CINXE.COM

<!doctype html>  <html class="no-js" lang="en-US">  <head> <meta charset="utf-8" /> <title>MIT School of Science</title> <meta name="description" content="We turn curiosity into discovery, changing what we know about the world."> <meta content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1" name="viewport"/> <meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="IE=edge"><script type="text/javascript">(window.NREUM||(NREUM={})).init={ajax:{deny_list:["bam.nr-data.net"]}};(window.NREUM||(NREUM={})).loader_config={licenseKey:"0dd57bcb13",applicationID:"100970968"};;/*! For license information please see nr-loader-rum-1.281.0.min.js.LICENSE.txt */ (()=>{var e,t,r={122:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{a:()=>i});var n=r(944);function i(e,t){try{if(!e||"object"!=typeof e)return(0,n.R)(3);if(!t||"object"!=typeof t)return(0,n.R)(4);const r=Object.create(Object.getPrototypeOf(t),Object.getOwnPropertyDescriptors(t)),o=0===Object.keys(r).length?e:r;for(let a in o)if(void 0!==e[a])try{if(null===e[a]){r[a]=null;continue}Array.isArray(e[a])&&Array.isArray(t[a])?r[a]=Array.from(new Set([...e[a],...t[a]])):"object"==typeof e[a]&&"object"==typeof t[a]?r[a]=i(e[a],t[a]):r[a]=e[a]}catch(e){(0,n.R)(1,e)}return r}catch(e){(0,n.R)(2,e)}}},555:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{Vp:()=>c,fn:()=>s,x1:()=>u});var n=r(384),i=r(122);const o={beacon:n.NT.beacon,errorBeacon:n.NT.errorBeacon,licenseKey:void 0,applicationID:void 0,sa:void 0,queueTime:void 0,applicationTime:void 0,ttGuid:void 0,user:void 0,account:void 0,product:void 0,extra:void 0,jsAttributes:{},userAttributes:void 0,atts:void 0,transactionName:void 0,tNamePlain:void 0},a={};function s(e){try{const t=c(e);return!!t.licenseKey&&!!t.errorBeacon&&!!t.applicationID}catch(e){return!1}}function c(e){if(!e)throw new Error("All info objects require an agent identifier!");if(!a[e])throw new Error("Info for ".concat(e," was never set"));return a[e]}function u(e,t){if(!e)throw new Error("All info objects require an agent identifier!");a[e]=(0,i.a)(t,o);const r=(0,n.nY)(e);r&&(r.info=a[e])}},217:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{D0:()=>h,gD:()=>b,xN:()=>v});r(860).K7.genericEvents;const n="experimental.marks",i="experimental.measures",o="experimental.resources";var a=r(993);const s=e=>{if(!e||"string"!=typeof e)return!1;try{document.createDocumentFragment().querySelector(e)}catch{return!1}return!0};var c=r(614),u=r(944),l=r(384),d=r(122);const f="[data-nr-mask]",g=()=>{const e={feature_flags:[],experimental:{marks:!1,measures:!1,resources:!1},mask_selector:"*",block_selector:"[data-nr-block]",mask_input_options:{color:!1,date:!1,"datetime-local":!1,email:!1,month:!1,number:!1,range:!1,search:!1,tel:!1,text:!1,time:!1,url:!1,week:!1,textarea:!1,select:!1,password:!0}};return{ajax:{deny_list:void 0,block_internal:!0,enabled:!0,autoStart:!0},distributed_tracing:{enabled:void 0,exclude_newrelic_header:void 0,cors_use_newrelic_header:void 0,cors_use_tracecontext_headers:void 0,allowed_origins:void 0},get feature_flags(){return e.feature_flags},set feature_flags(t){e.feature_flags=t},generic_events:{enabled:!0,autoStart:!0},harvest:{interval:30},jserrors:{enabled:!0,autoStart:!0},logging:{enabled:!0,autoStart:!0,level:a.p_.INFO},metrics:{enabled:!0,autoStart:!0},obfuscate:void 0,page_action:{enabled:!0},page_view_event:{enabled:!0,autoStart:!0},page_view_timing:{enabled:!0,autoStart:!0},performance:{get capture_marks(){return e.feature_flags.includes(n)||e.experimental.marks},set capture_marks(t){e.experimental.marks=t},get capture_measures(){return e.feature_flags.includes(i)||e.experimental.measures},set capture_measures(t){e.experimental.measures=t},capture_detail:!0,resources:{get enabled(){return e.feature_flags.includes(o)||e.experimental.resources},set enabled(t){e.experimental.resources=t},asset_types:[],first_party_domains:[],ignore_newrelic:!0}},privacy:{cookies_enabled:!0},proxy:{assets:void 0,beacon:void 0},session:{expiresMs:c.wk,inactiveMs:c.BB},session_replay:{autoStart:!0,enabled:!1,preload:!1,sampling_rate:10,error_sampling_rate:100,collect_fonts:!1,inline_images:!1,fix_stylesheets:!0,mask_all_inputs:!0,get mask_text_selector(){return e.mask_selector},set mask_text_selector(t){s(t)?e.mask_selector="".concat(t,",").concat(f):""===t||null===t?e.mask_selector=f:(0,u.R)(5,t)},get block_class(){return"nr-block"},get ignore_class(){return"nr-ignore"},get mask_text_class(){return"nr-mask"},get block_selector(){return e.block_selector},set block_selector(t){s(t)?e.block_selector+=",".concat(t):""!==t&&(0,u.R)(6,t)},get mask_input_options(){return e.mask_input_options},set mask_input_options(t){t&&"object"==typeof t?e.mask_input_options={...t,password:!0}:(0,u.R)(7,t)}},session_trace:{enabled:!0,autoStart:!0},soft_navigations:{enabled:!0,autoStart:!0},spa:{enabled:!0,autoStart:!0},ssl:void 0,user_actions:{enabled:!0,elementAttributes:["id","className","tagName","type"]}}},p={},m="All configuration objects require an agent identifier!";function h(e){if(!e)throw new Error(m);if(!p[e])throw new Error("Configuration for ".concat(e," was never set"));return p[e]}function v(e,t){if(!e)throw new Error(m);p[e]=(0,d.a)(t,g());const r=(0,l.nY)(e);r&&(r.init=p[e])}function b(e,t){if(!e)throw new Error(m);var r=h(e);if(r){for(var n=t.split("."),i=0;i<n.length-1;i++)if("object"!=typeof(r=r[n[i]]))return;r=r[n[n.length-1]]}return r}},371:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{V:()=>f,f:()=>d});var n=r(122),i=r(384),o=r(154),a=r(324);let s=0;const c={buildEnv:a.F3,distMethod:a.Xs,version:a.xv,originTime:o.WN},u={customTransaction:void 0,disabled:!1,isolatedBacklog:!1,loaderType:void 0,maxBytes:3e4,onerror:void 0,ptid:void 0,releaseIds:{},appMetadata:{},session:void 0,denyList:void 0,timeKeeper:void 0,obfuscator:void 0,harvester:void 0},l={};function d(e){if(!e)throw new Error("All runtime objects require an agent identifier!");if(!l[e])throw new Error("Runtime for ".concat(e," was never set"));return l[e]}function f(e,t){if(!e)throw new Error("All runtime objects require an agent identifier!");l[e]={...(0,n.a)(t,u),...c},Object.hasOwnProperty.call(l[e],"harvestCount")||Object.defineProperty(l[e],"harvestCount",{get:()=>++s});const r=(0,i.nY)(e);r&&(r.runtime=l[e])}},324:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{F3:()=>i,Xs:()=>o,xv:()=>n});const n="1.281.0",i="PROD",o="CDN"},154:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{OF:()=>c,RI:()=>i,WN:()=>l,bv:()=>o,gm:()=>a,mw:()=>s,sb:()=>u});var n=r(863);const i="undefined"!=typeof window&&!!window.document,o="undefined"!=typeof WorkerGlobalScope&&("undefined"!=typeof self&&self instanceof WorkerGlobalScope&&self.navigator instanceof WorkerNavigator||"undefined"!=typeof globalThis&&globalThis instanceof WorkerGlobalScope&&globalThis.navigator instanceof WorkerNavigator),a=i?window:"undefined"!=typeof WorkerGlobalScope&&("undefined"!=typeof self&&self instanceof WorkerGlobalScope&&self||"undefined"!=typeof globalThis&&globalThis instanceof WorkerGlobalScope&&globalThis),s=Boolean("hidden"===a?.document?.visibilityState),c=/iPad|iPhone|iPod/.test(a.navigator?.userAgent),u=c&&"undefined"==typeof SharedWorker,l=((()=>{const e=a.navigator?.userAgent?.match(/Firefox[/\s](\d+\.\d+)/);Array.isArray(e)&&e.length>=2&&e[1]})(),Date.now()-(0,n.t)())},687:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{Ak:()=>c,Ze:()=>d,x3:()=>u});var n=r(836),i=r(606),o=r(860),a=r(646);const s={};function c(e,t){const r={staged:!1,priority:o.P3[t]||0};l(e),s[e].get(t)||s[e].set(t,r)}function u(e,t){e&&s[e]&&(s[e].get(t)&&s[e].delete(t),g(e,t,!1),s[e].size&&f(e))}function l(e){if(!e)throw new Error("agentIdentifier required");s[e]||(s[e]=new Map)}function d(e="",t="feature",r=!1){if(l(e),!e||!s[e].get(t)||r)return g(e,t);s[e].get(t).staged=!0,f(e)}function f(e){const t=Array.from(s[e]);t.every((([e,t])=>t.staged))&&(t.sort(((e,t)=>e[1].priority-t[1].priority)),t.forEach((([t])=>{s[e].delete(t),g(e,t)})))}function g(e,t,r=!0){const o=e?n.ee.get(e):n.ee,s=i.i.handlers;if(!o.aborted&&o.backlog&&s){if(r){const e=o.backlog[t],r=s[t];if(r){for(let t=0;e&&t<e.length;++t)p(e[t],r);Object.entries(r).forEach((([e,t])=>{Object.values(t||{}).forEach((t=>{t[0]?.on&&t[0]?.context()instanceof a.y&&t[0].on(e,t[1])}))}))}}o.isolatedBacklog||delete s[t],o.backlog[t]=null,o.emit("drain-"+t,[])}}function p(e,t){var r=e[1];Object.values(t[r]||{}).forEach((t=>{var r=e[0];if(t[0]===r){var n=t[1],i=e[3],o=e[2];n.apply(i,o)}}))}},836:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{P:()=>c,ee:()=>u});var n=r(384),i=r(990),o=r(371),a=r(646),s=r(607);const c="nr@context:".concat(s.W),u=function e(t,r){var n={},s={},l={},d=!1;try{d=16===r.length&&(0,o.f)(r).isolatedBacklog}catch(e){}var f={on:p,addEventListener:p,removeEventListener:function(e,t){var r=n[e];if(!r)return;for(var i=0;i<r.length;i++)r[i]===t&&r.splice(i,1)},emit:function(e,r,n,i,o){!1!==o&&(o=!0);if(u.aborted&&!i)return;t&&o&&t.emit(e,r,n);for(var a=g(n),c=m(e),l=c.length,d=0;d<l;d++)c[d].apply(a,r);var p=v()[s[e]];p&&p.push([f,e,r,a]);return a},get:h,listeners:m,context:g,buffer:function(e,t){const r=v();if(t=t||"feature",f.aborted)return;Object.entries(e||{}).forEach((([e,n])=>{s[n]=t,t in r||(r[t]=[])}))},abort:function(){f._aborted=!0,Object.keys(f.backlog).forEach((e=>{delete f.backlog[e]}))},isBuffering:function(e){return!!v()[s[e]]},debugId:r,backlog:d?{}:t&&"object"==typeof t.backlog?t.backlog:{},isolatedBacklog:d};return Object.defineProperty(f,"aborted",{get:()=>{let e=f._aborted||!1;return e||(t&&(e=t.aborted),e)}}),f;function g(e){return e&&e instanceof a.y?e:e?(0,i.I)(e,c,(()=>new a.y(c))):new a.y(c)}function p(e,t){n[e]=m(e).concat(t)}function m(e){return n[e]||[]}function h(t){return l[t]=l[t]||e(f,t)}function v(){return f.backlog}}(void 0,"globalEE"),l=(0,n.Zm)();l.ee||(l.ee=u)},646:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{y:()=>n});class n{constructor(e){this.contextId=e}}},908:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{d:()=>n,p:()=>i});var n=r(836).ee.get("handle");function i(e,t,r,i,o){o?(o.buffer([e],i),o.emit(e,t,r)):(n.buffer([e],i),n.emit(e,t,r))}},606:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{i:()=>o});var n=r(908);o.on=a;var i=o.handlers={};function o(e,t,r,o){a(o||n.d,i,e,t,r)}function a(e,t,r,i,o){o||(o="feature"),e||(e=n.d);var a=t[o]=t[o]||{};(a[r]=a[r]||[]).push([e,i])}},878:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";function n(e,t){return{capture:e,passive:!1,signal:t}}function i(e,t,r=!1,i){window.addEventListener(e,t,n(r,i))}function o(e,t,r=!1,i){document.addEventListener(e,t,n(r,i))}r.d(t,{DD:()=>o,jT:()=>n,sp:()=>i})},607:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{W:()=>n});const n=(0,r(566).bz)()},566:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{LA:()=>s,bz:()=>a});var n=r(154);const i="xxxxxxxx-xxxx-4xxx-yxxx-xxxxxxxxxxxx";function o(e,t){return e?15&e[t]:16*Math.random()|0}function a(){const e=n.gm?.crypto||n.gm?.msCrypto;let t,r=0;return e&&e.getRandomValues&&(t=e.getRandomValues(new Uint8Array(30))),i.split("").map((e=>"x"===e?o(t,r++).toString(16):"y"===e?(3&o()|8).toString(16):e)).join("")}function s(e){const t=n.gm?.crypto||n.gm?.msCrypto;let r,i=0;t&&t.getRandomValues&&(r=t.getRandomValues(new Uint8Array(e)));const a=[];for(var s=0;s<e;s++)a.push(o(r,i++).toString(16));return a.join("")}},614:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{BB:()=>a,H3:()=>n,g:()=>u,iL:()=>c,tS:()=>s,uh:()=>i,wk:()=>o});const n="NRBA",i="SESSION",o=144e5,a=18e5,s={STARTED:"session-started",PAUSE:"session-pause",RESET:"session-reset",RESUME:"session-resume",UPDATE:"session-update"},c={SAME_TAB:"same-tab",CROSS_TAB:"cross-tab"},u={OFF:0,FULL:1,ERROR:2}},863:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";function n(){return Math.floor(performance.now())}r.d(t,{t:()=>n})},944:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";function n(e,t){"function"==typeof console.debug&&console.debug("New Relic Warning: https://github.com/newrelic/newrelic-browser-agent/blob/main/docs/warning-codes.md#".concat(e),t)}r.d(t,{R:()=>n})},284:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{t:()=>c,B:()=>s});var n=r(836),i=r(154);const o="newrelic";const a=new Set,s={};function c(e,t){const r=n.ee.get(t);s[t]??={},e&&"object"==typeof e&&(a.has(t)||(r.emit("rumresp",[e]),s[t]=e,a.add(t),function(e={}){try{i.gm.dispatchEvent(new CustomEvent(o,{detail:e}))}catch(e){}}({loaded:!0})))}},990:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{I:()=>i});var n=Object.prototype.hasOwnProperty;function i(e,t,r){if(n.call(e,t))return e[t];var i=r();if(Object.defineProperty&&Object.keys)try{return Object.defineProperty(e,t,{value:i,writable:!0,enumerable:!1}),i}catch(e){}return e[t]=i,i}},389:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";function n(e,t=500,r={}){const n=r?.leading||!1;let i;return(...r)=>{n&&void 0===i&&(e.apply(this,r),i=setTimeout((()=>{i=clearTimeout(i)}),t)),n||(clearTimeout(i),i=setTimeout((()=>{e.apply(this,r)}),t))}}function i(e){let t=!1;return(...r)=>{t||(t=!0,e.apply(this,r))}}r.d(t,{J:()=>i,s:()=>n})},289:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{GG:()=>o,sB:()=>a});var n=r(878);function i(){return"undefined"==typeof document||"complete"===document.readyState}function o(e,t){if(i())return e();(0,n.sp)("load",e,t)}function a(e){if(i())return e();(0,n.DD)("DOMContentLoaded",e)}},384:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{NT:()=>o,US:()=>l,Zm:()=>a,bQ:()=>c,dV:()=>s,nY:()=>u,pV:()=>d});var n=r(154),i=r(863);const o={beacon:"bam.nr-data.net",errorBeacon:"bam.nr-data.net"};function a(){return n.gm.NREUM||(n.gm.NREUM={}),void 0===n.gm.newrelic&&(n.gm.newrelic=n.gm.NREUM),n.gm.NREUM}function s(){let e=a();return e.o||(e.o={ST:n.gm.setTimeout,SI:n.gm.setImmediate,CT:n.gm.clearTimeout,XHR:n.gm.XMLHttpRequest,REQ:n.gm.Request,EV:n.gm.Event,PR:n.gm.Promise,MO:n.gm.MutationObserver,FETCH:n.gm.fetch,WS:n.gm.WebSocket}),e}function c(e,t){let r=a();r.initializedAgents??={},t.initializedAt={ms:(0,i.t)(),date:new Date},r.initializedAgents[e]=t}function u(e){let t=a();return t.initializedAgents?.[e]}function l(e,t){a()[e]=t}function d(){return function(){let e=a();const t=e.info||{};e.info={beacon:o.beacon,errorBeacon:o.errorBeacon,...t}}(),function(){let e=a();const t=e.init||{};e.init={...t}}(),s(),function(){let e=a();const t=e.loader_config||{};e.loader_config={...t}}(),a()}},843:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{u:()=>i});var n=r(878);function i(e,t=!1,r,i){(0,n.DD)("visibilitychange",(function(){if(t)return void("hidden"===document.visibilityState&&e());e(document.visibilityState)}),r,i)}},434:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{Jt:()=>o,YM:()=>c});var n=r(836),i=r(607);const o="nr@original:".concat(i.W);var a=Object.prototype.hasOwnProperty,s=!1;function c(e,t){return e||(e=n.ee),r.inPlace=function(e,t,n,i,o){n||(n="");const a="-"===n.charAt(0);for(let s=0;s<t.length;s++){const c=t[s],u=e[c];l(u)||(e[c]=r(u,a?c+n:n,i,c,o))}},r.flag=o,r;function r(t,r,n,s,c){return l(t)?t:(r||(r=""),nrWrapper[o]=t,function(e,t,r){if(Object.defineProperty&&Object.keys)try{return Object.keys(e).forEach((function(r){Object.defineProperty(t,r,{get:function(){return e[r]},set:function(t){return e[r]=t,t}})})),t}catch(e){u([e],r)}for(var n in e)a.call(e,n)&&(t[n]=e[n])}(t,nrWrapper,e),nrWrapper);function nrWrapper(){var o,a,l,d;try{a=this,o=[...arguments],l="function"==typeof n?n(o,a):n||{}}catch(t){u([t,"",[o,a,s],l],e)}i(r+"start",[o,a,s],l,c);try{return d=t.apply(a,o)}catch(e){throw i(r+"err",[o,a,e],l,c),e}finally{i(r+"end",[o,a,d],l,c)}}}function i(r,n,i,o){if(!s||t){var a=s;s=!0;try{e.emit(r,n,i,t,o)}catch(t){u([t,r,n,i],e)}s=a}}}function u(e,t){t||(t=n.ee);try{t.emit("internal-error",e)}catch(e){}}function l(e){return!(e&&"function"==typeof e&&e.apply&&!e[o])}},993:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{ET:()=>o,p_:()=>i});var n=r(860);const i={ERROR:"ERROR",WARN:"WARN",INFO:"INFO",DEBUG:"DEBUG",TRACE:"TRACE"},o="log";n.K7.logging},969:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{TZ:()=>n,XG:()=>s,rs:()=>i,xV:()=>a,z_:()=>o});const n=r(860).K7.metrics,i="sm",o="cm",a="storeSupportabilityMetrics",s="storeEventMetrics"},630:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{T:()=>n});const n=r(860).K7.pageViewEvent},782:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{T:()=>n});const n=r(860).K7.pageViewTiming},344:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{G4:()=>i});var n=r(614);r(860).K7.sessionReplay;const i={RECORD:"recordReplay",PAUSE:"pauseReplay",REPLAY_RUNNING:"replayRunning",ERROR_DURING_REPLAY:"errorDuringReplay"};n.g.ERROR,n.g.FULL,n.g.OFF},234:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{W:()=>o});var n=r(836),i=r(687);class o{constructor(e,t){this.agentIdentifier=e,this.ee=n.ee.get(e),this.featureName=t,this.blocked=!1}deregisterDrain(){(0,i.x3)(this.agentIdentifier,this.featureName)}}},603:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{j:()=>K});var n=r(860),i=r(555),o=r(371),a=r(908),s=r(836),c=r(687),u=r(289),l=r(154),d=r(944),f=r(969),g=r(384),p=r(344);const m=["setErrorHandler","finished","addToTrace","addRelease","recordCustomEvent","addPageAction","setCurrentRouteName","setPageViewName","setCustomAttribute","interaction","noticeError","setUserId","setApplicationVersion","start",p.G4.RECORD,p.G4.PAUSE,"log","wrapLogger"],h=["setErrorHandler","finished","addToTrace","addRelease"];var v=r(863),b=r(614),y=r(993);var w=r(646),A=r(434);const R=new Map;function _(e,t,r,n){if("object"!=typeof t||!t||"string"!=typeof r||!r||"function"!=typeof t[r])return(0,d.R)(29);const i=function(e){return(e||s.ee).get("logger")}(e),o=(0,A.YM)(i),a=new w.y(s.P);a.level=n.level,a.customAttributes=n.customAttributes;const c=t[r]?.[A.Jt]||t[r];return R.set(c,a),o.inPlace(t,[r],"wrap-logger-",(()=>R.get(c))),i}function E(){const e=(0,g.pV)();m.forEach((t=>{e[t]=(...r)=>function(t,...r){let n=[];return Object.values(e.initializedAgents).forEach((e=>{e&&e.api?e.exposed&&e.api[t]&&n.push(e.api[t](...r)):(0,d.R)(38,t)})),n.length>1?n:n[0]}(t,...r)}))}const x={};function N(e,t,g=!1){t||(0,c.Ak)(e,"api");const m={};var w=s.ee.get(e),A=w.get("tracer");x[e]=b.g.OFF,w.on(p.G4.REPLAY_RUNNING,(t=>{x[e]=t}));var R="api-",E=R+"ixn-";function N(t,r,n,o){const a=(0,i.Vp)(e);return null===r?delete a.jsAttributes[t]:(0,i.x1)(e,{...a,jsAttributes:{...a.jsAttributes,[t]:r}}),j(R,n,!0,o||null===r?"session":void 0)(t,r)}function k(){}m.log=function(e,{customAttributes:t={},level:r=y.p_.INFO}={}){(0,a.p)(f.xV,["API/log/called"],void 0,n.K7.metrics,w),function(e,t,r={},i=y.p_.INFO){(0,a.p)(f.xV,["API/logging/".concat(i.toLowerCase(),"/called")],void 0,n.K7.metrics,e),(0,a.p)(y.ET,[(0,v.t)(),t,r,i],void 0,n.K7.logging,e)}(w,e,t,r)},m.wrapLogger=(e,t,{customAttributes:r={},level:i=y.p_.INFO}={})=>{(0,a.p)(f.xV,["API/wrapLogger/called"],void 0,n.K7.metrics,w),_(w,e,t,{customAttributes:r,level:i})},h.forEach((e=>{m[e]=j(R,e,!0,"api")})),m.addPageAction=j(R,"addPageAction",!0,n.K7.genericEvents),m.recordCustomEvent=j(R,"recordCustomEvent",!0,n.K7.genericEvents),m.setPageViewName=function(t,r){if("string"==typeof t)return"/"!==t.charAt(0)&&(t="/"+t),(0,o.f)(e).customTransaction=(r||"http://custom.transaction")+t,j(R,"setPageViewName",!0)()},m.setCustomAttribute=function(e,t,r=!1){if("string"==typeof e){if(["string","number","boolean"].includes(typeof t)||null===t)return N(e,t,"setCustomAttribute",r);(0,d.R)(40,typeof t)}else(0,d.R)(39,typeof e)},m.setUserId=function(e){if("string"==typeof e||null===e)return N("enduser.id",e,"setUserId",!0);(0,d.R)(41,typeof e)},m.setApplicationVersion=function(e){if("string"==typeof e||null===e)return N("application.version",e,"setApplicationVersion",!1);(0,d.R)(42,typeof e)},m.start=()=>{try{(0,a.p)(f.xV,["API/start/called"],void 0,n.K7.metrics,w),w.emit("manual-start-all")}catch(e){(0,d.R)(23,e)}},m[p.G4.RECORD]=function(){(0,a.p)(f.xV,["API/recordReplay/called"],void 0,n.K7.metrics,w),(0,a.p)(p.G4.RECORD,[],void 0,n.K7.sessionReplay,w)},m[p.G4.PAUSE]=function(){(0,a.p)(f.xV,["API/pauseReplay/called"],void 0,n.K7.metrics,w),(0,a.p)(p.G4.PAUSE,[],void 0,n.K7.sessionReplay,w)},m.interaction=function(e){return(new k).get("object"==typeof e?e:{})};const T=k.prototype={createTracer:function(e,t){var r={},i=this,o="function"==typeof t;return(0,a.p)(f.xV,["API/createTracer/called"],void 0,n.K7.metrics,w),g||(0,a.p)(E+"tracer",[(0,v.t)(),e,r],i,n.K7.spa,w),function(){if(A.emit((o?"":"no-")+"fn-start",[(0,v.t)(),i,o],r),o)try{return t.apply(this,arguments)}catch(e){const t="string"==typeof e?new Error(e):e;throw A.emit("fn-err",[arguments,this,t],r),t}finally{A.emit("fn-end",[(0,v.t)()],r)}}}};function j(e,t,r,i){return function(){return(0,a.p)(f.xV,["API/"+t+"/called"],void 0,n.K7.metrics,w),i&&(0,a.p)(e+t,[r?(0,v.t)():performance.now(),...arguments],r?null:this,i,w),r?void 0:this}}function I(){r.e(296).then(r.bind(r,778)).then((({setAPI:t})=>{t(e),(0,c.Ze)(e,"api")})).catch((e=>{(0,d.R)(27,e),w.abort()}))}return["actionText","setName","setAttribute","save","ignore","onEnd","getContext","end","get"].forEach((e=>{T[e]=j(E,e,void 0,g?n.K7.softNav:n.K7.spa)})),m.setCurrentRouteName=g?j(E,"routeName",void 0,n.K7.softNav):j(R,"routeName",!0,n.K7.spa),m.noticeError=function(t,r){"string"==typeof t&&(t=new Error(t)),(0,a.p)(f.xV,["API/noticeError/called"],void 0,n.K7.metrics,w),(0,a.p)("err",[t,(0,v.t)(),!1,r,!!x[e]],void 0,n.K7.jserrors,w)},l.RI?(0,u.GG)((()=>I()),!0):I(),m}var k=r(217),T=r(122);const j={accountID:void 0,trustKey:void 0,agentID:void 0,licenseKey:void 0,applicationID:void 0,xpid:void 0},I={};var S=r(284);const O=e=>{const t=e.startsWith("http");e+="/",r.p=t?e:"https://"+e};let P=!1;function K(e,t={},r,n){let{init:a,info:c,loader_config:u,runtime:d={},exposed:f=!0}=t;d.loaderType=r;const p=(0,g.pV)();c||(a=p.init,c=p.info,u=p.loader_config),(0,k.xN)(e.agentIdentifier,a||{}),function(e,t){if(!e)throw new Error("All loader-config objects require an agent identifier!");I[e]=(0,T.a)(t,j);const r=(0,g.nY)(e);r&&(r.loader_config=I[e])}(e.agentIdentifier,u||{}),c.jsAttributes??={},l.bv&&(c.jsAttributes.isWorker=!0),(0,i.x1)(e.agentIdentifier,c);const m=(0,k.D0)(e.agentIdentifier),h=[c.beacon,c.errorBeacon];P||(m.proxy.assets&&(O(m.proxy.assets),h.push(m.proxy.assets)),m.proxy.beacon&&h.push(m.proxy.beacon),E(),(0,g.US)("activatedFeatures",S.B),e.runSoftNavOverSpa&&=!0===m.soft_navigations.enabled&&m.feature_flags.includes("soft_nav")),d.denyList=[...m.ajax.deny_list||[],...m.ajax.block_internal?h:[]],d.ptid=e.agentIdentifier,(0,o.V)(e.agentIdentifier,d),e.ee=s.ee.get(e.agentIdentifier),void 0===e.api&&(e.api=N(e.agentIdentifier,n,e.runSoftNavOverSpa)),void 0===e.exposed&&(e.exposed=f),P=!0}},374:(e,t,r)=>{r.nc=(()=>{try{return document?.currentScript?.nonce}catch(e){}return""})()},860:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{$J:()=>u,K7:()=>s,P3:()=>c,XX:()=>i,qY:()=>n,v4:()=>a});const n="events",i="jserrors",o="browser/blobs",a="rum",s={ajax:"ajax",genericEvents:"generic_events",jserrors:i,logging:"logging",metrics:"metrics",pageAction:"page_action",pageViewEvent:"page_view_event",pageViewTiming:"page_view_timing",sessionReplay:"session_replay",sessionTrace:"session_trace",softNav:"soft_navigations",spa:"spa"},c={[s.pageViewEvent]:1,[s.pageViewTiming]:2,[s.metrics]:3,[s.jserrors]:4,[s.spa]:5,[s.ajax]:6,[s.sessionTrace]:7,[s.softNav]:8,[s.sessionReplay]:9,[s.logging]:10,[s.genericEvents]:11},u={[s.pageViewEvent]:a,[s.pageViewTiming]:n,[s.ajax]:n,[s.spa]:n,[s.softNav]:n,[s.metrics]:i,[s.jserrors]:i,[s.sessionTrace]:o,[s.sessionReplay]:o,[s.logging]:"browser/logs",[s.genericEvents]:"ins"}}},n={};function i(e){var t=n[e];if(void 0!==t)return t.exports;var o=n[e]={exports:{}};return r[e](o,o.exports,i),o.exports}i.m=r,i.d=(e,t)=>{for(var r in t)i.o(t,r)&&!i.o(e,r)&&Object.defineProperty(e,r,{enumerable:!0,get:t[r]})},i.f={},i.e=e=>Promise.all(Object.keys(i.f).reduce(((t,r)=>(i.f[r](e,t),t)),[])),i.u=e=>"nr-rum-1.281.0.min.js",i.o=(e,t)=>Object.prototype.hasOwnProperty.call(e,t),e={},t="NRBA-1.281.0.PROD:",i.l=(r,n,o,a)=>{if(e[r])e[r].push(n);else{var s,c;if(void 0!==o)for(var u=document.getElementsByTagName("script"),l=0;l<u.length;l++){var d=u[l];if(d.getAttribute("src")==r||d.getAttribute("data-webpack")==t+o){s=d;break}}if(!s){c=!0;var f={296:"sha512-zqOtfbjYsGTkQScey1O8Hh9fA1+m2RFxLpfv7BWqqTivgQ6iM13v6QJ4d5xykyDwx1GoMFmngC4SKpFn6VciYg=="};(s=document.createElement("script")).charset="utf-8",s.timeout=120,i.nc&&s.setAttribute("nonce",i.nc),s.setAttribute("data-webpack",t+o),s.src=r,0!==s.src.indexOf(window.location.origin+"/")&&(s.crossOrigin="anonymous"),f[a]&&(s.integrity=f[a])}e[r]=[n];var g=(t,n)=>{s.onerror=s.onload=null,clearTimeout(p);var i=e[r];if(delete e[r],s.parentNode&&s.parentNode.removeChild(s),i&&i.forEach((e=>e(n))),t)return t(n)},p=setTimeout(g.bind(null,void 0,{type:"timeout",target:s}),12e4);s.onerror=g.bind(null,s.onerror),s.onload=g.bind(null,s.onload),c&&document.head.appendChild(s)}},i.r=e=>{"undefined"!=typeof Symbol&&Symbol.toStringTag&&Object.defineProperty(e,Symbol.toStringTag,{value:"Module"}),Object.defineProperty(e,"__esModule",{value:!0})},i.p="https://js-agent.newrelic.com/",(()=>{var e={374:0,840:0};i.f.j=(t,r)=>{var n=i.o(e,t)?e[t]:void 0;if(0!==n)if(n)r.push(n[2]);else{var o=new Promise(((r,i)=>n=e[t]=[r,i]));r.push(n[2]=o);var a=i.p+i.u(t),s=new Error;i.l(a,(r=>{if(i.o(e,t)&&(0!==(n=e[t])&&(e[t]=void 0),n)){var o=r&&("load"===r.type?"missing":r.type),a=r&&r.target&&r.target.src;s.message="Loading chunk "+t+" failed.\n("+o+": "+a+")",s.name="ChunkLoadError",s.type=o,s.request=a,n[1](s)}}),"chunk-"+t,t)}};var t=(t,r)=>{var n,o,[a,s,c]=r,u=0;if(a.some((t=>0!==e[t]))){for(n in s)i.o(s,n)&&(i.m[n]=s[n]);if(c)c(i)}for(t&&t(r);u<a.length;u++)o=a[u],i.o(e,o)&&e[o]&&e[o][0](),e[o]=0},r=self["webpackChunk:NRBA-1.281.0.PROD"]=self["webpackChunk:NRBA-1.281.0.PROD"]||[];r.forEach(t.bind(null,0)),r.push=t.bind(null,r.push.bind(r))})(),(()=>{"use strict";i(374);var e=i(944),t=i(344),r=i(566);class n{agentIdentifier;constructor(){this.agentIdentifier=(0,r.LA)(16)}#e(t,...r){if("function"==typeof this.api?.[t])return this.api[t](...r);(0,e.R)(35,t)}addPageAction(e,t){return this.#e("addPageAction",e,t)}recordCustomEvent(e,t){return this.#e("recordCustomEvent",e,t)}setPageViewName(e,t){return this.#e("setPageViewName",e,t)}setCustomAttribute(e,t,r){return this.#e("setCustomAttribute",e,t,r)}noticeError(e,t){return this.#e("noticeError",e,t)}setUserId(e){return this.#e("setUserId",e)}setApplicationVersion(e){return this.#e("setApplicationVersion",e)}setErrorHandler(e){return this.#e("setErrorHandler",e)}addRelease(e,t){return this.#e("addRelease",e,t)}log(e,t){return this.#e("log",e,t)}}class o extends n{#e(t,...r){if("function"==typeof this.api?.[t])return this.api[t](...r);(0,e.R)(35,t)}start(){return this.#e("start")}finished(e){return this.#e("finished",e)}recordReplay(){return this.#e(t.G4.RECORD)}pauseReplay(){return this.#e(t.G4.PAUSE)}addToTrace(e){return this.#e("addToTrace",e)}setCurrentRouteName(e){return this.#e("setCurrentRouteName",e)}interaction(){return this.#e("interaction")}wrapLogger(e,t,r){return this.#e("wrapLogger",e,t,r)}}var a=i(860),s=i(217);const c=Object.values(a.K7);function u(e){const t={};return c.forEach((r=>{t[r]=function(e,t){return!0===(0,s.gD)(t,"".concat(e,".enabled"))}(r,e)})),t}var l=i(603);var d=i(687),f=i(234),g=i(289),p=i(154),m=i(384);const h=e=>p.RI&&!0===(0,s.gD)(e,"privacy.cookies_enabled");function v(e){return!!(0,m.dV)().o.MO&&h(e)&&!0===(0,s.gD)(e,"session_trace.enabled")}var b=i(389);class y extends f.W{constructor(e,t,r=!0){super(e.agentIdentifier,t),this.auto=r,this.abortHandler=void 0,this.featAggregate=void 0,this.onAggregateImported=void 0,!1===e.init[this.featureName].autoStart&&(this.auto=!1),this.auto?(0,d.Ak)(e.agentIdentifier,t):this.ee.on("manual-start-all",(0,b.J)((()=>{(0,d.Ak)(e.agentIdentifier,this.featureName),this.auto=!0,this.importAggregator(e)})))}importAggregator(t,r={}){if(this.featAggregate||!this.auto)return;let n;this.onAggregateImported=new Promise((e=>{n=e}));const o=async()=>{let o;try{if(h(this.agentIdentifier)){const{setupAgentSession:e}=await i.e(296).then(i.bind(i,861));o=e(t)}}catch(t){(0,e.R)(20,t),this.ee.emit("internal-error",[t]),this.featureName===a.K7.sessionReplay&&this.abortHandler?.()}try{if(!this.#t(this.featureName,o))return(0,d.Ze)(this.agentIdentifier,this.featureName),void n(!1);const{lazyFeatureLoader:e}=await i.e(296).then(i.bind(i,103)),{Aggregate:a}=await e(this.featureName,"aggregate");this.featAggregate=new a(t,r),t.runtime.harvester.initializedAggregates.push(this.featAggregate),n(!0)}catch(t){(0,e.R)(34,t),this.abortHandler?.(),(0,d.Ze)(this.agentIdentifier,this.featureName,!0),n(!1),this.ee&&this.ee.abort()}};p.RI?(0,g.GG)((()=>o()),!0):o()}#t(e,t){switch(e){case a.K7.sessionReplay:return v(this.agentIdentifier)&&!!t;case a.K7.sessionTrace:return!!t;default:return!0}}}var w=i(630);class A extends y{static featureName=w.T;constructor(e,t=!0){super(e,w.T,t),this.importAggregator(e)}}var R=i(908),_=i(843),E=i(878),x=i(782),N=i(863);class k extends y{static featureName=x.T;constructor(e,t=!0){super(e,x.T,t),p.RI&&((0,_.u)((()=>(0,R.p)("docHidden",[(0,N.t)()],void 0,x.T,this.ee)),!0),(0,E.sp)("pagehide",(()=>(0,R.p)("winPagehide",[(0,N.t)()],void 0,x.T,this.ee))),this.importAggregator(e))}}var T=i(969);class j extends y{static featureName=T.TZ;constructor(e,t=!0){super(e,T.TZ,t),this.importAggregator(e)}}new class extends o{constructor(t){super(),p.gm?(this.features={},(0,m.bQ)(this.agentIdentifier,this),this.desiredFeatures=new Set(t.features||[]),this.desiredFeatures.add(A),this.runSoftNavOverSpa=[...this.desiredFeatures].some((e=>e.featureName===a.K7.softNav)),(0,l.j)(this,t,t.loaderType||"agent"),this.run()):(0,e.R)(21)}get config(){return{info:this.info,init:this.init,loader_config:this.loader_config,runtime:this.runtime}}run(){try{const t=u(this.agentIdentifier),r=[...this.desiredFeatures];r.sort(((e,t)=>a.P3[e.featureName]-a.P3[t.featureName])),r.forEach((r=>{if(!t[r.featureName]&&r.featureName!==a.K7.pageViewEvent)return;if(this.runSoftNavOverSpa&&r.featureName===a.K7.spa)return;if(!this.runSoftNavOverSpa&&r.featureName===a.K7.softNav)return;const n=function(e){switch(e){case a.K7.ajax:return[a.K7.jserrors];case a.K7.sessionTrace:return[a.K7.ajax,a.K7.pageViewEvent];case a.K7.sessionReplay:return[a.K7.sessionTrace];case a.K7.pageViewTiming:return[a.K7.pageViewEvent];default:return[]}}(r.featureName).filter((e=>!(e in this.features)));n.length>0&&(0,e.R)(36,{targetFeature:r.featureName,missingDependencies:n}),this.features[r.featureName]=new r(this)}))}catch(t){(0,e.R)(22,t);for(const e in this.features)this.features[e].abortHandler?.();const r=(0,m.Zm)();delete r.initializedAgents[this.agentIdentifier]?.api,delete r.initializedAgents[this.agentIdentifier]?.features,delete this.sharedAggregator;return r.ee.get(this.agentIdentifier).abort(),!1}}}({features:[A,k,j],loaderType:"lite"})})()})();</script>  <link rel="shortcut icon" href="https://science.mit.edu/wp-content/themes/mitsos-wordpress/static/favicons/favicon-64x64.ico"> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" href="https://science.mit.edu/wp-content/themes/mitsos-wordpress/static/favicons/favicon-16x16.png" sizes="16x16"> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" href="https://science.mit.edu/wp-content/themes/mitsos-wordpress/static/favicons/favicon-32x32.png" sizes="32x32"> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" href="https://science.mit.edu/wp-content/themes/mitsos-wordpress/static/favicons/favicon-96x96.png" sizes="96x96"> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" href="https://science.mit.edu/wp-content/themes/mitsos-wordpress/static/favicons/favicon-192x192.png" sizes="192x192"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="https://science.mit.edu/wp-content/themes/mitsos-wordpress/static/favicons/apple-touch-icon-180x180.png" sizes="180x180"> <link rel="mask-icon" href="https://science.mit.edu/wp-content/themes/mitsos-wordpress/static/favicons/mask-icon.svg" color="#000000">  <meta property="og:site_name" content="MIT School of Science"> <meta property="og:site" content="https://science.mit.edu"> <meta property="og:locale" content="en_us"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <meta property="og:title" content="MIT School of Science"> <meta property="og:url" content="https://science.mit.edu"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://science.mit.edu/wp-content/themes/mitsos-wordpress/static/img/SoS_sub-brand_lockup_two-line_rgb_black.png"> <meta property="og:description" content="We turn curiosity into discovery, changing what we know about the world.">  <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary_large_image"> <meta name="twitter:site" content="@ScienceMIT"> <meta name="twitter:title" content="MIT School of Science"> <meta name="twitter:description" content="We turn curiosity into discovery, changing what we know about the world."> <meta name="twitter:image" content="https://science.mit.edu/wp-content/themes/mitsos-wordpress/static/img/SoS_sub-brand_lockup_two-line_rgb_black.png"> <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://cdnjs.cloudflare.com/ajax/libs/Swiper/4.1.0/css/swiper.css"> <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://cdnjs.cloudflare.com/ajax/libs/select2/4.0.6-rc.0/css/select2.min.css"> <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="https://science.mit.edu/wp-content/themes/mitsos-wordpress/static/dist/style.css?v=1.7.6" media="screen, print" />  <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://cdn.jsdelivr.net/gh/fancyapps/fancybox@3.5.7/dist/jquery.fancybox.min.css" />  <script async src="https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtag/js?id=UA-42699806-1"></script> <script> window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; function gtag(){dataLayer.push(arguments);} gtag('js', new Date()); gtag('config', 'UA-42699806-1'); gtag('config', 'UA-1592615-30'); </script> <meta name='robots' content='max-image-preview:large' /> <style>img:is([sizes="auto" i], [sizes^="auto," i]) { contain-intrinsic-size: 3000px 1500px }</style> <link rel='dns-prefetch' href='//cdnjs.cloudflare.com' /> <link rel='dns-prefetch' href='//cdn.jsdelivr.net' /> <link rel='stylesheet' id='wp-block-library-css' href='https://science.mit.edu/wp-includes/css/dist/block-library/style.min.css?ver=6.7.1' type='text/css' media='all' /> <style id='classic-theme-styles-inline-css' type='text/css'> /*! This file is auto-generated */ .wp-block-button__link{color:#fff;background-color:#32373c;border-radius:9999px;box-shadow:none;text-decoration:none;padding:calc(.667em + 2px) calc(1.333em + 2px);font-size:1.125em}.wp-block-file__button{background:#32373c;color:#fff;text-decoration:none} </style> <style id='global-styles-inline-css' type='text/css'> :root{--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--square: 1;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--4-3: 4/3;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--3-4: 3/4;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--3-2: 3/2;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--2-3: 2/3;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--16-9: 16/9;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--9-16: 9/16;--wp--preset--color--black: #000000;--wp--preset--color--cyan-bluish-gray: #abb8c3;--wp--preset--color--white: #ffffff;--wp--preset--color--pale-pink: #f78da7;--wp--preset--color--vivid-red: #cf2e2e;--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-orange: #ff6900;--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-amber: #fcb900;--wp--preset--color--light-green-cyan: #7bdcb5;--wp--preset--color--vivid-green-cyan: #00d084;--wp--preset--color--pale-cyan-blue: #8ed1fc;--wp--preset--color--vivid-cyan-blue: #0693e3;--wp--preset--color--vivid-purple: #9b51e0;--wp--preset--gradient--vivid-cyan-blue-to-vivid-purple: linear-gradient(135deg,rgba(6,147,227,1) 0%,rgb(155,81,224) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--light-green-cyan-to-vivid-green-cyan: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(122,220,180) 0%,rgb(0,208,130) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-vivid-amber-to-luminous-vivid-orange: linear-gradient(135deg,rgba(252,185,0,1) 0%,rgba(255,105,0,1) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-vivid-orange-to-vivid-red: linear-gradient(135deg,rgba(255,105,0,1) 0%,rgb(207,46,46) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--very-light-gray-to-cyan-bluish-gray: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(238,238,238) 0%,rgb(169,184,195) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--cool-to-warm-spectrum: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(74,234,220) 0%,rgb(151,120,209) 20%,rgb(207,42,186) 40%,rgb(238,44,130) 60%,rgb(251,105,98) 80%,rgb(254,248,76) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--blush-light-purple: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(255,206,236) 0%,rgb(152,150,240) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--blush-bordeaux: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(254,205,165) 0%,rgb(254,45,45) 50%,rgb(107,0,62) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-dusk: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(255,203,112) 0%,rgb(199,81,192) 50%,rgb(65,88,208) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--pale-ocean: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(255,245,203) 0%,rgb(182,227,212) 50%,rgb(51,167,181) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--electric-grass: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(202,248,128) 0%,rgb(113,206,126) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--midnight: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(2,3,129) 0%,rgb(40,116,252) 100%);--wp--preset--font-size--small: 13px;--wp--preset--font-size--medium: 20px;--wp--preset--font-size--large: 36px;--wp--preset--font-size--x-large: 42px;--wp--preset--spacing--20: 0.44rem;--wp--preset--spacing--30: 0.67rem;--wp--preset--spacing--40: 1rem;--wp--preset--spacing--50: 1.5rem;--wp--preset--spacing--60: 2.25rem;--wp--preset--spacing--70: 3.38rem;--wp--preset--spacing--80: 5.06rem;--wp--preset--shadow--natural: 6px 6px 9px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2);--wp--preset--shadow--deep: 12px 12px 50px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.4);--wp--preset--shadow--sharp: 6px 6px 0px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2);--wp--preset--shadow--outlined: 6px 6px 0px -3px rgba(255, 255, 255, 1), 6px 6px rgba(0, 0, 0, 1);--wp--preset--shadow--crisp: 6px 6px 0px rgba(0, 0, 0, 1);}:where(.is-layout-flex){gap: 0.5em;}:where(.is-layout-grid){gap: 0.5em;}body .is-layout-flex{display: flex;}.is-layout-flex{flex-wrap: wrap;align-items: center;}.is-layout-flex > :is(*, div){margin: 0;}body .is-layout-grid{display: grid;}.is-layout-grid > :is(*, div){margin: 0;}:where(.wp-block-columns.is-layout-flex){gap: 2em;}:where(.wp-block-columns.is-layout-grid){gap: 2em;}:where(.wp-block-post-template.is-layout-flex){gap: 1.25em;}:where(.wp-block-post-template.is-layout-grid){gap: 1.25em;}.has-black-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--black) !important;}.has-cyan-bluish-gray-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--cyan-bluish-gray) !important;}.has-white-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--white) !important;}.has-pale-pink-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--pale-pink) !important;}.has-vivid-red-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-red) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-orange-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-orange) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-amber-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-amber) !important;}.has-light-green-cyan-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--light-green-cyan) !important;}.has-vivid-green-cyan-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-green-cyan) !important;}.has-pale-cyan-blue-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--pale-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-cyan-blue-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-purple-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-purple) !important;}.has-black-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--black) !important;}.has-cyan-bluish-gray-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--cyan-bluish-gray) !important;}.has-white-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--white) !important;}.has-pale-pink-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--pale-pink) !important;}.has-vivid-red-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-red) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-orange-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-orange) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-amber-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-amber) !important;}.has-light-green-cyan-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--light-green-cyan) !important;}.has-vivid-green-cyan-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-green-cyan) !important;}.has-pale-cyan-blue-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--pale-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-cyan-blue-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-purple-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-purple) !important;}.has-black-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--black) !important;}.has-cyan-bluish-gray-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--cyan-bluish-gray) !important;}.has-white-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--white) !important;}.has-pale-pink-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--pale-pink) !important;}.has-vivid-red-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-red) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-orange-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-orange) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-amber-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-amber) !important;}.has-light-green-cyan-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--light-green-cyan) !important;}.has-vivid-green-cyan-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-green-cyan) !important;}.has-pale-cyan-blue-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--pale-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-cyan-blue-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-purple-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-purple) !important;}.has-vivid-cyan-blue-to-vivid-purple-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--vivid-cyan-blue-to-vivid-purple) !important;}.has-light-green-cyan-to-vivid-green-cyan-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--light-green-cyan-to-vivid-green-cyan) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-amber-to-luminous-vivid-orange-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-vivid-amber-to-luminous-vivid-orange) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-orange-to-vivid-red-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-vivid-orange-to-vivid-red) !important;}.has-very-light-gray-to-cyan-bluish-gray-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--very-light-gray-to-cyan-bluish-gray) !important;}.has-cool-to-warm-spectrum-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--cool-to-warm-spectrum) !important;}.has-blush-light-purple-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--blush-light-purple) !important;}.has-blush-bordeaux-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--blush-bordeaux) !important;}.has-luminous-dusk-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-dusk) !important;}.has-pale-ocean-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--pale-ocean) !important;}.has-electric-grass-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--electric-grass) !important;}.has-midnight-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--midnight) !important;}.has-small-font-size{font-size: var(--wp--preset--font-size--small) !important;}.has-medium-font-size{font-size: var(--wp--preset--font-size--medium) !important;}.has-large-font-size{font-size: var(--wp--preset--font-size--large) !important;}.has-x-large-font-size{font-size: var(--wp--preset--font-size--x-large) !important;} :where(.wp-block-post-template.is-layout-flex){gap: 1.25em;}:where(.wp-block-post-template.is-layout-grid){gap: 1.25em;} :where(.wp-block-columns.is-layout-flex){gap: 2em;}:where(.wp-block-columns.is-layout-grid){gap: 2em;} :root :where(.wp-block-pullquote){font-size: 1.5em;line-height: 1.6;} </style> <script type="text/javascript" src="https://science.mit.edu/wp-includes/js/jquery/jquery.min.js?ver=3.7.1" id="jquery-core-js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" src="https://science.mit.edu/wp-includes/js/jquery/jquery-migrate.min.js?ver=3.4.1" id="jquery-migrate-js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" src="https://cdnjs.cloudflare.com/ajax/libs/select2/4.0.6-rc.0/js/select2.min.js?ver=4.0.0" id="select2-js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" src="https://cdn.jsdelivr.net/gh/fancyapps/fancybox@3.5.7/dist/jquery.fancybox.min.js?ver=4.0.1" id="jquery-modal-js"></script> <link rel="https://api.w.org/" href="https://science.mit.edu/wp-json/" /><link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" title="RSD" href="https://science.mit.edu/xmlrpc.php?rsd" /> <meta name="generator" content="WordPress 6.7.1" /> <style id="wpforms-css-vars-root"> :root { --wpforms-field-border-radius: 3px; --wpforms-field-border-style: solid; --wpforms-field-border-size: 1px; --wpforms-field-background-color: #ffffff; --wpforms-field-border-color: rgba( 0, 0, 0, 0.25 ); --wpforms-field-border-color-spare: rgba( 0, 0, 0, 0.25 ); --wpforms-field-text-color: rgba( 0, 0, 0, 0.7 ); --wpforms-field-menu-color: #ffffff; --wpforms-label-color: rgba( 0, 0, 0, 0.85 ); --wpforms-label-sublabel-color: rgba( 0, 0, 0, 0.55 ); --wpforms-label-error-color: #d63637; --wpforms-button-border-radius: 3px; --wpforms-button-border-style: none; --wpforms-button-border-size: 1px; --wpforms-button-background-color: #066aab; --wpforms-button-border-color: #066aab; --wpforms-button-text-color: #ffffff; --wpforms-page-break-color: #066aab; --wpforms-background-image: none; --wpforms-background-position: center center; --wpforms-background-repeat: no-repeat; --wpforms-background-size: cover; --wpforms-background-width: 100px; --wpforms-background-height: 100px; --wpforms-background-color: rgba( 0, 0, 0, 0 ); --wpforms-background-url: none; --wpforms-container-padding: 0px; --wpforms-container-border-style: none; --wpforms-container-border-width: 1px; --wpforms-container-border-color: #000000; --wpforms-container-border-radius: 3px; --wpforms-field-size-input-height: 43px; --wpforms-field-size-input-spacing: 15px; --wpforms-field-size-font-size: 16px; --wpforms-field-size-line-height: 19px; --wpforms-field-size-padding-h: 14px; --wpforms-field-size-checkbox-size: 16px; --wpforms-field-size-sublabel-spacing: 5px; --wpforms-field-size-icon-size: 1; --wpforms-label-size-font-size: 16px; --wpforms-label-size-line-height: 19px; --wpforms-label-size-sublabel-font-size: 14px; --wpforms-label-size-sublabel-line-height: 17px; --wpforms-button-size-font-size: 17px; --wpforms-button-size-height: 41px; --wpforms-button-size-padding-h: 15px; --wpforms-button-size-margin-top: 10px; --wpforms-container-shadow-size-box-shadow: none; } </style> </head> <body class="home blog " data-template="base.twig"> <div class="site-wrapper">  <div id="header" role="banner" class="site-header theme--aging-brain" aria-label="site"> <a href="#content" class="skip-to-content">Skip to content</a>  <div role="navigation" class="site-nav js-activate-tooltips" aria-label="site"> <ul class="site-nav__list"> <li class="site-nav__list-item site-nav__list-item--home "> <a href="/" class="site__logo-link" rel="home" aria-label="MIT School of Science Home" title="Home" title="MIT School of Science Home"> <span class="visually-hidden">Home</span> <svg version="1.1" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" x="0px" y="0px" viewBox="0 0 3233.57 732.17" style="enable-background:new 0 0 3233.57 732.17;" xml:space="preserve"> <g id="Background"> </g> <g id="Artwork"> <g> <path d="M720,725.46h160v-480H720V725.46z M960,165.46h400v-160H960V165.46z M720,5.46h160v160H720V5.46z M480,725.46h160v-720 H480V725.46z M240,565.46h160v-560H240V565.46z M0,725.46h160v-720H0V725.46z M960,725.46h160v-480H960V725.46z"/> <g> <path d="M1506.59,632.73h59.58c4.2,36.08,24.76,50.35,67.55,50.35c31.05,0,58.32-10.91,58.32-38.6 c0-29.37-28.53-35.25-74.27-45.73c-53.71-12.17-102.8-26.43-102.8-88.95c0-59.16,48.25-89.79,114.97-89.79 c67.55,0,111.19,33.15,115.81,93.57h-58.32c-3.36-30.21-26.85-45.32-57.9-45.32c-32.73,0-54.13,13.85-54.13,35.25 c0,24.34,20.98,31.47,65.46,41.12c61.68,13.43,112.03,28.11,112.03,92.73c0,60.84-49.09,94.83-116.64,94.83 C1554.84,732.17,1508.69,696.09,1506.59,632.73z"/> <path d="M1774.28,618.04c0-64.2,41.96-113.71,107.41-113.71c55.81,0,90.21,32.31,97.76,78.88h-55.8 c-3.78-18.88-18.46-33.15-39.44-33.15c-34.41,0-52.03,26.43-52.03,67.97c0,40.7,16.36,67.97,51.19,67.97 c23.08,0,39.44-12.17,43.22-36.5h54.97c-3.78,45.73-39.44,82.24-96.92,82.24C1816.66,731.75,1774.28,682.24,1774.28,618.04z"/> <path d="M2006.31,425.46h57.06v51.19h-57.06V425.46z M2006.31,510.21h57.06v215.25h-57.06V510.21z"/> <path d="M2089.8,617.62c0-63.78,43.22-113.29,106.16-113.29c69.23,0,106.16,52.87,106.16,129.65h-156.09 c4.2,33.15,22.66,53.71,54.97,53.71c22.24,0,35.25-10.07,41.54-26.43h56.22c-7.97,38.18-41.96,70.49-97.34,70.49 C2130.08,731.75,2089.8,681.82,2089.8,617.62z M2146.87,594.55h95.67c-1.68-27.27-19.72-46.15-45.73-46.15 C2166.59,548.39,2151.9,566.44,2146.87,594.55z"/> <path d="M2384.35,539.58h1.26c14.69-23.08,34.41-35.25,63.78-35.25c44.48,0,74.27,33.57,74.27,80.56v140.56h-57.06V593.29 c0-23.08-13.43-39.44-37.34-39.44c-25.17,0-43.64,20.14-43.64,49.51v122.1h-57.06V510.21h55.8V539.58z"/> <path d="M2548.4,618.04c0-64.2,41.96-113.71,107.41-113.71c55.81,0,90.21,32.31,97.76,78.88h-55.8 c-3.78-18.88-18.46-33.15-39.44-33.15c-34.41,0-52.03,26.43-52.03,67.97c0,40.7,16.36,67.97,51.19,67.97 c23.08,0,39.44-12.17,43.22-36.5h54.97c-3.78,45.73-39.44,82.24-96.92,82.24C2590.78,731.75,2548.4,682.24,2548.4,618.04z"/> <path d="M2769.94,617.62c0-63.78,43.22-113.29,106.16-113.29c69.23,0,106.16,52.87,106.16,129.65h-156.09 c4.2,33.15,22.66,53.71,54.97,53.71c22.24,0,35.25-10.07,41.54-26.43h56.22c-7.97,38.18-41.96,70.49-97.34,70.49 C2810.22,731.75,2769.94,681.82,2769.94,617.62z M2827,594.55h95.67c-1.68-27.27-19.72-46.15-45.73-46.15 C2846.72,548.39,2832.04,566.44,2827,594.55z"/> </g> <g> <path d="M1506.59,212.73h59.58c4.2,36.08,24.76,50.35,67.55,50.35c31.05,0,58.32-10.91,58.32-38.6 c0-29.37-28.53-35.25-74.27-45.73c-53.71-12.17-102.8-26.43-102.8-88.95c0-59.16,48.25-89.79,114.97-89.79 c67.55,0,111.19,33.15,115.81,93.57h-58.32c-3.36-30.21-26.85-45.32-57.9-45.32c-32.73,0-54.13,13.85-54.13,35.25 c0,24.34,20.98,31.47,65.46,41.12c61.68,13.43,112.03,28.11,112.03,92.73c0,60.84-49.09,94.83-116.64,94.83 C1554.84,312.17,1508.69,276.09,1506.59,212.73z"/> <path d="M1774.28,198.04c0-64.2,41.96-113.71,107.41-113.71c55.81,0,90.21,32.31,97.76,78.88h-55.8 c-3.78-18.88-18.46-33.15-39.44-33.15c-34.41,0-52.03,26.43-52.03,67.97c0,40.7,16.36,67.97,51.19,67.97 c23.08,0,39.44-12.17,43.22-36.5h54.97c-3.78,45.73-39.44,82.24-96.92,82.24C1816.66,311.75,1774.28,262.24,1774.28,198.04z"/> <path d="M2063.37,118.32h1.26c15.52-22.66,33.15-33.99,62.52-33.99c44.48,0,74.27,33.57,74.27,80.56v140.56h-57.06V173.29 c0-23.08-13.43-39.44-37.34-39.44c-25.17,0-43.64,20.14-43.64,49.51v122.1h-57.06v-300h57.06V118.32z"/> <path d="M2226.17,198.04c0-64.2,45.74-113.71,112.45-113.71c66.71,0,112.45,49.51,112.45,113.71 c0,64.2-45.73,113.71-112.45,113.71C2271.9,311.75,2226.17,262.24,2226.17,198.04z M2393.16,198.04 c0-41.96-19.72-70.49-54.55-70.49c-35.25,0-54.55,28.53-54.55,70.49c0,41.96,19.3,70.07,54.55,70.07 C2373.44,268.12,2393.16,240,2393.16,198.04z"/> <path d="M2467,198.04c0-64.2,45.74-113.71,112.45-113.71c66.71,0,112.45,49.51,112.45,113.71c0,64.2-45.73,113.71-112.45,113.71 C2512.74,311.75,2467,262.24,2467,198.04z M2634,198.04c0-41.96-19.72-70.49-54.55-70.49c-35.25,0-54.55,28.53-54.55,70.49 c0,41.96,19.3,70.07,54.55,70.07C2614.28,268.12,2634,240,2634,198.04z"/> <path d="M2719.17,5.46h57.06v300h-57.06V5.46z"/> <path d="M2873.99,198.04c0-64.2,45.74-113.71,112.45-113.71c66.71,0,112.45,49.51,112.45,113.71 c0,64.2-45.73,113.71-112.45,113.71C2919.72,311.75,2873.99,262.24,2873.99,198.04z M3040.99,198.04 c0-41.96-19.72-70.49-54.55-70.49c-35.25,0-54.55,28.53-54.55,70.49c0,41.96,19.3,70.07,54.55,70.07 C3021.26,268.12,3040.99,240,3040.99,198.04z"/> <path d="M3108.53,90.21h29.37v-19.3c0-52.45,40.7-70.91,95.67-65.04v44.06c-26.85-1.26-38.6,2.1-38.6,24.34v15.94h38.6v39.44 h-38.6v175.81h-57.06V129.65h-29.37V90.21z"/> </g> </g> </g> <g id="Guides"> </g> </svg> </a> </li> <li class="site-nav__list-item site-nav__hide-on-scroll"> <a href="https://science.mit.edu/research-and-academics/" class="site-nav__link" title="Research & Academics">Research & Academics</a> </li> <li class="site-nav__list-item site-nav__list-item--open-menu"> <div id="descriptionMenu" class="visually-hidden">Clicking the menu button will open up an expanded version of the navigation.</div> <a id="menu-button" href="#" class="site-nav__menu-open" role="button" title="Menu" aria-describedby="descriptionMenu"> <div class="site-nav__menu-open--container"> <svg width="28" height="19" viewBox="0 0 28 19" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"> <rect x="0.5" y="7.5" width="27" height="4"/> <rect x="0.5" y="14.5" width="27" height="4"/> <rect x="0.5" y="0.5" width="27" height="4"/> </svg> Menu </div> </a> </li> </ul> <div id="overlay-menu" class="overlay-menu" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="overlay-menu__line-layout"> <div class="overlay_menu__lines"> <span class="overlay-menu__line js--line-target"></span> <span class="overlay-menu__line js--line-target"></span> <span class="overlay-menu__line js--line-target"></span> <span class="overlay-menu__line js--line-target"></span> </div> </div> <div class="overlay-menu__header "> <a href="/" class="site__logo-link js--animate-logo" title="MIT School of Science" title="home" rel="home"> <span class="visually-hidden">MIT School of Science</span> <svg version="1.1" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" x="0px" y="0px" viewBox="0 0 3233.57 732.17" style="enable-background:new 0 0 3233.57 732.17;" xml:space="preserve"> <g id="Background"> </g> <g id="Artwork"> <g> <path d="M720,725.46h160v-480H720V725.46z M960,165.46h400v-160H960V165.46z M720,5.46h160v160H720V5.46z M480,725.46h160v-720 H480V725.46z M240,565.46h160v-560H240V565.46z M0,725.46h160v-720H0V725.46z M960,725.46h160v-480H960V725.46z"/> <g> <path d="M1506.59,632.73h59.58c4.2,36.08,24.76,50.35,67.55,50.35c31.05,0,58.32-10.91,58.32-38.6 c0-29.37-28.53-35.25-74.27-45.73c-53.71-12.17-102.8-26.43-102.8-88.95c0-59.16,48.25-89.79,114.97-89.79 c67.55,0,111.19,33.15,115.81,93.57h-58.32c-3.36-30.21-26.85-45.32-57.9-45.32c-32.73,0-54.13,13.85-54.13,35.25 c0,24.34,20.98,31.47,65.46,41.12c61.68,13.43,112.03,28.11,112.03,92.73c0,60.84-49.09,94.83-116.64,94.83 C1554.84,732.17,1508.69,696.09,1506.59,632.73z"/> <path d="M1774.28,618.04c0-64.2,41.96-113.71,107.41-113.71c55.81,0,90.21,32.31,97.76,78.88h-55.8 c-3.78-18.88-18.46-33.15-39.44-33.15c-34.41,0-52.03,26.43-52.03,67.97c0,40.7,16.36,67.97,51.19,67.97 c23.08,0,39.44-12.17,43.22-36.5h54.97c-3.78,45.73-39.44,82.24-96.92,82.24C1816.66,731.75,1774.28,682.24,1774.28,618.04z"/> <path d="M2006.31,425.46h57.06v51.19h-57.06V425.46z M2006.31,510.21h57.06v215.25h-57.06V510.21z"/> <path d="M2089.8,617.62c0-63.78,43.22-113.29,106.16-113.29c69.23,0,106.16,52.87,106.16,129.65h-156.09 c4.2,33.15,22.66,53.71,54.97,53.71c22.24,0,35.25-10.07,41.54-26.43h56.22c-7.97,38.18-41.96,70.49-97.34,70.49 C2130.08,731.75,2089.8,681.82,2089.8,617.62z M2146.87,594.55h95.67c-1.68-27.27-19.72-46.15-45.73-46.15 C2166.59,548.39,2151.9,566.44,2146.87,594.55z"/> <path d="M2384.35,539.58h1.26c14.69-23.08,34.41-35.25,63.78-35.25c44.48,0,74.27,33.57,74.27,80.56v140.56h-57.06V593.29 c0-23.08-13.43-39.44-37.34-39.44c-25.17,0-43.64,20.14-43.64,49.51v122.1h-57.06V510.21h55.8V539.58z"/> <path d="M2548.4,618.04c0-64.2,41.96-113.71,107.41-113.71c55.81,0,90.21,32.31,97.76,78.88h-55.8 c-3.78-18.88-18.46-33.15-39.44-33.15c-34.41,0-52.03,26.43-52.03,67.97c0,40.7,16.36,67.97,51.19,67.97 c23.08,0,39.44-12.17,43.22-36.5h54.97c-3.78,45.73-39.44,82.24-96.92,82.24C2590.78,731.75,2548.4,682.24,2548.4,618.04z"/> <path d="M2769.94,617.62c0-63.78,43.22-113.29,106.16-113.29c69.23,0,106.16,52.87,106.16,129.65h-156.09 c4.2,33.15,22.66,53.71,54.97,53.71c22.24,0,35.25-10.07,41.54-26.43h56.22c-7.97,38.18-41.96,70.49-97.34,70.49 C2810.22,731.75,2769.94,681.82,2769.94,617.62z M2827,594.55h95.67c-1.68-27.27-19.72-46.15-45.73-46.15 C2846.72,548.39,2832.04,566.44,2827,594.55z"/> </g> <g> <path d="M1506.59,212.73h59.58c4.2,36.08,24.76,50.35,67.55,50.35c31.05,0,58.32-10.91,58.32-38.6 c0-29.37-28.53-35.25-74.27-45.73c-53.71-12.17-102.8-26.43-102.8-88.95c0-59.16,48.25-89.79,114.97-89.79 c67.55,0,111.19,33.15,115.81,93.57h-58.32c-3.36-30.21-26.85-45.32-57.9-45.32c-32.73,0-54.13,13.85-54.13,35.25 c0,24.34,20.98,31.47,65.46,41.12c61.68,13.43,112.03,28.11,112.03,92.73c0,60.84-49.09,94.83-116.64,94.83 C1554.84,312.17,1508.69,276.09,1506.59,212.73z"/> <path d="M1774.28,198.04c0-64.2,41.96-113.71,107.41-113.71c55.81,0,90.21,32.31,97.76,78.88h-55.8 c-3.78-18.88-18.46-33.15-39.44-33.15c-34.41,0-52.03,26.43-52.03,67.97c0,40.7,16.36,67.97,51.19,67.97 c23.08,0,39.44-12.17,43.22-36.5h54.97c-3.78,45.73-39.44,82.24-96.92,82.24C1816.66,311.75,1774.28,262.24,1774.28,198.04z"/> <path d="M2063.37,118.32h1.26c15.52-22.66,33.15-33.99,62.52-33.99c44.48,0,74.27,33.57,74.27,80.56v140.56h-57.06V173.29 c0-23.08-13.43-39.44-37.34-39.44c-25.17,0-43.64,20.14-43.64,49.51v122.1h-57.06v-300h57.06V118.32z"/> <path d="M2226.17,198.04c0-64.2,45.74-113.71,112.45-113.71c66.71,0,112.45,49.51,112.45,113.71 c0,64.2-45.73,113.71-112.45,113.71C2271.9,311.75,2226.17,262.24,2226.17,198.04z M2393.16,198.04 c0-41.96-19.72-70.49-54.55-70.49c-35.25,0-54.55,28.53-54.55,70.49c0,41.96,19.3,70.07,54.55,70.07 C2373.44,268.12,2393.16,240,2393.16,198.04z"/> <path d="M2467,198.04c0-64.2,45.74-113.71,112.45-113.71c66.71,0,112.45,49.51,112.45,113.71c0,64.2-45.73,113.71-112.45,113.71 C2512.74,311.75,2467,262.24,2467,198.04z M2634,198.04c0-41.96-19.72-70.49-54.55-70.49c-35.25,0-54.55,28.53-54.55,70.49 c0,41.96,19.3,70.07,54.55,70.07C2614.28,268.12,2634,240,2634,198.04z"/> <path d="M2719.17,5.46h57.06v300h-57.06V5.46z"/> <path d="M2873.99,198.04c0-64.2,45.74-113.71,112.45-113.71c66.71,0,112.45,49.51,112.45,113.71 c0,64.2-45.73,113.71-112.45,113.71C2919.72,311.75,2873.99,262.24,2873.99,198.04z M3040.99,198.04 c0-41.96-19.72-70.49-54.55-70.49c-35.25,0-54.55,28.53-54.55,70.49c0,41.96,19.3,70.07,54.55,70.07 C3021.26,268.12,3040.99,240,3040.99,198.04z"/> <path d="M3108.53,90.21h29.37v-19.3c0-52.45,40.7-70.91,95.67-65.04v44.06c-26.85-1.26-38.6,2.1-38.6,24.34v15.94h38.6v39.44 h-38.6v175.81h-57.06V129.65h-29.37V90.21z"/> </g> </g> </g> <g id="Guides"> </g> </svg> </a> <div id="descriptionClose" class="visually-hidden">Clicking the close button will hide the expanded navigation.</div> <button id="close-menu" class="overlay-menu__button overlay-menu__button--close js--animate-close" type="button" aria-describedby="descriptionClose">Close</button> </div> <div class="overlay-menu__content"> <div class="overlay-menu__column"> <ul class="menu__list menu__list--main"> <li class="menu__list-item--main js--word-stagger"> <a class="menu__list-link--main" href="/research-and-academics/" target="_self">Research and Academics</a> </li> <li class="menu__list-item--main js--word-stagger"> <a class="menu__list-link--main" href="https://sites.mit.edu/scienceaace/" target="_blank">Academic Affairs & Community Engagement</a> </li> <li class="menu__list-item--main js--word-stagger"> <a class="menu__list-link--main" href="/news/" target="_self">News</a> </li> <li class="menu__list-item--main js--word-stagger"> <a class="menu__list-link--main" href="/resource/" target="_self">Resources</a> </li> <li class="menu__list-item--main js--word-stagger"> <a class="menu__list-link--main" href="/about/" target="_self">About</a> </li> </ul> <div class="overlay-menu__mobile-line"></div> </div> <div class="overlay-menu__column"> <div class="overlay-menu__section"> <dl class="menu__list menu__list--secondary js--animate-menu-target"> <dt class="menu__list-heading"> <h3 class="menu__list-heading"> <a class="menu__heading-link" href="/research-and-academics-type/academic-departments/" target="_self">Academic Departments</a> </h3> </dt> <dd class="menu__list-item--secondary"> <a href="https://biology.mit.edu" target="_blank">Biology</a> </dd> <dd class="menu__list-item--secondary"> <a href="https://bcs.mit.edu" target="_blank">Brain and Cognitive Sciences</a> </dd> <dd class="menu__list-item--secondary"> <a href="http://chemistry.mit.edu/" target="_blank">Chemistry</a> </dd> <dd class="menu__list-item--secondary"> <a href="https://eapsweb.mit.edu/" target="_blank">Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences</a> </dd> <dd class="menu__list-item--secondary"> <a href="http://math.mit.edu/" target="_blank">Mathematics</a> </dd> <dd class="menu__list-item--secondary"> <a href="https://physics.mit.edu/" target="_blank">Physics</a> </dd> </dl> </div> <div class="overlay-menu__section"> <dl class="menu__list menu__list--secondary js--animate-menu-target"> <dt class="menu__list-heading"> <h3 class="menu__list-heading"> <a class="menu__heading-link" title="Helpful Resources" href="/resources/everyone/" target="_self">Helpful Resources</a> </h3> </dt> <dd class="menu__list-item--secondary"> <a href="/about/awards/" target="_self">Awards and Honors</a> </dd> <dd class="menu__list-item--secondary"> <a href="https://science.mit.edu/about/awards/faculty-awards/science-teaching-prizes/" target="_blank">Teaching Prizes and Nominations</a> </dd> <dd class="menu__list-item--secondary"> <a href="/emergency/" target="_self">For Emergencies</a> </dd> <dd class="menu__list-item--secondary"> <a href="/resource/community-conduct/" target="_self">Community Conduct</a> </dd> </dl> </div> <div class="overlay-menu__mobile-line"></div> </div> <div class="overlay-menu__column"> <div class="overlay-menu__section"> <div class="menu__contact js--animate-menu-target"> <h3 class="menu__list-heading"> <a class="menu__heading-link" href="/contact" title="contact">Contact</a> </h3> <address class="menu__address"> <span class="menu__address-name">MIT School of Science</span> <br /> 77 Massachusetts Avenue, 6-131 <br /> Cambridge, MA 02139 </address> <div class="menu__social"> <ul class="social__list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div class="overlay-menu__section"> <div class="menu__support js--animate-menu-target"> <h3 class="menu__list-heading"> <a class="menu__heading-link" title="Support Science" href="/support-science/" target="_self">Support Science</a> </h3> <p class="menu__support-text">Please contact <a href="mailto:jenn24@mit.edu?subject=Give%20Now%20-%20School%20of%20Science">Jennifer Rosales</a> if you are considering a gift to the School of Science.</p> <a class="menu__support-link" title="Give now" href="https://giving.mit.edu/explore/schools/school-of-science/school-of-science-funds" target="_blank"><span>Give now</span></a> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <aside class="site-sidebar" role="presentation"></aside> <main class="site-main"> <div id="content" class="site-content"> <h1 class="visually-hidden">Home</h1> <div data-no-color="true" class="homepage__topper nav-scroll-section theme--aging-brain"> <div class="topper__background lazyload" data-bgset="https://science.mit.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/BigStory_ClimateScience-768x259.jpg 300w, https://science.mit.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/BigStory_ClimateScience-1024x345.jpg 600w, https://science.mit.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/BigStory_ClimateScience-scaled.jpg 900w" data-sizes="auto" id="background-0"></div> <div class="topper__background lazyload" data-bgset="https://science.mit.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/BigStory_ClimateScience-768x259.jpg 300w, https://science.mit.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/BigStory_ClimateScience-1024x345.jpg 600w, https://science.mit.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/BigStory_ClimateScience-scaled.jpg 900w" data-sizes="auto" id="background-1"></div> <div class="topper__background lazyload" data-bgset="https://science.mit.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/ligo_v1-768x512.jpg 300w, https://science.mit.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/ligo_v1-1024x683.jpg 600w, https://science.mit.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/ligo_v1.jpg 900w" data-sizes="auto" id="background-2"></div> <div class="topper__background lazyload" data-bgset="https://science.mit.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/TESS_background-768x512.jpg 300w, https://science.mit.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/TESS_background-1024x683.jpg 600w, https://science.mit.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/TESS_background.jpg 900w" data-sizes="auto" id="background-3"></div> <div class="topper__background lazyload" data-bgset="https://science.mit.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/CRISPR_cream_background-768x512.jpg 300w, https://science.mit.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/CRISPR_cream_background-1024x683.jpg 600w, https://science.mit.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/CRISPR_cream_background.jpg 900w" data-sizes="auto" id="background-4"></div> <div class="topper__background lazyload" data-bgset="https://science.mit.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/alzheimers_v1-768x512.jpg 300w, https://science.mit.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/alzheimers_v1-1024x683.jpg 600w, https://science.mit.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/alzheimers_v1.jpg 900w" data-sizes="auto" id="background-5"></div>  <div class="topper__content"> <div class="base-full-width"> <p class="topper__headline">We turn curiosity into discovery, changing what we know about the world.</p> </div> <div class="topper__big-stories"> <div class="topper__active-bar"></div> <h2 id="big-stories" class="visually-hidden">Big Stories</h2> <ul class="topper__list"> <li class="topper__list-item"> <a class="topper__link topper__link--video" href="https://science.mit.edu/big-stories/climate-science/" title="Read Climate Science for Change" data-image="https://science.mit.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/BigStory_ClimateScience-scaled.jpg" data-theme="aging-brain" data-id="background-1"> <article class="topper__tease"> <span class="topper__overline" aria-hidden="true">Earth</span> <span class="topper__title">Climate Science for Change <span class="topper__link--sm">→</span></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Earth</span> </article> </a> <a class="topper__video-link" data-fancybox href="https://player.vimeo.com/video/697354435?dnt=1&app_id=122963&controls=1&hd=1&autohide=1&showinfo=0&modestbranding=1&rel=0&color=white" title="Watch MIT announces five flagship projects in Climate Grand Challenges competition"> <svg viewBox="0 0 15 15" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"> <path fill-rule="evenodd" clip-rule="evenodd" d="M14 7.5C14 11.0899 11.0899 14 7.5 14C3.91015 14 1 11.0899 1 7.5C1 3.91015 3.91015 1 7.5 1C11.0899 1 14 3.91015 14 7.5ZM15 7.5C15 11.6421 11.6421 15 7.5 15C3.35786 15 0 11.6421 0 7.5C0 3.35786 3.35786 0 7.5 0C11.6421 0 15 3.35786 15 7.5ZM11 7.5L5 4V11L11 7.5Z"/> </svg> Watch</a> </li> <li class="topper__list-item"> <a class="topper__link topper__link--video" href="https://science.mit.edu/big-stories/detecting-gravitational-waves/" title="Read Detecting Gravitational Waves" data-image="https://science.mit.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/ligo_v1.jpg" data-theme="ligo" data-id="background-2"> <article class="topper__tease"> <span class="topper__overline" aria-hidden="true">LIGO</span> <span class="topper__title">Detecting Gravitational Waves <span class="topper__link--sm">→</span></span> <span class="visually-hidden">LIGO</span> </article> </a> <a class="topper__video-link" data-fancybox href="https://www.youtube.com/embed/UMP3ZSVclmg?feature=oembed&controls=1&hd=1&autohide=1&showinfo=0&modestbranding=1&rel=0&color=white" title="Watch The Sound of Gravity"> <svg viewBox="0 0 15 15" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"> <path fill-rule="evenodd" clip-rule="evenodd" d="M14 7.5C14 11.0899 11.0899 14 7.5 14C3.91015 14 1 11.0899 1 7.5C1 3.91015 3.91015 1 7.5 1C11.0899 1 14 3.91015 14 7.5ZM15 7.5C15 11.6421 11.6421 15 7.5 15C3.35786 15 0 11.6421 0 7.5C0 3.35786 3.35786 0 7.5 0C11.6421 0 15 3.35786 15 7.5ZM11 7.5L5 4V11L11 7.5Z"/> </svg> Watch</a> </li> <li class="topper__list-item"> <a class="topper__link topper__link--video" href="https://science.mit.edu/big-stories/searching-for-habitable-worlds/" title="Read Searching for Habitable Worlds" data-image="https://science.mit.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/TESS_background.jpg" data-theme="exoplanets" data-id="background-3"> <article class="topper__tease"> <span class="topper__overline" aria-hidden="true">Exoplanets</span> <span class="topper__title">Searching for Habitable Worlds <span class="topper__link--sm">→</span></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Exoplanets</span> </article> </a> <a class="topper__video-link" data-fancybox href="https://www.youtube.com/embed/Q4KjvPIbgMI?feature=oembed&controls=1&hd=1&autohide=1&showinfo=0&modestbranding=1&rel=0&color=white" title="Watch NASA's New Planet Hunter: TESS"> <svg viewBox="0 0 15 15" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"> <path fill-rule="evenodd" clip-rule="evenodd" d="M14 7.5C14 11.0899 11.0899 14 7.5 14C3.91015 14 1 11.0899 1 7.5C1 3.91015 3.91015 1 7.5 1C11.0899 1 14 3.91015 14 7.5ZM15 7.5C15 11.6421 11.6421 15 7.5 15C3.35786 15 0 11.6421 0 7.5C0 3.35786 3.35786 0 7.5 0C11.6421 0 15 3.35786 15 7.5ZM11 7.5L5 4V11L11 7.5Z"/> </svg> Watch</a> </li> <li class="topper__list-item"> <a class="topper__link topper__link--video" href="https://science.mit.edu/big-stories/editing-ourselves/" title="Read Editing Ourselves" data-image="https://science.mit.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/CRISPR_cream_background.jpg" data-theme="crispr" data-id="background-4"> <article class="topper__tease"> <span class="topper__overline" aria-hidden="true">CRISPR</span> <span class="topper__title">Editing Ourselves <span class="topper__link--sm">→</span></span> <span class="visually-hidden">CRISPR</span> </article> </a> <a class="topper__video-link" data-fancybox href="https://www.youtube.com/embed/ZGZYhX4-xH4?feature=oembed&controls=1&hd=1&autohide=1&showinfo=0&modestbranding=1&rel=0&color=white" title="Watch Editing Ourselves"> <svg viewBox="0 0 15 15" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"> <path fill-rule="evenodd" clip-rule="evenodd" d="M14 7.5C14 11.0899 11.0899 14 7.5 14C3.91015 14 1 11.0899 1 7.5C1 3.91015 3.91015 1 7.5 1C11.0899 1 14 3.91015 14 7.5ZM15 7.5C15 11.6421 11.6421 15 7.5 15C3.35786 15 0 11.6421 0 7.5C0 3.35786 3.35786 0 7.5 0C11.6421 0 15 3.35786 15 7.5ZM11 7.5L5 4V11L11 7.5Z"/> </svg> Watch</a> </li> <li class="topper__list-item"> <a class="topper__link topper__link--video" href="https://science.mit.edu/big-stories/keeping-aging-brains-healthy/" title="Read Keeping Aging Brains Healthy" data-image="https://science.mit.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/alzheimers_v1.jpg" data-theme="aging-brain" data-id="background-5"> <article class="topper__tease"> <span class="topper__overline" aria-hidden="true">Aging Brain Initiative</span> <span class="topper__title">Keeping Aging Brains Healthy <span class="topper__link--sm">→</span></span> <span class="visually-hidden">Aging Brain Initiative</span> </article> </a> <a class="topper__video-link" data-fancybox href="https://www.youtube.com/embed/_vmUZZjN-WI?feature=oembed&controls=1&hd=1&autohide=1&showinfo=0&modestbranding=1&rel=0&color=white" title="Watch On the Same Wavelength"> <svg viewBox="0 0 15 15" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"> <path fill-rule="evenodd" clip-rule="evenodd" d="M14 7.5C14 11.0899 11.0899 14 7.5 14C3.91015 14 1 11.0899 1 7.5C1 3.91015 3.91015 1 7.5 1C11.0899 1 14 3.91015 14 7.5ZM15 7.5C15 11.6421 11.6421 15 7.5 15C3.35786 15 0 11.6421 0 7.5C0 3.35786 3.35786 0 7.5 0C11.6421 0 15 3.35786 15 7.5ZM11 7.5L5 4V11L11 7.5Z"/> </svg> Watch</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div>  <div class="homepage__people nav-scroll-section"> <div class="site-full-width section__head-wrapper"> <h2 id="people" class="section__head section__head--people">School of Science</h2> </div> <div class="site-full-width l-people"> <div class="people__text-content"> <p class="people__heading">Addressing fundamental questions and society's great challenges</p> <p class="people__text">You’ll find an education at the MIT School of Science is marked by rigorous academics and research with incredibly talented individuals. In the classroom, on the bench, or out in the field — you’re supported by our community.</p> </div> <div class="l-people--flex"> <div class="l-people--left"> <div class="people__images"> <div data-anime="fade" class="homepage__img-item js--animate-scroll"> <a href="https://news.mit.edu/2023/cool-path-disease-deceleration-kathrin-kajderowicz-0804" class="js--animate-target" target="_blank" title="PhD student Kathrin Kajderowicz is studying how hibernation-like states could pave the way for new hypothermic therapies. Photo: Justin Knight"> <div class="l-img-caption"> <img class="lazyload people-img" style="width:100%;" alt="Portrait photo of Kathrin "Kat" Kajderowicz leaning against a railing" aria-describedby="horizontal_image_caption" src="https://science.mit.edu/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/kathrin-kajderowicz-300x200.png" data-srcset=" https://science.mit.edu/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/kathrin-kajderowicz-768x512.png 300w, https://science.mit.edu/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/kathrin-kajderowicz-1024x683.png 600w, https://science.mit.edu/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/kathrin-kajderowicz.png 900w" data-sizes="auto"/> <div class="homepage__img-caption"> <p id="horizontal_image_caption" class="homepage__caption-text">PhD student Kathrin Kajderowicz is studying how hibernation-like states could pave the way for new hypothermic therapies. Photo: Justin Knight</p> </div> </div> </a> </div> 1 <div data-anime="fade" class="homepage__img-item homepage__img-item--2 js--animate-scroll"> <a href="https://science.mit.edu/diversity-and-inclusion/" class="js--animate-target" target="_blank" title="Kuheli Dutt, assistant dean for diversity, equity, and inclusion in the School of Science at MIT. Credit: Rose Lincoln"> <div class="l-img-caption"> <img class="lazyload people-img" style="width:100%;" alt="Kuheli Dutt stands in Lobby 10" aria-describedby="small_cropped_image_caption" src="https://science.mit.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/012722_Dutt_-Kuheli_610-300x200.jpg" data-srcset=" https://science.mit.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/012722_Dutt_-Kuheli_610-768x512.jpg 300w, https://science.mit.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/012722_Dutt_-Kuheli_610-1024x683.jpg 600w, https://science.mit.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/012722_Dutt_-Kuheli_610-scaled-e1644611495995.jpg 900w" data-sizes="auto"/> <div class="homepage__img-caption"> <p id="small_cropped_image_caption" class="homepage__caption-text">Kuheli Dutt, assistant dean for diversity, equity, and inclusion in the School of Science at MIT. Credit: Rose Lincoln</p> </div> </div> </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="l-people--right"> <div data-anime="fade" class="homepage__img-item homepage__img-item--3 js--animate-scroll"> <a href="https://spectrum.mit.edu/spring-2023/paying-it-forward/" class="js--animate-target" target="_self" title="Jay Mahat, a postdoctoral fellow in the Sharp lab. Photo: Bob O’Connor"> <div class="l-img-caption"> <img class="lazyload" style="width:100%;" alt="Jay Mahat smiling with arms crossed in a lab" aria-describedby="vertical_image_caption" src="https://science.mit.edu/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/mahat-spectrum-paying-it-forward-biology-225x300.jpg" data-srcset=" https://science.mit.edu/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/mahat-spectrum-paying-it-forward-biology.jpg 300w, https://science.mit.edu/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/mahat-spectrum-paying-it-forward-biology.jpg 600w, https://science.mit.edu/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/mahat-spectrum-paying-it-forward-biology.jpg 900w" data-sizes="auto"/> <div class="homepage__img-caption"> <p id="vertical_image_caption" class="homepage__caption-text">Jay Mahat, a postdoctoral fellow in the Sharp lab. Photo: Bob O’Connor</p> </div> </div> </a> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div>  <div class="homepage__about bg-full-width nav-scroll-section"> <div class="chalkboard"> <canvas id="chalkboard" title="chalkboard"></canvas> </div> <div class="about__content"> <div class="about__quote"> <h2 id="about" class="section__head section__head--about">What We're About</h2> <p class="quote__text">We think that when we make a discovery, we’ve answered a question; but almost always what we've done is pose a new question.</p> <div class="quote__meta"> <p class="quote__attribution"> <span class="quote__name">Nergis Mavalvala</span><br /> <span class="quote__job-title">Dean of the MIT School of Science</span> </p> <div class="quote__img"> <img class="lazyload" style="width:100%;" alt="Nergis Mavalvala" src="https://science.mit.edu/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/mavalvala-300x300-1.png" data-srcset=" https://science.mit.edu/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/mavalvala-300x300-1.png 300w, https://science.mit.edu/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/mavalvala-300x300-1.png 600w, https://science.mit.edu/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/mavalvala-300x300-1.png 900w" data-sizes="auto"> </div> </div> <a href="/about" class="section__link section__link--about" title="About School of Science"> <span>About School of Science</span> </a> </div> </div> </div>  <div class="homepage__news nav-scroll-section"> <h2 id="news" class="section__head section__head--news base-full-width">News</h2> <ul class="tease__list js-activate-tooltips"> <li class="tease__list-item is-visible"> <a class="tease__text-link--post" href="https://science.mit.edu/letter-from-the-dean-winter-2025/" target="_self" title="Letter from the Dean"> <div class="tease tease--post site-full-width">  <div class="tease__content" role="article"> <div class="row--flex row--space-between"> <div class="tease__headline col--8"> <h3 class="tease__heading"> <span class="tease__text-link" data-name="name"> Letter from the Dean </span> </h3> </div> <div class="tease__meta col--3"> <p class="meta__post-date">December 19, 2024</p> </div> </div> </div> </div> </a> </li> <li class="tease__list-item is-visible"> <a class="tease__text-link--post" href="https://www.popsci.com/science/black-hole-triple/" target="_self" title="First ‘black hole triple’ may have formed in a surprisingly gentle way"> <div class="tease tease--post site-full-width">  <div class="tease__content" role="article"> <div class="row--flex row--space-between"> <div class="tease__headline col--8"> <h3 class="tease__heading"> <span class="tease__text-link" data-name="name"> First ‘black hole triple’ may have formed in a surprisingly gentle way </span> </h3> </div> <div class="tease__meta col--3"> <p class="meta__external-link">Read it at Popular Science</p> <p class="meta__post-date">October 23, 2024</p> </div> </div> </div> </div> </a> </li> <li class="tease__list-item is-visible"> <a class="tease__text-link--post" href="https://www.quantamagazine.org/sensational-proof-delivers-new-insights-into-prime-numbers-20240715/" target="_self" title="‘Sensational’ Proof Delivers New Insights Into Prime Numbers"> <div class="tease tease--post site-full-width">  <div class="tease__content" role="article"> <div class="row--flex row--space-between"> <div class="tease__headline col--8"> <h3 class="tease__heading"> <span class="tease__text-link" data-name="name"> ‘Sensational’ Proof Delivers New Insights Into Prime Numbers </span> </h3> </div> <div class="tease__meta col--3"> <p class="meta__external-link">Read it at Quanta Magazine</p> <p class="meta__post-date">July 15, 2024</p> </div> </div> </div> </div> </a> </li> <li class="tease__list-item is-visible"> <a class="tease__text-link--post" href="https://gizmodo.com/we-finally-know-how-general-anesthesia-knocks-you-out-2000473321" target="_self" title="We Finally Know How General Anesthesia Knocks You Out"> <div class="tease tease--post site-full-width">  <div class="tease__content" role="article"> <div class="row--flex row--space-between"> <div class="tease__headline col--8"> <h3 class="tease__heading"> <span class="tease__text-link" data-name="name"> We Finally Know How General Anesthesia Knocks You Out </span> </h3> </div> <div class="tease__meta col--3"> <p class="meta__external-link">Read it at Gizmodo</p> <p class="meta__post-date">July 15, 2024</p> </div> </div> </div> </div> </a> </li> <li class="tease__list-item is-visible"> <a class="tease__text-link--post" href="https://science.mit.edu/a-bright-hub-for-climate/" target="_self" title="A bright hub for climate"> <div class="tease tease--post site-full-width">  <div class="tease__content" role="article"> <div class="row--flex row--space-between"> <div class="tease__headline col--8"> <h3 class="tease__heading"> <span class="tease__text-link" data-name="name"> A bright hub for climate </span> </h3> </div> <div class="tease__meta col--3"> <p class="meta__post-date">July 29, 2024</p> </div> </div> </div> </div> </a> </li> <li class="tease__list-item is-visible"> <a class="tease__text-link--post" href="https://www.bostonglobe.com/2024/06/26/science/mit-study-glacier-flow-sea-level-rise/" target="_self" title="MIT ice flow study takes ‘big’ step towards understanding sea level rise, scientists say"> <div class="tease tease--post site-full-width">  <div class="tease__content" role="article"> <div class="row--flex row--space-between"> <div class="tease__headline col--8"> <h3 class="tease__heading"> <span class="tease__text-link" data-name="name"> MIT ice flow study takes ‘big’ step towards understanding sea level rise, scientists say </span> </h3> </div> <div class="tease__meta col--3"> <p class="meta__external-link">Read it at The Boston Globe</p> <p class="meta__post-date">June 26, 2024</p> </div> </div> </div> </div> </a> </li> <li class="tease__list-item is-visible"> <a class="tease__text-link--post" href="https://news.mit.edu/2024/nancy-kanwisher-robert-langer-sara-seager-kavli-prize-0612" target="_self" title="Nancy Kanwisher, Robert Langer, and Sara Seager named Kavli Prize Laureates"> <div class="tease tease--post site-full-width">  <div class="tease__content" role="article"> <div class="row--flex row--space-between"> <div class="tease__headline col--8"> <h3 class="tease__heading"> <span class="tease__text-link" data-name="name"> Nancy Kanwisher, Robert Langer, and Sara Seager named Kavli Prize Laureates </span> </h3> </div> <div class="tease__meta col--3"> <p class="meta__external-link">Read it at MIT News</p> <p class="meta__post-date">February 13, 2025</p> </div> </div> </div> </div> </a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </main>  <div id="footer" class="footer js-activate-tooltips nav-scroll-section" role="contentinfo" aria-label="site footer"> <div class="footer__mit-logo"> <a href="/" class="site__logo-link" rel="home" title="MIT School of Science"> <span class="visually-hidden">MIT School of Science</span> <svg version="1.1" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" x="0px" y="0px" viewBox="0 0 3233.57 732.17" style="enable-background:new 0 0 3233.57 732.17;" xml:space="preserve"> <g id="Background"> </g> <g id="Artwork"> <g> <path d="M720,725.46h160v-480H720V725.46z M960,165.46h400v-160H960V165.46z M720,5.46h160v160H720V5.46z M480,725.46h160v-720 H480V725.46z M240,565.46h160v-560H240V565.46z M0,725.46h160v-720H0V725.46z M960,725.46h160v-480H960V725.46z"/> <g> <path d="M1506.59,632.73h59.58c4.2,36.08,24.76,50.35,67.55,50.35c31.05,0,58.32-10.91,58.32-38.6 c0-29.37-28.53-35.25-74.27-45.73c-53.71-12.17-102.8-26.43-102.8-88.95c0-59.16,48.25-89.79,114.97-89.79 c67.55,0,111.19,33.15,115.81,93.57h-58.32c-3.36-30.21-26.85-45.32-57.9-45.32c-32.73,0-54.13,13.85-54.13,35.25 c0,24.34,20.98,31.47,65.46,41.12c61.68,13.43,112.03,28.11,112.03,92.73c0,60.84-49.09,94.83-116.64,94.83 C1554.84,732.17,1508.69,696.09,1506.59,632.73z"/> <path d="M1774.28,618.04c0-64.2,41.96-113.71,107.41-113.71c55.81,0,90.21,32.31,97.76,78.88h-55.8 c-3.78-18.88-18.46-33.15-39.44-33.15c-34.41,0-52.03,26.43-52.03,67.97c0,40.7,16.36,67.97,51.19,67.97 c23.08,0,39.44-12.17,43.22-36.5h54.97c-3.78,45.73-39.44,82.24-96.92,82.24C1816.66,731.75,1774.28,682.24,1774.28,618.04z"/> <path d="M2006.31,425.46h57.06v51.19h-57.06V425.46z M2006.31,510.21h57.06v215.25h-57.06V510.21z"/> <path d="M2089.8,617.62c0-63.78,43.22-113.29,106.16-113.29c69.23,0,106.16,52.87,106.16,129.65h-156.09 c4.2,33.15,22.66,53.71,54.97,53.71c22.24,0,35.25-10.07,41.54-26.43h56.22c-7.97,38.18-41.96,70.49-97.34,70.49 C2130.08,731.75,2089.8,681.82,2089.8,617.62z M2146.87,594.55h95.67c-1.68-27.27-19.72-46.15-45.73-46.15 C2166.59,548.39,2151.9,566.44,2146.87,594.55z"/> <path d="M2384.35,539.58h1.26c14.69-23.08,34.41-35.25,63.78-35.25c44.48,0,74.27,33.57,74.27,80.56v140.56h-57.06V593.29 c0-23.08-13.43-39.44-37.34-39.44c-25.17,0-43.64,20.14-43.64,49.51v122.1h-57.06V510.21h55.8V539.58z"/> <path d="M2548.4,618.04c0-64.2,41.96-113.71,107.41-113.71c55.81,0,90.21,32.31,97.76,78.88h-55.8 c-3.78-18.88-18.46-33.15-39.44-33.15c-34.41,0-52.03,26.43-52.03,67.97c0,40.7,16.36,67.97,51.19,67.97 c23.08,0,39.44-12.17,43.22-36.5h54.97c-3.78,45.73-39.44,82.24-96.92,82.24C2590.78,731.75,2548.4,682.24,2548.4,618.04z"/> <path d="M2769.94,617.62c0-63.78,43.22-113.29,106.16-113.29c69.23,0,106.16,52.87,106.16,129.65h-156.09 c4.2,33.15,22.66,53.71,54.97,53.71c22.24,0,35.25-10.07,41.54-26.43h56.22c-7.97,38.18-41.96,70.49-97.34,70.49 C2810.22,731.75,2769.94,681.82,2769.94,617.62z M2827,594.55h95.67c-1.68-27.27-19.72-46.15-45.73-46.15 C2846.72,548.39,2832.04,566.44,2827,594.55z"/> </g> <g> <path d="M1506.59,212.73h59.58c4.2,36.08,24.76,50.35,67.55,50.35c31.05,0,58.32-10.91,58.32-38.6 c0-29.37-28.53-35.25-74.27-45.73c-53.71-12.17-102.8-26.43-102.8-88.95c0-59.16,48.25-89.79,114.97-89.79 c67.55,0,111.19,33.15,115.81,93.57h-58.32c-3.36-30.21-26.85-45.32-57.9-45.32c-32.73,0-54.13,13.85-54.13,35.25 c0,24.34,20.98,31.47,65.46,41.12c61.68,13.43,112.03,28.11,112.03,92.73c0,60.84-49.09,94.83-116.64,94.83 C1554.84,312.17,1508.69,276.09,1506.59,212.73z"/> <path d="M1774.28,198.04c0-64.2,41.96-113.71,107.41-113.71c55.81,0,90.21,32.31,97.76,78.88h-55.8 c-3.78-18.88-18.46-33.15-39.44-33.15c-34.41,0-52.03,26.43-52.03,67.97c0,40.7,16.36,67.97,51.19,67.97 c23.08,0,39.44-12.17,43.22-36.5h54.97c-3.78,45.73-39.44,82.24-96.92,82.24C1816.66,311.75,1774.28,262.24,1774.28,198.04z"/> <path d="M2063.37,118.32h1.26c15.52-22.66,33.15-33.99,62.52-33.99c44.48,0,74.27,33.57,74.27,80.56v140.56h-57.06V173.29 c0-23.08-13.43-39.44-37.34-39.44c-25.17,0-43.64,20.14-43.64,49.51v122.1h-57.06v-300h57.06V118.32z"/> <path d="M2226.17,198.04c0-64.2,45.74-113.71,112.45-113.71c66.71,0,112.45,49.51,112.45,113.71 c0,64.2-45.73,113.71-112.45,113.71C2271.9,311.75,2226.17,262.24,2226.17,198.04z M2393.16,198.04 c0-41.96-19.72-70.49-54.55-70.49c-35.25,0-54.55,28.53-54.55,70.49c0,41.96,19.3,70.07,54.55,70.07 C2373.44,268.12,2393.16,240,2393.16,198.04z"/> <path d="M2467,198.04c0-64.2,45.74-113.71,112.45-113.71c66.71,0,112.45,49.51,112.45,113.71c0,64.2-45.73,113.71-112.45,113.71 C2512.74,311.75,2467,262.24,2467,198.04z M2634,198.04c0-41.96-19.72-70.49-54.55-70.49c-35.25,0-54.55,28.53-54.55,70.49 c0,41.96,19.3,70.07,54.55,70.07C2614.28,268.12,2634,240,2634,198.04z"/> <path d="M2719.17,5.46h57.06v300h-57.06V5.46z"/> <path d="M2873.99,198.04c0-64.2,45.74-113.71,112.45-113.71c66.71,0,112.45,49.51,112.45,113.71 c0,64.2-45.73,113.71-112.45,113.71C2919.72,311.75,2873.99,262.24,2873.99,198.04z M3040.99,198.04 c0-41.96-19.72-70.49-54.55-70.49c-35.25,0-54.55,28.53-54.55,70.49c0,41.96,19.3,70.07,54.55,70.07 C3021.26,268.12,3040.99,240,3040.99,198.04z"/> <path d="M3108.53,90.21h29.37v-19.3c0-52.45,40.7-70.91,95.67-65.04v44.06c-26.85-1.26-38.6,2.1-38.6,24.34v15.94h38.6v39.44 h-38.6v175.81h-57.06V129.65h-29.37V90.21z"/> </g> </g> </g> <g id="Guides"> </g> </svg> </a> </div> <div class="footer__content base-content-width"> <div class="l-footer__departments row--flex"> <ul class="footer__departments-list col--7"> <li class="footer__list-item--departments"> <a class="footer__list-link--departments" href="https://biology.mit.edu" target="_blank">Biology</a> </li> <li class="footer__list-item--departments"> <a class="footer__list-link--departments" href="https://bcs.mit.edu" target="_blank">Brain and Cognitive Sciences</a> </li> <li class="footer__list-item--departments"> <a class="footer__list-link--departments" href="http://chemistry.mit.edu/" target="_blank">Chemistry</a> </li> <li class="footer__list-item--departments"> <a class="footer__list-link--departments" href="https://eapsweb.mit.edu/" target="_blank">Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences</a> </li> <li class="footer__list-item--departments"> <a class="footer__list-link--departments" href="http://math.mit.edu/" target="_blank">Mathematics</a> </li> <li class="footer__list-item--departments"> <a class="footer__list-link--departments" href="https://physics.mit.edu/" target="_blank">Physics</a> </li> </ul> <div class="footer__contact col--3"> <address class="footer__address"> <span class="address__name">MIT School of Science</span><br /> <span>77 Massachusetts Avenue, 6-131<br /> Cambridge, MA 02139</span> </address> <div class="footer__social"> <ul class="social__list"> <li class="social__list-item"> <a class="social__link" href="https://twitter.com/sciencemit" target="_blank">X</a> </li> <li class="social__list-item"> <a class="social__link" href="https://www.instagram.com/mitscience/" target="_blank">Instagram</a> </li> <li class="social__list-item"> <a class="social__link" href="https://www.linkedin.com/company/mitschoolofscience/" target="_self">LinkedIn</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="l-footer__nav footer-width"> <nav class="footer__nav"> <ul class="footer__list"> <li class="footer__list-item"> <a href="/research-and-academics/" target="_self" class="footer__list-link">Research and Academics</a> </li> <li class="footer__list-item"> <a href="/about" target="_self" class="footer__list-link">About</a> </li> <li class="footer__list-item"> <a href="/resource" target="_self" class="footer__list-link">Resources</a> </li> <li class="footer__list-item"> <a href="/support-science/" target="_self" class="footer__list-link">Support Science</a> </li> <li class="footer__list-item"> <a href="/contact/" target="_self" class="footer__list-link">Contact</a> </li> </ul> </nav> </div> <div class="footer__utility footer-width"> <ul class="footer__utility-list"> <li class="utility__list-item"> <a href="https://web.mit.edu/" target="_blank" class="utility__list-link">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> </li> <li class="utility__list-item"> <a href="https://accessibility.mit.edu/" target="_blank" class="utility__list-link">Accessibility</a> </li> <li class="utility__list-item"> <a href="/emergency/" target="_self" class="utility__list-link">For Emergencies</a> </li> <li class="utility__list-item"> <a href="/resource/community-conduct/" target="_self" class="utility__list-link">Community Conduct</a> </li> <li class="utility__list-item"><span class="copyright">© 2025 MIT School of Science</span></li> </ul> </div> </div>  <script src="https://science.mit.edu/wp-content/themes/mitsos-wordpress/static/dist/modernizr.js"></script> <script src="https://science.mit.edu/wp-content/themes/mitsos-wordpress/static/dist/bundle.js"></script>   </div> <script type="text/javascript">window.NREUM||(NREUM={});NREUM.info={"beacon":"bam.nr-data.net","licenseKey":"0dd57bcb13","applicationID":"100970968","transactionName":"MwNUbRAEV0ZRBxEMWApJd1oWDFZbHw0LAVIc","queueTime":0,"applicationTime":1430,"atts":"H0RXG1geREg=","errorBeacon":"bam.nr-data.net","agent":""}</script></body> </html>