স্যাপির – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="এডওয়ার্ড স্যাপির" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%A1%D1%8D%D0%B9%D0%BF%D1%96%D1%80" title="Эдвард Сэйпір – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Эдвард Сэйпір" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%A1%D1%8D%D0%BF%D1%96%D1%80" title="Эдуард Сэпір – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Эдуард Сэпір" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Edward Sapir" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%80" title="Едуард Сапир – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Едуард Сапир" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Edward Sapir" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Edward Sapir" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Edward Sapir" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Edward Sapir" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Edward Sapir" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Edward Sapir" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Edward Sapir" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Edward Sapir" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%B1" title="ادوارد ساپیر – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ادوارد ساپیر" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Edward Sapir" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Edward Sapir" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Edward Sapir" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%97%90%EB%93%9C%EC%9B%8C%EB%93%9C_%EC%82%AC%ED%94%BC%EC%96%B4" title="에드워드 사피어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="에드워드 사피어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B7%D5%A4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A4_%D5%8D%D5%A5%D5%BA%D5%AB%D6%80" title="Էդուարդ Սեպիր – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Էդուարդ Սեպիր" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B0" title="एडवर्ड सपीर – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="एडवर्ड सपीर" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Edward Sapir" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Edward Sapir" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Edward Sapir" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Edward Sapir" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%93%D7%95%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%93_%D7%A1%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%A8" title="אדוארד ספיר – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אדוארד ספיר" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Edward Sapir" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduardus_Sapir" title="Eduardus Sapir – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Eduardus Sapir" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edvards_Sap%C4%ABrs" title="Edvards Sapīrs – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Edvards Sapīrs" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Edward Sapir" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Edward Sapir" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Edward Sapir" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Edward Sapir" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%93%E1%83%A3%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%93_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98" title="ედუარდ სეფირი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ედუარდ სეფირი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1" title="ادوارد سابير – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="ادوارد سابير" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Edward Sapir" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A8%E3%83%89%E3%83%AF%E3%83%BC%E3%83%89%E3%83%BB%E3%82%B5%E3%83%94%E3%82%A2" title="エドワード・サピア – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="エドワード・サピア" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Edward Sapir" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Edward Sapir" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%90%E0%A8%A1%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%A1_%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%B0" title="ਐਡਵਰਡ ਸਪੀਅਰ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਐਡਵਰਡ ਸਪੀਅਰ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%DA%88%D9%88%D8%B1%DA%88_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%B1" title="ایڈورڈ ساپیر – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ایڈورڈ ساپیر" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Edward Sapir" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Edward Sapir" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Edward Sapir" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%80,_%D0%AD%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4" title="Сепир, Эдуард – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Сепир, Эдуард" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Edward Sapir" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Edward Sapir" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Edward Sapir" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%80" title="Едвард Сапир – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Едвард Сапир" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Edward Sapir" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Edward Sapir" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Edward Sapir" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%96%D1%80" title="Едвард Сепір – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Едвард Сепір" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a 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class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">American linguist and anthropologist (1884–1939)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Edward Sapir</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Edward_Sapir.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Edward_Sapir.jpg/220px-Edward_Sapir.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="316" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/Edward_Sapir.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="225" data-file-height="323" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Edward Sapir, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1910</span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1884-01-26</span>)</span>January 26, 1884<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/L%C4%99bork" title="Lębork">Lauenburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Kingdom of Prussia</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(now Lębork, <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a>)</span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">February 4, 1939<span style="display:none">(1939-02-04)</span> (aged 55)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/New_Haven,_Connecticut" title="New Haven, Connecticut">New Haven, Connecticut</a>, U.S.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Citizenship</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Classification_of_indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Classification of indigenous languages of the Americas">Classification of Native American languages</a> <br /><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_relativity" title="Linguistic relativity">Linguistic relativity</a> <br /> <a href="/wiki/Anthropological_linguistics" title="Anthropological linguistics">Anthropological linguistics</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Academic background</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Alma_mater" title="Alma mater">Alma mater</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts" title="Bachelor of Arts">AB</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Arts" title="Master of Arts">AM</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">PhD</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Thesis" title="Thesis">Thesis</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924097764371"><i>The Takelma Language of Southwestern Oregon</i></a> (1909)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Doctoral advisor</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Franz_Boas" title="Franz Boas">Franz Boas</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Academic work</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Discipline</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Museum_of_Civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian Museum of Civilization">Canadian Museum of Civilization</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Yale_University" title="Yale University">Yale University</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Doctoral students</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Li_Fang-Kuei" title="Li Fang-Kuei">Li Fang-Kuei</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Mary_Haas" title="Mary Haas">Mary Haas</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Morris_Swadesh" title="Morris Swadesh">Morris Swadesh</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Pike" class="mw-redirect" title="Kenneth Pike">Kenneth Pike</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Harry_Hoijer" title="Harry Hoijer">Harry Hoijer</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Leslie_A._White" class="mw-redirect" title="Leslie A. White">Leslie A. White</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Robert_Redfield" title="Robert Redfield">Robert Redfield</a><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stanley_Newman_(linguist)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Stanley Newman (linguist) (page does not exist)">Stanley Newman</a><br /><a href="/wiki/J._David_Sapir" title="J. David Sapir">J. David Sapir</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Charles_Hockett" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Hockett">Charles Hockett</a><br /><a href="/wiki/John_Dollard" title="John Dollard">John Dollard</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Anthropology" title="Category:Anthropology">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#efefef;"><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Queue.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Queue.svg/100px-Queue.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Queue.svg/150px-Queue.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Queue.svg/200px-Queue.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="border:none;padding-bottom:0.5em;"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_anthropology" title="Outline of anthropology">Outline</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_anthropology" title="History of anthropology">History</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Types</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.75em;padding-right:0.75em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">Biological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_anthropology" title="Linguistic anthropology">Linguistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">Social</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeological</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerial_archaeology" title="Aerial archaeology">Aerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_archaeology" title="Aviation archaeology">Aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battlefield_archaeology" title="Battlefield archaeology">Battlefield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_archaeology" title="Biblical archaeology">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioarchaeology" title="Bioarchaeology">Bioarchaeological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_archaeology" title="Environmental archaeology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnoarchaeology" title="Ethnoarchaeology">Ethnoarchaeological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_archaeology" title="Experimental archaeology">Experiential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_archaeology" title="Feminist archaeology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_anthropology" title="Forensic anthropology">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_archaeology" title="Maritime archaeology">Maritime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoethnobotany" title="Paleoethnobotany">Paleoethnobotanical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zooarchaeology" title="Zooarchaeology">Zooarchaeological</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">Biological</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthrozoology" title="Anthrozoology">Anthrozoological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biocultural_anthropology" title="Biocultural anthropology">Biocultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_anthropology" title="Evolutionary anthropology">Evolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_anthropology" title="Forensic anthropology">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_anthropology" title="Molecular anthropology">Molecular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroanthropology" title="Neuroanthropology"> Neurological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_anthropology" title="Nutritional anthropology">Nutritional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoanthropology" title="Paleoanthropology">Paleoanthropological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatological</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">Social</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">Cultural</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_anthropology" title="Applied anthropology">Applied</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_art" title="Anthropology of art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_anthropology" title="Cognitive anthropology">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyborg_anthropology" title="Cyborg anthropology">Cyborg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_development" title="Anthropology of development">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_anthropology" title="Digital anthropology">Digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_anthropology" title="Ecological anthropology">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_anthropology" title="Environmental anthropology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_anthropology" title="Economic anthropology">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy_in_anthropology" title="Political economy in anthropology"><span class="wrap">Political economy</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_anthropology" title="Feminist anthropology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_food" title="Anthropology of food">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnohistory" title="Ethnohistory">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_institutions" title="Anthropology of institutions">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">Kinship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_anthropology" title="Legal anthropology">Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_media" title="Anthropology of media">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_anthropology" title="Medical anthropology">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomuseology" title="Ethnomuseology">Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomusicology" title="Ethnomusicology">Musical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_anthropology" title="Political anthropology">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_anthropology" title="Psychological anthropology">Psychological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_anthropology" title="Public anthropology">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_religion" title="Anthropology of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_anthropology" title="Symbolic anthropology">Symbolic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transpersonal_anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Transpersonal anthropology">Transpersonal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_anthropology" title="Urban anthropology">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_anthropology" title="Visual anthropology">Visual</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_anthropology" title="Linguistic anthropology">Linguistic</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_linguistics" title="Anthropological linguistics">Anthropological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_description" title="Linguistic description">Descriptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnolinguistics" title="Ethnolinguistics">Ethnological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnopoetics" title="Ethnopoetics">Ethnopoetical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_ideology" title="Language ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotic_anthropology" title="Semiotic anthropology">Semiotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">Sociological</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology#Methods" title="Cultural anthropology">Research framework</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropometry" title="Anthropometry">Anthropometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyber-ethnography" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyber-ethnography">cyber</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnology" title="Ethnology">Ethnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_cross-cultural_sample" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard cross-cultural sample">Cross-cultural comparison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participant_observation" title="Participant observation">Participant observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism_in_science" title="Holism in science">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflexivity_(social_theory)" title="Reflexivity (social theory)">Reflexivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thick_description" title="Thick description">Thick description</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_relativism" title="Cultural relativism">Cultural relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocentrism" title="Ethnocentrism">Ethnocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emic_and_etic" title="Emic and etic">Emic and etic</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Key concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_anthropology" title="Development anthropology">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnicity" title="Ethnicity">Ethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sociocultural_evolution" title="Sociocultural evolution">sociocultural</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">Kinship and descent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meme" title="Meme">Meme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">Prehistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_(human_categorization)" title="Race (human categorization)">Race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a 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]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Anthropology" title="Template:Anthropology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anthropology" title="Template talk:Anthropology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Edward Sapir</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'p' in 'pie'">p</span><span title="/ɪər/: 'ear' in 'near'">ɪər</span></span>/</a></span></span>; January 26, 1884 – February 4, 1939) was an American <a href="/wiki/Anthropologist" title="Anthropologist">anthropologist</a>-<a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguist</a>, who is widely considered to be one of the most important figures in the development of the discipline of linguistics in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sapir was born in <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German</a> <a href="/wiki/Pomerania" title="Pomerania">Pomerania</a>, in what is now northern Poland. His family emigrated to the United States of America when he was a child. He studied Germanic linguistics at <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia</a>, where he came under the influence of <a href="/wiki/Franz_Boas" title="Franz Boas">Franz Boas</a>, who inspired him to work on <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Native American languages</a>. While finishing his Ph.D. he went to <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">California</a> to work with <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Kroeber" title="Alfred Kroeber">Alfred Kroeber</a> documenting the indigenous languages there. He was employed by the <a href="/wiki/Geological_Survey_of_Canada" title="Geological Survey of Canada">Geological Survey of Canada</a> for fifteen years, where he came into his own as one of the most significant linguists in North America, the other being <a href="/wiki/Leonard_Bloomfield" title="Leonard Bloomfield">Leonard Bloomfield</a>. He was offered a professorship at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>, and stayed for several years continuing to work for the professionalization of the discipline of linguistics. By the end of his life he was professor of anthropology at <a href="/wiki/Yale_University" title="Yale University">Yale</a>. Among his many students were the linguists <a href="/wiki/Mary_Haas" title="Mary Haas">Mary Haas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Morris_Swadesh" title="Morris Swadesh">Morris Swadesh</a>, and anthropologists such as <a href="/wiki/Fred_Eggan" title="Fred Eggan">Fred Eggan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hortense_Powdermaker" title="Hortense Powdermaker">Hortense Powdermaker</a>. </p><p>With his linguistic background, Sapir became the one student of Boas to develop most completely the relationship between linguistics and anthropology. Sapir studied the ways in which language and culture influence each other, and he was interested in the relation between linguistic differences, and differences in cultural world views. This part of his thinking was developed by his student <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Lee_Whorf" title="Benjamin Lee Whorf">Benjamin Lee Whorf</a> into the principle of <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_relativity" title="Linguistic relativity">linguistic relativity</a> or the "Sapir–Whorf" hypothesis. In anthropology Sapir is known as an early proponent of the importance of <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a> to <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a>, maintaining that studying the nature of relationships between different individual personalities is important for the ways in which culture and society develop.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Among his major contributions to linguistics is his <a href="/wiki/Classification_of_indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Classification of indigenous languages of the Americas">classification of Indigenous languages of the Americas</a>, upon which he elaborated for most of his professional life. He played an important role in developing the modern concept of the <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phoneme</a>, greatly advancing the understanding of <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonology</a>. </p><p>Before Sapir it was generally considered impossible to apply the methods of <a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">historical linguistics</a> to languages of <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples" title="Indigenous peoples">indigenous peoples</a> because they were believed to be more primitive than the <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European languages</a>. Sapir was the first to prove that the methods of <a href="/wiki/Comparative_linguistics" title="Comparative linguistics">comparative linguistics</a> were equally valid when applied to indigenous languages. In the 1929 edition of <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i> he published what was then the most authoritative classification of Native American languages, and the first based on evidence from modern comparative linguistics. He was the first to produce evidence for the classification of the <a href="/wiki/Algic_languages" title="Algic languages">Algic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uto-Aztecan_languages" title="Uto-Aztecan languages">Uto-Aztecan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Na-Dene_languages" title="Na-Dene languages">Na-Dene languages</a>. He proposed some <a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">language families</a> that are not considered to have been adequately demonstrated, but which continue to generate investigation such as <a href="/wiki/Hokan_languages" title="Hokan languages">Hokan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Penutian_languages" title="Penutian languages">Penutian</a>. </p><p>He specialized in the study of <a href="/wiki/Athabascan_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Athabascan languages">Athabascan languages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinookan_languages" title="Chinookan languages">Chinookan languages</a>, and Uto-Aztecan languages, producing important grammatical descriptions of <a href="/wiki/Takelma_language" title="Takelma language">Takelma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wasco-Wishram_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Wasco-Wishram language">Wishram</a>, <a href="/wiki/Colorado_River_Numic_language" title="Colorado River Numic language">Southern Paiute</a>. Later in his career he also worked with <a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic languages</a>, and he also was invested in the development of an <a href="/wiki/International_Auxiliary_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="International Auxiliary Language">International Auxiliary Language</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Life">Life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edward_Sapir&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Childhood_and_youth">Childhood and youth</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edward_Sapir&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Childhood and youth"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sapir was born into a family of <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithuanian Jews">Lithuanian Jews</a> in <a href="/wiki/L%C4%99bork" title="Lębork">Lauenburg</a> (now Lębork) in the <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Pomerania_(1815%E2%80%931945)" title="Province of Pomerania (1815–1945)">Province of Pomerania</a> where his father, Jacob David Sapir, worked as a <a href="/wiki/Hazzan" title="Hazzan">cantor</a>. The family was not <a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox</a>, and his father maintained his ties to Judaism through its music. The Sapir family did not stay long in Pomerania and never accepted German as a nationality. Edward Sapir's first language was <a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Darnell1_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Darnell1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and later English. In 1888, when he was four years old, the family moved to Liverpool, England, and in 1890 to the United States, to <a href="/wiki/Richmond,_Virginia" title="Richmond, Virginia">Richmond</a>, <a href="/wiki/Virginia" title="Virginia">Virginia</a>. Here Edward Sapir lost his younger brother Max to <a href="/wiki/Typhoid_fever" title="Typhoid fever">typhoid fever</a>. His father had difficulty keeping a job in a synagogue and finally settled in New York on the <a href="/wiki/Lower_East_Side" title="Lower East Side">Lower East Side</a>, where the family lived in poverty. As Jacob Sapir could not provide for his family, Sapir's mother, Eva Seagal Sapir, opened a shop to supply the basic necessities. They formally divorced in 1910. After settling in New York, Edward Sapir was raised mostly by his mother, who stressed the importance of education for upward social mobility, and turned the family increasingly away from Judaism. Even though Eva Sapir was an important influence, Sapir received his lust for knowledge and interest in scholarship, aesthetics, and music from his father. At age 14 Sapir won a Pulitzer scholarship to the prestigious <a href="/wiki/Horace_Mann_School" title="Horace Mann School">Horace Mann high school</a>, but he chose not to attend the school which he found too posh, going instead to <a href="/wiki/DeWitt_Clinton_High_School" title="DeWitt Clinton High School">DeWitt Clinton High School</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Allyn_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allyn-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and saving the scholarship money for his college education. Through the scholarship Sapir supplemented his mother's meager earnings.<sup id="cite_ref-Darnell1_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Darnell1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Columbia">Columbia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edward_Sapir&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Columbia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sapir entered Columbia in 1901, still paying with the Pulitzer scholarship. Columbia at this time was one of the few elite private universities that did not <a href="/wiki/Numerus_clausus" title="Numerus clausus">limit admission of Jewish applicants</a> with implicit quotas around 12 percent—approximately 40% of incoming students at Columbia were Jewish.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sapir earned both a <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts" title="Bachelor of Arts">B.A.</a> (1904) and an <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Arts" title="Master of Arts">M.A.</a> (1905) in <a href="/wiki/Germanic_philology" title="Germanic philology">Germanic philology</a> from <a href="/wiki/Columbia_College_of_Columbia_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Columbia College of Columbia University">Columbia</a>, before embarking on his <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">Ph.D.</a> in <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a> which he completed in 1909.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="College">College</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edward_Sapir&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: College"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PSM_V63_D575_Columbia_university_library.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/PSM_V63_D575_Columbia_university_library.png/220px-PSM_V63_D575_Columbia_university_library.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/PSM_V63_D575_Columbia_university_library.png/330px-PSM_V63_D575_Columbia_university_library.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/PSM_V63_D575_Columbia_university_library.png/440px-PSM_V63_D575_Columbia_university_library.png 2x" data-file-width="1596" data-file-height="830" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Low_Memorial_Library" title="Low Memorial Library">Columbia University library</a> in 1903</figcaption></figure> <p>Sapir emphasized language study in his college years at Columbia, studying Latin, Greek, and French for eight semesters. From his sophomore year he additionally began to focus on Germanic languages, completing coursework in <a href="/wiki/Gothic_language" title="Gothic language">Gothic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Old_High_German" title="Old High German">Old High German</a>, <a href="/wiki/Old_Saxon" title="Old Saxon">Old Saxon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Icelandic_language" title="Icelandic language">Icelandic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Danish_language" title="Danish language">Danish</a>. Through Germanics professor <a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Carpenter_(philologist)" title="William Henry Carpenter (philologist)">William Carpenter</a>, Sapir was exposed to methods of <a href="/wiki/Comparative_linguistics" title="Comparative linguistics">comparative linguistics</a> that were being developed into a more scientific framework than the traditional philological approach. He also took courses in Sanskrit, and complemented his language studies by studying music in the department of the famous composer <a href="/wiki/Edward_MacDowell" title="Edward MacDowell">Edward MacDowell</a> (though it is uncertain whether Sapir ever studied with MacDowell himself). In his last year in college Sapir enrolled in the course "Introduction to Anthropology", with Professor <a href="/wiki/Livingston_Farrand" title="Livingston Farrand">Livingston Farrand</a>, who taught the Boas "four field" approach to anthropology. He also enrolled in an advanced anthropology seminar taught by <a href="/wiki/Franz_Boas" title="Franz Boas">Franz Boas</a>, a course that would completely change the direction of his career.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Influence_of_Boas">Influence of Boas</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edward_Sapir&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Influence of Boas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FranzBoas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/FranzBoas.jpg/220px-FranzBoas.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="276" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/FranzBoas.jpg/330px-FranzBoas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/FranzBoas.jpg/440px-FranzBoas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="442" data-file-height="554" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Franz_Boas" title="Franz Boas">Franz Boas</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Although still in college, Sapir was allowed to participate in the Boas graduate seminar on American Languages, which included translations of Native American and Inuit myths collected by Boas. In this way Sapir was introduced to Indigenous American languages while he kept working on his M.A. in Germanic linguistics. <a href="/wiki/Robert_Lowie" title="Robert Lowie">Robert Lowie</a> later said that Sapir's fascination with indigenous languages stemmed from the seminar with Boas in which Boas used examples from Native American languages to disprove all of Sapir's common-sense assumptions about the basic nature of language. Sapir's 1905 Master's thesis was an analysis of <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Johann Gottfried Herder</a>'s <i>Treatise on the Origin of Language</i>, and included examples from Inuit and Native American languages, not at all familiar to a Germanicist. The thesis criticized Herder for retaining a Biblical chronology, too shallow to allow for the observable diversification of languages, but he also argued with Herder that all of the world's languages have equal aesthetic potentials and grammatical complexity. He ended the paper by calling for a "very extended study of all the various existing stocks of languages, in order to determine the most fundamental properties of language" – almost a program statement for the modern study of <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_typology" title="Linguistic typology">linguistic typology</a>, and a very Boasian approach.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1906 he finished his coursework, having focused the last year on courses in anthropology and taking seminars such as Primitive Culture with Farrand, <a href="/wiki/Ethnology" title="Ethnology">Ethnology</a> with Boas, <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeology</a> and courses in Chinese language and culture with <a href="/wiki/Berthold_Laufer" title="Berthold Laufer">Berthold Laufer</a>. He also maintained his Indo-European studies with courses in <a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic</a>, Old Saxon, Swedish, and Sanskrit. Having finished his coursework, Sapir moved on to his doctoral fieldwork, spending several years in short-term appointments while working on his dissertation.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Early_fieldwork">Early fieldwork</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edward_Sapir&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Early fieldwork"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tilohash.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Tilohash.jpg/220px-Tilohash.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Tilohash.jpg/330px-Tilohash.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Tilohash.jpg 2x" data-file-width="359" data-file-height="327" /></a><figcaption>Tony Tillohash with family. Tillohash was Sapir's collaborator on the famous description of the Southern Paiute language</figcaption></figure> <p>Sapir's first fieldwork was on the <a href="/wiki/Upper_Chinook_language" title="Upper Chinook language">Wishram Chinook language</a> in the summer of 1905, funded by the Bureau of American Ethnology. This first experience with Native American languages in the field was closely overseen by Boas, who was particularly interested in having Sapir gather ethnological information for the Bureau. Sapir gathered a volume of Wishram texts, published 1909, and he managed to achieve a much more sophisticated understanding of the Chinook <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">sound system</a> than Boas. In the summer of 1906 he worked on <a href="/wiki/Takelma_language" title="Takelma language">Takelma</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shasta_Costa" title="Shasta Costa">Chasta Costa</a>. Sapir's work on Takelma became his doctoral dissertation, which he defended in 1908. The dissertation foreshadowed several important trends in Sapir's work, particularly the careful attention to the intuition of native speakers regarding sound patterns that later would become the basis for Sapir's formulation of the <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phoneme</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1907–1908 Sapir was offered a position at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California at Berkeley</a>, where Boas' first student <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Kroeber" title="Alfred Kroeber">Alfred Kroeber</a> was the head of a project under the California state survey to document the Indigenous languages of California. Kroeber suggested that Sapir study the nearly extinct <a href="/wiki/Yana_language" title="Yana language">Yana language</a>, and Sapir set to work. Sapir worked first with Betty Brown, one of the language's few remaining speakers. Later he began work with Sam Batwi, who spoke another dialect of Yana, but whose knowledge of Yana mythology was an important fount of knowledge. Sapir described the way in which the Yana language distinguishes grammatically and lexically between the speech of men and women.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The collaboration between Kroeber and Sapir was made difficult by the fact that Sapir largely followed his own interest in detailed linguistic description, ignoring the administrative pressures to which Kroeber was subject, among them the need for a speedy completion and a focus on the broader classification issues. In the end Sapir didn't finish the work during the allotted year, and Kroeber was unable to offer him a longer appointment. </p><p>Disappointed at not being able to stay at Berkeley, Sapir devoted his best efforts to other work, and did not get around to preparing any of the Yana material for publication until 1910,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to Kroeber's deep disappointment.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sapir ended up leaving California early to take up a fellowship at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania" title="University of Pennsylvania">University of Pennsylvania</a>, where he taught Ethnology and American Linguistics. At Pennsylvania he worked closely with another student of Boas, <a href="/wiki/Frank_Speck" title="Frank Speck">Frank Speck</a>, and the two undertook work on <a href="/wiki/Catawba_language" title="Catawba language">Catawba</a> in the summer of 1909.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also in the summer of 1909, Sapir went to Utah with his student <a href="/wiki/J._Alden_Mason" class="mw-redirect" title="J. Alden Mason">J. Alden Mason</a>. Intending originally to work on Hopi, he studied the <a href="/wiki/Colorado_River_Numic_language" title="Colorado River Numic language">Southern Paiute language</a>; he decided to work with <a href="/wiki/Tony_Tillohash" title="Tony Tillohash">Tony Tillohash</a>, who proved to be the perfect informant. Tillohash's strong intuition about the sound patterns of his language led Sapir to propose that the <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phoneme</a> is not just an abstraction existing at the structural level of language, but in fact has psychological reality for speakers. </p><p>Tillohash became a good friend of Sapir, and visited him at his home in New York and Philadelphia. Sapir worked with his father to transcribe a number of Southern Paiute songs that Tillohash knew. This fruitful collaboration laid the ground work for the classical description of the Southern Paiute language published in 1930,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and enabled Sapir to produce conclusive evidence linking the <a href="/wiki/Shoshonean_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Shoshonean languages">Shoshonean languages</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Nahuan_languages" title="Nahuan languages">Nahuan languages</a> – establishing the <a href="/wiki/Uto-Aztecan_languages" title="Uto-Aztecan languages">Uto-Aztecan language family</a>. Sapir's description of Southern Paiute is known by linguistics as "a model of analytical excellence".<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At Pennsylvania, Sapir was urged to work at a quicker pace than he felt comfortable. His "Grammar of Southern Paiute" was supposed to be published in Boas' <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Handbook_of_American_Indian_Languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Handbook of American Indian Languages (page does not exist)">Handbook of American Indian Languages</a></i>, and Boas urged him to complete a preliminary version while funding for the publication remained available, but Sapir did not want to compromise on quality, and in the end the <i>Handbook</i> had to go to press without Sapir's piece. Boas kept working to secure a stable appointment for his student, and by his recommendation Sapir ended up being hired by the Canadian Geological Survey, who wanted him to lead the institutionalization of anthropology in Canada.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sapir, who by then had given up the hope of working at one of the few American research universities, accepted the appointment and moved to Ottawa. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_Ottawa">In Ottawa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edward_Sapir&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: In Ottawa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the years 1910–25 Sapir established and directed the Anthropological Division in the <a href="/wiki/Geological_Survey_of_Canada" title="Geological Survey of Canada">Geological Survey of Canada</a> in Ottawa. When he was hired, he was one of the first full-time anthropologists in Canada. He brought his parents with him to Ottawa, and also quickly established his own family, marrying Florence Delson, who also had Lithuanian Jewish roots. Neither the Sapirs nor the Delsons were in favor of the match. The Delsons, who hailed from the prestigious Jewish center of <a href="/wiki/Vilna" class="mw-redirect" title="Vilna">Vilna</a>, considered the Sapirs to be rural upstarts and were less than impressed with Sapir's career in an unpronounceable academic field. Edward and Florence had three children together: Herbert Michael, Helen Ruth, and Philip.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Canada's_Geological_Survey"><span id="Canada.27s_Geological_Survey"></span>Canada's Geological Survey</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edward_Sapir&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Canada's Geological Survey"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As director of the Anthropological division of the Geological Survey of Canada, Sapir embarked on a project to document the Indigenous cultures and languages of Canada. His first fieldwork took him to <a href="/wiki/Vancouver_Island" title="Vancouver Island">Vancouver Island</a> to work on the <a href="/wiki/Nuu-chah-nulth_language" title="Nuu-chah-nulth language">Nootka</a> language. Apart from Sapir the division had two other staff members, <a href="/wiki/Marius_Barbeau" title="Marius Barbeau">Marius Barbeau</a> and Harlan I. Smith. Sapir insisted that the discipline of linguistics was of integral importance for ethnographic description, arguing that just as nobody would dream of discussing the history of the Catholic Church without knowing Latin or study German folksongs without knowing German, so it made little sense to approach the study of Indigenous folklore without knowledge of the indigenous languages.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At this point the only Canadian <a href="/wiki/First_Nations_in_Canada" title="First Nations in Canada">first nation</a> languages that were well known were Kwakiutl, described by Boas, Tshimshian and Haida. Sapir explicitly used the standard of documentation of European languages, to argue that the amassing knowledge of indigenous languages was of paramount importance. By introducing the high standards of Boasian anthropology, Sapir incited antagonism from those amateur ethnologists who felt that they had contributed important work. Unsatisfied with efforts by amateur and governmental anthropologists, Sapir worked to introduce an academic program of anthropology at one of the major universities, in order to professionalize the discipline.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sapir enlisted the assistance of fellow Boasians: <a href="/wiki/Frank_Speck" title="Frank Speck">Frank Speck</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Radin" title="Paul Radin">Paul Radin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Goldenweiser_(anthropologist)" title="Alexander Goldenweiser (anthropologist)">Alexander Goldenweiser</a>, who with Barbeau worked on the peoples of the Eastern Woodlands: the <a href="/wiki/Ojibwa" class="mw-redirect" title="Ojibwa">Ojibwa</a>, the Iroquois, the <a href="/wiki/Wyandot_people" title="Wyandot people">Huron</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Wyandot_people" title="Wyandot people">Wyandot</a>. Sapir initiated work on the <a href="/wiki/Athabascan_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Athabascan languages">Athabascan languages</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Mackenzie_valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Mackenzie valley">Mackenzie valley</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Yukon" title="Yukon">Yukon</a>, but it proved too difficult to find adequate assistance, and he concentrated mainly on Nootka and the languages of the North West Coast.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During his time in Canada, together with Speck, Sapir also acted as an advocate for Indigenous rights, arguing publicly for introduction of better medical care for Indigenous communities, and assisting the Six Nation Iroquois in trying to recover eleven <a href="/wiki/Wampum" title="Wampum">wampum</a> belts that had been stolen from the reservation and were on display in the museum of the University of Pennsylvania. (The belts were finally returned to the Iroquois in 1988.) He also argued for the reversal of a Canadian law prohibiting the <a href="/wiki/Potlatch" title="Potlatch">Potlatch</a> ceremony of the West Coast tribes.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Work_with_Ishi">Work with Ishi</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edward_Sapir&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Work with Ishi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ishi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Ishi.jpg/220px-Ishi.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Ishi.jpg/330px-Ishi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Ishi.jpg/440px-Ishi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="637" data-file-height="626" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Alfred_L._Kroeber" class="mw-redirect" title="Alfred L. Kroeber">Alfred Kroeber</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ishi" title="Ishi">Ishi</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In 1915 Sapir returned to California, where his expertise on the Yana language made him urgently needed. Kroeber had come into contact with <a href="/wiki/Ishi" title="Ishi">Ishi</a>, the last native speaker of the <a href="/wiki/Yahi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Yahi language">Yahi language</a>, closely related to Yana, and needed someone to document the language urgently. <a href="/wiki/Ishi" title="Ishi">Ishi</a>, who had grown up without contact with European-Americans, was monolingual in Yahi and was the last surviving member of his people. He had been adopted by the Kroebers, but had fallen ill with <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a>, and was not expected to live long. Sam Batwi, the speaker of Yana who had worked with Sapir, was unable to understand the Yahi variety, and Krober was convinced that only Sapir would be able to communicate with Ishi. Sapir traveled to <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco" title="San Francisco">San Francisco</a> and worked with Ishi over the summer of 1915, having to invent new methods for working with a monolingual speaker. The information from Ishi was invaluable for understanding the relation between the different dialects of Yana. Ishi died of his illness in early 1916, and Kroeber partly blamed the exacting nature of working with Sapir for his failure to recover. Sapir described the work: "I think I may safely say that my work with Ishi is by far the most time-consuming and nerve-racking that I have ever undertaken. Ishi's imperturbable good humor alone made the work possible, though it also at times added to my exasperation".<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Moving_on">Moving on</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edward_Sapir&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Moving on"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Margaret_Mead_NYWTS.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Margaret_Mead_NYWTS.jpg/220px-Margaret_Mead_NYWTS.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Margaret_Mead_NYWTS.jpg/330px-Margaret_Mead_NYWTS.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Margaret_Mead_NYWTS.jpg/440px-Margaret_Mead_NYWTS.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2780" data-file-height="2120" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Mead" title="Margaret Mead">Margaret Mead</a> decades after her affair with Sapir</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">First World War</a> took its toll on the Canadian Geological Survey, cutting funding for anthropology and making the academic climate less agreeable. Sapir continued work on Athabascan, working with two speakers of the Alaskan languages <a href="/wiki/Kutchin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kutchin language">Kutchin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ingalik_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ingalik language">Ingalik</a>. Sapir was now more preoccupied with testing hypotheses about historical relationships between the <a href="/wiki/Na-Dene_languages" title="Na-Dene languages">Na-Dene languages</a> than with documenting endangered languages, in effect becoming a theoretician.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was also growing to feel isolated from his American colleagues. From 1912 Florence's health deteriorated due to a <a href="/wiki/Lung_abscess" title="Lung abscess">lung abscess</a>, and a resulting depression. The Sapir household was largely run by Eva Sapir, who did not get along well with Florence, and this added to the strain on both Florence and Edward. Sapir's parents had by now divorced and his father seemed to develop psychosis, which made it necessary for him to leave Canada for <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>, where Edward continued to support him financially. Florence was hospitalized for long periods both for her depressions and for the lung abscess, and she died in 1924 due to an infection following surgery, providing the final incentive for Sapir to leave Canada. When the University of Chicago offered him a position, he happily accepted. </p><p>During his period in Canada, Sapir came into his own as the leading figure in linguistics in North America. Among his substantial publications from this period were his book on <i>Time Perspective in the Aboriginal American Culture</i> (1916), in which he laid out an approach to using historical linguistics to study the prehistory of Native American cultures. Particularly important for establishing him in the field was his seminal book <i><a href="/wiki/Language:_An_Introduction_to_the_Study_of_Speech" title="Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech">Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech</a></i> (1921), which was a layman's introduction to the discipline of linguistics as Sapir envisioned it. He also participated in the formulation of a report to the <a href="/wiki/American_Anthropological_Association" title="American Anthropological Association">American Anthropological Association</a> regarding the standardization of orthographic principles for writing Indigenous languages. </p><p>While in Ottawa, he also collected and published French Canadian Folk Songs, and wrote a volume of his own poetry.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His interest in poetry led him to form a close friendship with another Boasian anthropologist and poet, <a href="/wiki/Ruth_Benedict" title="Ruth Benedict">Ruth Benedict</a>. Sapir initially wrote to Benedict to commend her for her dissertation on "The Guardian Spirit", but soon realized that Benedict had published poetry pseudonymously. In their correspondence the two critiqued each other's work, both submitting to the same publishers, and both being rejected. They also were both interested in psychology and the relation between individual personalities and cultural patterns, and in their correspondences they frequently <a href="/wiki/Psychoanalysis" title="Psychoanalysis">psychoanalyzed</a> each other. However, Sapir often showed little understanding for Benedict's private thoughts and feelings<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (October 2023)">according to whom?</span></a></i>]</sup>, and particularly his conservative gender ideology<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Vagueness" title="Wikipedia:Vagueness"><span title="This information is too vague. (October 2023)">vague</span></a></i>]</sup> jarred with Benedict's struggles as a female professional academic.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Though they were very close friends for a while, it was ultimately the differences in worldview and personality that led their friendship to fray.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Before departing Canada, Sapir had a short affair with <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Mead" title="Margaret Mead">Margaret Mead</a>, Benedict's protégé at Columbia. But Sapir's conservative ideas about marriage and the woman's role were anathema to Mead, as they had been to Benedict, and as Mead left to do field work in <a href="/wiki/Samoa" title="Samoa">Samoa</a>, the two separated permanently. Mead received news of Sapir's remarriage while still in Samoa, and burned their correspondence there on the beach.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chicago_years">Chicago years</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edward_Sapir&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Chicago years"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Settling in Chicago reinvigorated Sapir intellectually and personally. He socialized with intellectuals, gave lectures, participated in poetry and music clubs. His first graduate student at Chicago was <a href="/wiki/Li_Fang-Kuei" title="Li Fang-Kuei">Li Fang-Kuei</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Sapir household continued to be managed largely by Grandmother Eva, until Sapir remarried in 1926. Sapir's second wife, Jean Victoria McClenaghan, was sixteen years younger than he. She had first met Sapir when a student in Ottawa, but had since also come to work at the University of Chicago's department of Juvenile Research. Their son Paul Edward Sapir was born in 1928.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their other son <a href="/wiki/J._David_Sapir" title="J. David Sapir">J. David Sapir</a> became a linguist and anthropologist specializing in West African Languages, especially <a href="/wiki/Jola_languages" title="Jola languages">Jola languages</a>. Sapir also exerted influence through his membership in the <a href="/wiki/Chicago_School_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chicago School (sociology)">Chicago School of Sociology</a>, and his friendship with psychologist <a href="/wiki/Harry_Stack_Sullivan" title="Harry Stack Sullivan">Harry Stack Sullivan</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="At_Yale">At Yale</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edward_Sapir&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: At Yale"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From 1931 until his death in 1939, Sapir taught at <a href="/wiki/Yale_University" title="Yale University">Yale University</a>, where he became the head of the Department of Anthropology. He was invited to Yale to found an interdisciplinary program combining anthropology, linguistics and psychology, aimed at studying "the impact of culture on personality". While Sapir was explicitly given the task of founding a distinct anthropology department, this was not well received by the department of sociology who worked by <a href="/wiki/William_Graham_Sumner" title="William Graham Sumner">William Graham Sumner</a>'s "Evolutionary sociology", which was anathema to Sapir's Boasian approach, nor by the two anthropologists of the Institute for Human Relations <a href="/wiki/Clark_Wissler" title="Clark Wissler">Clark Wissler</a> and <a href="/wiki/G._P._Murdock" class="mw-redirect" title="G. P. Murdock">G. P. Murdock</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Darnell_1998_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Darnell_1998-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sapir never thrived at Yale, where as one of only four Jewish faculty members out of 569 he was denied membership to the faculty club where the senior faculty discussed academic business.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At Yale, Sapir's graduate students included <a href="/wiki/Morris_Swadesh" title="Morris Swadesh">Morris Swadesh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Lee_Whorf" title="Benjamin Lee Whorf">Benjamin Lee Whorf</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mary_Haas" title="Mary Haas">Mary Haas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Hockett" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Hockett">Charles Hockett</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Harry_Hoijer" title="Harry Hoijer">Harry Hoijer</a>, several of whom he brought with him from Chicago.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sapir came to regard a young <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semiticist</a> named <a href="/wiki/Zellig_Harris" title="Zellig Harris">Zellig Harris</a> as his intellectual heir, although Harris was never a formal student of Sapir. (For a time he dated Sapir's daughter.)<sup id="cite_ref-daughter_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-daughter-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1936 Sapir clashed with the Institute for Human Relations over the research proposal by anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Hortense_Powdermaker" title="Hortense Powdermaker">Hortense Powdermaker</a>, who proposed a study of the black community of Indianola, Mississippi. Sapir argued that her research should be funded instead of the more sociological work of <a href="/wiki/John_Dollard" title="John Dollard">John Dollard</a>. Sapir eventually lost the discussion and Powdermaker had to leave Yale.<sup id="cite_ref-Darnell_1998_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Darnell_1998-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During his tenure at Yale, Sapir was elected to the <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences" title="American Academy of Arts and Sciences">American Academy of Arts and Sciences</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the United States <a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences" title="National Academy of Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the summer of 1937 while teaching at the Linguistic Institute of the <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_Society_of_America" title="Linguistic Society of America">Linguistic Society of America</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ann_Arbor" class="mw-redirect" title="Ann Arbor">Ann Arbor</a>, Sapir began having problems with a heart condition that had been diagnosed a couple of years earlier.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1938, he had to take a leave from Yale, during which Benjamin Lee Whorf taught his courses and G. P. Murdock advised some of his students. After Sapir's death in 1939, G. P. Murdock became the chair of the anthropology department. Murdock, who despised the Boasian paradigm of cultural anthropology, dismantled most of Sapir's efforts to integrate anthropology, psychology, and linguistics.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Anthropological_thought">Anthropological thought</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edward_Sapir&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Anthropological thought"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sapir's anthropological thought has been described as isolated within the field of anthropology in his own days. Instead of searching for the ways in which culture influences human behavior, Sapir was interested in understanding how cultural patterns themselves were shaped by the composition of individual personalities that make up a society. This made Sapir cultivate an interest in individual psychology and his view of culture was more psychological than many of his contemporaries.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been suggested that there is a close relation between Sapir's literary interests and his anthropological thought. His literary theory saw individual aesthetic sensibilities and creativity to interact with learned cultural traditions to produce unique and new poetic forms, echoing the way that he also saw individuals and cultural patterns to dialectically influence each other.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Breadth_of_languages_studied">Breadth of languages studied</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edward_Sapir&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Breadth of languages studied"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sapir's special focus among American languages was in the <a href="/wiki/Athabaskan" class="mw-redirect" title="Athabaskan">Athabaskan</a> languages, a family which especially fascinated him. In a private letter, he wrote: "<a href="/wiki/Dene" title="Dene">Dene</a> is probably the son-of-a-bitchiest language in America to actually <i>know</i>...most fascinating of all languages ever invented."<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sapir also studied the languages and cultures of <a href="/wiki/Chinookan_languages" title="Chinookan languages">Wishram Chinook</a>, <a href="/wiki/Navajo_language" title="Navajo language">Navajo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuu-chah-nulth_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuu-chah-nulth people">Nootka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Colorado_River_Numic_language" title="Colorado River Numic language">Colorado River Numic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Takelma_language" title="Takelma language">Takelma</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Yahi" class="mw-redirect" title="Yahi">Yana</a>. His research on Southern Paiute, in collaboration with consultant <a href="/wiki/Tony_Tillohash" title="Tony Tillohash">Tony Tillohash</a>, led to a 1933 article which would become influential in the characterization of the <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phoneme</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-sapir1933_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sapir1933-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although noted for his work on American linguistics, Sapir wrote prolifically in linguistics in general. His book <i>Language</i> provides everything from a grammar-typological classification of languages (with examples ranging from <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a> to Nootka) to speculation on the phenomenon of <a href="/wiki/Language_drift" class="mw-redirect" title="Language drift">language drift</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the arbitrariness of associations between language, race, and culture. Sapir was also a pioneer in <a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a> studies (his first language) in the United States (cf. <i>Notes on Judeo-German phonology</i>, 1915). </p><p>Sapir was active in the <a href="/wiki/International_auxiliary_language" title="International auxiliary language">international auxiliary language</a> movement. In his paper "The Function of an International Auxiliary Language", he argued for the benefits of a regular grammar and advocated a critical focus on the fundamentals of language, unbiased by the idiosyncrasies of national languages, in the choice of an international auxiliary language. </p><p>He was the first Research Director of the <a href="/wiki/International_Auxiliary_Language_Association" title="International Auxiliary Language Association">International Auxiliary Language Association</a> (IALA), which presented the <a href="/wiki/Interlingua" title="Interlingua">Interlingua</a> conference in 1951. He directed the Association from 1930 to 1931, and was a member of its Consultative Counsel for Linguistic Research from 1927 to 1938.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sapir consulted with <a href="/wiki/Alice_Vanderbilt_Morris" title="Alice Vanderbilt Morris">Alice Vanderbilt Morris</a> to develop the research program of IALA.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Selected_publications">Selected publications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edward_Sapir&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Selected publications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Books">Books</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edward_Sapir&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Books"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSapir1907" class="citation book cs1">Sapir, Edward (1907). <i>Herder's "Ursprung der Sprache"</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ASIN: B0006CWB2W.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Herder%27s+%22Ursprung+der+Sprache%22&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1907&rft.aulast=Sapir&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdward+Sapir" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSapir1908" class="citation book cs1">Sapir, Edward (1908). "On the etymology of Sanskrit asru, Avestan asru, Greek dakru". In Modi, Jivanji Jamshedji (ed.). <i>Spiegel memorial volume. Papers on Iranian subjects written by various scholars in honour of the late Dr. Frederic Spiegel</i>. Bombay: British India Press. pp. 156–159.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=On+the+etymology+of+Sanskrit+asru%2C+Avestan+asru%2C+Greek+dakru&rft.btitle=Spiegel+memorial+volume.+Papers+on+Iranian+subjects+written+by+various+scholars+in+honour+of+the+late+Dr.+Frederic+Spiegel&rft.place=Bombay&rft.pages=156-159&rft.pub=British+India+Press&rft.date=1908&rft.aulast=Sapir&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdward+Sapir" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSapirCurtin,_Jeremiah1909" class="citation book cs1">Sapir, Edward; Curtin, Jeremiah (1909). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/wishramtexts00sapirich"><i>Wishram texts, together with Wasco tales and myths</i></a>. E.J. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-404-58152-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-404-58152-7"><bdi>978-0-404-58152-7</bdi></a>. ASIN: B000855RIW.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wishram+texts%2C+together+with+Wasco+tales+and+myths&rft.pub=E.J.+Brill&rft.date=1909&rft.isbn=978-0-404-58152-7&rft.aulast=Sapir&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft.au=Curtin%2C+Jeremiah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwishramtexts00sapirich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdward+Sapir" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSapir1910" class="citation book cs1">Sapir, Edward (1910). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/yanatexts00sapirich"><i>Yana Texts</i></a>. Berkeley University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-177-11286-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-177-11286-4"><bdi>978-1-177-11286-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Yana+Texts&rft.pub=Berkeley+University+Press&rft.date=1910&rft.isbn=978-1-177-11286-4&rft.aulast=Sapir&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fyanatexts00sapirich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdward+Sapir" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSapir1915" class="citation book cs1">Sapir, Edward (1915). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sketchofsocialor00sapiiala"><i>A sketch of the social organization of the Nass River Indians</i></a>. Ottawa: Government Printing Office.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+sketch+of+the+social+organization+of+the+Nass+River+Indians&rft.place=Ottawa&rft.pub=Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=1915&rft.aulast=Sapir&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsketchofsocialor00sapiiala&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdward+Sapir" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSapir1915" class="citation book cs1">Sapir, Edward (1915). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nounreduplicatio00sapirich"><i>Noun reduplication in Comox, a Salish language of Vancouver island</i></a>. Ottawa: Government Printing Office.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Noun+reduplication+in+Comox%2C+a+Salish+language+of+Vancouver+island&rft.place=Ottawa&rft.pub=Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=1915&rft.aulast=Sapir&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnounreduplicatio00sapirich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdward+Sapir" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSapir1916" class="citation book cs1">Sapir, Edward (1916). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/timeperspectivei00sapirich"><i>Time Perspective in Aboriginal American Culture, A Study in Method</i></a>. Ottawa: Government Printing Bureau.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Time+Perspective+in+Aboriginal+American+Culture%2C+A+Study+in+Method&rft.place=Ottawa&rft.pub=Government+Printing+Bureau&rft.date=1916&rft.aulast=Sapir&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftimeperspectivei00sapirich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdward+Sapir" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSapir1917" class="citation book cs1">Sapir, Edward (1917). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dreamsgibes00sapirich"><i>Dreams and Gibes</i></a>. Boston: The Gorham Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-548-56941-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-548-56941-2"><bdi>978-0-548-56941-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dreams+and+Gibes&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=The+Gorham+Press&rft.date=1917&rft.isbn=978-0-548-56941-2&rft.aulast=Sapir&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdreamsgibes00sapirich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdward+Sapir" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSapir1921" class="citation book cs1">Sapir, Edward (1921). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/12629"><i>Language: An introduction to the study of speech</i></a>. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-4-87187-529-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-4-87187-529-5"><bdi>978-4-87187-529-5</bdi></a>. ASIN: B000NGWX8I.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Language%3A+An+introduction+to+the+study+of+speech&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harcourt%2C+Brace+and+Company&rft.date=1921&rft.isbn=978-4-87187-529-5&rft.aulast=Sapir&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Febooks%2F12629&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdward+Sapir" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSapirSwadesh,_Morris1939" class="citation book cs1">Sapir, Edward; <a href="/wiki/Morris_Swadesh" title="Morris Swadesh">Swadesh, Morris</a> (1939). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/rosettaproject_noo_ortho-1"><i>Nootka Texts: Tales and ethnological narratives, with grammatical notes and lexical materials</i></a>. Philadelphia: Linguistic Society of America. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-404-11893-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-404-11893-8"><bdi>978-0-404-11893-8</bdi></a>. ASIN: B000EB54JC.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nootka+Texts%3A+Tales+and+ethnological+narratives%2C+with+grammatical+notes+and+lexical+materials&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=Linguistic+Society+of+America&rft.date=1939&rft.isbn=978-0-404-11893-8&rft.aulast=Sapir&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft.au=Swadesh%2C+Morris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frosettaproject_noo_ortho-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdward+Sapir" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSapir1949" class="citation book cs1">Sapir, Edward (1949). Mandelbaum, David (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/selectedwritings00sapi"><i>Selected writings in language, culture and personality</i></a>. Berkeley: <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-01115-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-01115-1"><bdi>978-0-520-01115-1</bdi></a>. ASIN: B000PX25CS.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Selected+writings+in+language%2C+culture+and+personality&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1949&rft.isbn=978-0-520-01115-1&rft.aulast=Sapir&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fselectedwritings00sapi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdward+Sapir" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSapirIrvine,_Judith2002" class="citation book cs1">Sapir, Edward; Irvine, Judith (2002). <i>The psychology of culture: A course of lectures</i>. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-017282-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-017282-9"><bdi>978-3-11-017282-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+psychology+of+culture%3A+A+course+of+lectures&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-3-11-017282-9&rft.aulast=Sapir&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft.au=Irvine%2C+Judith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdward+Sapir" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Essays_and_articles">Essays and articles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edward_Sapir&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Essays and articles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSapir1907" class="citation journal cs1">Sapir, Edward (1907). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1907.9.3.02a00100">"Preliminary report on the language and mythology of the Upper Chinook"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/American_Anthropologist" title="American Anthropologist">American Anthropologist</a></i>. <b>9</b> (3): 533–544. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1907.9.3.02a00100">10.1525/aa.1907.9.3.02a00100</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Anthropologist&rft.atitle=Preliminary+report+on+the+language+and+mythology+of+the+Upper+Chinook&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=533-544&rft.date=1907&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Faa.1907.9.3.02a00100&rft.aulast=Sapir&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1525%252Faa.1907.9.3.02a00100&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdward+Sapir" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKroeberWatermanSapirSparkman1908" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Louis_Kroeber" class="mw-redirect" title="Alfred Louis Kroeber">Kroeber, Alfred Louis</a>; <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Talbot_Waterman" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Talbot Waterman">Waterman, Thomas Talbot</a>; Sapir, Edward; Sparkman, Philip Stedman (January–March 1908). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/102138665">"Notes on California folk-lore"</a>. <i>Journal of American Folklore</i>. <b>21</b> (80): 35–42. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F534527">10.2307/534527</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fuc1.31822005860226">2027/uc1.31822005860226</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/534527">534527</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+American+Folklore&rft.atitle=Notes+on+California+folk-lore&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=80&rft.pages=35-42&rft.date=1908-01%2F1908-03&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027%2Fuc1.31822005860226&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F534527%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F534527&rft.aulast=Kroeber&rft.aufirst=Alfred+Louis&rft.au=Waterman%2C+Thomas+Talbot&rft.au=Sapir%2C+Edward&rft.au=Sparkman%2C+Philip+Stedman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcatalog.hathitrust.org%2FRecord%2F102138665&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdward+Sapir" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSapir1910" class="citation journal cs1">Sapir, Edward (1910). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.31.792.350">"Some fundamental characteristics of the Ute language"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a></i>. <b>31</b> (792): 350–352. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.31.792.350">10.1126/science.31.792.350</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17738737">17738737</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Some+fundamental+characteristics+of+the+Ute+language&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=792&rft.pages=350-352&rft.date=1910&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.31.792.350&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17738737&rft.aulast=Sapir&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1126%252Fscience.31.792.350&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdward+Sapir" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSapir1911" class="citation journal cs1">Sapir, Edward (1911). "Some aspects of Nootka language and culture". <i><a href="/wiki/American_Anthropologist" title="American Anthropologist">American Anthropologist</a></i>. <b>13</b>: 15–28. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1911.13.1.02a00030">10.1525/aa.1911.13.1.02a00030</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Anthropologist&rft.atitle=Some+aspects+of+Nootka+language+and+culture&rft.volume=13&rft.pages=15-28&rft.date=1911&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Faa.1911.13.1.02a00030&rft.aulast=Sapir&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdward+Sapir" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSapir1911" class="citation journal cs1">Sapir, Edward (1911). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/1448988">"The problem of noun incorporation in American languages"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/American_Anthropologist" title="American Anthropologist">American Anthropologist</a></i>. <b>13</b> (2): 250–282. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1911.13.2.02a00060">10.1525/aa.1911.13.2.02a00060</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162838136">162838136</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Anthropologist&rft.atitle=The+problem+of+noun+incorporation+in+American+languages&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=250-282&rft.date=1911&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Faa.1911.13.2.02a00060&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162838136%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Sapir&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F1448988&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdward+Sapir" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSapir1913" class="citation journal cs1">Sapir, E. (1913). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.persee.fr/docAsPDF/jsa_0037-9174_1913_num_10_2_2866.pdf">"Southern Paiute and Nahuatl, a study in Uto-Aztekan"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal de la Société des Américanistes</i>. <b>10</b> (2): 379–425. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fjsa.1913.2866">10.3406/jsa.1913.2866</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+de+la+Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9+des+Am%C3%A9ricanistes&rft.atitle=Southern+Paiute+and+Nahuatl%2C+a+study+in+Uto-Aztekan&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=379-425&rft.date=1913&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3406%2Fjsa.1913.2866&rft.aulast=Sapir&rft.aufirst=E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.persee.fr%2FdocAsPDF%2Fjsa_0037-9174_1913_num_10_2_2866.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdward+Sapir" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged December 2019">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSapir1915" class="citation journal cs1">Sapir, E. (1915). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190808230017/http://ftp.maps.canada.ca/pub/nrcan_rncan/publications/ess_sst/103/103492/me_062.pdf">"Abnormal Types of Speech in Nootka"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Memoir (Geological Survey of Canada)</i>. <b>62</b>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4095%2F103492">10.4095/103492</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fuc1.32106013085003">2027/uc1.32106013085003</a></span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ftp.maps.canada.ca/pub/nrcan_rncan/publications/ess_sst/103/103492/me_062.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2019-08-08<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-08-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Memoir+%28Geological+Survey+of+Canada%29&rft.atitle=Abnormal+Types+of+Speech+in+Nootka&rft.volume=62&rft.date=1915&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027%2Fuc1.32106013085003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4095%2F103492&rft.aulast=Sapir&rft.aufirst=E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fftp.maps.canada.ca%2Fpub%2Fnrcan_rncan%2Fpublications%2Fess_sst%2F103%2F103492%2Fme_062.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdward+Sapir" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSapir1915" class="citation journal cs1">Sapir, E. (1915). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190808230402/http://ftp.maps.canada.ca/pub/nrcan_rncan/publications/ess_sst/103/103493/me_063.pdf">"Noun Reduplication in Comox, a Salish Language of Vancouver Island"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Memoir (Geological Survey of Canada)</i>. <b>63</b>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4095%2F103493">10.4095/103493</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fuc2.ark%3A%2F13960%2Ft1td9v139">2027/uc2.ark:/13960/t1td9v139</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:126745281">126745281</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ftp.maps.canada.ca/pub/nrcan_rncan/publications/ess_sst/103/103493/me_063.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2019-08-08<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-08-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Memoir+%28Geological+Survey+of+Canada%29&rft.atitle=Noun+Reduplication+in+Comox%2C+a+Salish+Language+of+Vancouver+Island&rft.volume=63&rft.date=1915&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027%2Fuc2.ark%3A%2F13960%2Ft1td9v139&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A126745281%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4095%2F103493&rft.aulast=Sapir&rft.aufirst=E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fftp.maps.canada.ca%2Fpub%2Fnrcan_rncan%2Fpublications%2Fess_sst%2F103%2F103493%2Fme_063.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdward+Sapir" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSapir1915" class="citation journal cs1">Sapir, E. (1915). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190808225019/http://ftp.maps.canada.ca/pub/nrcan_rncan/publications/ess_sst/104/104974/mb_019.pdf">"A Sketch of the Social Organization of the Nass River Indians"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Museum Bulletin (Geological Survey of Canada)</i>. <b>19</b>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4095%2F104974">10.4095/104974</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Floc.ark%3A%2F13960%2Ft0qr4xq6w">2027/loc.ark:/13960/t0qr4xq6w</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:131590414">131590414</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ftp.maps.canada.ca/pub/nrcan_rncan/publications/ess_sst/104/104974/mb_019.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2019-08-08<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-08-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Museum+Bulletin+%28Geological+Survey+of+Canada%29&rft.atitle=A+Sketch+of+the+Social+Organization+of+the+Nass+River+Indians&rft.volume=19&rft.date=1915&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027%2Floc.ark%3A%2F13960%2Ft0qr4xq6w&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A131590414%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4095%2F104974&rft.aulast=Sapir&rft.aufirst=E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fftp.maps.canada.ca%2Fpub%2Fnrcan_rncan%2Fpublications%2Fess_sst%2F104%2F104974%2Fmb_019.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdward+Sapir" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSapir1915" class="citation journal cs1">Sapir, Edward (1915). "The Na-dene languages: a preliminary report". <i><a href="/wiki/American_Anthropologist" title="American Anthropologist">American Anthropologist</a></i>. <b>17</b> (3): 765–773. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1915.17.3.02a00080">10.1525/aa.1915.17.3.02a00080</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Anthropologist&rft.atitle=The+Na-dene+languages%3A+a+preliminary+report&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=765-773&rft.date=1915&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Faa.1915.17.3.02a00080&rft.aulast=Sapir&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdward+Sapir" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSapir1916" class="citation journal cs1">Sapir, E. (1916). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190808223223/http://ftp.maps.canada.ca/pub/nrcan_rncan/publications/ess_sst/103/103486/me_090.pdf">"Time Perspective in Aboriginal American culture: A Study in Method"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Memoir (Geological Survey of Canada)</i>. <b>90</b>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4095%2F103486">10.4095/103486</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fcoo1.ark%3A%2F13960%2Ft4xh0677f">2027/coo1.ark:/13960/t4xh0677f</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ftp.maps.canada.ca/pub/nrcan_rncan/publications/ess_sst/103/103486/me_090.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2019-08-08<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-08-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Memoir+%28Geological+Survey+of+Canada%29&rft.atitle=Time+Perspective+in+Aboriginal+American+culture%3A+A+Study+in+Method&rft.volume=90&rft.date=1916&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027%2Fcoo1.ark%3A%2F13960%2Ft4xh0677f&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4095%2F103486&rft.aulast=Sapir&rft.aufirst=E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fftp.maps.canada.ca%2Fpub%2Fnrcan_rncan%2Fpublications%2Fess_sst%2F103%2F103486%2Fme_090.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdward+Sapir" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSapir1917" class="citation journal cs1">Sapir, Edward (1917). "Do we need a superorganic?". <i><a href="/wiki/American_Anthropologist" title="American Anthropologist">American Anthropologist</a></i>. <b>19</b> (3): 441–447. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1917.19.3.02a00150">10.1525/aa.1917.19.3.02a00150</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Anthropologist&rft.atitle=Do+we+need+a+superorganic%3F&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=441-447&rft.date=1917&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Faa.1917.19.3.02a00150&rft.aulast=Sapir&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdward+Sapir" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSapir1923" class="citation journal cs1">Sapir, E. (1923). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190808222608/http://ftp.maps.canada.ca/pub/nrcan_rncan/publications/ess_sst/104/104978/mb_037.pdf">"Prefatory note"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Museum Bulletin (Geological Survey of Canada)</i>. <b>37</b>: iii. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4095%2F104978">10.4095/104978</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fuc1.31822007179245">2027/uc1.31822007179245</a></span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ftp.maps.canada.ca/pub/nrcan_rncan/publications/ess_sst/104/104978/mb_037.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2019-08-08<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-08-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Museum+Bulletin+%28Geological+Survey+of+Canada%29&rft.atitle=Prefatory+note&rft.volume=37&rft.pages=iii&rft.date=1923&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027%2Fuc1.31822007179245&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4095%2F104978&rft.aulast=Sapir&rft.aufirst=E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fftp.maps.canada.ca%2Fpub%2Fnrcan_rncan%2Fpublications%2Fess_sst%2F104%2F104978%2Fmb_037.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdward+Sapir" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSapir1924" class="citation journal cs1">Sapir, Edward (1924). "The grammarian and his language". <i><a href="/wiki/The_American_Mercury" title="The American Mercury">The American Mercury</a></i> (1): 149–155.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Mercury&rft.atitle=The+grammarian+and+his+language&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=149-155&rft.date=1924&rft.aulast=Sapir&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdward+Sapir" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSapir1924" class="citation journal cs1">Sapir, Edward (1924). "Culture, Genuine and Spurious". <i><a href="/wiki/The_American_Journal_of_Sociology" class="mw-redirect" title="The American Journal of Sociology">The American Journal of Sociology</a></i>. <b>29</b> (4): 401–429. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F213616">10.1086/213616</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145455225">145455225</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Journal+of+Sociology&rft.atitle=Culture%2C+Genuine+and+Spurious&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=401-429&rft.date=1924&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F213616&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145455225%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Sapir&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdward+Sapir" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSapir1925" class="citation journal cs1">Sapir, Edward (1925). "Memorandum on the problem of an international auxiliary language". <i>The Romanic Review</i> (16): 244–256.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Romanic+Review&rft.atitle=Memorandum+on+the+problem+of+an+international+auxiliary+language&rft.issue=16&rft.pages=244-256&rft.date=1925&rft.aulast=Sapir&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdward+Sapir" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSapir1925" class="citation journal cs1">Sapir, Edward (1925). "Sound patterns in language". <i><a href="/wiki/Language_(journal)" title="Language (journal)">Language</a></i>. <b>1</b> (2): 37–51. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F409004">10.2307/409004</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/409004">409004</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language&rft.atitle=Sound+patterns+in+language&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=37-51&rft.date=1925&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F409004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F409004%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Sapir&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdward+Sapir" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSapir1931" class="citation journal cs1">Sapir, Edward (1931). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091028180701/http://geocities.com/Athens/Forum/5037/sapir.html">"The function of an international auxiliary language"</a>. <i>Romanic Review</i> (11): 4–15. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/5037/sapir.html">the original</a> on 2009-10-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Romanic+Review&rft.atitle=The+function+of+an+international+auxiliary+language&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=4-15&rft.date=1931&rft.aulast=Sapir&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.geocities.com%2FAthens%2FForum%2F5037%2Fsapir.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdward+Sapir" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSapir1936" class="citation journal cs1">Sapir, Edward (1936). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1936.38.2.02a00040">"Internal linguistic evidence suggestive of the Northern origin of the Navaho"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/American_Anthropologist" title="American Anthropologist">American Anthropologist</a></i>. <b>38</b> (2): 224–235. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1936.38.2.02a00040">10.1525/aa.1936.38.2.02a00040</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Anthropologist&rft.atitle=Internal+linguistic+evidence+suggestive+of+the+Northern+origin+of+the+Navaho&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=224-235&rft.date=1936&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Faa.1936.38.2.02a00040&rft.aulast=Sapir&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1525%252Faa.1936.38.2.02a00040&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdward+Sapir" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSapir1944" class="citation journal cs1">Sapir, Edward (1944). "Grading: a study in semantics". <i>Philosophy of Science</i>. <b>11</b> (2): 93–116. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F286828">10.1086/286828</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:120492809">120492809</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy+of+Science&rft.atitle=Grading%3A+a+study+in+semantics&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=93-116&rft.date=1944&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F286828&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A120492809%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Sapir&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdward+Sapir" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSapir1947" class="citation journal cs1">Sapir, Edward (1947). "The relation of American Indian linguistics to general linguistics". <i>Southwestern Journal of Anthropology</i>. <b>3</b> (1): 1–4. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2Fsoutjanth.3.1.3628530">10.1086/soutjanth.3.1.3628530</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:61608089">61608089</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Southwestern+Journal+of+Anthropology&rft.atitle=The+relation+of+American+Indian+linguistics+to+general+linguistics&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-4&rft.date=1947&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2Fsoutjanth.3.1.3628530&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A61608089%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Sapir&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdward+Sapir" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biographies">Biographies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edward_Sapir&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Biographies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoernerKoerner,_Konrad1985" class="citation book cs1">Koerner, E. F. K.; Koerner, Konrad (1985). <i>Edward Sapir: Appraisals of his life and work</i>. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-272-4518-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-272-4518-2"><bdi>978-90-272-4518-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Edward+Sapir%3A+Appraisals+of+his+life+and+work&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pub=John+Benjamins&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-90-272-4518-2&rft.aulast=Koerner&rft.aufirst=E.+F.+K.&rft.au=Koerner%2C+Konrad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdward+Sapir" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCowanFoster,_Michael_K.Koerner,_Konrad1986" class="citation book cs1">Cowan, William; Foster, Michael K.; Koerner, Konrad (1986). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/newperspectivesi0000edwa"><i>New perspectives in language, culture, and personality: Proceedings of the Edward Sapir Centenary Conference (Ottawa, 1–3 October 1984)</i></a></span>. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-272-4522-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-272-4522-9"><bdi>978-90-272-4522-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+perspectives+in+language%2C+culture%2C+and+personality%3A+Proceedings+of+the+Edward+Sapir+Centenary+Conference+%28Ottawa%2C+1%E2%80%933+October+1984%29&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pub=John+Benjamins&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-90-272-4522-9&rft.aulast=Cowan&rft.aufirst=William&rft.au=Foster%2C+Michael+K.&rft.au=Koerner%2C+Konrad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnewperspectivesi0000edwa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdward+Sapir" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDarnell1989" class="citation book cs1">Darnell, Regna (1989). <i>Edward Sapir: linguist, anthropologist, humanist</i>. Berkeley: <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-06678-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-06678-6"><bdi>978-0-520-06678-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Edward+Sapir%3A+linguist%2C+anthropologist%2C+humanist&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-520-06678-6&rft.aulast=Darnell&rft.aufirst=Regna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdward+Sapir" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSapirBright,_William1992" class="citation book cs1">Sapir, Edward; Bright, William (1992). <i>Southern Paiute and Ute: linguistics and ethnography</i>. Berlin: <a href="/wiki/Walter_de_Gruyter" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter de Gruyter">Walter de Gruyter</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-013543-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-013543-5"><bdi>978-3-11-013543-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Southern+Paiute+and+Ute%3A+linguistics+and+ethnography&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-3-11-013543-5&rft.aulast=Sapir&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft.au=Bright%2C+William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdward+Sapir" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSapirDarnell,_RegnaIrvine,_Judith_T.Handler,_Richard1999" class="citation book cs1">Sapir, Edward; Darnell, Regna; Irvine, Judith T.; Handler, Richard (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/collectedworksof05sapi"><i>The collected works of Edward Sapir: culture</i></a>. Berlin: <a href="/wiki/Walter_de_Gruyter" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter de Gruyter">Walter de Gruyter</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-012639-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-012639-6"><bdi>978-3-11-012639-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+collected+works+of+Edward+Sapir%3A+culture&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-3-11-012639-6&rft.aulast=Sapir&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft.au=Darnell%2C+Regna&rft.au=Irvine%2C+Judith+T.&rft.au=Handler%2C+Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcollectedworksof05sapi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdward+Sapir" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Correspondence">Correspondence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edward_Sapir&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Correspondence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSapirKroeberGolla_(ed.)1984" class="citation journal cs1">Sapir, Edward; Kroeber, Alfred L.; Golla (ed.), Victor (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://linguistics.berkeley.edu/~survey/documents/survey-reports/survey-report-6.pdf">"The Sapir–Kroeber correspondence: Letters between Edward Sapir and A.L. Kroeber 1905–1925"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Reports from the Survey of California and Other Indian Languages</i>. <b>6</b>: 1–509.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reports+from+the+Survey+of+California+and+Other+Indian+Languages&rft.atitle=The+Sapir%E2%80%93Kroeber+correspondence%3A+Letters+between+Edward+Sapir+and+A.L.+Kroeber+1905%E2%80%931925&rft.volume=6&rft.pages=1-509&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Sapir&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft.au=Kroeber%2C+Alfred+L.&rft.au=Golla+%28ed.%29%2C+Victor&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flinguistics.berkeley.edu%2F~survey%2Fdocuments%2Fsurvey-reports%2Fsurvey-report-6.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdward+Sapir" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|last3=</code> has generic name (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#generic_name" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edward_Sapir&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/523671/Edward-Sapir">"Edward Sapir"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. 31 January 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Edward+Sapir&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2024-01-31&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F523671%2FEdward-Sapir&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdward+Sapir" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sapir, Edward. (2005). In Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science. www.credoreference.com/entry/wileycs/sapir_edward</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Moore, Jerry D. 2009. "Edward Sapir: Culture, Language, and the Individual" in Visions of Culture: an Introduction to Anthropological Theories and Theorists, Walnut Creek, California: Altamira. pp. 88–104</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Darnell1-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Darnell1_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Darnell1_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Darnell 1990:1–4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Allyn-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Allyn_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cityroom.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/07/21/dewitt-clintons-remarkable-alumni/">Allyn, Bobby"DeWitt Clinton's Remarkable Alumni"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>, July 21, 2009. Accessed September 2, 2014.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Darnell 1990:5</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Darnell 1990:11–12, 14</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Darnell 1990:7–8</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Darnell 1990:9–15</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Darnell 1990:13–14</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Darnell 1990:23</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Darnell 1990:26</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sapir, Edward. 1910. <i>Yana Texts</i>. University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology, vol. 1, no. 9. Berkeley: University Press. (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/yanatexts00sapirich">Online version</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Darnell 1990:24–29</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Darnell 1990:29–31</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSapir1930" class="citation journal cs1">Sapir, Edward (1930). "The Southern Paiute language". <i>Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences</i>. <b>65</b> (1): 1–730. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F20026309">10.2307/20026309</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20026309">20026309</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+American+Academy+of+Arts+and+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+Southern+Paiute+language&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-730&rft.date=1930&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F20026309&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20026309%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Sapir&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdward+Sapir" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Darnell 1990:34</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Darnell 1990:42</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Darnell 1990:44–48</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Darnell 1990:50</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurray1991" class="citation journal cs1">Murray, Stephen O (1991). "The Canadian Winter' of Edward Sapir". <i>Historiographia Linguistica</i>. <b>8</b> (1): 63–68. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1075%2Fhl.8.1.04mur">10.1075/hl.8.1.04mur</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Historiographia+Linguistica&rft.atitle=The+Canadian+Winter%27+of+Edward+Sapir&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=63-68&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1075%2Fhl.8.1.04mur&rft.aulast=Murray&rft.aufirst=Stephen+O&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdward+Sapir" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Darnell 1990:74–79</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Darnell 1990:59</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Darnell 1990:81</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Darnell 1990:83–86</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Dreams & Gibes</i> (1917)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Darnell 1990:1972–83</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Darnell 1990:187</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGolla2011" class="citation book cs1">Golla, Victor (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=B_yqdSE1F8wC&q=%22sapir%27s+first+graduate+student%22&pg=PA51">"51"</a>. <i>California Indian Languages</i>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520266674" title="Special:BookSources/9780520266674"><bdi>9780520266674</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=51&rft.btitle=California+Indian+Languages&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780520266674&rft.aulast=Golla&rft.aufirst=Victor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DB_yqdSE1F8wC%26q%3D%2522sapir%2527s%2Bfirst%2Bgraduate%2Bstudent%2522%26pg%3DPA51&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdward+Sapir" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Darnell 1990:204-7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Darnell_1998-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Darnell_1998_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Darnell_1998_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Darnell 1998</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gelya Frank. 1997. Jews, Multiculturalism, and Boasian Anthropology. American Anthropologist, New Series, Vol. 99, No. 4, pp. 731–745</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Haas, M. R. (1953), Sapir and the Training of Anthropological Linguists. American Anthropologist, 55: 447–450.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-daughter-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-daughter_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Reported by <a href="/wiki/Regna_Darnell" title="Regna Darnell">Regna Darnell</a>, Sapir's biographer (p.c. to Bruce Nevin).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amacad.org/person/edward-sapir">"Edward Sapir"</a>. <i>American Academy of Arts & Sciences</i>. 2023-02-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-05-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+Academy+of+Arts+%26+Sciences&rft.atitle=Edward+Sapir&rft.date=2023-02-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amacad.org%2Fperson%2Fedward-sapir&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdward+Sapir" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nasonline.org/member-directory/deceased-members/20000941.html">"Edward Sapir"</a>. <i>www.nasonline.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-05-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.nasonline.org&rft.atitle=Edward+Sapir&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasonline.org%2Fmember-directory%2Fdeceased-members%2F20000941.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdward+Sapir" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator=Edward+Sapir&title=&subject=&subdiv=&mem=&year=&year-max=&dead=&keyword=&smode=advanced">"APS Member History"</a>. <i>search.amphilsoc.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-05-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=search.amphilsoc.org&rft.atitle=APS+Member+History&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsearch.amphilsoc.org%2Fmemhist%2Fsearch%3Fcreator%3DEdward%2BSapir%26title%3D%26subject%3D%26subdiv%3D%26mem%3D%26year%3D%26year-max%3D%26dead%3D%26keyword%3D%26smode%3Dadvanced&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdward+Sapir" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Morris Swadesh. 1939. "Edward Sapir" Language Vol. 15, No. 2 (Apr. – Jun., 1939), pp. 132–135</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Darnell, R. (1998), Camelot at Yale: The Construction and Dismantling of the Sapirian Synthesis, 1931–39. American Anthropologist, 100: 361–372.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Moore 2009</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard J. Preston. 1966. Edward Sapir's Anthropology: Style, Structure, and Method. American Anthropologist , New Series, Vol. 68, No. 5, pp. 1105–1128</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard Handler. 1984. Sapir's Poetic Experience. American Anthropologist, New Series, Vol. 86, No. 2, pp. 416–417</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Krauss 1986:157</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sapir1933-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sapir1933_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSapir1933" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Sapir, Edward (1933). "La réalité psychologique des phonèmes (The psychological reality of phonemes)". <i>Journal de Psychologie Normale et Pathologique</i> (in French).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+de+Psychologie+Normale+et+Pathologique&rft.atitle=La+r%C3%A9alit%C3%A9+psychologique+des+phon%C3%A8mes+%28The+psychological+reality+of+phonemes%29&rft.date=1933&rft.aulast=Sapir&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEdward+Sapir" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Malkiel, Yakov. 1981. Drift, Slope, and Slant: Background of, and Variations upon, a Sapirian Theme. Language, Vol. 57, No. 3 (Sep., 1981), pp. 535–570</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gopsill, F. Peter. <i>International Languages: a matter for Interlingua</i>. British Interlingua Society, 1990.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Falk, Julia S. "Words without grammar: linguists and the international language movement in the United States", <i>Language and Communication</i>, 15(3): pp. 241–259. Pergamon, 1995.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edward_Sapir&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original works by or about:<br /><b style="text-align: center;"><i><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Edward_Sapir" class="extiw" title="s:Author:Edward Sapir">Edward Sapir</a></i></b></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Edward_Sapir" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Edward Sapir">Edward Sapir</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Edward_Sapir" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Edward Sapir">Edward Sapir</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/biomems/esapir.html">National Academy of Sciences biography</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051202115404/http://spartan.ac.brocku.ca/~lward/Sapir/Documents.html">Robert Throop and Lloyd Gordon Ward: Mead Project 2.0</a> at spartan.ac.brocku.ca</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.interlingua.com/historia/biographias/sapir.htm">Interlingua: Communication Sin Frontiera. Biographia, Edward Sapir</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100707172600/http://www.interlingua.com/historia/biographias/sapir.htm">Archived</a> 2010-07-07 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/4464">Works by Edward Sapir</a> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Sapir%2C%20Edward%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Edward%20Sapir%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Sapir%2C%20Edward%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Edward%20Sapir%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Edward%20Sapir%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Sapir%2C%20Edward%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Edward%20Sapir%22%29%20OR%20%28%221884-1939%22%20AND%20Sapir%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Edward Sapir</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://librivox.org/author/13231">Works by Edward Sapir</a> at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox" title="LibriVox">LibriVox</a> (public domain audiobooks) <span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/15px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/23px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/30px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></span></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Presidents_of_the_American_Anthropological_Association" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:American_Anthropological_Association_presidents" title="Template:American Anthropological Association presidents"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:American_Anthropological_Association_presidents" title="Template talk:American Anthropological Association presidents"><abbr title="Discuss this 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Putnam</a> (1905–1906)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Franz_Boas" title="Franz Boas">Franz Boas</a> (1907–1908)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Holmes" title="William Henry Holmes">William Henry Holmes</a> (1909–1910)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Walter_Fewkes" title="Jesse Walter Fewkes">Jesse Walter Fewkes</a> (1911–1912)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Roland_Burrage_Dixon" title="Roland Burrage Dixon">Roland Burrage Dixon</a> (1913–1914)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Webb_Hodge" title="Frederick Webb Hodge">F. W. Hodge</a> (1915–1916)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Kroeber" title="Alfred Kroeber">Alfred Kroeber</a> (1917–1918)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Clark_Wissler" title="Clark Wissler">Clark Wissler</a> (1919–1920)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/William_Curtis_Farabee" title="William Curtis Farabee">William Curtis Farabee</a> (1921–1922)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Walter_Hough" title="Walter Hough">Walter Hough</a> (1923–1924)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1925–1950</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ale%C5%A1_Hrdli%C4%8Dka" title="Aleš Hrdlička">Aleš Hrdlička</a> (1925–1926)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Howard_Saville" title="Marshall Howard Saville">Marshall Howard Saville</a> (1927–1928)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Tozzer" title="Alfred Tozzer">Alfred Tozzer</a> (1929–1930)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/George_Grant_MacCurdy" title="George Grant MacCurdy">George Grant MacCurdy</a> (1931)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_R._Swanton" title="John R. Swanton">John R. Swanton</a> (1932)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Fay-Cooper_Cole" title="Fay-Cooper Cole">Fay-Cooper Cole</a> (1933–1934)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Lowie" title="Robert Lowie">Robert Lowie</a> (1935)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spinden" title="Herbert Spinden">Herbert Spinden</a> (1936)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Nels_C._Nelson" title="Nels C. Nelson">Nels C. Nelson</a> (1937)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Edward Sapir</a> (1938)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Diamond_Jenness" title="Diamond Jenness">Diamond Jenness</a> (1939)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_Montgomery_Cooper" title="John Montgomery Cooper">John Montgomery Cooper</a> (1940)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Elsie_Clews_Parsons" title="Elsie Clews Parsons">Elsie Clews Parsons</a> (1941)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alfred_V._Kidder" title="Alfred V. Kidder">Alfred V. Kidder</a> (1942)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Leslie_Spier" title="Leslie Spier">Leslie Spier</a> (1943)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Redfield" title="Robert Redfield">Robert Redfield</a> (1944)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Neil_Judd" title="Neil Judd">Neil Judd</a> (1945)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Linton" title="Ralph Linton">Ralph Linton</a> (1946)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Benedict" title="Ruth Benedict">Ruth Benedict</a> (1947)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Clyde_Kluckhohn" title="Clyde Kluckhohn">Clyde Kluckhohn</a> (1947)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Harry_L._Shapiro" title="Harry L. Shapiro">Harry L. Shapiro</a> (1948)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Irving_Hallowell" title="Alfred Irving Hallowell">Alfred Irving Hallowell</a> (1949)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Beals" title="Ralph Beals">Ralph L. Beals</a> (1950)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1951–1975</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/William_W._Howells" title="William W. Howells">William W. Howells</a> (1951)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wendell_C._Bennett&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wendell C. Bennett (page does not exist)">Wendell C. Bennett</a> (1952)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Fred_Eggan" title="Fred Eggan">Fred Eggan</a> (1953)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_Otis_Brew" title="John Otis Brew">John Otis Brew</a> (1954)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/George_Murdock" title="George Murdock">George Murdock</a> (1955)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Emil_Haury" title="Emil Haury">Emil Haury</a> (1956)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/E._Adamson_Hoebel" title="E. Adamson Hoebel">E. Adamson Hoebel</a> (1957)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Harry_Hoijer" title="Harry Hoijer">Harry Hoijer</a> (1958)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sol_Tax" title="Sol Tax">Sol Tax</a> (1959)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Mead" title="Margaret Mead">Margaret Mead</a> (1960)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Willey" title="Gordon Willey">Gordon Willey</a> (1961)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sherwood_Washburn" title="Sherwood Washburn">Sherwood Washburn</a> (1962)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Morris_Edward_Opler" title="Morris Edward Opler">Morris Edward Opler</a> (1963)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Leslie_White" title="Leslie White">Leslie White</a> (1964)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Spoehr" title="Alexander Spoehr">Alexander Spoehr</a> (1965)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_P._Gillin" title="John P. Gillin">John P. Gillin</a> (1966)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Frederica_de_Laguna" title="Frederica de Laguna">Frederica de Laguna</a> (1967)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Irving_Rouse" title="Irving Rouse">Irving Rouse</a> (1968)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Cora_Du_Bois" title="Cora Du Bois">Cora Du Bois</a> (1969)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/George_M._Foster_(anthropologist)" title="George M. Foster (anthropologist)">George M. Foster</a> (1970)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Wagley" title="Charles Wagley">Charles Wagley</a> (1971)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Anthony_F._C._Wallace" title="Anthony F. C. Wallace">Anthony F. C. Wallace</a> (1972)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_B._Casagrande" title="Joseph B. Casagrande">Joseph B. Casagrande</a> (1973)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Edward_H._Spicer" title="Edward H. Spicer">Edward H. Spicer</a> (1974)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ernestine_Friedl" title="Ernestine Friedl">Ernestine Friedl</a> (1975)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1976–2001</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Walter_Goldschmidt" title="Walter Goldschmidt">Walter Goldschmidt</a> (1976)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Newbold_Adams" title="Richard Newbold Adams">Richard N. Adams</a> (1977)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Francis_L._K._Hsu" title="Francis L. K. Hsu">Francis L. K. Hsu</a> (1978)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Bohannan" title="Paul Bohannan">Paul Bohannan</a> (1979)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Conrad_M._Arensberg" title="Conrad M. Arensberg">Conrad M. Arensberg</a> (1980)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/William_C._Sturtevant" title="William C. Sturtevant">William C. Sturtevant</a> (1981)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/M._Margaret_Clark" title="M. Margaret Clark">M. Margaret Clark</a> (1982)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dell_Hymes" title="Dell Hymes">Dell Hymes</a> (1983)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Oestreich_Lurie" title="Nancy Oestreich Lurie">Nancy Oestreich Lurie</a> (1984–1985)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/June_Helm" title="June Helm">June Helm</a> (1986–1987)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Roy_Rappaport" title="Roy Rappaport">Roy Rappaport</a> (1988–1989)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jane_E._Buikstra" title="Jane E. Buikstra">Jane E. Buikstra</a> (1989–1991)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Annette_Weiner" title="Annette Weiner">Annette Weiner</a> (1991–1993)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/James_Peacock_(anthropologist)" title="James Peacock (anthropologist)">James Peacock</a> (1993–1995)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Yolanda_T._Moses" title="Yolanda T. Moses">Yolanda T. Moses</a> (1995–1997)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jane_H._Hill" title="Jane H. Hill">Jane H. Hill</a> (1997–1999)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Louise_Lamphere" title="Louise Lamphere">Louise Lamphere</a> (1999–2001)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2001–Present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Don_Brenneis" title="Don Brenneis">Don Brenneis</a> (2001–2003)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Brumfiel" title="Elizabeth Brumfiel">Elizabeth Brumfiel</a> (2003–2005)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alan_H._Goodman" title="Alan H. Goodman">Alan H. Goodman</a> (2005–2007)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Setha_Low" title="Setha Low">Setha Low</a> (2007–2009)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Virginia_R._Dom%C3%ADnguez" title="Virginia R. Domínguez">Virginia R. Domínguez</a> (2009–2011)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Leith_Mullings" title="Leith Mullings">Leith Mullings</a> (2011–2013)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Monica_Heller" title="Monica Heller">Monica Heller</a> (2013–2015)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alisse_Waterston" title="Alisse Waterston">Alisse Waterston</a> (2015–2017)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alex_Barker&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alex Barker (page does not exist)">Alex Barker</a> (2017–2019)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Akhil_Gupta" title="Akhil Gupta">Akhil Gupta</a> (2019–2021)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ramona_Perez&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ramona Perez (page does not exist)">Ramona Perez</a> (2021–23)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Whitney_Battle-Baptiste" title="Whitney Battle-Baptiste">Whitney Battle-Baptiste</a> (2023- )</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_language" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_language" title="Template:Philosophy of language"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_language" title="Template talk:Philosophy of language"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_language" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of language"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy_of_language" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Index_of_language_articles" title="Index of language articles">Index of language articles</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_language" title="List of philosophers of language">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorgias" title="Gorgias">Gorgias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cratylus" title="Cratylus">Cratylus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eubulides" title="Eubulides">Eubulides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Cronus" title="Diodorus Cronus">Diodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysippus" title="Chrysippus">Chrysippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuangzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wilkins" title="John Wilkins">Wilkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Arnauld" title="Antoine Arnauld">Arnauld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Lancelot" title="Claude Lancelot">Lancelot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">von Humboldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Mauthner" title="Fritz Mauthner">Mauthner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Ric%C5%93ur" title="Paul Ricœur">Ricœur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">de Saussure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Frege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Boas" title="Franz Boas">Boas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Tillich</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sapir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Bloomfield" title="Leonard Bloomfield">Bloomfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Bergson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Vygotsky" title="Lev Vygotsky">Vygotsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Derrida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Lee_Whorf" title="Benjamin Lee Whorf">Whorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Austin" title="J. L. Austin">Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Gadamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">Ayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaakko_Hintikka" title="Jaakko Hintikka">Hintikka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Dummett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Grice" title="Paul Grice">Grice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">Strawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">Searle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Watzlawick" title="Paul Watzlawick">Watzlawick</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Theories_of_language" title="Category:Theories of language">Theories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causal_theory_of_reference" title="Causal theory of reference">Causal theory of reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contrastivism" title="Contrastivism">Contrast theory of meaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contrastivism" title="Contrastivism">Contrastivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">Conventionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cratylism" title="Cratylism">Cratylism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptivist_theory_of_names" title="Descriptivist theory of names">Descriptivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_reference_theory" title="Direct reference theory">Direct reference theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dramatism" title="Dramatism">Dramatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_semantics" title="Dynamic semantics">Dynamic semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressivism" title="Expressivism">Expressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquisitive_semantics" title="Inquisitive semantics">Inquisitive semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_determinism" title="Linguistic determinism">Linguistic determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediated_reference_theory" title="Mediated reference theory">Mediated reference theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-cognitivism" title="Non-cognitivism">Non-cognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phallogocentrism" title="Phallogocentrism">Phallogocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relevance_theory" title="Relevance theory">Relevance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_externalism" title="Semantic externalism">Semantic externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_holism" title="Semantic holism">Semantic holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Situation_semantics" title="Situation semantics">Situation semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supposition_theory" title="Supposition theory">Supposition theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiosism" title="Symbiosism">Symbiosism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_noncognitivism" title="Theological noncognitivism">Theological noncognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_descriptions" title="Theory of descriptions">Theory of descriptions</a> (<a href="/wiki/Definite_description" title="Definite description">Definite description</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_language" title="Theory of language">Theory of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unilalianism" title="Unilalianism">Unilalianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verification theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ambiguity" title="Ambiguity">Ambiguity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cant_(language)" title="Cant (language)">Cant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_relativity" title="Linguistic relativity">Linguistic relativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth-bearer" title="Truth-bearer">Truth-bearer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Use%E2%80%93mention_distinction" title="Use–mention distinction">Use–mention distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Categorization" class="mw-redirect" title="Categorization">Categories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Set_(mathematics)" title="Set (mathematics)">Set</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_(philosophy)" title="Class (philosophy)">Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_resemblance" title="Family resemblance">Family resemblance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intension" title="Intension">Intension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_form" title="Logical form">Logical form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metalanguage" title="Metalanguage">Metalanguage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modality_(natural_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Modality (natural language)">Modality (natural language)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presupposition" title="Presupposition">Presupposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_compositionality" title="Principle of compositionality">Principle of compositionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sign_(semiotics)" title="Sign (semiotics)">Sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sense_and_reference" title="Sense and reference">Sense and reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_act" title="Speech act">Speech act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">Symbol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentence_(linguistics)" title="Sentence (linguistics)">Sentence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statement_(logic)" title="Statement (logic)">Statement</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_language_articles" title="Index of philosophy of language articles">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cratylus_(dialogue)" title="Cratylus (dialogue)">Cratylus</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(n.d.)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Port-Royal_Grammar" title="Port-Royal Grammar">Port-Royal Grammar</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1660)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Arte_Combinatoria" title="De Arte Combinatoria">De Arte Combinatoria</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1666)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/An_Essay_Towards_a_Real_Character,_and_a_Philosophical_Language" title="An Essay Towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language">An Essay Towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1668)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Alciphron_(book)" title="Alciphron (book)">Alciphron</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1732)</span></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/On_Denoting" title="On Denoting">On Denoting</a>" <span style="font-size:85%;">(1905)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tractatus_Logico-Philosophicus" title="Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus">Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1921)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Language,_Truth,_and_Logic" title="Language, Truth, and Logic">Language, Truth, and Logic</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1936)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Dogmas_of_Empiricism" title="Two Dogmas of Empiricism">Two Dogmas of Empiricism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1951)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Investigations" title="Philosophical Investigations">Philosophical Investigations</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1953)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Of_Grammatology" title="Of Grammatology">Of Grammatology</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1967)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Naming_and_Necessity" title="Naming and Necessity">Naming and Necessity</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1980)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wittgenstein_on_Rules_and_Private_Language" title="Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language">Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1982)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Limited_Inc" title="Limited Inc">Limited Inc</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1988)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of 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style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q191095#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q191095#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000109137394">ISNI</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/71432791">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/5475/">FAST</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJymDPFBC6kbFxYrcYFqcP">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118751247">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n50017361">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12175923d">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12175923d">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00455313">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35475597">Australia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=kup20030000086629&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX1648087">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.bnportugal.gov.pt/aut/catbnp/74469">Portugal</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p069004536">Netherlands</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90087529">Norway</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/280388">Vatican</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007267662005171">Israel</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981061146774606706">Catalonia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/14149599">Belgium</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA00548407?l=en">CiNii</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th 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