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</a> <ul id="toc-Religion_in_everyday_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biblical_themes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biblical_themes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Biblical themes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biblical_themes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Collections_of_lyrics_of_the_spirituals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Collections_of_lyrics_of_the_spirituals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Collections of lyrics of the spirituals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Collections_of_lyrics_of_the_spirituals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Popularization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Popularization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Popularization </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Popularization-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Popularization subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Popularization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fisk_Jubilee_Singers_popularized_spirituals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fisk_Jubilee_Singers_popularized_spirituals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Fisk Jubilee Singers popularized spirituals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fisk_Jubilee_Singers_popularized_spirituals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hampton_Singers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hampton_Singers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Hampton Singers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hampton_Singers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tuskegee_Institute_Quartet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tuskegee_Institute_Quartet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Tuskegee Institute Quartet </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tuskegee_Institute_Quartet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_concert_spiritual_tradition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_concert_spiritual_tradition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 The concert spiritual tradition </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_concert_spiritual_tradition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spirituals_in_contemporary_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spirituals_in_contemporary_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Spirituals in contemporary life </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spirituals_in_contemporary_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stylistic_origins_and_qualities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stylistic_origins_and_qualities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Stylistic origins and qualities </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Stylistic_origins_and_qualities-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Stylistic origins and qualities subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Stylistic_origins_and_qualities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Call_and_response" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Call_and_response"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Call and response </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Call_and_response-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sorrow_songs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sorrow_songs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Sorrow songs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sorrow_songs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jubilee_songs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jubilee_songs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Jubilee songs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jubilee_songs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Freedom_songs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Freedom_songs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4 Freedom songs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Freedom_songs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Work_songs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Work_songs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.5 Work songs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Work_songs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Field_hollers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Field_hollers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.6 Field hollers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Field_hollers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Derivatives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Derivatives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Derivatives </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Derivatives-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Derivatives subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Derivatives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_blues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_blues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 The blues </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_blues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gospel_songs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gospel_songs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Gospel songs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gospel_songs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-White_spirituals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#White_spirituals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 White spirituals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-White_spirituals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Possible_Islamic_influences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Possible_Islamic_influences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Possible Islamic influences </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Possible_Islamic_influences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 See also </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle See also subsection </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notable_songs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_songs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Notable songs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_songs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Footnotes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 External links </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-External_links-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle External links subsection </button> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Audio_samples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Audio_samples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15.1 Audio samples </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Audio_samples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Spirituals</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 41 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-41" aria-hidden="true" > 41 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BF%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%81%E0%A7%B1%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2_(%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A4)" title="স্পিৰিচুৱেল (সংগীত) – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="স্পিৰিচুৱেল (সংগীত)" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espiritual" title="Espiritual – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Espiritual" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%87%D1%83%D1%8A%D0%BB" title="Спиричуъл – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Спиричуъл" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espiritual_negre" title="Espiritual negre – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Espiritual negre" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiritu%C3%A1l_(hudba)" title="Spirituál (hudba) – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Spirituál (hudba)" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A2n_ysbrydol" title="Cân ysbrydol – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Cân ysbrydol" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiritual_(Musik)" title="Spiritual (Musik) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Spiritual (Musik)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirituaal" title="Spirituaal – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Spirituaal" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirituals" title="Spirituals – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Spirituals" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espiritual" title="Espiritual – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Espiritual" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigrula_pre%C4%9Dokanto" title="Nigrula preĝokanto – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Nigrula preĝokanto" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negro_Spirituals" title="Negro Spirituals – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Negro Spirituals" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negro_spiritual" title="Negro spiritual – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Negro spiritual" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negrospiritual" title="Negrospiritual – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Negrospiritual" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espiritual" title="Espiritual – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Espiritual" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%9D%91%EC%9D%B8%EC%98%81%EA%B0%80" title="흑인영가 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="흑인영가" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%BA%D5%AB%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%B9%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A5%D5%AC%D5%BD" title="Սպիրիչուելս – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Սպիրիչուելս" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiritual_(glazba)" title="Spiritual (glazba) – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Spiritual (glazba)" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiritual_(musik)" title="Spiritual (musik) – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Spiritual (musik)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiritual" title="Spiritual – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Spiritual" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%98%D7%95%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%96" title="ספיריטואלז – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ספיריטואלז" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9E%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%A9%E1%83%A3%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%96%E1%83%98" title="სპირიჩუელზი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="სპირიჩუელზი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirituale" title="Spirituale – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Spirituale" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiri%C4%8Duels" title="Spiričuels – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Spiričuels" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiritu%C3%A1l%C3%A9" title="Spirituálé – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Spirituálé" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negrospiritual" title="Negrospiritual – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Negrospiritual" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9C%8A%E6%AD%8C" title="霊歌 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="霊歌" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%87%D1%83%D1%8D%D0%BB%D1%81" title="Спиричуэлс – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Спиричуэлс" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirituals" title="Spirituals – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Spirituals" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirituals" title="Spirituals – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Spirituals" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negro_spirituals" title="Negro spirituals – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Negro spirituals" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiritual" title="Spiritual – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Spiritual" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negro_spiritual" title="Negro spiritual – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Negro spiritual" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%87%D1%83%D1%8D%D0%BB%D1%81" title="Спиричуэлс – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Спиричуэлс" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiritual_(music)" title="Spiritual (music) – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Spiritual (music)" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiritual" title="Spiritual – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Spiritual" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negrospirituaali" title="Negrospirituaali – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Negrospirituaali" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirituals" title="Spirituals – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Spirituals" data-language-autonym="Svenska" 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.mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above">Spiritual</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Stylistic origins</th><td class="infobox-data hlist"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Work_songs" class="mw-redirect" title="Work songs">Work songs</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Field_holler" title="Field holler">Field holler</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/African_music" class="mw-redirect" title="African music">African music</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Hymn#Christian_hymnody" title="Hymn">Christian hymns</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Cultural origins</th><td class="infobox-data hlist"><a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Derivative forms</th><td class="infobox-data hlist"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blues" title="Blues">Blues</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Black_gospel_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Black gospel music">Black gospel music</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Fusion genres</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data hlist"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Christian_music" title="Contemporary Christian music">CCM</a></td></tr></tbody></table> Spirituals (also known as Negro spirituals, African American spirituals,<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> Black spirituals, or spiritual music) is a <a href="/wiki/Music_genre" title="Music genre">genre</a> of <a href="/wiki/Christian_music" title="Christian music">Christian music</a> that is associated with <a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Johnson_1925-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Grove_oxfordmusiconline-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-YUP_Eltis_20150215-4">[4]</a> which merged varied African cultural influences with the experiences of being held in bondage in slavery, at first during the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">transatlantic slave trade</a><a href="#cite_note-UN_DayOfRemembrance-5">[5]</a> and for centuries afterwards, through the domestic slave trade. Spirituals encompass the "sing songs", <a href="/wiki/Work_songs" class="mw-redirect" title="Work songs">work songs</a>, and plantation songs that evolved into the blues and gospel songs in church.<a href="#cite_note-CSUDH_20110502-6">[6]</a> In the nineteenth century, the word "spirituals" referred to all these subcategories of folk songs.<a href="#cite_note-Evans_DevelopmentSpiritual_1972-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jones_1993-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-NMAAHC_2012-9">[9]</a> While they were often rooted in biblical stories, they also described the extreme hardships endured by African Americans who were enslaved from the 17th century until the 1860s, the <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">emancipation</a> altering mainly the nature (but not continuation) of slavery for many.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Many new derivative music genres such as the <a href="/wiki/Blues" title="Blues">blues</a> emerged from the spirituals songcraft.<a href="#cite_note-Nketia_1973-11">[11]</a> Prior to the end of the <a href="/wiki/US_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="US Civil War">US Civil War</a> and emancipation, spirituals were originally an oral tradition passed from one slave generation to the next. Biblical stories were memorized then translated into song. Following emancipation, the lyrics of spirituals were published in printed form. Ensembles such as the <a href="/wiki/Fisk_Jubilee_Singers" title="Fisk Jubilee Singers">Fisk Jubilee Singers</a>—established in 1871—popularized spirituals, bringing them to a wider, even international, audience. At first, major recording studios were only recording white musicians performing spirituals and their derivatives. That changed with <a href="/wiki/Mamie_Smith" title="Mamie Smith">Mamie Smith</a>'s commercial success in 1920.<a href="#cite_note-NYT_Brooks_20200810-12">[12]</a> Starting in the 1920s, the commercial recording industry increased the audience for the spirituals and their derivatives. Black composers, <a href="/wiki/Harry_Burleigh" title="Harry Burleigh">Harry Burleigh</a> and <a href="/wiki/R._Nathaniel_Dett" class="mw-redirect" title="R. Nathaniel Dett">R. Nathaniel Dett</a>, created a "new repertoire for the concert stage" by applying their Western classical education to the spirituals.<a href="#cite_note-NPR_20190620-13">[13]</a> While the spirituals were created by a "circumscribed community of people in bondage", over time they became known as the first "signature" music of the United States.<a href="#cite_note-spiritualsproject_20150725-14">[14]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Spirituals&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Terminology">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/The_New_Grove_Dictionary_of_Music_and_Musicians" title="The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians">The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians</a>—one of the largest reference works on music and musicians,<a href="#cite_note-NewGroveDictionary_1986-15">[15]</a>: 284–290 —itemized and described "spiritual" in their electronic resource, <a href="/wiki/Grove_Music_Online" class="mw-redirect" title="Grove Music Online">Grove Music Online</a>—an important part of <a href="/wiki/Oxford_Music_Online" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxford Music Online">Oxford Music Online</a>, as a "type of sacred song created by and for African Americans that originated in oral tradition. Although its exact provenance is unknown, spirituals were identifiable as a genre by the early 19th century."<a href="#cite_note-Grove_oxfordmusiconline-3">[3]</a> They used the term without the descriptor, "African American". The term "negro spirituals" is a 19th century word "used for songs with religious texts created by African Enslaved in America".<a href="#cite_note-Evans_DevelopmentSpiritual_1972-7">[7]</a> The first published book of slave songs referred to them as "spirituals".<a href="#cite_note-Slave_songs_1867-16">[16]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Musicology" title="Musicology">musicology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ethnomusicology" title="Ethnomusicology">ethnomusicology</a> in the 1990s, the single term "spirituals" is used to describe "The Spirituals Project".<a href="#cite_note-Jones_1998-17">[17]</a> The US Library of Congress uses the phrase "African American Spirituals", for the numbered and itemized entry.<a href="#cite_note-LOC_ihas.200197495-18">[18]</a> In the introductory phrase, the singular form is used without the adjective "African American." Throughout the encyclopedic entry the singular and plural form of the term, is used without the "African American" descriptor. The LOC introductory sentence says, "A spiritual is a type of religious folksong that is most closely associated with the enslavement of African people in the American South. The songs proliferated in the last few decades of the eighteenth century leading up to the abolishment of legalized slavery in the 1860s. The African American spiritual (also called the Negro Spiritual) constitutes one of the largest and most significant forms of American folksong."<a href="#cite_note-LOC_ihas.200197495-18">[18]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Context">Context</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Spirituals&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Context">edit</a>]</div> The transatlantic slave trade is described by a <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> report as the largest forced migration in recorded human history.<a href="#cite_note-UN_DayOfRemembrance-5">[5]</a> As a direct result of the transatlantic slave trade, the greatest movement of Africans was to the Americas — with 96 percent of the captives from the African coasts arriving on cramped slave ships at ports in South America and the Caribbean Islands. From 1501 to 1830, four Africans crossed the Atlantic for every one European, making the demographics of the Americas in that era more of an extension of the African diaspora than a European one. The legacy of this migration is still evident today, with large populations of people of African descent living throughout the Americas. Millions more remained enslaved in Africa, where slavery was a complex and deeply-rooted part of culture going back centuries before widespread European presence on the continent.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lovejoy_2011_160–184-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> From 1501 through 1867, approximately "12.5 million Africans" from "almost every country with an Atlantic coastline" were kidnapped and coerced into slavery, according to the 2015 Atlas based on about 35,000 slaving voyages.<a href="#cite_note-YUP_Eltis_20150215-4">[4]</a> Roughly 6% of all enslaved Africans transported via the trans-Atlantic slave trade arrived in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, both before and after the <a href="/wiki/Colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Colonial history of the United States">colonial era</a>; the remainder went to Brazil, the West Indies or other regions. The majority of these Africans came from the <a href="/wiki/Slave_Coast_of_West_Africa" title="Slave Coast of West Africa">West African slave coast</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Yale_GLC_Context-25">[25]</a> Other sources estimate the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic slave trade">Islamic slave trade</a> enslaved similar numbers of Africans, with between 8 million and 17 million individuals taken from Africa between the 8th and 19th centuries along the <a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_trade" title="Trans-Saharan trade">Trans-Saharan</a> trade routes.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a> transported the first African enslaved peoples to the New World, in the 1560s, and until the 1700s Mexico was the primary destination for African Enslaved people under Spanish control.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> The first African enslaved people in what is now the United States arrived in 1526, making landfall in present-day <a href="/wiki/Winyah_Bay" title="Winyah Bay">Winyah Bay</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Carolina" title="South Carolina">South Carolina</a> in a short-lived colony called <a href="/wiki/San_Miguel_de_Gualdape" title="San Miguel de Gualdape">San Miguel de Gualdape</a> under control of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a>. They were also the first enslaved Africans in North Americas to stage a <a href="/wiki/Slave_rebellion" title="Slave rebellion">slave rebellion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-GHQ_Cameron_2012-32">[32]</a> In 1619, the first slave ship had carried twenty people from the west central African <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kongo" title="Kingdom of Kongo">kingdom of Kongo</a>—to a life of enslavement in what is now, Mexico.<a href="#cite_note-NYT_Elliott_20190819-33">[33]</a> The Kingdom of Kongo, at that time stretched over an area of 60,000 miles (97,000 km) in the watershed of the <a href="/wiki/Congo_River" title="Congo River">Congo River</a>—the second longest river in Africa—and had a population of 2.5 million—was one of the largest African kingdoms. For a brief period, King <a href="/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_I_of_Kongo" title="João I of Kongo">João I of Kongo</a>, who reigned from 1470 to 1509, had voluntarily converted to Catholicism, and for close to three centuries—from 1491 to 1750—the kingdom of Kongo had practiced Christianity and was an "independent [and] cosmopolitan realm."<a href="#cite_note-Fromont_2014-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> The descendants of the rice-plantation enslaved <a href="/wiki/Gullah" title="Gullah">Gullah</a> people—whose country of origin is <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a>—were unique, because they had been much more isolated on the islands off the coast of South Carolina. Gullah spirituals are sung in a creole language that was influenced by <a href="/wiki/African_American_Vernacular_English" class="mw-redirect" title="African American Vernacular English">African American Vernacular English</a> with the majority of African words coming from the <a href="/wiki/Akan_language" title="Akan language">Akan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yoruba_language" title="Yoruba language">Yoruba</a> and <a href="/wiki/Igbo_language" title="Igbo language">Igbo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NYT_Freedman_20110618-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-Yale_GLC_Opala_-37">[37]</a> The institution of slavery in the United States ended with the conclusion of the <a href="/wiki/US_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="US Civil War">US Civil War</a> in 1865. The <a href="/wiki/Slave_trade_in_the_United_States" title="Slave trade in the United States">domestic slave trade</a> that emerged after the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">United States Congress</a> outlawed the international slave trade in 1808, and lasted until the U.S. Civil War, destroyed generations of African American families.<a href="#cite_note-Yale_GLC_Context-25">[25]</a> Slavery in the United States differed from the institution in other regions of the Americas, such as the <a href="/wiki/West_Indies" title="West Indies">West Indies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Surinam_(Dutch_colony)" title="Surinam (Dutch colony)">Dutch Guiana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>. In the U.S., the enslaved had higher rates of survival and thus there was a "high and sustained natural increase in the slave population for a more than a century and a half—with numbers nearly tripling by the end of the domestic slave trade in the 1860s." During that period, "approximately 1.2 million men, women, and children, the vast majority of whom were born in America," were displaced—spouses were separated from one another, and parents were separated from their children.<a href="#cite_note-Yale_GLC_Context-25">[25]</a> By 1850, most enslaved African Americans were "third-, fourth-, or fifth-generation Americans."<a href="#cite_note-Yale_GLC_Context-25">[25]</a> In the 1800s, the majority of enslaved people in the <a href="/wiki/British_West_Indies" title="British West Indies">British West Indies</a> and Brazil had been born in Africa, whereas in the United States, they were "generations removed from Africa."<a href="#cite_note-Yale_GLC_Context-25">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Spirituals&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Overview">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sketchofdouglass.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Sketchofdouglass.jpg/220px-Sketchofdouglass.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Sketchofdouglass.jpg/330px-Sketchofdouglass.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Sketchofdouglass.jpg/440px-Sketchofdouglass.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1526" data-file-height="2290" /></a><figcaption>Engraving of <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Douglass</a> from his 1845 narrative</figcaption></figure> In his 1845 <a href="/wiki/Narrative_of_the_Life_of_Frederick_Douglass,_an_American_Slave" class="mw-redirect" title="Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave">Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave</a>, an essay on abolition and a memoire, <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a> (1818–1895)—a great orator—described slave songs as telling a "tale which was then altogether beyond my feeble comprehension; they were tones, loud, long and deep, breathing the prayer and complaint of souls boiling over with the bitterest anguish. Every tone was a testimony against slavery, and a prayer to God for deliverance from chains… Those songs still follow me, to deepen my hatred of slavery, and quicken my sympathies for my brethren in bonds."<a href="#cite_note-Douglas_1844-38">[38]</a> His Narrative, which is the most famous of the stories written by former enslaved at that time, is one of the most influential pieces of literature that acted as a catalyst in the early years of the American abolitionist movement, according to the <a href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a> entry. Slave songs were called "<a href="/wiki/Sorrow_songs" title="Sorrow songs">Sorrow songs</a>" by <a href="/wiki/W.E.B._Du_Bois" class="mw-redirect" title="W.E.B. Du Bois">W.E.B. Du Bois</a> in his 1903 book, <a href="/wiki/The_Souls_of_Black_Folk" title="The Souls of Black Folk">The Souls of Black Folk</a> .<a href="#cite_note-DuBois_SorrowSongs_1904-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-APT_Kirkland_2015-40">[40]</a> Hansonia Caldwell, the author of African American music, spirituals: the fundamental communal music of Black Americans <a href="#cite_note-Caldwell_2003-41">[41]</a> and African American music: a chronology : 1619–1995,<a href="#cite_note-Caldwell_1996-42">[42]</a> said that spirituals "sustained Africans when they were enslaved."<a href="#cite_note-CSUDH_20110502-6">[6]</a> She described them as "code songs" that "would announce meetings, as in "<a href="/wiki/Steal_Away" title="Steal Away">Steal Away</a>", and describe the path for running away, as in "<a href="/wiki/Follow_the_Drinkin%27_Gourd" title="Follow the Drinkin' Gourd">Follow the Drinkin' Gourd</a>". "<a href="/wiki/Go_Down_Moses" title="Go Down Moses">Go Down Moses</a>" referred to <a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</a> – that was her nickname—so that when they heard that song, they knew she was coming to the area...I often call the spiritual an omnibus term, because there are lots of different [subcategories] under it. They used to sing songs as they worked in the fields. In the church, it evolved into the gospel song. In the fields, it became the blues."<a href="#cite_note-CSUDH_20110502-6">[6]</a> Hansonia Caldwell, who was a professor of music at California State University, Dominguez Hills (CSUDH) from 1972 to 2011, also oversaw an Archive of Sacred Music at CSUDH—an extensive collection of music, books, periodicals, documents, audio & visual materials, and oral histories."<a href="#cite_note-CSUDH_20110502-6">[6]</a> "The African American spiritual (also called the Negro Spiritual) constitutes one of the largest and most significant forms of American folksong," according to a Library of Congress 2016 article.<a href="#cite_note-LOC_SOA_2016-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-LOC_AAS_2016-44">[44]</a> Spirituals were originally oral, but by 1867 the first compilation, entitled "Slave Songbook", was published.<a href="#cite_note-Slave_songs_1867-16">[16]</a> In the book's preface, one of the co-compilers, William Francis Allen, traced the "development of Negro Spirituals and cultural connections to Africa."<a href="#cite_note-PBS_2013-45">[45]</a> The 1867 publication included spirituals that were well-known and regularly sung in American churches but whose origins in plantations, had not been acknowledged.<a href="#cite_note-Slave_songs_1867-16">[16]</a> Allen wrote that, it was almost impossible to convey the spirituals in print because of the inimitable quality of African American voices with its "intonations and delicate variations", where not "even one singer" can be "reproduced on paper". Allen described the complexity of songs such as "I can't stay behind, my Lord", or "Turn, sinner, turn O!" which have a "complicated shout" where there are no singing parts, and no two singers "appear to be singing the same thing." The lead "singer starts the words of each verse, often improvising, and the others, who "base" him, as it is called, strike in with the refrain, or even join in the solo, when the words are familiar."<a href="#cite_note-Slave_songs_1867-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:(Portrait_of_James_Weldon_Johnson)_(LOC)_-_Flickr_-_The_Library_of_Congress.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/%28Portrait_of_James_Weldon_Johnson%29_%28LOC%29_-_Flickr_-_The_Library_of_Congress.jpg/220px-%28Portrait_of_James_Weldon_Johnson%29_%28LOC%29_-_Flickr_-_The_Library_of_Congress.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="316" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/%28Portrait_of_James_Weldon_Johnson%29_%28LOC%29_-_Flickr_-_The_Library_of_Congress.jpg/330px-%28Portrait_of_James_Weldon_Johnson%29_%28LOC%29_-_Flickr_-_The_Library_of_Congress.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/%28Portrait_of_James_Weldon_Johnson%29_%28LOC%29_-_Flickr_-_The_Library_of_Congress.jpg/440px-%28Portrait_of_James_Weldon_Johnson%29_%28LOC%29_-_Flickr_-_The_Library_of_Congress.jpg 2x" data-file-width="712" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of James Weldon Johnson in 1932</figcaption></figure> In their 1925 book, The Books of American Negro Spirituals, <a href="/wiki/James_Weldon_Johnson" title="James Weldon Johnson">James Weldon Johnson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grace_Nail_Johnson" title="Grace Nail Johnson">Grace Nail Johnson</a> said that spirituals, which are "purely and solely the creation" of African Americans, represent "America's only type of folk music...When it came to the use of words, the maker of the song was struggling under his limitations in language and, perhaps, also under a misconstruction or misapprehension of the facts in his source of material, generally the Bible."<a href="#cite_note-Johnson_1925-2">[2]</a> The couple were active during the <a href="/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance">Harlem Renaissance</a> James Weldon Johnson was the leader of the <a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People</a> (NAACP). Arthur C. Jones, a Professor in the Musicology, Ethnomusicology and Theory Department at the Lamont School of Music at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Denver" title="University of Denver">University of Denver</a>, founded "The Spirituals Project" to preserve and revitalize the "music and teachings of the sacred folk songs called spirituals," "created and first sung by African Americans in slavery".<a href="#cite_note-Jones_1998-17">[17]</a> Spirituals were created by a "circumscribed community of people in bondage", over time they became known as the first "signature" music of the United States.<a href="#cite_note-spiritualsproject_20150725-14">[14]</a> Forbidden to speak their native languages, they generally converted to Christianity. With narrow vocabularies, they used the words they did know to translate biblical information and facts from their other sources into song.<a href="#cite_note-Johnson_1925-2">[2]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cultural_origins">Cultural origins</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Spirituals&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Cultural origins">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="African_foundation">African foundation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Spirituals&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: African foundation">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Hanson_Kwabena_Nketia" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Hanson Kwabena Nketia">J.H. Kwabena Nketia</a> (1921–2019) described by the New York Times in 2019, as a "pre-eminent scholar of African music",<a href="#cite_note-NYT_Russonello_20190319-47">[47]</a> said in 1973 that there is an important, interdependent, dynamic, and "unbroken conceptual relationship between African and African American music".<a href="#cite_note-Nketia_1973-11">[11]</a>: 7–15 <a href="#cite_note-Jones_1954-48">[48]</a> Enslaved African Americans "in the plantation South drew on native rhythms and their African heritage."<a href="#cite_note-mcgc-49">[49]</a> According to a May 2012 <a href="/wiki/PBS" title="PBS">PBS</a> interview, "spirituals were religious folks songs, often rooted in biblical stories, woven together, sung, and passed along from one slave generation to another".<a href="#cite_note-PBS_Faw_20120504-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[Notes 1]</a><a href="#cite_note-52">[Notes 2]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[Notes 3]</a> According to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Walter_Pitt&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Walter Pitt (page does not exist)">Walter Pitt</a>'s 1996 book, spirituals are a musical form that is indigenous and specific to the religious experience African slaves and their descendants in the United States. Pitts said that they were a result of the interaction of music and religion from Africa with music and religion of European origin.<a href="#cite_note-Pitts_1996-54">[51]</a>: 74  In a May 2012 PBS interview, Uzee Brown, Jr. said that spirituals were the "survival tools for the African slave".<a href="#cite_note-PBS_Faw_20120504-50">[50]</a> Brown said that while other similarly-oppressed cultures were "virtually wiped out", the African slave survived because of spirituals by "singing through many of their problems", by creating their own "way of communicating".<a href="#cite_note-PBS_Faw_20120504-50">[50]</a> Enslaved people introduced a number of new instruments to America: the bones, body percussion, and an instrument variously called the bania, banju, or banjar, a precursor to the banjo but without frets.<a href="#cite_note-PBS_Faw_20120504-50">[50]</a> They brought with them from Africa long-standing religious traditions that highlighted the importance of storytelling.<a href="#cite_note-PBS_Abernethy_20050826-55">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-NHC_Q&A_forum_200010-56">[53]</a> Evidence of the vital role African music has played in the creation of African American spirituals exists, among other elements, in the use of "complex rhythms" and "polyrhythms" from West Africa.<a href="#cite_note-Nketia_1973-11">[11]</a>: 7–15  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion_in_everyday_life">Religion in everyday life</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Spirituals&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Religion in everyday life">edit</a>]</div> According to the beliefs of slave religion—the "material and the spiritual are part of an intrinsic unity".<a href="#cite_note-JBS_Barker_2015-57">[54]</a> Music, religion, and everyday life are inseparable in the spirituals, and through them, religious ideals were infused into the activities of everyday life.<a href="#cite_note-JBS_Barker_2015-57">[54]</a>: 372  The spirituals provided some immunity protecting the African American religion from being colonized, and in this way preserved the "sacred as a potential space of resistance".<a href="#cite_note-JBS_Barker_2015-57">[54]</a>: 372  A 2015 article in the Journal of Black Studies said that it was not surprising therefore that "spirituals were sung primarily as rowing songs, field songs, work songs, and social songs, rather than exclusively within the church."<a href="#cite_note-JBS_Barker_2015-57">[54]</a>: 372  The article described how, "through the use of metonymy (substituting associated words to ostensibly alter the semantic content), spirituals acted as a form of religious education, able to speak simultaneously of material and spiritual freedom", for example in the spiritual, "Steal Away to Jesus".<a href="#cite_note-JBS_Barker_2015-57">[54]</a>: 372  In William Eleazar Barton's (1899–1972) Old Plantation Hymns, the author wrote that African American "hymns seldom make allusion to the Bible as a source of inspiration. They prefer "heart religion" to "book religion". Barton, who attended services with African Americans, said that they did not sing the "ordinary" hymns that strengthened "assurance by a promise of God in Holy Scripture"; rather, in the African-American hymns, they appeal to a more personal "revelation from the Lord." He cites the examples of "We're Some of the Praying People" and a hymn from Alabama—"Wear a starry crown". He also notes that both these songs have a "threefold repetition and a concluding line." : 16  In the latter, we find the "familiar swing and syncopation" of the African American.<a href="#cite_note-58">[55]</a> Spirituals were not simply different versions of hymns or Bible stories, but rather a creative altering of the material; new melodies and music, refashioned text, and stylistic differences helped to set apart the music as distinctly African-American.<a href="#cite_note-Southern_1983-59">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-Southern_1997-60">[57]</a> The <a href="/wiki/First_Great_Awakening" title="First Great Awakening">First Great Awakening</a>, or "Evangelical Revival"—a series of <a href="/wiki/Christian_revival" title="Christian revival">Christian revivals</a> in the 1730s and 1740s swept <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Great Britain</a> and its <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">North American colonies</a>, resulted in many enslaved people in the colonies being converting to Christianity.<a href="#cite_note-McGrawHill_AAS-61">[58]</a> During that time northern <a href="/wiki/Baptist" class="mw-redirect" title="Baptist">Baptist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Methodist" class="mw-redirect" title="Methodist">Methodist</a> preachers converted African Americans, including those who were enslaved. In some communities African Americans were accepted into Christian communities as deacons.<a href="#cite_note-62">[59]</a> From 1800 to 1825 enslaved people were exposed to the religious music of camp meetings on the ever-expanding frontier.<a href="#cite_note-NMAAHC_2012-9">[9]</a> As African religious traditions declined in America in the 18th and 19th centuries, more African Americans began to convert to Christianity.<a href="#cite_note-63">[60]</a> In a 1982 "scathing critique" of Awakening scholars, Yale University historian, Jon Butler, wrote that the Awakening was a myth that has been constructed by historians in the 18th century who had attempted to use the narrative of the Awakening for their own "religious purposes".<a href="#cite_note-JAH_Butler_198209-64">[61]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biblical_themes">Biblical themes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Spirituals&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Biblical themes">edit</a>]</div> By the 17th century, enslaved Africans were familiar with Christian biblical stories, such as the story of Moses and Daniel, seeing their own stories reflected in them. An Africanized form of Christianity evolved in the slave population with African American spirituals providing a way to "express the community's new faith, as well as its sorrows and hopes."<a href="#cite_note-LOC_SOA_2016-43">[43]</a> As Africans were exposed to stories from the Bible, they began to see parallels to their own experiences. The story of the exile of the Jews and their captivity in Babylon, resonated with their own captivity.<a href="#cite_note-McGrawHill_AAS-61">[58]</a> The lyrics of Christian spirituals reference symbolic aspects of Biblical images such as <a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses</a> and Israel's <a href="/wiki/The_Exodus" title="The Exodus">Exodus</a> from Egypt in songs such as "<a href="/wiki/Michael_Row_the_Boat_Ashore" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Row the Boat Ashore">Michael Row the Boat Ashore</a>". There is also a duality in the lyrics of spirituals. They communicated many Christian ideals while also communicating the hardship that was a result of being an enslaved.<a href="#cite_note-65">[62]</a> The river Jordan in traditional African American religious song became a symbolic borderland not only between this world and the next. It could also symbolize travel to the north and freedom or could signify a proverbial border from the status of slavery to living free.<a href="#cite_note-66">[63]</a> Syncopation, or ragged time, was a natural part of spiritual music. Songs were played on African-inspired instruments.<a href="#cite_note-Pershey-67">[64]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Collections_of_lyrics_of_the_spirituals">Collections of lyrics of the spirituals</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Spirituals&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Collections of lyrics of the spirituals">edit</a>]</div> African-American spirituals have associations with plantation songs, slave songs, freedom songs, and songs of the Underground Railway, and were oral until the end of the <a href="/wiki/US_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="US Civil War">US Civil War</a>. Following the Civil War and emancipation, there has been "extensive collection and preservation of spirituals as folk song tradition". The first collection of Negro spirituals was published in 1867, two years after the war had ended. Entitled <a href="/wiki/Slave_Songs_of_the_United_States" title="Slave Songs of the United States">Slave Songs of the United States</a>, it was compiled by three northern abolitionists—<a href="/wiki/Charles_Pickard_Ware" title="Charles Pickard Ware">Charles Pickard Ware</a> (1840–1921), <a href="/wiki/Lucy_McKim_Garrison" title="Lucy McKim Garrison">Lucy McKim Garrison</a> (1842–1877), <a href="/wiki/William_Francis_Allen" title="William Francis Allen">William Francis Allen</a> (1830–1889)<a href="#cite_note-Slave_songs_1867-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-Slave_songs_Schlein_1965-68">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-69">[Notes 4]</a> The 1867 compilation built on the entire collection of <a href="/wiki/Charles_Pickard_Ware" title="Charles Pickard Ware">Charles P. Ware</a>, who had mainly collected songs at Coffin's Point, <a href="/wiki/Saint_Helena_Island_(South_Carolina)" title="Saint Helena Island (South Carolina)">St. Helena Island</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Carolina" title="South Carolina">South Carolina</a>, home to the African-American <a href="/wiki/Gullah" title="Gullah">Gullah</a> people originally from West Africa. Most of the 1867 book consisted of songs gathered directly from African Americans.<a href="#cite_note-Slave_songs_1867-16">[16]</a> By the 1830s at least, "plantation songs", "genuine slave songs", and "Negro melodies", had become extraordinarily popular. Eventually, "spurious imitations" for more "sentimental tastes" were created. The authors noted that "Long time ago", "Near the lake where drooped the willow", and "Way down in Raccoon Hollow" were borrowed from African-American songs.<a href="#cite_note-Slave_songs_1867-16">[16]</a> There had been a renewed interest in these songs through the <a href="/wiki/Port_Royal_Experiment" title="Port Royal Experiment">Port Royal Experiment</a> (1861 - ), where newly-freed African American plantation workers successfully took over operation of <a href="/wiki/Port_Royal_Island" title="Port Royal Island">Port Royal Island</a> plantations in 1861, where they had formerly been enslaved. Northern abolitionist missionaries, educators and doctors came to oversee Port Royal's development. The authors noted that, by 1867, the "first seven spirituals in this collection" were "regularly sung at church".<a href="#cite_note-Slave_songs_1867-16">[16]</a> In 1869, Colonel <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Wentworth_Higginson" title="Thomas Wentworth Higginson">Thomas Wentworth Higginson</a>, who commanded the first African-American regiment of the Civil War, the 1st South Carolina Volunteers—"recruited, trained, and stationed at <a href="/wiki/Beaufort,_South_Carolina" title="Beaufort, South Carolina">Beaufort, South Carolina</a>" from 1862 to 1863.<a href="#cite_note-UUDB_Andrews_20150324-70">[66]</a> Higginson admired the former slaves in his regiment saying, "It was their demeanor under arms that shamed the nation into recognizing them as men." He mingled with the soldiers and in published his 1869 memoir Army Life in a Black Regiment in which he included the lyrics of selected spirituals.<a href="#cite_note-Atlantic_Higginson_1867-71">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[68]</a> During the Civil War, Higginson wrote down some of the spirituals he heard in camp. "Almost all their songs were thoroughly religious in their tone, ...and were in a minor key, both as to words and music."<a href="#cite_note-Atlantic_Higginson_1867-71">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bauch_2013-73">[69]</a> Starting in 1871, the Fisk Jubilee Singers began touring, creating more interest in the "spirituals as concert repertory". By 1872, the Jubilee Singers were publishing their own books of songs, which included "<a href="/wiki/The_Gospel_Train" title="The Gospel Train">The Gospel Train</a>". <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1096940132">.mw-parser-output .listen .side-box-text{line-height:1.1em}.mw-parser-output .listen-plain{border:none;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded{width:100%;margin:0;border-width:1px 0 0 0;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-header{padding:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded .listen-header{padding:2px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen-file-header{padding:4px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen .description{padding-top:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen .mw-tmh-player{max-width:100%}@media(max-width:719px){.mw-parser-output .listen{clear:both}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .listen:not(.listen-noimage){width:320px}.mw-parser-output .listen-left{overflow:visible;float:left}.mw-parser-output .listen-center{float:none;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/50px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/75px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/100px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Swing_Low,_Sweet_Chariot_-_Fisk_Jubilee_Singers.ogg" title="File:Swing Low, Sweet Chariot - Fisk Jubilee Singers.ogg">"Swing Low, Sweet Chariot"</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="232" style="width:232px;" data-durationhint="207" data-mwtitle="Swing_Low,_Sweet_Chariot_-_Fisk_Jubilee_Singers.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/6b/Swing_Low%2C_Sweet_Chariot_-_Fisk_Jubilee_Singers.ogg/Swing_Low%2C_Sweet_Chariot_-_Fisk_Jubilee_Singers.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6b/Swing_Low%2C_Sweet_Chariot_-_Fisk_Jubilee_Singers.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></div> <div class="description">"<a href="/wiki/Swing_Low,_Sweet_Chariot" title="Swing Low, Sweet Chariot">Swing Low, Sweet Chariot</a>" performed by the <a href="/wiki/Fisk_Jubilee_Singers" title="Fisk Jubilee Singers">Fisk Jubilee Singers</a></div></div></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"><hr />Problems playing this file? See <a href="/wiki/Help:Media" title="Help:Media">media help</a>.</div> </div> Reverend Alexander Reid had attended a Fisk Jubilee Singers' performance in 1871, and suggested they add several songs to their repertoire. Reid, who had been a superintendent at the Spencerville Academy in <a href="/wiki/Spencerville,_Oklahoma" title="Spencerville, Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a> in <a href="/wiki/Choctaw_Nation_of_Oklahoma" title="Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma">Choctaw Nation territory</a> in the 1850s, had heard two workers enslaved by the Choctaw people, —an African-American family— father <a href="/wiki/Wallace_Willis" title="Wallace Willis">Wallace Willis</a> and daughter <a href="/wiki/Minerva_Willis" title="Minerva Willis">Minerva Willis</a>—singing "their favorite plantation songs" from their cabin door in the evenings. They had learned the songs in "Mississippi in their early youth."<a href="#cite_note-Flickinger_1914-74">[70]</a> Reid provided the Jubilee Singers with the lyrics of "<a href="/wiki/Swing_Low,_Sweet_Chariot" title="Swing Low, Sweet Chariot">Swing Low, Sweet Chariot</a>", <a href="/wiki/Roll,_Jordan,_Roll" title="Roll, Jordan, Roll">Roll, Jordan, Roll</a>, "The Angels are Coming", "I'm a Rolling", and "<a href="/wiki/Steal_Away" title="Steal Away">Steal Away To Jesus</a>", and others that Willis and his wife had sung.<a href="#cite_note-Flickinger_1914-74">[70]</a> The Jubilee Singers popularized Willis' songs. <div style="clear:left;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Popularization">Popularization</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Spirituals&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Popularization">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fisk_Jubilee_Singers_popularized_spirituals">Fisk Jubilee Singers popularized spirituals</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Spirituals&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Fisk Jubilee Singers popularized spirituals">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Fisk_Jubilee_Singers" title="Fisk Jubilee Singers">Fisk Jubilee Singers</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Story_of_the_Jubilee_Singers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/The_Story_of_the_Jubilee_Singers.jpg/220px-The_Story_of_the_Jubilee_Singers.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/The_Story_of_the_Jubilee_Singers.jpg/330px-The_Story_of_the_Jubilee_Singers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/The_Story_of_the_Jubilee_Singers.jpg/440px-The_Story_of_the_Jubilee_Singers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5399" data-file-height="4050" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Fisk_Jubilee_Singers" title="Fisk Jubilee Singers">Fisk Jubilee Singers</a>, 1875</figcaption></figure> The original Fisk Jubilee Singers, a touring <a href="/wiki/A_cappella" title="A cappella">a cappella</a> male and female choir of nine students of the newly established Fisk school in Nashville, Tennessee who were active from 1871 to 1878, popularized Negro spirituals.<a href="#cite_note-FJS_history_2006-75">[71]</a> The name "jubilee" referred to the "year of jubilee" in the <a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a>—a time of the emancipation of slaves. On January 9, 1866, shortly after the end of the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a> (1861 to May 9, 1865), the <a href="/wiki/American_Missionary_Association" title="American Missionary Association">American Missionary Association</a> founded the <a href="/wiki/Fisk_University" title="Fisk University">Fisk University</a> in Nashville, Tennessee, the <a href="/wiki/Historically_black_colleges_and_universities" title="Historically black colleges and universities">historically black college</a>. As a school-fundraiser, the Fisk Jubilee Singers had their first tour on what is now called Jubilee Day—October 6, 1871.<a href="#cite_note-FJS_history_2006-75">[71]</a> The first audiences were small, local, and skeptical, but by 1872, they performed at Boston's World Peace Festival and at the White House, and in 1873 they toured Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FJS_history_2006-75">[71]</a> In their early days, the Jubilee Singers did not sing the slave songs. Sheppard—who also composed and arranged music—explained how slave songs, like those published in the 1867 Slave Songs, had not initially been part of the Singers' repertoire because the songs, "were sacred to our parents, who used them in their religious worship and shouted over them." Shephard said that, "It was only after many months that gradually our hearts were opened to the influence of these friends and we began to appreciate the wonderful beauty and power of our songs." Eventually their repertoire began to include these songs.<a href="#cite_note-Slave_songs_1867-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[72]</a> By 1878 the Singers had disbanded.<a href="#cite_note-FJS_history_2006-75">[71]</a> In 1890 the Singers legacy was revived when <a href="/wiki/Ella_Sheppard" title="Ella Sheppard">Ella Sheppard</a>, Moore—one of the original nine Fisk Jubilee Singers—returned to Fisk and began to coach new jubilee vocalists, including <a href="/wiki/John_Wesley_Work_Jr." title="John Wesley Work Jr.">John Wesley Work Jr.</a> (1871–1925).<a href="#cite_note-JSAM_Graham_201205-77">[73]</a>: 253  In 1899, Fisk University president E. M. Cravath put out a call for a mixed (male and female) jubilee singers ensemble that would tour on behalf of the university.<a href="#cite_note-JSAM_Graham_201205-77">[73]</a>: 253  The full mixed choir became too expensive to tour, and was replaced by John Work II's male quartet. The quartet received "widespread acclaim" and eventually made a series of best-selling recordings for Victor in December 1909, February 1911, for Edison in December 1911, for Columbia is October 1915 and February 1916, and Starr in 1916.<a href="#cite_note-JSAM_Graham_201205-77">[73]</a>: 253  John Work Jr.—also known as John Work II—spent three decades at Fisk University, collecting and promulgating the "jubilee songcraft" of the original Fisk Jubilee Singers and in 1901 he co-published New Jubilee Songs as Sung by the Fisk Jubilee Singers with his brother, Frederick J. Work.<a href="#cite_note-Sullivan2017-78">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-WesleyPapers-79">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-FJS_history_2006-75">[71]</a> From 1890 through 1919, "African Americans made significant contributions to the recording industry in its formative years", with recordings by the Fisk Jubilee Singers and others.<a href="#cite_note-Brooks_2004-80">[76]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hampton_Singers">Hampton Singers</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Spirituals&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Hampton Singers">edit</a>]</div> In 1873, the Hampton Singers formed a group in <a href="/wiki/Hampton,_Virginia" title="Hampton, Virginia">Hampton, Virginia</a> at what is now known as <a href="/wiki/Hampton_University" title="Hampton University">Hampton University</a>. They were the first ensemble to "rival the Jubilee Singers". With <a href="/wiki/Robert_Nathaniel_Dett" title="Robert Nathaniel Dett">Robert Nathaniel Dett</a> (1882–1943) as conductor until 1933, Hampton Singers "earned an international following."<a href="#cite_note-LOC_AAS_2016-44">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tuskegee_Institute_Quartet">Tuskegee Institute Quartet</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Spirituals&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Tuskegee Institute Quartet">edit</a>]</div> The first formal a capella Tuskegee Quartet was organized in 1884 by <a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a>, who was also the founder of the Tuskegee Institute. Since 1881, Washington had insisted that everyone attending their weekly religious services should join in singing African American spirituals. The Quartet was formed to "promote the interest of Tuskegee Institute". In 1909 a new quartet was formed. The singers travelled intermittently until the 1940s.<a href="#cite_note-81">[77]</a> Like the Fisk Jubilee Singers, the Tuskegee Institute Singers sang spirituals in a modified harmonized style. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_concert_spiritual_tradition">The concert spiritual tradition</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Spirituals&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: The concert spiritual tradition">edit</a>]</div> African American composers—<a href="/wiki/Harry_Burleigh" title="Harry Burleigh">Harry Burleigh</a>, <a href="/wiki/R._Nathaniel_Dett" class="mw-redirect" title="R. Nathaniel Dett">R. Nathaniel Dett</a>, and William Dawson, created a "new repertoire for the concert stage" by applying their Western classical education to the spirituals.<a href="#cite_note-NPR_20190620-13">[13]</a> They brought spirituals to concert settings and mentored the next generation of professional spirituals musicians starting in the early 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-82">[78]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maud_Cuney_Hare-Harry_T_Burleigh_328.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Maud_Cuney_Hare-Harry_T_Burleigh_328.jpg/220px-Maud_Cuney_Hare-Harry_T_Burleigh_328.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="320" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Maud_Cuney_Hare-Harry_T_Burleigh_328.jpg/330px-Maud_Cuney_Hare-Harry_T_Burleigh_328.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Maud_Cuney_Hare-Harry_T_Burleigh_328.jpg/440px-Maud_Cuney_Hare-Harry_T_Burleigh_328.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="1859" /></a><figcaption>Photograph of <a href="/wiki/Harry_T._Burleigh" class="mw-redirect" title="Harry T. Burleigh">Harry T. Burleigh</a>, 1936</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Harry_Burleigh" title="Harry Burleigh">Harry Burleigh</a>'s (1866–1949)—an African-American <a href="/wiki/Classical_music" title="Classical music">classical</a> composer and baritone performed in many concert settings published Jubilee Songs of the United States in 1929, which made "spirituals available to solo concert singers as art songs for the first time".<a href="#cite_note-AMRC_Glover_1998-83">[79]</a>: 102  Burleigh arranged spirituals with a classical form. He was also a baritone, who performed in many concert settings. He introduced classically trained artists, such as <a href="/wiki/Anton%C3%ADn_Dvo%C5%99%C3%A1k" title="Antonín Dvořák">Antonín Dvořák</a> to African-American spirituals.<a href="#cite_note-84">[80]</a> Some believe that Dvorak was inspired by the spirituals in his Symphony From the New World.<a href="#cite_note-Pershey-67">[64]</a> He coached African-American soloists, such as <a href="/wiki/Marian_Anderson" title="Marian Anderson">Marian Anderson</a>,<a href="#cite_note-85">[81]</a> as solo classical singers. Others, such as <a href="/wiki/Roland_Hayes" title="Roland Hayes">Roland Hayes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Robeson" title="Paul Robeson">Paul Robeson</a> continued his legacy.<a href="#cite_note-Southern_1983-59">[56]</a>: 284 <a href="#cite_note-AMRC_Glover_1998-83">[79]</a> Burleigh published Jubilee Songs of the United States in 1929, which made "spirituals available to solo concert singers as art songs for the first time".<a href="#cite_note-AMRC_Glover_1998-83">[79]</a>: 102  <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Robert_Nathaniel_Dett.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Robert_Nathaniel_Dett.jpg/220px-Robert_Nathaniel_Dett.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="284" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Robert_Nathaniel_Dett.jpg/330px-Robert_Nathaniel_Dett.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Robert_Nathaniel_Dett.jpg/440px-Robert_Nathaniel_Dett.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1591" data-file-height="2053" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nathaniel_Dett" title="Robert Nathaniel Dett">Robert Nathaniel Dett</a> in the 1920s</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/R._Nathaniel_Dett" class="mw-redirect" title="R. Nathaniel Dett">R. Nathaniel Dett</a> (1882–1943) is known for his arrangements that incorporated the music and spirit of European Romantic composers with African-American spirituals.<a href="#cite_note-Brooks2010-86">[82]</a> In 1918, he said, "We have this wonderful store of folk music—the melodies of an enslaved people" but it will be of no value if it is not used. We must treat spirituals "in such manner that it can be presented in choral form, in lyric and operatic works, in concertos and suites and salon music".<a href="#cite_note-Southern_1997-60">[57]</a>: 280  R. Nathaniel Dett was a mentor to <a href="/wiki/Edward_Boatner" title="Edward Boatner">Edward Boatner</a> (1898–1981), an African American composer who wrote many popular concert arrangements of the spirituals.<a href="#cite_note-Southern_1997-60">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-AMRC_Glover_1998-83">[79]</a> Boatner and Willa A. Townsend published Spirituals triumphant old and new in 1927.<a href="#cite_note-Boatner_Spirituals_1927-87">[83]</a> Boatner "maintained the importance of authenticity regarding the collection and transcription of spirituals, but also clearly identified with the new, stylized and polished ways in which they were arranged and performed".<a href="#cite_note-AMRC_Glover_1998-83">[79]</a>: 102  <a href="/wiki/William_L._Dawson_(composer)" title="William L. Dawson (composer)">William L. Dawson</a> (1876 – 1938), a composer, choir director, music professor, and <a href="/wiki/Musicologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Musicologist">musicologist</a>, is known, among other accomplishments, for the world premiere by the <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia_Orchestra" title="Philadelphia Orchestra">Philadelphia Orchestra</a> of his 1934 <a href="/wiki/Negro_Folk_Symphony" title="Negro Folk Symphony">Negro Folk Symphony</a> which was revised with added African rhythms in 1952 following Dawson's trip to <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a>. One of his most popular spirituals is "<a href="/wiki/Ezekiel_Saw_the_Wheel" title="Ezekiel Saw the Wheel">Ezekiel Saw the Wheel</a>".<a href="#cite_note-88">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[85]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Spirituals_in_contemporary_life">Spirituals in contemporary life</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Spirituals&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Spirituals in contemporary life">edit</a>]</div> The Fisk Jubilee Singers continue to maintain their popularity in the 21st century with live performances in locations such as <a href="/wiki/Grand_Ole_Opry_House" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Ole Opry House">Grand Ole Opry House</a> in 2019 in Nashville, Tennessee.<a href="#cite_note-90">[86]</a> In 2019 Tazewell Thompson presented an cappella musical entitled Jubilee, which is a tribute to the Fisk Jubilee Singers.<a href="#cite_note-91">[87]</a> Spirituals remain a mainstay particularly in small black churches, often Baptist or Pentecostal, in the deep South.<a href="#cite_note-Banks-92">[88]</a> The latter half of the 20th century saw a resurgence of the spiritual. This trend was impacted strongly by composers and musical directors such as <a href="/wiki/Moses_Hogan" title="Moses Hogan">Moses Hogan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brazeal_Dennard" title="Brazeal Dennard">Brazeal Dennard</a>. Arthur Jones founded "The Spirituals Project" at the University of Denver in 1999 to help keep alive the message and meaning of the songs that had moved from the fields of the South to the concert halls of the North.<a href="#cite_note-Banks-92">[88]</a> <a href="/wiki/Everett_McCorvey" title="Everett McCorvey">Everett McCorvey</a> founded The American Spiritual Ensemble<a href="#cite_note-93">[89]</a> in 1995, a group of about two dozen professional singers who tour performing spirituals in the United States and abroad. The group has produced several CDs, including "The Spirituals",<a href="#cite_note-Gospel_Singers-94">[90]</a> and is the focus of a public broadcasting documentary.<a href="#cite_note-95">[91]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Stylistic_origins_and_qualities">Stylistic origins and qualities</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Spirituals&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Stylistic origins and qualities">edit</a>]</div> Qualities of the spirituals include mastery of the blending of voices, timing, and intonation.<a href="#cite_note-PBS_Faw_20120504-50">[50]</a> Spirituals were originally unaccompanied monophonic songs. The tempo in some songs may be slowed down at times—ritardando—as in the case of "sorrow songs" and/or to showcase the "beauty and blending of the voices".<a href="#cite_note-JSAM_Graham_201205-77">[73]</a> Along with the "solo call and unison response", songs may include "overlapping layers, and spine-tingling falsetto humming."<a href="#cite_note-JSAM_Graham_201205-77">[73]</a> Stylistic origins include <a href="/wiki/African_music" class="mw-redirect" title="African music">African music</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hymn#Christian_hymnody" title="Hymn">Christian hymns</a>, <a href="/wiki/Work_songs" class="mw-redirect" title="Work songs">work songs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Field_holler" title="Field holler">field holler</a>,.<a href="#cite_note-shaw-96">[92]</a> Historian Jonathan Curiel also noted possible influences from <a href="/wiki/Islamic_music" title="Islamic music">Islamic music</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Curiel-97">[93]</a> According to a McGraw Hill publication for grade school, "Spirituals were sung as <a href="/wiki/Lullaby" title="Lullaby">lullabies</a> and play songs. Some spirituals were adapted as work songs.<a href="#cite_note-McGrawHill_AAS-61">[58]</a> Black spirituals "use of microtonally flatted notes, syncopation and counter-rhythms marked by handclapping in black spiritual performances."<a href="#cite_note-LOC_AAS_2016-44">[44]</a> It "stands out for the singers' striking vocal timbre that features shouting, exclamations of the word "Glory!" and raspy and shrill falsetto tones".<a href="#cite_note-LOC_AAS_2016-44">[44]</a> Numerous rhythmical and sonic elements of spirituals can be traced to African sources, including prominent use of the <a href="/wiki/Pentatonic_scale" title="Pentatonic scale">pentatonic scale</a> (the black keys on the piano).<a href="#cite_note-98">[94]</a> In his 1954 book <a href="/wiki/Studies_in_African_Music" title="Studies in African Music">Studies in African Music</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Morris_Jones" title="Arthur Morris Jones">Arthur Morris Jones</a> (1889–1980), a missionary and <a href="/wiki/Ethnomusicology" title="Ethnomusicology">ethnomusicologist</a>, said that in African music, the "complex interweaving of contrasting rhythmic patterns" was central to African music, just as harmonies were valued in European music. Jones described the drum is the highest expression of rhythms, but they can also be produced through hand-clapping, stick-beating, rattles, and the "pounding of pestles in a mortar".<a href="#cite_note-Jones_1959-99">[95]</a>: 26 <a href="#cite_note-100">[Notes 5]</a><a href="#cite_note-101">[96]</a> Over time "formal concert tradition has evolved,"<a href="#cite_note-Gospel_Singers-94">[90]</a> which included the work of the Hampton Singers under composer R. Nathaniel Dett.<a href="#cite_note-LOC_AAS_2016-44">[44]</a> In the 20th century, composers, such as <a href="/wiki/Moses_Hogan" title="Moses Hogan">Moses Hogan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roland_Carter_(composer)" title="Roland Carter (composer)">Roland Carter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jester_Hairston" title="Jester Hairston">Jester Hairston</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brazeal_Dennard" title="Brazeal Dennard">Brazeal Dennard</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wendell_Whalum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wendell Whalum (page does not exist)">Wendell Whalum</a> transformed the "cappella arrangements of spirituals for choruses" beyond its "traditional folk song roots".<a href="#cite_note-LOC_AAS_2016-44">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Call_and_response">Call and response</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Spirituals&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Call and response">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/University_of_Denver" title="University of Denver">University of Denver</a> professor, Arthur Jones, who established "<a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Spirituals_Project&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Spirituals Project (page does not exist)">The Spirituals Project</a> in 1998, out of the university's Lamont School of Music, described how coded words could be introduced in the call and response overlap, which only insiders aware of the encrypted message could understand.<a href="#cite_note-Jones_1993-8">[8]</a>: 51, 55  <a href="#cite_note-CPR-102">[97]</a> He described "already existing spirituals" were employed "clandestinely" as one of the many ways people used in their "multilayered struggle for freedom."<a href="#cite_note-Jones_1993-8">[8]</a>: 51, 55 <a href="#cite_note-Gospel_Singers-94">[90]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sorrow_songs">Sorrow songs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Spirituals&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Sorrow songs">edit</a>]</div> Slave songs were called "Sorrow Songs" by <a href="/wiki/W.E.B._Du_Bois" class="mw-redirect" title="W.E.B. Du Bois">W.E.B. Du Bois</a> in his book, 1903 book, <a href="/wiki/The_Souls_of_Black_Folk" title="The Souls of Black Folk">The Souls of Black Folk</a>.<a href="#cite_note-DuBois_SorrowSongs_1904-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-APT_Kirkland_2015-40">[40]</a> Sorrow songs are spirituals, such as, "<a href="/wiki/Sometimes_I_Feel_Like_a_Motherless_Child" title="Sometimes I Feel Like a Motherless Child">Sometimes I Feel Like a Motherless Child</a>", and "<a href="/wiki/Nobody_Knows_the_Trouble_I%27ve_Seen" title="Nobody Knows the Trouble I've Seen">Nobody Knows the Trouble I've Seen</a>"—songs that are intense and melancholic—are sung at a slower pace.<a href="#cite_note-LOC_AAS_2016-44">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jubilee_songs">Jubilee songs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Spirituals&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Jubilee songs">edit</a>]</div> The Fisk Jubilee Singers had been so successful that other groups were created to perform similar music.<a href="#cite_note-Ginell-103">[98]</a> Over time the term "jubilee" was used to refer to other ensembles who sang the original group's repertoire.<a href="#cite_note-Ginell-103">[98]</a> In the early 1900s jubilee singers also referred to singers who performed gospel music, and hymns as well as spirituals.<a href="#cite_note-Ginell-103">[98]</a> Examples of these early nineteenth century groups include the Norfolk Jubilee Quartet, the Utica Jubilee Singers, and the Tuskegee Institute Singers.<a href="#cite_note-Ginell-103">[98]</a> Jubilee songs, also known as "camp meeting songs," such as and "<a href="/w/index.php?title=Fare_Ye_Well&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fare Ye Well (page does not exist)">Fare Ye Well</a>" and "<a href="/wiki/Bosom_of_Abraham_(song)" title="Bosom of Abraham (song)">Rocky my soul in the bosom of Abraham</a>" are fast-paced, "rhythmic and often syncopated".<a href="#cite_note-LOC_AAS_2016-44">[44]</a> Spiritual songs which looked forward to a time of future happiness, or deliverance from tribulation, were often known as 'jubilees.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In some churches, such as the <a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostal</a> church in the 1910s and 1920s in <a href="/wiki/New_Orleans" title="New Orleans">New Orleans</a>, there was no organ or choir and music was louder, more exuberant and included up tempo spirituals called "jubilees". They "used the drum, the cymbal, the tambourine, and the steel triangle. Everybody in there sang, and they clapped and stomped their feet, and sang with their whole bodies. They had a beat, a rhythm we held on to from slavery days, and their music was so strong and expressive."<a href="#cite_note-Broughton_1985-104">[99]</a>: 52–53  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Freedom_songs">Freedom songs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Spirituals&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Freedom songs">edit</a>]</div> Frederick Douglass, an abolitionist and a former slave said that slave songs awakened him to the dehumanizing character of slavery, "The mere recurrence, even now, afflicts my spirit, and while I am writing these lines, my tears are falling. To those songs I trace my first glimmering conceptions of the dehumanizing character of slavery. I can never get rid of that conception. Those songs still follow me, to deepen my hatred of slavery, and quicken my sympathies for my brethren in bonds.<a href="#cite_note-105">[100]</a> In a 2017 PBS Newshour, segment entitled "Singing in Slavery: Songs of Survival, Songs of Freedom" said that, while it is "has not been proven, it is believed"—that "<a href="/wiki/Wade_in_the_Water" title="Wade in the Water">Wade in the Water</a>" was one of the songs associated with the <a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a>—a network of secret routes and safe houses used by slaves in the United States to find freedom.<a href="#cite_note-PBS_Berry_20170123-106">[101]</a> warn slaves to get off the trail and into the water to prevent <a href="/wiki/Bloodhounds" class="mw-redirect" title="Bloodhounds">bloodhounds</a>—used by the slavers—from following their trail.<a href="#cite_note-PBS_Berry_20170123-106">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jones_1993-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bradford_Tubman_2008-107">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kashatus_2002-108">[103]</a>: 18  Jones described how during the years of the <a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a> "already existing spirituals" were employed "clandestinely" as one of the many ways people used in their "multilayered struggle for freedom."<a href="#cite_note-Jones_1993-8">[8]</a>: 51, 55  He described how coded words could be introduced in the call and response overlap, which only insiders aware of the encrypted message.<a href="#cite_note-Jones_1993-8">[8]</a>: 51, 55  A collaborative production by <a href="/wiki/Maryland_Public_Television" title="Maryland Public Television">Maryland Public Television</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maryland_Historical_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Maryland Historical Society">Maryland Historical Society</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Maryland_State_Archives" title="Maryland State Archives">Maryland State Archives</a> entitled "Pathways to Freedom: Maryland and the Underground Railroad" had included a section on how songs that many slaves knew had "secret meanings" that they could be "used to signal many things".<a href="#cite_note-109">[104]</a> Certain songs were believed to have contained explicit instructions to fugitive slaves on how to avoid capture and the route to take to successfully make their way to freedom.<a href="#cite_note-Ponomarenko_2001-110">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-negrospirituals-111">[106]</a> Other spirituals that some believe have coded messages include "<a href="/wiki/The_Gospel_Train" title="The Gospel Train">The Gospel Train</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Song_of_the_Free" title="Song of the Free">Song of the Free</a>", and "<a href="/wiki/Swing_Low,_Sweet_Chariot" title="Swing Low, Sweet Chariot">Swing Low, Sweet Chariot</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Follow_the_Drinking_Gourd" class="mw-redirect" title="Follow the Drinking Gourd">Follow the Drinking Gourd</a>".<a href="#cite_note-112">[107]</a> James Kelley in his 2008 article said that there is a lack of corroborating sources to prove that there is a coded message in "Follow the Drinking Gourd".<a href="#cite_note-songstory-113">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[110]</a> One 1953 article by Sterling Brown said that there are scholars who "believe that when the Negro sang of freedom, he meant only what the whites meant, namely freedom from sin."<a href="#cite_note-Brown_1953-116">[111]</a> Brown said that, to an enslaved person freedom would also mean freedom from slavery.<a href="#cite_note-Brown_1953-116">[111]</a> When the enslaved person sings, "I been rebuked, I been scorned; done had a hard time sho's you bawn," he is not only referring to freedom from sin but from physical bondage.<a href="#cite_note-Brown_1953-116">[111]</a> Brown cited Douglass, saying that Canaan stood for Canada; and "over and beyond hidden satire the songs also were grapevines for communications. Harriet Tubman, herself called the Moses of her people, has told us that "<a href="/wiki/Go_Down_Moses" title="Go Down Moses">Go Down Moses</a>" was <a href="/wiki/Taboo" title="Taboo">tabu</a> in the slave states, but the people sang it nonetheless."<a href="#cite_note-Brown_1953-116">[111]</a> A 2016 Library of Congress article said that <a href="/wiki/Freedom_songs" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom songs">Freedom songs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protest_songs" class="mw-redirect" title="Protest songs">protest songs</a>, such as, <a href="/wiki/Bob_Marley" title="Bob Marley">Bob Marley</a>'s "<a href="/wiki/Redemption_Song" title="Redemption Song">Redemption Song</a>" and <a href="/wiki/Billy_Bragg" title="Billy Bragg">Billy Bragg</a>'s "Sing their souls back home'" were based on African American spirituals, and that became the musical backdrop of the call for democracy around the globe.<a href="#cite_note-LOC_AAS_2016-44">[44]</a> Many of the freedom songs, such as "<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oh,_Freedom!&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Oh, Freedom! (page does not exist)">Oh, Freedom!</a>" and "<a href="/wiki/Eyes_on_the_Prize" title="Eyes on the Prize">Eyes on the Prize</a>," that defined the <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement</a> (1954–1968) were adapted from some of the early African American spirituals. Some such as, "<a href="/wiki/We_Shall_Overcome" title="We Shall Overcome">We Shall Overcome</a>," combined the gospel hymn "I'll Overcome Someday" with the spiritual "<a href="/w/index.php?title=I%27ll_Be_all_right&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="I'll Be all right (page does not exist)">I'll Be all right</a>."<a href="#cite_note-LOC_AAS_2016-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-Carawan_1968-117">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-UT_MusicLibrary-118">[113]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Work_songs">Work songs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Spirituals&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Work songs">edit</a>]</div> In the 1927 anthology, <a href="/wiki/The_American_Songbag" title="The American Songbag">The American Songbag</a>, compiled by <a href="/wiki/Carl_Sandburg" title="Carl Sandburg">Carl Sandburg</a> (1878–1967), the American poet and folklorist, he wrote that "<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ain%27_go%27n%27_to_study_war_no_mo%27&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ain' go'n' to study war no mo' (page does not exist)">Ain' go'n' to study war no mo'</a>" was an example of a spiritual that African Americans used as work songs. He said, that, "As the singers go on, hour by hour, they bring in lines from many other spirituals. The tempo is vital. Never actually monotonous. Never ecstatic, yet steady in its onflow, sure of its pulses. It is a work song-spiritual. War is pronounced "wah" or "waw" as if to rhyme with "saw." Horse is "hawss." And so on with Negro economy of vocables in speech and song."<a href="#cite_note-Sandburg_1927-119">[114]</a>: 480–481  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Field_hollers">Field hollers</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Spirituals&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Field hollers">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Field_holler" title="Field holler">Field holler</a> music, also known as levee camp holler music, was an early form of <a href="/wiki/African_American_music" class="mw-redirect" title="African American music">African American music</a>, described in the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-Curiel-97">[93]</a> Field hollers laid the foundations for the blues, spirituals, and eventually <a href="/wiki/Rhythm_and_blues" title="Rhythm and blues">rhythm and blues</a>.<a href="#cite_note-shaw-96">[92]</a> Field hollers, cries and hollers of the <a href="/wiki/Enslaved_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Enslaved people">enslaved people</a> and later <a href="/wiki/Sharecropper" class="mw-redirect" title="Sharecropper">sharecroppers</a> working in cotton fields, prison <a href="/wiki/Chain_gangs" class="mw-redirect" title="Chain gangs">chain gangs</a>, railway gangs (<a href="/wiki/Gandy_dancer" title="Gandy dancer">gandy dancers</a>) or turpentine camps were the precursor to the <a href="/wiki/Call_and_response" title="Call and response">call and response</a> of African American spirituals and <a href="/wiki/Gospel_music#Roots_and_background" title="Gospel music">gospel music</a>, to <a href="/wiki/Jug_bands" class="mw-redirect" title="Jug bands">jug bands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Minstrel_shows" class="mw-redirect" title="Minstrel shows">minstrel shows</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stride_piano" class="mw-redirect" title="Stride piano">stride piano</a>, and ultimately to the blues, <a href="/wiki/Rhythm_and_blues" title="Rhythm and blues">rhythm and blues</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jazz" title="Jazz">jazz</a> and <a href="/wiki/African_American_music" class="mw-redirect" title="African American music">African American music</a> in general.<a href="#cite_note-shaw-96">[92]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Derivatives">Derivatives</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Spirituals&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Derivatives">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Blues" title="Blues">Blues</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gospel_music" title="Gospel music">gospel music</a> are derivatives of African American spirituals. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_blues">The blues</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Spirituals&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: The blues">edit</a>]</div> In the early 1960s, <a href="/wiki/Blues_People" title="Blues People">Blues People</a> by <a href="/wiki/Amiri_Baraka" title="Amiri Baraka">Amiri Baraka</a>—the chosen name for LeRoi Jones (1934–2014)—provided a history of African Americans through their music, beginning with the spirituals to the blues.<a href="#cite_note-Baraka_Blues_1963-120">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-Baraka_Blues_1999-121">[116]</a> By 1967, Jones had become the main spokesperson for African American intellectuals, displacing <a href="/wiki/James_Baldwin" title="James Baldwin">James Baldwin</a>, according to a 1965 review of Blues People.<a href="#cite_note-Kirkus_Deaking_1965-122">[117]</a> The blues form originated in the 1860s in the <a href="/wiki/Deep_South" title="Deep South">Deep South</a>—<a href="/wiki/South_Carolina" title="South Carolina">South Carolina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mississippi" title="Mississippi">Mississippi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">Alabama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louisiana" title="Louisiana">Louisiana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tennessee" title="Tennessee">Tennessee</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a>—states that were most dependent on the <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">slave labor</a> on <a href="/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States" title="Plantation complexes in the Southern United States">planations</a> and that held the largest number of enslaved people.<a href="#cite_note-AAIHS-123">[118]</a> The form was collectively developed by generations and communities of enslaved African Americans starting as "unaccompanied work-songs of the plantation culture".<a href="#cite_note-Grove_Oliver-124">[119]</a> The historical roots of the blues have been traced farther back to West African sources by scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Paul_Oliver" title="Paul Oliver">Paul Oliver</a><a href="#cite_note-Oliver_Syncopators_1970-125">[120]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Kubik" title="Gerhard Kubik">Gerhard Kubik</a><a href="#cite_note-Kubik_20090923-126">[121]</a>—with elements such as the "responsorial 'leader-and-chorus' form".<a href="#cite_note-Grove_Oliver-124">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-Komara_2005-127">[122]</a>: 10–13  The blues became the "most extensively recorded of all traditional music types" and since the "early 1960s, —the "most important single influence on the development of Western popular music,"<a href="#cite_note-Grove_Oliver-124">[119]</a> and are now widespread.<a href="#cite_note-Kunzler_1988-128">[123]</a>: 131 <a href="#cite_note-129">[Notes 6]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MamieSmith.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/MamieSmith.png/220px-MamieSmith.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="279" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/MamieSmith.png/330px-MamieSmith.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/MamieSmith.png/440px-MamieSmith.png 2x" data-file-width="540" data-file-height="684" /></a><figcaption>Mamie Smith</figcaption></figure> When <a href="/wiki/Mamie_Smith" title="Mamie Smith">Mamie Smith</a>'s August 10, 1920, <a href="/wiki/Okeh_Records" title="Okeh Records">Okeh</a> recording of the composer <a href="/wiki/Perry_Bradford" title="Perry Bradford">Perry Bradford</a>'s (1893–1970) <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a> <a href="/wiki/Crazy_Blues" title="Crazy Blues">Crazy Blues</a> became a commercial success, it opened the commercial record market for music for an African American audience.<a href="#cite_note-NYT_Brooks_20200810-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-LOC_2005_Komara-130">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-131">[125]</a> Prior to the success of this recording, commercial recording companies featured non-African American musicians playing African-American music.<a href="#cite_note-Welding_196609-132">[126]</a>: 343–345  Bradford's African-American band, the Jazz Hounds, "played live, improvised", "unpredicatable", "breakneck" music that was a "refreshing contrast to the buttoned-up versions of the blues interpreted by white artists across the 1910s".<a href="#cite_note-NYT_Brooks_20200810-12">[12]</a> A 1976 book, Stomping the Blues by Albert Murray, said that this interaction between Christianity and African-American spirituals occurred only in the United States. Africans who converted to Christianity in other parts of the world, even in the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a> and <a href="/wiki/Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin America</a>, did not evolve this particular form.<a href="#cite_note-Murray_stomping_1976-133">[127]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gospel_songs">Gospel songs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Spirituals&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Gospel songs">edit</a>]</div> Sacred music includes both spirituals and gospel music, which "originated in the black church and has become a globally recognized genre of popular music. In its earliest manifestations, gospel music functioned as an integral religious and ceremonial practice during worship services. Now, gospel music is also marketed commercially and draws on contemporary, secular sounds while still conveying spiritual and religious ideas."<a href="#cite_note-NMAAHC_2012-9">[9]</a> Well-known gospel singer <a href="/wiki/Mahalia_Jackson" title="Mahalia Jackson">Mahalia Jackson</a> (1911–1972) was one of Gospel music's most prominent defenders. She said that, "Blues are the songs of despair. Gospel songs are the songs of hope. When you sing gospel you have a feeling there's a cure for what's wrong. When you're through with the blues you've got nothing to rest on."<a href="#cite_note-Broughton_1985-104">[99]</a>: 52  <a href="/wiki/Horace_Clarence_Boyer" title="Horace Clarence Boyer">Horace Clarence Boyer</a> traced the emergence of Gospel music as a "discrete musical style" to the Deep South in 1906 in Pentecostal churches. Through the <a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a> of African American from the south to the north, especially in the 1930s, gospel songs entered the "mainstream of American popular culture". Gospel music had its heyday from 1945 to 1955—the "Golden Age of Gospel."<a href="#cite_note-134">[128]</a> Gospel Quartets, like the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Golden_Jubilee_Quartet&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Golden Jubilee Quartet (page does not exist)">Golden Jubilee Quartet</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Gate_Quartet" title="Golden Gate Quartet">Golden Gate Quartet</a>, changed the style of spirituals with their innovative, jubilee style which included new harmonies, syncopation with sophisticated arrangements.<a href="#cite_note-Ginell-103">[98]</a> An example of their music was their performance of "Oh, Jonah!"<a href="#cite_note-LOC_AAS_2016-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-135">[129]</a> The Golden Gate Quartet—who were active from 1934 to the late 1940s—performed in the concert <a href="/wiki/From_Spirituals_to_Swing" title="From Spirituals to Swing">From Spirituals to Swing</a> at <a href="/wiki/Carnegie_Hall" title="Carnegie Hall">Carnegie Hall</a> in the late 1930s.<a href="#cite_note-Ginell-103">[98]</a> <a href="/wiki/Zora_Neale_Hurston" title="Zora Neale Hurston">Zora Neale Hurston</a>, in her 1938 book The Sanctified Church, criticized what she called "Glee Club style" of the Fisk Jubilee Singers, Tuskegee Institute Quartet, and Hampton Singers in the 1930s. She said they were using a style" that was "full of musicians' tricks" that were not authentic to their roots in the original African American spirituals. The authentic spirituals could only be found in the "unfashionable Negro church".<a href="#cite_note-136">[130]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="White_spirituals">White spirituals</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Spirituals&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: White spirituals">edit</a>]</div> In his 1938 book, White Spirituals in the Southern Uplands, Vanderbilt University's <a href="/wiki/George_Pullen_Jackson" title="George Pullen Jackson">George Pullen Jackson</a> in Nashville drew attention to the existence of a white spiritual genre which differed in many aspects from African American spirituals.<a href="#cite_note-LOC_AAS_2016-44">[44]</a> The core of Jackson's argument, however, supported by many musical examples, is that African-American spirituals draw heavily on textual and melodic elements found in white hymns and spiritual songs. Jackson extended the term "spirituals" to a wider range of folk hymnody but this does not appear to have been widespread usage previously. The term, however, has often been broadened to include subsequent arrangements into more standard European-American hymnodic styles, and to include post-emancipation songs with stylistic similarities to the original African American spirituals. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Possible_Islamic_influences">Possible Islamic influences</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Spirituals&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Possible Islamic influences">edit</a>]</div> The historian <a href="/wiki/Sylviane_Diouf" title="Sylviane Diouf">Sylviane Diouf</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ethnomusicologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnomusicologist">ethnomusicologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Kubik" title="Gerhard Kubik">Gerhard Kubik</a> identify <a href="/wiki/Islamic_music" title="Islamic music">Islamic music</a> as an influence.<a href="#cite_note-Curiel-97">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tottoli-137">[131]</a> Diouf notes a resemblance between the <a href="/wiki/Adhan" title="Adhan">Islamic call to prayer</a> (originating from <a href="/wiki/Bilal_ibn_Rabah" title="Bilal ibn Rabah">Bilal ibn Rabah</a>, a famous <a href="/wiki/Abyssinian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Abyssinian people">Abyssinian</a> <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Africa" title="Islam in Africa">African Muslim</a> in the early 7th century) and 19th-century <a href="/wiki/Field_holler" title="Field holler">field holler</a> music, noting that both have similar lyrics praising God, melody, note changes, "words that seem to quiver and shake" in the vocal chords, dramatic changes in <a href="/wiki/Musical_scale" class="mw-redirect" title="Musical scale">musical scales</a>, and nasal <a href="/wiki/Intonation_(music)" title="Intonation (music)">intonation</a>. She attributes the origins of field holler music to <a href="/wiki/African-American_Muslims" title="African-American Muslims">African Muslim slaves</a> who accounted for an estimated 30% of African slaves in America. According to Kubik, "the vocal style of many blues singers using <a href="/wiki/Melisma" title="Melisma">melisma</a>, wavy intonation, and so forth is a heritage of that large region of <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a> that had been in contact with the <a href="/wiki/Arabic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic world">Arabic</a>-<a href="/wiki/Islamic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic world">Islamic world</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a> since the seventh and eighth centuries."<a href="#cite_note-Curiel-97">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tottoli-137">[131]</a> There was particularly a significant trans-Saharan cross-fertilization between the musical traditions of the Maghreb and the <a href="/wiki/Sahel" title="Sahel">Sahel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Tottoli-137">[131]</a> There was a difference in the music performed by the predominantly Muslim <a href="/wiki/Sahelian" class="mw-redirect" title="Sahelian">Sahelian</a> slaves and the predominantly non-Muslim slaves from coastal West Africa and <a href="/wiki/Central_Africa" title="Central Africa">Central Africa</a>. The Sahelian Muslim slaves generally favored wind and string instruments and solo singing, whereas the non-Muslim slaves generally favored drums and group chants. Plantation owners who feared revolt outlawed drums and group chants, but allowed the Sahelian slaves to continue singing and playing their wind and string instruments, which the plantation owners found less threatening.<a href="#cite_note-Tottoli-137">[131]</a> According to Curiel stringed instruments these string instruments may have the precursor to the <a href="/wiki/Banjo" title="Banjo">banjo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Curiel-97">[93]</a> While many were pressured to convert to Christianity, the Sahelian slaves were allowed to maintain their musical traditions, adapting their skills to instruments such as the <a href="/wiki/Fiddle" title="Fiddle">fiddle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Guitar" title="Guitar">guitar</a>. Some were also allowed to perform at balls for slave-holders, allowing the migration of their music across the Deep South.<a href="#cite_note-Tottoli-137">[131]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Spirituals&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/GClef.svg/10px-GClef.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/GClef.svg/15px-GClef.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/GClef.svg/20px-GClef.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="15" data-file-height="41" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Music" title="Portal:Music">Music portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Guit_Blues.JPG/28px-Guit_Blues.JPG" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Guit_Blues.JPG/41px-Guit_Blues.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Guit_Blues.JPG/55px-Guit_Blues.JPG 2x" data-file-width="159" data-file-height="161" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Blues" title="Portal:Blues">Blues portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_music" title="African-American music">African-American music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_River_Boys" title="Deep River Boys">Deep River Boys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gospel_music" title="Gospel music">Gospel music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in the United States">History of slavery in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_Nashville_Students" title="Original Nashville Students">Original Nashville Students</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_music" title="Religious music">Religious music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songs_of_the_Underground_Railroad" title="Songs of the Underground Railroad">Songs of the Underground Railroad</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notable_songs">Notable songs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Spirituals&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Notable songs">edit</a>]</div> These <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NSONG" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NSONG">notable</a> spirituals were written or widely adopted by African Americans: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This is a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Lists#Dynamic_lists" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Lists">dynamic list</a> and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Spirituals" title="Special:EditPage/Spirituals">adding missing items</a> with <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources">reliable sources</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/All_God%27s_Chillun_Got_Wings_(song)" title="All God's Chillun Got Wings (song)">All God's Chillun Got Wings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosom_of_Abraham_(song)" title="Bosom of Abraham (song)">Bosom of Abraham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children,_Go_Where_I_Send_Thee" title="Children, Go Where I Send Thee">Children, Go Where I Send Thee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_River_(song)" title="Deep River (song)">Deep River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dem_Bones" title="Dem Bones">Dem Bones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Didn%27t_It_Rain" title="Didn't It Rain">Didn't It Rain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Do_Lord_Remember_Me" title="Do Lord Remember Me">Do Lord Remember Me</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Down_by_the_Riverside" title="Down by the Riverside">Down by the Riverside</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Down_in_the_River_to_Pray" title="Down in the River to Pray">Down in the River to Pray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Every_Time_I_Feel_the_Spirit_(song)" class="mw-redirect" title="Every Time I Feel the Spirit (song)">Every Time I Feel the Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ezekiel_Saw_the_Wheel" title="Ezekiel Saw the Wheel">Ezekiel Saw the Wheel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Follow_the_Drinkin%27_Gourd" title="Follow the Drinkin' Gourd">Follow the Drinkin' Gourd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Go_Down_Moses" title="Go Down Moses">Go Down Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Go_Tell_It_on_the_Mountain_(song)" title="Go Tell It on the Mountain (song)">Go Tell It on the Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Slippers" title="Golden Slippers">Golden Slippers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gospel_Plow" title="Gospel Plow">Gospel Plow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Gospel_Train" title="The Gospel Train">The Gospel Train</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/He%27s_Got_the_Whole_World_in_His_Hands" title="He's Got the Whole World in His Hands">He's Got the Whole World in His Hands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I_Shall_Not_Be_Moved" title="I Shall Not Be Moved">I Shall Not Be Moved</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I%27m_So_Glad" title="I'm So Glad">I'm So Glad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joshua_Fit_the_Battle_of_Jericho" title="Joshua Fit the Battle of Jericho">Joshua Fit the Battle of Jericho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumbaya" title="Kumbaya">Kumbaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord,_I_Want_to_Be_a_Christian" title="Lord, I Want to Be a Christian">Lord, I Want to Be a Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Row_the_Boat_Ashore" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Row the Boat Ashore">Michael Row the Boat Ashore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobody_Knows_the_Trouble_I%27ve_Seen" title="Nobody Knows the Trouble I've Seen">Nobody Knows the Trouble I've Seen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roll,_Jordan,_Roll" title="Roll, Jordan, Roll">Roll, Jordan, Roll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satan,_Your_Kingdom_Must_Come_Down" title="Satan, Your Kingdom Must Come Down">Satan, Your Kingdom Must Come Down</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sometimes_I_Feel_Like_a_Motherless_Child" title="Sometimes I Feel Like a Motherless Child">Sometimes I Feel Like a Motherless Child</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Song_of_the_Free" title="Song of the Free">Song of the Free</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steal_Away" title="Steal Away">Steal Away</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swing_Low,_Sweet_Chariot" title="Swing Low, Sweet Chariot">Swing Low, Sweet Chariot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/There_Is_a_Balm_in_Gilead" title="There Is a Balm in Gilead">There Is a Balm in Gilead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/This_Little_Light_of_Mine" title="This Little Light of Mine">This Little Light of Mine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wade_in_the_Water" title="Wade in the Water">Wade in the Water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/We_Are_Climbing_Jacob%27s_Ladder" title="We Are Climbing Jacob's Ladder">We Are Climbing Jacob's Ladder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Were_You_There" title="Were You There">Were You There</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/We_Shall_Overcome" title="We Shall Overcome">We Shall Overcome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/She%27ll_Be_Coming_%27Round_the_Mountain" title="She'll Be Coming 'Round the Mountain">When the Chariot Comes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/When_the_Saints_Go_Marching_In" title="When the Saints Go Marching In">When the Saints Go Marching In</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Spirituals&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <a href="/wiki/PBS" title="PBS">PBS</a> correspondent Bob Faw said this in a <a href="/wiki/Religion_%26_Ethics_Newsweekly" title="Religion & Ethics Newsweekly">Religion & Ethics Newsweekly</a> May 2012 interview with members of the <a href="/wiki/Morehouse_College_Glee_Club" title="Morehouse College Glee Club">Morehouse College Glee Club</a>—the official choral group of the <a href="/wiki/Historically_black_colleges_and_universities" title="Historically black colleges and universities">historically black</a> <a href="/wiki/Morehouse_College" title="Morehouse College">Morehouse College</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Atlanta,_Georgia" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlanta, Georgia">Atlanta, Georgia</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> Spirituals originated with the enslaved Africans who were brought to <a href="/wiki/British_North_America" title="British North America">British North America</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> in the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries. Slavery was not abolished in the U.S. until 1865 through the enactment of the <a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Thirteen Amendment</a> when all enslaved people were legally emancipated. See <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">History of slavery in the United States</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> According to a Library of Congress 2016 article, music was central to and permeated every aspect of everyday life and major life events in Africa. Enslaved Africans in America were no longer permitted to worship as Christian colonialists feared "African-infused way of worship". Gatherings had to be conducted in a clandestine manner. During these meetings, worshipers would sing, chant, dance and sometimes enter ecstatic trances. Along with spirituals, shouts also emerged in the Praise Houses. Shouts begin slowly with the shuffling of feet and clapping of hands (but the feet never cross because that was seen as dancing, which was forbidden within the church). Drums were used as they had been in Africa, for communication. When the connection between drumming, communication, and resistance was eventually made, drums were forbidden. </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> Part I of the collection included songs from the South-Eastern Slave States, including <a href="/wiki/South_Carolina" title="South Carolina">South Carolina</a>, Georgia and the <a href="/wiki/Sea_Islands" title="Sea Islands">Sea Islands</a>. Of these <a href="/wiki/Charles_Pickard_Ware" title="Charles Pickard Ware">Charles Pickard Ware</a> collecting songs from the <a href="/wiki/Gullah" title="Gullah">Gullah</a> people of Port Royal Islands, <a href="/wiki/South_Carolina" title="South Carolina">South Carolina</a>. These songs including "<a href="/wiki/Roll,_Jordan,_Roll" title="Roll, Jordan, Roll">Roll, Jordan, Roll</a>", "Jehovah, hallelujah, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vwml.org/record/RoudFS/S238638">I hear from heaven to-day</a>", "Blow your trumpet", "Gabriel", "Praise, member", "Wrestle on, Jacob", "The lonesome valley", "I can't stay behind", "Poor Rosy", "The trouble of the world", "There's a meeting here tonight", "Hold your light", "Happy morning", "No man can hinder me", "Lord, remember me", "Not weary yet", "Religion so sweet", "Hunting for the Lord", "Go in the wilderness", "Tell my Jesus" "Morning", "The graveyard, "John, John, of the holy order", "I saw the beam in my sister's eye", "Hunting for a city", "Gwine follow", Lay this body down", "Heaven bell a ring", "Jine 'em", "Rain fall and wet Becca Lawton", "Bound to go", "Michael row the boat ashore", "Sail, o believer", "Rock o' jubilee", "Stars begin to fall", "King Emanuel", "Satan's camp a-fire", "Give up the world", "Jesus on the water-side", "I wish I been dere", "Build a house in paradise", "I know when I'm going home", "I'm a-trouble in de mind", and "Travel on". <a href="/wiki/William_Francis_Allen" title="William Francis Allen">William Francis Allen</a> collected these songs on Port Royal Islands: "Archangel open the door", "My body rock 'long fever", "Bell da ring", "Pray all de member", "Turn, sinner, turn o'", "My army cross over", "Join the angel band", "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fresnostate.edu/folklore/ballads/AWG040.html">I an' Satan had a race</a>" <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vwml.org/roudnumber/11993">ROUD # 11993</a>, "Shall I die?", "When we do meet again", "The white marble stone", "I can't stand the fire", "Meet, o Lord", "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vwml.org/record/RoudFS/S193779">Wait, Mr. Mackright</a>", "Early in the morning", "<a href="/wiki/Mary_Don%27t_You_Weep" title="Mary Don't You Weep">Hail Mary</a>", "No more rain fall for wet you", "I want to go home", "Good-bye brother", "Fare ye well", "Many thousand go", "Brother Moses gone", "The sin-sick soul", "Some valiant soldier", "Hallelu, hallelu", "Children do linger", "Good-bye", "Lord, make me more patient", "The day of judgement", "The resurrection morn", "Nobody knows the trouble I've had", "Who is on the Lord's side", "Hold out to the end", "Come go with me", "Every hour in the day", "In the mansions above", "Shout on, children", "Jesus, won't you come by-and-bye!", and "Heave away". Part II included songs from the Northern Seaboard Slave States, including Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina, such as "Wake up, Jacob", "On to glory", "Just new", "Shock along, John", "Round the corn, Sally", "Jordan's mills", "Sabbath has no end", "I don't feel weary", "The hypocrite and the concubine", "O shout away", "O'er the crossing", "<a href="/wiki/Bosom_of_Abraham_(song)" title="Bosom of Abraham (song)">Rock o' my soul</a>", "We will march through the valley", "What a trying time", "Almost over", "Don't be weary, traveller", "Let God's saints come in", "The golden altar", "The winter", and "The heaven bells". Part III includes songs from the Inland Slave States, including Tennessee, Arkansas, and the Mississippi River, such as "The gold band", The good old way", I'm going home", Sinner won't die no more", "Brother, guide me home", "Little children, then won't you be glad?", "Charleston gals", "Run, n*, run", "<a href="/wiki/Oh!_Susanna" title="Oh! Susanna">I'm gwine to Alabamy</a>". Part IV includes songs from the Gulf States, including Florida and Louisiana: Miscellaneous: "My father, how long?", "I'm in trouble", "O Daniel", "O brothers, don't get weary", "I want to join the band", "<a href="/wiki/We_Are_Climbing_Jacob%27s_Ladder" title="We Are Climbing Jacob's Ladder">Jacob's ladder</a>", "Pray on", "Good news, member", "I want to die like-a Lazarus die", "Away down in Sunbury", "This is the trouble of the world", "Lean on the Lord's side", "There are all my father's children", "The old ship of Zion", "Come along, Moses", "The social band", "God got plenty o' room", "You must be pure and holy", "Belle Layotte", "Remon", "Caroline", "Calinda", "Lolotte", and "Musieu Bainjo." </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> A.M. Jones' (1889–1980) experience was in Zambia during the early 1900s. He was a missionary and musicologist. </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> According to Paul Oliver in <a href="/wiki/The_New_Grove_Dictionary_of_Music_and_Musicians" title="The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians">The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians</a>, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/03311">From obscure and largely undocumented rural American origins</a>...Influential in its development were the collective unaccompanied work-songs of the plantation culture, which followed a responsorial 'leader-and-chorus' form that can be traced not only to pre-Civil War origins but to African sources. Responsorial work-songs diminished when the plantations were broken up, but persisted in the southern penitentiary farms until the 1950s. After the Reconstruction era, black workers either engaged in seasonal collective labour in the South or tended smallholdings leased to them under the system of debt-serfdom known as sharecropping. Work-songs therefore increasingly took the form of solo calls or 'hollers', comparatively free in form but close to blues in feeling. The vocal style of the blues probably derived from the holler... Blues instrumental style shows tenuous links with African music. Drumming was forbidden on slave plantations, but the playing of string instruments was often permitted and even encouraged, so the musicians among slaves from the savanna regions, with their strong traditions of string playing, predominated. The jelli, or <a href="/wiki/Griot" title="Griot">griots</a> – professional musicians who also acted as their tribe’s historians and social commentators – performed roles not unlike those of the later blues singers, while the <a href="/wiki/Banjo" title="Banjo">banjo</a> is thought to be a direct descendant of their <a href="/wiki/Banjo" title="Banjo">banza</a> or <a href="/wiki/Xalam" title="Xalam">xalam</a>. One musical influence that can be traced back to African sources is that of the plantation <a href="/wiki/Work_songs" class="mw-redirect" title="Work songs">work songs</a> with their <a href="/wiki/Call_and_response_(music)" title="Call and response (music)">call-and-response</a> format, and more especially the relatively free-form <a href="/wiki/Field_hollers" class="mw-redirect" title="Field hollers">field hollers</a> of the later <a href="/wiki/Sharecropper" class="mw-redirect" title="Sharecropper">sharecroppers</a>, which seem to have been directly responsible for the characteristic vocal style of the blues." </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Spirituals&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Footnotes">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/item/ihas.200197495/">"African American Spirituals"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Library+of+Congress&rft.atitle=African+American+Spirituals&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.loc.gov%2Fitem%2Fihas.200197495%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Johnson_1925-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Johnson_1925_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Johnson_1925_2-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Johnson_1925_2-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnsonJohnson2009" class="citation book cs1">Johnson, James Weldon; Johnson, J. Rosamond (2009). The Books of American Negro Spirituals. Da Capo Press. pp. 13, 17 – via Google Scholar. <q>The Negro Spirituals are purely and solely the creation of the American Negro..." "When it came to the use of words, the maker of the song was struggling as best he could under his limitations in language and, perhaps, also under a misconstruction or misapprehension of the facts in his source of material, generally the Bible." "...this music which is America's only folk music...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Books+of+American+Negro+Spirituals&rft.pages=13%2C+17&rft.pub=Da+Capo+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=James+Weldon&rft.au=Johnson%2C+J.+Rosamond&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/6a771c60-bbff-0134-7046-00505686a51c/book#page/23/mode/2up">Full text</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grove_oxfordmusiconline-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Grove_oxfordmusiconline_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grove_oxfordmusiconline_3-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraham2012" class="citation web cs1">Graham, Sandra Jean (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-1002225625">"Spiritual"</a>. Grove Music Online. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fgmo%2F9781561592630.article.A2225625">10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.A2225625</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56159-263-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56159-263-0"><bdi>978-1-56159-263-0</bdi></a>. Retrieved February 28, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Grove+Music+Online&rft.atitle=Spiritual&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fgmo%2F9781561592630.article.A2225625&rft.isbn=978-1-56159-263-0&rft.aulast=Graham&rft.aufirst=Sandra+Jean&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordmusiconline.com%2Fgrovemusic%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Fgmo%2F9781561592630.001.0001%2Fomo-9781561592630-e-1002225625&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-YUP_Eltis_20150215-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-YUP_Eltis_20150215_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-YUP_Eltis_20150215_4-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEltisRichardson2015" class="citation book cs1">Eltis, David; Richardson, David (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300212549/atlas-transatlantic-slave-trade">Atlas of the Transatlantic Slave Trade</a>. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-21254-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-21254-9"><bdi>978-0-300-21254-9</bdi></a>. Retrieved February 27, 2021. <q>Between 1501 and 1867, the transatlantic slave trade claimed an estimated 12.5 million Africans and involved almost every country with an Atlantic coastline." This 2015 publication provides an atlas of this "350-year history of kidnapping and coercion". The Atlas, which is based on an online database (www.slavevoyages.org) "with records on nearly 35,000 slaving voyages—roughly 80 percent of all such voyages ever made" and has "nearly 200 maps...that explore every detail of the African slave traffic to the New World.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atlas+of+the+Transatlantic+Slave+Trade&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-300-21254-9&rft.aulast=Eltis&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Richardson%2C+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fyalebooks.yale.edu%2Fbook%2F9780300212549%2Fatlas-transatlantic-slave-trade&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-UN_DayOfRemembrance-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-UN_DayOfRemembrance_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-UN_DayOfRemembrance_5-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.un.org/en/events/slaveryremembranceday/background.shtml">"Background on Remember Slavery: Remembrance of the Victims of Slavery and the Transatlantic Slave Trade"</a>. United Nations. International Day of Remembrance of the Victims of Slavery and the Transatlantic Slave Trade (March 25). Retrieved February 27, 2021. <q>"The transatlantic slave trade was the largest forced migration in history, and undeniably one of the most inhumane. The extensive exodus of Africans spread to many areas of the world over a 400-year period and was unprecedented in the annals of recorded human history.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=United+Nations&rft.atitle=Background+on+Remember+Slavery%3A+Remembrance+of+the+Victims+of+Slavery+and+the+Transatlantic+Slave+Trade&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.un.org%2Fen%2Fevents%2Fslaveryremembranceday%2Fbackground.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CSUDH_20110502-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CSUDH_20110502_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CSUDH_20110502_6-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CSUDH_20110502_6-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CSUDH_20110502_6-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.csudh.edu/hansonia-caldwellpresents-final-spiritual-concert/">"Hansonia Caldwell: 'Living Legend' Presents Final Spiritual Concert"</a>. California State University, Dominguez Hills News. May 2, 2011. Retrieved February 28, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=California+State+University%2C+Dominguez+Hills+News&rft.atitle=Hansonia+Caldwell%3A+%27Living+Legend%27+Presents+Final+Spiritual+Concert&rft.date=2011-05-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.csudh.edu%2Fhansonia-caldwellpresents-final-spiritual-concert%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Evans_DevelopmentSpiritual_1972-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Evans_DevelopmentSpiritual_1972_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Evans_DevelopmentSpiritual_1972_7-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvans1972" class="citation book cs1">Evans, Arthur L. (1972). The Development of the Negro Spiritual as Choral Art Music by Afro-American Composers: With an Annotated Guide to the Performance of Selected Spirituals. University of Miami.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Development+of+the+Negro+Spiritual+as+Choral+Art+Music+by+Afro-American+Composers%3A+With+an+Annotated+Guide+to+the+Performance+of+Selected+Spirituals&rft.pub=University+of+Miami&rft.date=1972&rft.aulast=Evans&rft.aufirst=Arthur+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jones_1993-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jones_1993_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jones_1993_8-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jones_1993_8-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jones_1993_8-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jones_1993_8-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jones_1993_8-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones1993" class="citation book cs1">Jones, Arthur C. (1993). Wade in the water: the wisdom of the spirituals. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88344-923-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88344-923-3"><bdi>978-0-88344-923-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wade+in+the+water%3A+the+wisdom+of+the+spirituals&rft.place=Maryknoll%2C+NY&rft.pub=Orbis+Books&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-88344-923-3&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Arthur+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NMAAHC_2012-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NMAAHC_2012_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NMAAHC_2012_9-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NMAAHC_2012_9-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150402132952/http://nmaahc.si.edu/Blog/blackmusicmonth">"Celebrating Black Music Month"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_African_American_History_and_Culture" title="National Museum of African American History and Culture">National Museum of African American History and Culture</a>. June 29, 2012. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nmaahc.si.edu/Blog/blackmusicmonth">the original</a> on April 2, 2015. <q>Sacred music, which includes spirituals and gospel music, illustrates the central role that music plays in African American spiritual and religious life. The earliest form of black musical expression in America, spirituals were based on Christian psalms and hymns and were merged with African music styles and secular American music forms. Spirituals were originally an oral tradition and imparted Christian values while also defining the hardships of slavery.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Museum+of+African+American+History+and+Culture&rft.atitle=Celebrating+Black+Music+Month&rft.date=2012-06-29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnmaahc.si.edu%2FBlog%2Fblackmusicmonth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFranklin1979" class="citation journal cs1">Franklin, Bruce H. (Spring 1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/467516">"Songs of an Imprisoned People"</a>. MELUS. 6 (1): 17. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F467516">10.2307/467516</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/467516">467516</a> – via JSTOR.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=MELUS&rft.atitle=Songs+of+an+Imprisoned+People&rft.ssn=spring&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=17&rft.date=1979&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F467516&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F467516%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Franklin&rft.aufirst=Bruce+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F467516&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nketia_1973-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nketia_1973_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nketia_1973_11-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nketia_1973_11-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNketia1978" class="citation journal cs1">Nketia, J.H. Kwanbena (1978). "The Study of African and Afro-American Music". 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Digital Scanning, Incorporated. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58218-359-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58218-359-6"><bdi>978-1-58218-359-6</bdi></a>. Retrieved March 3, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Army+Life+in+a+Black+Regiment&rft.pub=Digital+Scanning%2C+Incorporated&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-58218-359-6&rft.aulast=Higginson&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Wentworth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dbn3Zu5rVn-oC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bauch_2013-73"><a href="#cite_ref-Bauch_2013_73-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBauch,_Marc_A.2013" class="citation book cs1">Bauch, Marc A. (2013). 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Journal of the Society for American Music. 6 (2): 253–255. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1752196312000107">10.1017/S1752196312000107</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1752-1971">1752-1971</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:190735108">190735108</a>. 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Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 387. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-5449-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-5449-7"><bdi>978-1-4422-5449-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Great+Popular+Song+Recordings&rft.pages=387&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield+Publishers&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-4422-5449-7&rft.aulast=Sullivan&rft.aufirst=Steve&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGQglDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA387&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-WesleyPapers-79"><a href="#cite_ref-WesleyPapers_79-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100611191144/http://marbl.library.emory.edu/findingaids/browse_results?q=findingaids%2Fcontent&id=work722_10243">"John Wesley Work Papers"</a>. 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University of Illinois Press. p. 656. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-252-02850-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-252-02850-2"><bdi>978-0-252-02850-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5406/j.ctt2jcc81">10.5406/j.ctt2jcc81</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lost+Sounds%3A+Blacks+and+the+Birth+of+the+Recording+Industry%2C+1890%E2%80%931919&rft.pages=656&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.5406%2Fj.ctt2jcc81%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-0-252-02850-2&rft.au=Tim+Brooks&rft.au=Dick+Spottswood&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tuskegee.edu/student-life/join-a-student-organization/choir/choir-history">"Choir History"</a>. Tuskegee University. Retrieved February 25, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Tuskegee+University&rft.atitle=Choir+History&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tuskegee.edu%2Fstudent-life%2Fjoin-a-student-organization%2Fchoir%2Fchoir-history&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/performingarts/pae-list.html">Performing Arts Encyclopedia</a> also houses a special digitized American choral music collection which features arrangements of spirituals by composers like Henry T. Burleigh and R. Nathaniel Dett. </li> <li id="cite_note-AMRC_Glover_1998-83">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AMRC_Glover_1998_83-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AMRC_Glover_1998_83-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AMRC_Glover_1998_83-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AMRC_Glover_1998_83-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AMRC_Glover_1998_83-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlover1998" class="citation cs2">Glover, Gisele (1998), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.colorado.edu/amrc/sites/default/files/attached-files/0506-1998-008-00-000007.pdf">"The Life and Career of Edward Boatner and an Inventory of the Boatner Papers at the Schomburg Center"</a> (PDF), American Music Research Center (AMRC), retrieved February 25, 2021</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Music+Research+Center+%28AMRC%29&rft.atitle=The+Life+and+Career+of+Edward+Boatner+and+an+Inventory+of+the+Boatner+Papers+at+the+Schomburg+Center&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Glover&rft.aufirst=Gisele&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.colorado.edu%2Famrc%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fattached-files%2F0506-1998-008-00-000007.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSnyder1993" class="citation book cs1">Snyder, Jean E. (1993). "A great and noble school of music: Dvořák, Harry T. Burleigh, and the African American Spiritual". In Tibbetts, John C. (ed.). Dvořák in America: 1892–1895. Portland, Oregon: Amadeus Press. p. 131.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+great+and+noble+school+of+music%3A+Dvo%C5%99%C3%A1k%2C+Harry+T.+Burleigh%2C+and+the+African+American+Spiritual&rft.btitle=Dvo%C5%99%C3%A1k+in+America%3A+1892%E2%80%931895&rft.place=Portland%2C+Oregon&rft.pages=131&rft.pub=Amadeus+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Snyder&rft.aufirst=Jean+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> This spiritual, "Go Down Moses" sung by Marian Anderson in 1924 was taken from an arrangement to Burleigh.<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/item/jukebox-69931/">"Go Down Moses"</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brooks2010-86"><a href="#cite_ref-Brooks2010_86-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTim_Brooks2010" class="citation book cs1">Tim Brooks (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lf7NTiZVvy0C&pg=PA492">Lost Sounds: Blacks and the Birth of the Recording Industry, 1890–1919</a>. University of Illinois Press. pp. 488–492. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-252-09063-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-252-09063-9"><bdi>978-0-252-09063-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lost+Sounds%3A+Blacks+and+the+Birth+of+the+Recording+Industry%2C+1890%E2%80%931919&rft.pages=488-492&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-252-09063-9&rft.au=Tim+Brooks&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dlf7NTiZVvy0C%26pg%3DPA492&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Boatner_Spirituals_1927-87"><a href="#cite_ref-Boatner_Spirituals_1927_87-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoatnerTownsend1927" class="citation cs2">Boatner, Edward; Townsend, Willa A (1927), Spirituals triumphant old and new, Nashville, Tenn.: Sunday School Pub. Board</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spirituals+triumphant+old+and+new&rft.place=Nashville%2C+Tenn.&rft.pub=Sunday+School+Pub.+Board&rft.date=1927&rft.aulast=Boatner&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft.au=Townsend%2C+Willa+A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSouthern1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eileen_Southern" title="Eileen Southern">Southern, Eileen</a> (1997). The Music of Black Americans: A History. W. W. Norton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-97141-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-97141-5"><bdi>978-0-393-97141-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Music+of+Black+Americans%3A+A+History&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-393-97141-5&rft.aulast=Southern&rft.aufirst=Eileen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDawson2006" class="citation web cs1">Dawson, William Levi (July 24, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://findingaids.library.emory.edu/documents/dawson892/">"William Levi Dawson papers, 1903–1990"</a>. findingaids.library.emory.edu.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=findingaids.library.emory.edu&rft.atitle=William+Levi+Dawson+papers%2C+1903%E2%80%931990&rft.date=2006-07-24&rft.aulast=Dawson&rft.aufirst=William+Levi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffindingaids.library.emory.edu%2Fdocuments%2Fdawson892%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation audio-visual cs1">Barbershop Harmony Society (Director) (May 3, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2kUfvUDOOxQ">Fisk Jubilee Singers - Wade In the Water</a>. Event occurs at 3:45. Retrieved February 23, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Fisk+Jubilee+Singers+-+Wade+In+the+Water&rft.date=2019-05-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3D2kUfvUDOOxQ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPressley2019" class="citation news cs1">Pressley, Nelson (May 20, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/entertainment/theater_dance/jubilee-makes-a-star-of-the-chorus-at-arena-stage/2019/05/20/6bc9b316-7afa-11e9-8ede-f4abf521ef17_story.html">"'Jubilee' makes a star of the chorus at Arena Stage"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a>. Retrieved February 23, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=%27Jubilee%27+makes+a+star+of+the+chorus+at+Arena+Stage&rft.date=2019-05-20&rft.aulast=Pressley&rft.aufirst=Nelson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fentertainment%2Ftheater_dance%2Fjubilee-makes-a-star-of-the-chorus-at-arena-stage%2F2019%2F05%2F20%2F6bc9b316-7afa-11e9-8ede-f4abf521ef17_story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Banks-92">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Banks_92-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Banks_92-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.sltrib.com/printfriendly.php?id=2918780&itype=ngpsid">"African American Spirituals (unable to access title, author, date, live url)"</a>. The Salt Lake Tribune.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Salt+Lake+Tribune&rft.atitle=African+American+Spirituals+%28unable+to+access+title%2C+author%2C+date%2C+live+url%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.sltrib.com%2Fprintfriendly.php%3Fid%3D2918780%26itype%3Dngpsid&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.americanspiritualensemble.com/">"ASE"</a>. American Spiritual Ensemble.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+Spiritual+Ensemble&rft.atitle=ASE&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.americanspiritualensemble.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gospel_Singers-94">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gospel_Singers_94-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gospel_Singers_94-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gospel_Singers_94-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.singers.com/gospel/spirituals/">"African American Spirituals"</a>. Singers: Primarily a capela. Retrieved February 25, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Singers%3A+Primarily+a+capela&rft.atitle=African+American+Spirituals&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.singers.com%2Fgospel%2Fspirituals%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.singers.com/gospel/spirituals/">www.singers.com</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://video.ket.org/video/american-spiritual-ensemble-pj9ksm/">"KET Documentaries | American Spiritual Ensemble | KET"</a>. October 19, 2023 – via video.ket.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=KET+Documentaries+%26%23124%3B+American+Spiritual+Ensemble+%26%23124%3B+KET&rft.date=2023-10-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fvideo.ket.org%2Fvideo%2Famerican-spiritual-ensemble-pj9ksm%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-shaw-96">^ <a href="#cite_ref-shaw_96-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-shaw_96-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-shaw_96-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShaw1978" class="citation book cs1">Shaw, Arnold (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/honkersshouterst00shaw">Honkers and Shouters: The Golden Years of Rhythm & Blues</a> (First ed.). New York: Macmillan Publishing Company. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/honkersshouterst00shaw/page/3">3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-02-061740-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-02-061740-2"><bdi>0-02-061740-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Honkers+and+Shouters%3A+The+Golden+Years+of+Rhythm+%26+Blues&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=3&rft.edition=First&rft.pub=Macmillan+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=0-02-061740-2&rft.aulast=Shaw&rft.aufirst=Arnold&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhonkersshouterst00shaw&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Curiel-97">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Curiel_97-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Curiel_97-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Curiel_97-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Curiel_97-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Curiel_97-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCuriel2004" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Curiel" title="Jonathan Curiel">Curiel, Jonathan</a> (August 15, 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050905161734/http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=%2Fchronicle%2Farchive%2F2004%2F08%2F15%2FINGMC85SSK1.DTL">"Muslim Roots of the Blues"</a>. <a href="/wiki/SFGate" title="SFGate">SFGate</a>. <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco_Chronicle" title="San Francisco Chronicle">San Francisco Chronicle</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/chronicle/archive/2004/08/15/INGMC85SSK1.DTL">the original</a> on September 5, 2005. Retrieved August 24, 2005.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=SFGate&rft.atitle=Muslim+Roots+of+the+Blues&rft.date=2004-08-15&rft.aulast=Curiel&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsfgate.com%2Fcgi-bin%2Farticle.cgi%3Ffile%3D%2Fchronicle%2Farchive%2F2004%2F08%2F15%2FINGMC85SSK1.DTL&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenry" class="citation book cs1">Henry, Richard. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uz1QYwA9t-oC&pg=PP6">"Pentatonic Scales In Popular Music And Spirituals"</a>. Culture and the Pentatonic Scale. World Wide Jazz. pp. 6–8. Retrieved January 26, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pentatonic+Scales+In+Popular+Music+And+Spirituals&rft.btitle=Culture+and+the+Pentatonic+Scale&rft.pages=6-8&rft.pub=World+Wide+Jazz&rft.aulast=Henry&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Duz1QYwA9t-oC%26pg%3DPP6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jones_1959-99"><a href="#cite_ref-Jones_1959_99-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFA._M._Jones1959" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/A._M._Jones" class="mw-redirect" title="A. M. Jones">A. M. Jones</a> (1959). Studies in African Music. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 295. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-713512-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-713512-9"><bdi>0-19-713512-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/6977345">6977345</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+in+African+Music&rft.pages=295&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1959&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F6977345&rft.isbn=0-19-713512-9&rft.au=A.+M.+Jones&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSquinobal2009" class="citation thesis cs1">Squinobal, Jason John (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-scholarship.pitt.edu/7367/1/SquinobalDissertation4-14-2009.pdf">West African music in the music of Art Blakey, Yusef Lateef, and Randy Weston</a> (PDF). University of Pittsburgh (Thesis). PhD in Ethnomusicology. Retrieved February 26, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=West+African+music+in+the+music+of+Art+Blakey%2C+Yusef+Lateef%2C+and+Randy+Weston&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Squinobal&rft.aufirst=Jason+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fd-scholarship.pitt.edu%2F7367%2F1%2FSquinobalDissertation4-14-2009.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CPR-102"><a href="#cite_ref-CPR_102-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation episode cs1">Stephanie Wolf (Director), Arthur Jones. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cpr.org/show-segment/the-spirituals-project-and-the-deep-meaning-of-slave-era-songs/">"The Spirituals Project And The Deep Meaning Of Slave-Era Songs"</a>. Radio Dances. 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Blandford Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7137-1530-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7137-1530-9"><bdi>978-0-7137-1530-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+Gospel%3A+An+Illustrated+History+of+the+Gospel+Sound&rft.pub=Blandford+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-7137-1530-9&rft.aulast=Broughton&rft.aufirst=Viv&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrederick_Douglass1855" class="citation web cs1">Frederick Douglass (1855). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/202/202-h/202-h.htm">"My Bondage and My Freedom"</a>. Project Gutenberg. Retrieved June 6, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Project+Gutenberg&rft.atitle=My+Bondage+and+My+Freedom&rft.date=1855&rft.au=Frederick+Douglass&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Ffiles%2F202%2F202-h%2F202-h.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-PBS_Berry_20170123-106">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PBS_Berry_20170123_106-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PBS_Berry_20170123_106-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerry2017" class="citation news cs1">Berry, Kenyatta D. (January 27, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pbs.org/mercy-street/blogs/mercy-street-revealed/songs-of-survival-and-songs-of-freedom-during-slavery/">"Singing in Slavery: Songs of Survival, Songs of Freedom"</a>. PBS NewsHour. Retrieved February 23, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PBS+NewsHour&rft.atitle=Singing+in+Slavery%3A+Songs+of+Survival%2C+Songs+of+Freedom&rft.date=2017-01-27&rft.aulast=Berry&rft.aufirst=Kenyatta+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fmercy-street%2Fblogs%2Fmercy-street-revealed%2Fsongs-of-survival-and-songs-of-freedom-during-slavery%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bradford_Tubman_2008-107"><a href="#cite_ref-Bradford_Tubman_2008_107-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBradford2008" class="citation book cs1">Bradford, Sarah H. (May 2008). Harriet: The Moses of Her People. Dodo Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4099-0461-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4099-0461-8"><bdi>978-1-4099-0461-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Harriet%3A+The+Moses+of+Her+People&rft.pub=Dodo+Press&rft.date=2008-05&rft.isbn=978-1-4099-0461-8&rft.aulast=Bradford&rft.aufirst=Sarah+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kashatus_2002-108"><a href="#cite_ref-Kashatus_2002_108-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKashatus2002" class="citation book cs1">Kashatus, William C. (2002). Just over the Line: Chester County and the Underground Railroad. Chester County Historical Society.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Just+over+the+Line%3A+Chester+County+and+the+Underground+Railroad&rft.pub=Chester+County+Historical+Society&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Kashatus&rft.aufirst=William+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pathways.thinkport.org/secrets/music2.cfm">"Secrets: Signs and Symbols"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Maryland_Public_Television" title="Maryland Public Television">Maryland Public Television</a>. Pathways to Freedom. 2002. Retrieved February 23, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Maryland+Public+Television&rft.atitle=Secrets%3A+Signs+and+Symbols&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpathways.thinkport.org%2Fsecrets%2Fmusic2.cfm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> in collaboration with the <a href="/wiki/Maryland_Historical_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Maryland Historical Society">Maryland Historical Society</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maryland_State_Archives" title="Maryland State Archives">Maryland State Archives</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ponomarenko_2001-110"><a href="#cite_ref-Ponomarenko_2001_110-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPonomarenko2001" class="citation web cs1">Ponomarenko, John (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080724090201/http://www.localdial.com/users/jsyedu133/Soulreview/Understandingpages/coded.htm">"Understanding pages: coded"</a>. Soul Review. Jersey. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.localdial.com/users/jsyedu133/Soulreview/Understandingpages/coded.htm">the original</a> on July 24, 2008. Retrieved August 8, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Understanding+pages%3A+coded&rft.place=Jersey&rft.series=Soul+Review&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Ponomarenko&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.localdial.com%2Fusers%2Fjsyedu133%2FSoulreview%2FUnderstandingpages%2Fcoded.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-negrospirituals-111"><a href="#cite_ref-negrospirituals_111-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.negrospirituals.com/">"The Official Site of the Negro Spirituals, antique Gospel Music"</a>. www.negrospirituals.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.negrospirituals.com&rft.atitle=The+Official+Site+of+the+Negro+Spirituals%2C+antique+Gospel+Music&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.negrospirituals.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eduplace.com/kids/socsci/ca/books/bkc/sources/bkc_template.jsp?name=spiritual&state=ca">""Follow the Drinking Gourd"—African American Spiritual"</a>. www.eduplace.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.eduplace.com&rft.atitle=%22Follow+the+Drinking+Gourd%22%E2%80%94African+American+Spiritual&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eduplace.com%2Fkids%2Fsocsci%2Fca%2Fbooks%2Fbkc%2Fsources%2Fbkc_template.jsp%3Fname%3Dspiritual%26state%3Dca&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-songstory-113"><a href="#cite_ref-songstory_113-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKelley2008" class="citation journal cs1">Kelley, James (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/30498167">"Song, Story, or History: Resisting Claims of a Coded Message in the African American Spiritual "Follow the Drinking Gourd""</a>. The Journal of Popular Culture. 41 (2). The Journal of Popular Culture 41.2 (April 2008): 262–280.: 262–280. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1540-5931.2008.00502.x">10.1111/j.1540-5931.2008.00502.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Popular+Culture&rft.atitle=Song%2C+Story%2C+or+History%3A+Resisting+Claims+of+a+Coded+Message+in+the+African+American+Spiritual+%22Follow+the+Drinking+Gourd%22&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=262-280&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1540-5931.2008.00502.x&rft.aulast=Kelley&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F30498167&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> Kelley said that the 1928 popular account by H.B. Parks was implausible. </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBresler" class="citation web cs1">Bresler, Joel. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.followthedrinkinggourd.org/">"Follow the Drinking Gourd: A Cultural History"</a>. 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University of Illinois, Department of English. 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University Libraries at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Tennessee" title="University of Tennessee">University of Tennessee</a>, Knoxville. Music Library UT Song Index.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+Libraries+at+the+University+of+Tennessee%2C+Knoxville&rft.atitle=Wade+in+the+Water&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdatabases.lib.utk.edu%2Fsongdb%2Fsongdb.php%3Flist%3D1%26antitle%3DFREEDOM%2520IS%2520A%2520CONSTANT%2520STRUGGLE%3A%2520SONGS%2520OF%2520THE%2520FREEDOM%2520MOVEMENT&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sandburg_1927-119"><a href="#cite_ref-Sandburg_1927_119-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarl_Sandburg1927" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Carl_Sandburg" title="Carl Sandburg">Carl Sandburg</a> (1927). The American Songbag. Harcourt, Brace and Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+American+Songbag&rft.pub=Harcourt%2C+Brace+and+Company&rft.date=1927&rft.au=Carl+Sandburg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Baraka_Blues_1963-120"><a href="#cite_ref-Baraka_Blues_1963_120-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmiri_Baraka1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Amiri_Baraka" title="Amiri Baraka">Amiri Baraka</a> (1999) [1963]. <a href="/wiki/Blues_People" title="Blues People">Blues People</a> (1 ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/William_Morrow_and_Company" title="William Morrow and Company">William Morrow</a>. p. 244. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0688184742" title="Special:BookSources/978-0688184742"><bdi>978-0688184742</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/973412280">973412280</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Blues+People&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=244&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=William+Morrow&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F973412280&rft.isbn=978-0688184742&rft.au=Amiri+Baraka&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Baraka_Blues_1999-121"><a href="#cite_ref-Baraka_Blues_1999_121-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmiri_Baraka1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Amiri_Baraka" title="Amiri Baraka">Amiri Baraka</a> (1999) [1963]. <a href="/wiki/Blues_People" title="Blues People">Blues People</a> (2 ed.).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Blues+People&rft.edition=2&rft.date=1999&rft.au=Amiri+Baraka&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kirkus_Deaking_1965-122"><a href="#cite_ref-Kirkus_Deaking_1965_122-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeakin1965" class="citation cs2">Deakin, N.D. (July 1, 1965), Review of LeRoy Jones "Blues People", <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F030639686500700114">10.1177/030639686500700114</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144222938">144222938</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Review+of+LeRoy+Jones+%22Blues+People%22&rft.date=1965-07-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F030639686500700114&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144222938%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Deakin&rft.aufirst=N.D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-AAIHS-123"><a href="#cite_ref-AAIHS_123-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aaihs.org/the-historical-roots-of-blues-music/">"The Historical Roots of Blues Music"</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=African_American_Intellectual_History_Society&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="African American Intellectual History Society (page does not exist)">African American Intellectual History Society</a>. May 9, 2018. Retrieved March 1, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Historical+Roots+of+Blues+Music&rft.pub=African+American+Intellectual+History+Society&rft.date=2018-05-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aaihs.org%2Fthe-historical-roots-of-blues-music%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grove_Oliver-124">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Grove_Oliver_124-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grove_Oliver_124-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grove_Oliver_124-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOliver" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Oliver" title="Paul Oliver">Oliver, Paul</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/03311">"Blues"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Grove_Music_Online" class="mw-redirect" title="Grove Music Online">Grove Music Online</a>. Oxford Music Online. Retrieved October 3, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Grove+Music+Online&rft.atitle=Blues&rft.aulast=Oliver&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordmusiconline.com%2Fsubscriber%2Farticle%2Fgrove%2Fmusic%2F03311&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oliver_Syncopators_1970-125"><a href="#cite_ref-Oliver_Syncopators_1970_125-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOliver1970" class="citation book cs1">Oliver, Paul (1970). Savannah Syncopators. Stein and Day. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8128-1315-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8128-1315-9"><bdi>978-0-8128-1315-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Savannah+Syncopators&rft.pub=Stein+and+Day&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=978-0-8128-1315-9&rft.aulast=Oliver&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kubik_20090923-126"><a href="#cite_ref-Kubik_20090923_126-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKubik2009" class="citation book cs1">Kubik, Gerhard (September 23, 2009). Africa and the Blues. University Press of Mississippi. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-62846-720-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-62846-720-8"><bdi>978-1-62846-720-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Africa+and+the+Blues&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Mississippi&rft.date=2009-09-23&rft.isbn=978-1-62846-720-8&rft.aulast=Kubik&rft.aufirst=Gerhard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Komara_2005-127"><a href="#cite_ref-Komara_2005_127-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKomaraWashburn2005" class="citation book cs1">Komara, Edward; Washburn, Robert (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-w-uGwm_LhcC&pg=PA10">"Africa"</a>. In Komara, Edward (ed.). Encyclopedia of the Blues. Psychology Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-92699-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-92699-7"><bdi>978-0-415-92699-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Africa&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Blues&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-415-92699-7&rft.aulast=Komara&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft.au=Washburn%2C+Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-w-uGwm_LhcC%26pg%3DPA10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kunzler_1988-128"><a href="#cite_ref-Kunzler_1988_128-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKunzler1988" class="citation book cs1">Kunzler, Martin (1988). Jazz-Lexicon. Hamburg: Rowohlt Taschenbuch Verlag.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jazz-Lexicon&rft.place=Hamburg&rft.pub=Rowohlt+Taschenbuch+Verlag&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Kunzler&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-LOC_2005_Komara-130"><a href="#cite_ref-LOC_2005_Komara_130-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKomara2005" class="citation web cs1">Komara, Ed (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/static/programs/national-recording-preservation-board/documents/CrazyBlues.pdf">""Crazy Blues"—Mamie Smith (1920) - Added to the National Registry: 2005"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a>. Retrieved August 9, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Library+of+Congress&rft.atitle=%22Crazy+Blues%22%E2%80%94Mamie+Smith+%281920%29+-+Added+to+the+National+Registry%3A+2005&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Komara&rft.aufirst=Ed&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.loc.gov%2Fstatic%2Fprograms%2Fnational-recording-preservation-board%2Fdocuments%2FCrazyBlues.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> "Crazy Blues" was recorded by Okeh Records and its catalogue number is 4169. </li> <li id="cite_note-Welding_196609-132"><a href="#cite_ref-Welding_196609_132-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWelding1966" class="citation news cs1">Welding, Pete (September 1966). "Ethnomusicology". University of Illinois Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Ethnomusicology&rft.date=1966-09&rft.aulast=Welding&rft.aufirst=Pete&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Murray_stomping_1976-133"><a href="#cite_ref-Murray_stomping_1976_133-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurray1976" class="citation book cs1">Murray, Albert (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/stompingblues00murr/page/64">Stomping the Blues</a>. New York: Da Capo. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/stompingblues00murr/page/64">64–65</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-306-80362-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-306-80362-3"><bdi>0-306-80362-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stomping+the+Blues&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=64-65&rft.pub=Da+Capo&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=0-306-80362-3&rft.aulast=Murray&rft.aufirst=Albert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstompingblues00murr%2Fpage%2F64&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoyer1995" class="citation book cs1">Boyer, Horace Clarence (1995). How Sweet the Sound: The Golden Age of Gospel. Elliott & Clark. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-880216-19-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-880216-19-4"><bdi>978-1-880216-19-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+Sweet+the+Sound%3A+The+Golden+Age+of+Gospel&rft.pub=Elliott+%26+Clark&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-1-880216-19-4&rft.aulast=Boyer&rft.aufirst=Horace+Clarence&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/item/ftvbib000056/">"Oh Jonah!"</a>. Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Library+of+Congress%2C+Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.atitle=Oh+Jonah%21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.loc.gov%2Fitem%2Fftvbib000056%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHurston1938" class="citation book cs1">Hurston, Zora Neale (1938). The Sanctified Church. Turtle Island. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-913666-44-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-913666-44-9"><bdi>978-0-913666-44-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sanctified+Church&rft.pub=Turtle+Island&rft.date=1938&rft.isbn=978-0-913666-44-9&rft.aulast=Hurston&rft.aufirst=Zora+Neale&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tottoli-137">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tottoli_137-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tottoli_137-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tottoli_137-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tottoli_137-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tottoli_137-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTottoli2014" class="citation book cs1">Tottoli, Roberto (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KqOQBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA322">Routledge Handbook of Islam in the West</a>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. p. 322. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1317744023" title="Special:BookSources/978-1317744023"><bdi>978-1317744023</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Routledge+Handbook+of+Islam+in+the+West&rft.pages=322&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1317744023&rft.aulast=Tottoli&rft.aufirst=Roberto&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKqOQBAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA322&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Spirituals&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Baraka, Amiri (1999). Blues People: Negro Music in White America. Harper Perennial. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0688184742" title="Special:BookSources/978-0688184742">978-0688184742</a>.</li> <li>Bauch, Marc A. (2013). Extending the Canon: Thomas Wentworth Higginson and African-American Spirituals. Munich, Germany.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaldwell2003" class="citation book cs1">Caldwell, Hansonia L (2003). African American music, spirituals: the fundamental communal music of Black Americans. Culver City, California: Ikoro Communications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9650441-5-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9650441-5-8"><bdi>978-0-9650441-5-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=African+American+music%2C+spirituals%3A+the+fundamental+communal+music+of+Black+Americans&rft.place=Culver+City%2C+California&rft.pub=Ikoro+Communications&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-9650441-5-8&rft.aulast=Caldwell&rft.aufirst=Hansonia+L&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaldwell1996" class="citation book cs1">Caldwell, Hansonia L. (1996). African American music: a chronology : 1619–1995 (First ed.). Los Angeles, California: Ikoro Communications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9650441-0-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9650441-0-3"><bdi>978-0-9650441-0-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=African+American+music%3A+a+chronology+%3A+1619%E2%80%931995&rft.place=Los+Angeles%2C+California&rft.edition=First&rft.pub=Ikoro+Communications&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-9650441-0-3&rft.aulast=Caldwell&rft.aufirst=Hansonia+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpirituals" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Koskoff, Ellen, Ed. The <a href="/wiki/Garland_Encyclopedia_of_World_Music" title="Garland Encyclopedia of World Music">Garland Encyclopedia of World Music</a>. Volume 3: The United States and Canada (New York and London: Garland Publishing, 2001) pp. 624–629; also pp. 523–524, pp. 68–69</li> <li>Nash, Elizabeth (2007). "Autobiographical Reminiscences of African-American Classical Singers, 1853–Present". Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7734-5250-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-7734-5250-8">0-7734-5250-8</a></li> <li>The <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/performingarts/pae-list.html">Performing Arts Encyclopedia</a> on the Library of Congress web portal contains many examples of digitized recordings and sheet music of spirituals.</li> <li>The <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/performingarts/pae-list.html">Performing Arts Encyclopedia</a> also houses a special digitized American choral music collection which features arrangements of spirituals by composers like Henry T. Burleigh and R. Nathaniel Dett.</li> <li>Work, John W., compiler (1940), American Negro Songs and Spirituals: a Comprehensive Collection of 230 Folk Songs, Religious and Secular, with a Foreword. New York: Bonanza Books. N.B.: Includes commentary on the repertory and the words with the music (harmonized) of the spirituals and other songs anthologized.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Spirituals&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150714160231/http://www.spiritualsproject.org/sweetchariot/">Sweet Chariot: the story of the spirituals</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tnstate.edu/library/digital/FISK.HTM">Fisk Jubilee Singers</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.library.upenn.edu/special/gallery/anderson/av/index.html">Marian Anderson: A Life in Song</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://imslp.org/wiki/User:Clark_Kimberling/Historical_Notes_1">Historical Notes on African American melodies</a>, including 75 African American spirituals with downloadable arrangements for solo instrument</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.partitions-domaine-public.fr/partitions/themes/gospel.html">Free Gospel sheet music</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spirituals-database.com">The Spirituals Database</a>, searchable discography of spirituals for solo voice</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Audio_samples">Audio samples</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Spirituals&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Audio samples">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Colored_quartet.pharaoh%27s_army_got_drowned_EDIS-SRP-0198-12.oga">"Pharaoh's Army Got Drowned"</a>, artists unknown (765 KB)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/folklife/Gordon/sideAbandA1.html#rolltheoldchariotalong">Gordon Collection</a>, performed by unknown persons in the Bay Area of California in the early 1920s</li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/DeepDowninMyHeart.ogg">"Deep Down in My Heart"</a>, from the Library of Congress's <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/folklife/Gordon/sideBbandB1.html">Gordon Collection</a>, performed by W. M. Givens in <a href="/wiki/Darien,_Georgia" title="Darien, Georgia">Darien, Georgia</a>, on about March 19, 1926</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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music">Cajun</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swamp_pop" title="Swamp pop">Swamp pop</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_folk_music_revival" title="American folk music revival">Folk revival</a> (1950s–60s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_music_of_North_America" title="Indigenous music of North America">Native American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Mexico_music" title="New Mexico music">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_dirt_music" title="Red dirt music">Red dirt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tejano_music" title="Tejano music">Tejano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_music_(North_America)" title="Western music (North America)">Western</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_music" title="African-American music">African-American music</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blues" title="Blues">Blues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jazz" title="Jazz">Jazz</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dixieland" class="mw-redirect" title="Dixieland">Dixieland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creole_music" title="Creole music">Creole</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zydeco" title="Zydeco">Zydeco</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jug_band" title="Jug band">Jug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ragtime" title="Ragtime">Ragtime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritual_(music)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spiritual (music)">Spirituals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Gospel_music" title="Black Gospel music">Gospel</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Country_music" title="Country music">Country music</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Americana_music" title="Americana music">Americana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roots_rock" title="Roots rock">Roots rock</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bluegrass_music" title="Bluegrass music">Bluegrass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honky-tonk" title="Honky-tonk">Honky-tonk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rockabilly" title="Rockabilly">Rockabilly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_swing" title="Western swing">Western swing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Christian_music" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Christian_music" title="Template:Christian music"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Christian_music" title="Template talk:Christian music"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Christian_music" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Christian music"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Christian_music" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Christian_music" title="Christian music">Christian music</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Roots and beginnings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Homophony" title="Homophony">Homophony</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Polyphony#European_polyphony" title="Polyphony">Polyphony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chorale" title="Chorale">Chorale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hymn" title="Hymn">Hymn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hymn_tune#The_Reformation" title="Hymn tune">Hymn tune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hymnody_of_continental_Europe" title="Hymnody of continental Europe">Hymnody of continental Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusive_psalmody" title="Exclusive psalmody">Exclusive psalmody</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_music" title="Jesus music">Jesus music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_Harp" title="Sacred Harp">Sacred Harp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shape_note" title="Shape note">Shape note</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Spirituals</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:ChristianitySymbolWhite.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/ChristianitySymbolWhite.svg/75px-ChristianitySymbolWhite.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/ChristianitySymbolWhite.svg/113px-ChristianitySymbolWhite.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/ChristianitySymbolWhite.svg/150px-ChristianitySymbolWhite.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="162" data-file-height="266" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern genres</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_adult_contemporary" title="Christian adult contemporary">Christian adult contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Christian_music" title="Contemporary Christian music">Contemporary Christian music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_worship_music" title="Contemporary worship music">Contemporary worship music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gospel_music" title="Gospel music">Gospel music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neues_Geistliches_Lied" title="Neues Geistliches Lied">Neues Geistliches Lied</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_(music)" title="Mass (music)">Mass (music)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fusion genres</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_country_music" title="Christian country music">Christian country music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_electronic_dance_music" title="Christian electronic dance music">Christian electronic dance music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_hip_hop" title="Christian hip hop">Christian hip hop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_R%26B" title="Christian R&B">Christian R&B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_rock" title="Christian rock">Christian rock</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_alternative_rock" title="Christian alternative rock">Christian alternative rock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_metal" title="Christian metal">Christian metal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unblack_metal" title="Unblack metal">Unblack metal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_punk" title="Christian punk">Christian punk</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_hardcore" title="Christian hardcore">Christian hardcore</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ska" title="Christian ska">Christian ska</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gospel_blues" title="Gospel blues">Gospel blues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gospel_reggae" title="Gospel reggae">Gospel reggae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Christian_music" title="Latin Christian music">Latin Christian music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_gospel" title="Southern gospel">Southern gospel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Gospel_music" title="Black Gospel music">Black Gospel music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_black_gospel" title="Traditional black gospel">Traditional</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_contemporary_gospel" title="Urban contemporary gospel">Urban contemporary gospel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chant</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Chant" title="Template:Chant"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Chant" title="Template talk:Chant"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Chant" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Chant"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Christian_liturgical_chant" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Christian_liturgy" title="Christian liturgy">Christian liturgical</a> <a href="/wiki/Chant" title="Chant">chant</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_chant" title="Armenian chant">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_music" title="Byzantine music">Byzantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_music" title="Coptic music">Coptic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_chant" title="Ethiopian chant">Ethiopian and Eritrean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galician_chant" title="Galician chant">Galician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obikhod" title="Obikhod">Obikhod</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_chant" title="Kievan chant">Kievan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostopinije" title="Prostopinije">Prostopinije</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_chant" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian chant">Syrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Znamenny_chant" title="Znamenny chant">Znamenny</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Western</a> (<a href="/wiki/Plainsong" title="Plainsong">Plainsong</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ambrosian_chant" title="Ambrosian chant">Ambrosian</a> (Milanese)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglican_chant" title="Anglican chant">Anglican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beneventan_chant" title="Beneventan chant">Beneventan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_chant" title="Celtic chant">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallican_chant" title="Gallican chant">Gallican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gelineau_psalmody" title="Gelineau psalmody">Gelineau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregorian_chant" title="Gregorian chant">Gregorian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozarabic_chant" title="Mozarabic chant">Mozarabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Roman_chant" title="Old Roman chant">Old Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ravenna_chant&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ravenna chant (page does not exist)">Ravenna</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Anglican_church_composers" title="List of Anglican church composers">Anglican church composers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_bands_and_artists_by_genre" title="List of Christian bands and artists by genre">Christian bands and artists by genre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_country_artists" title="List of Christian country artists">Christian country artists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_hardcore_bands" title="List of Christian hardcore bands">Christian hardcore bands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_rock_bands" title="List of Christian rock bands">Christian rock bands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_metal_artists" title="List of Christian metal artists">Christian metal artists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_hip_hop_artists" title="List of Christian hip hop artists">Christian hip hop artists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_punk_bands" title="List of Christian punk bands">Christian punk bands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_ska_bands" title="List of Christian ska bands">Christian ska bands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_record_labels" title="List of Christian record labels">Christian record labels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_vocal_artists" title="List of Christian vocal artists">Christian vocal artists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_worship_music_artists" title="List of Christian worship music artists">Christian worship music artists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_gospel_musicians" title="List of gospel musicians">Gospel musicians</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglican_church_music" title="Anglican church music">Anglican church music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_media" title="Christian media">Christian media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_music_festival" title="Christian music festival">Christian music festival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_music_industry" title="Christian music industry">Christian music industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_music" title="Church music">Church music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Catholic_liturgical_music" title="Contemporary Catholic liturgical music">Contemporary Catholic liturgical music</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Christian_music" title="Category:Christian music">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Christian_music" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Christian music">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Blues" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Blues" title="Template:Blues"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Blues" title="Template talk:Blues"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Blues" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Blues"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Blues" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Blues" title="Blues">Blues</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Musical form</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue_note" title="Blue note">Blue note</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blues_ballad" title="Blues ballad">Blues ballad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blues_scale" title="Blues scale">Blues scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Call_and_response_(music)" title="Call and response (music)">Call and response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight-bar_blues" title="Eight-bar blues">Eight-bar blues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musical_improvisation" title="Musical improvisation">Musical improvisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuffle_note" class="mw-redirect" title="Shuffle note">Shuffles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_blues_verses" title="Traditional blues verses">Traditional blues verses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelve-bar_blues" title="Twelve-bar blues">Twelve-bar blues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walking_bass" class="mw-redirect" title="Walking bass">Walking bass</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Origins</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_blues" title="Origins of the blues">Origins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_holler" title="Field holler">Field hollers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritual_(music)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spiritual (music)">Spirituals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_song#African-American_work_songs" title="Work song">Work songs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_folk_music" title="American folk music">American folk music</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regional styles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_blues" title="African blues">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Desert_blues" title="Desert blues">Desert blues</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_blues" title="Canadian blues">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_blues" title="Chicago blues">Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delta_blues" title="Delta blues">Delta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hill_country_blues" title="Hill country blues">Hill country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_blues" title="Louisiana blues">Louisiana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Orleans_blues" title="New Orleans blues">New Orleans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swamp_blues" title="Swamp blues">Swamp</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memphis_blues" title="Memphis blues">Memphis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blues_in_New_Zealand" title="Blues in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piedmont_blues" title="Piedmont blues">Piedmont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_blues" title="Texas blues">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_blues" title="Anatolian blues">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_blues" title="British blues">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Coast_blues" title="West Coast blues">West Coast</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Subgenres</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boogie-woogie" title="Boogie-woogie">Boogie-woogie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classic_female_blues" title="Classic female blues">Classic female</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Country_blues" title="Country blues">Country</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Delta_blues" title="Delta blues">Delta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hill_country_blues" title="Hill country blues">Hill country</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dirty_blues" title="Dirty blues">Dirty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_blues" title="Electric blues">Electric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fife_and_drum_blues" title="Fife and drum blues">Fife and drum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hokum" title="Hokum">Hokum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holler_blues" title="Holler blues">Holler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jug_band" title="Jug band">Jug band</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skiffle" title="Skiffle">Skiffle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fusion genres</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rhythm_and_blues" title="Rhythm and blues">Rhythm and blues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blues_rock" title="Blues rock">Blues rock</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biker_metal" title="Biker metal">Biker metal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boogie_rock" title="Boogie rock">Boogie rock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punk_blues" title="Punk blues">Punk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_rock" title="Southern rock">Southern rock</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gospel_blues" title="Gospel blues">Gospel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jump_blues" title="Jump blues">Jump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul_blues" title="Soul blues">Soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_rock" title="Southern rock">Southern rock</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_blues_musicians" title="List of blues musicians">Blues musicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_blues_musicians_by_genre" title="Lists of blues musicians by genre">Blues musicians by genre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_blues_standards" title="List of blues standards">Blues standards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_blues_festivals" title="List of blues festivals">Blues festivals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Guit_Blues.JPG/28px-Guit_Blues.JPG" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Guit_Blues.JPG/41px-Guit_Blues.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Guit_Blues.JPG/55px-Guit_Blues.JPG 2x" data-file-width="159" data-file-height="161" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Blues" title="Portal:Blues">Blues portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Blues" title="Category:Blues">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Blues_songs" title="Category:Blues songs">Blues songs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="African_diaspora_religions" style="text-align:left;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background: #BFEAF9;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Afro-American_Religions" title="Template:Afro-American Religions"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Afro-American_Religions" title="Template talk:Afro-American Religions"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Afro-American_Religions" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Afro-American Religions"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="African_diaspora_religions" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/African_diaspora_religions" title="African diaspora religions">African diaspora religions</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #BFEAF9;;width:1%">Religions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abaku%C3%A1" title="Abakuá">Abakuá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arar%C3%A1_(religion)" class="mw-redirect" title="Arará (religion)">Arará</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism_in_the_African_diaspora" title="Atheism in the African diaspora">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_church" title="Black church">Black church</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Catholicism" title="Black Catholicism">Catholicism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candombl%C3%A9" title="Candomblé">Candomblé</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Candombl%C3%A9_Bantu" title="Candomblé Bantu">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candombl%C3%A9_Jej%C3%A9" title="Candomblé Jejé">Jejé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candombl%C3%A9_Ketu" title="Candomblé Ketu">Ketu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comfa" title="Comfa">Comfa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convince" title="Convince">Convince</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominican_Vud%C3%BA" title="Dominican Vudú">Dominican Vudú</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Vodou" title="Haitian Vodou">Haitian Vodou</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Vodou_in_Cuba" title="Haitian Vodou in Cuba">in Cuba</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_the_African_diaspora" title="Islam in the African diaspora">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Jews" title="African-American Jews">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumina" title="Kumina">Kumina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Voodoo" title="Louisiana Voodoo">Louisiana Voodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mar%C3%ADa_Lionza" title="María Lionza">María Lionza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamaican_Maroon_religion" title="Jamaican Maroon religion">Maroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palo_(religion)" title="Palo (religion)">Palo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quimbanda" title="Quimbanda">Quimbanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santer%C3%ADa" title="Santería">Santería</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritual_Baptist" title="Spiritual Baptist">Spiritual Baptist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tambor_de_Mina" title="Tambor de Mina">Tambor de Mina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinidadian_Vodunu" title="Trinidadian Vodunu">Trinidadian Vodunu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbanda" title="Umbanda">Umbanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winti" title="Winti">Winti</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Chiwara_male_drawing.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Chiwara_male_drawing.png/30px-Chiwara_male_drawing.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="67" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Chiwara_male_drawing.png/45px-Chiwara_male_drawing.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Chiwara_male_drawing.png/60px-Chiwara_male_drawing.png 2x" data-file-width="303" data-file-height="676" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #BFEAF9;;width:1%">Practices and concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_sacrifice#Traditional_African_and_Afro-American_religions" title="Animal sacrifice">Animal sacrifice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fetish_priest" title="Fetish priest">Fetish priest</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bokor" title="Bokor">Bokor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Houngan" class="mw-redirect" title="Houngan">Houngan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mambo_(Vodou)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mambo (Vodou)">Mambo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoodoo_(spirituality)" title="Hoodoo (spirituality)">Hoodoo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kongo_religion" title="Kongo religion">Kongo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot_foot_powder" title="Hot foot powder">Hot foot powder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jazz_funeral" title="Jazz funeral">Jazz funeral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kromanti_dance" title="Kromanti dance">Kromanti dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macumba" title="Macumba">Macumba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michari" title="Michari">Michari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mojo_(African-American_culture)" title="Mojo (African-American culture)">Mojo bag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myal" title="Myal">Myal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nine_nights" title="Nine nights">Nine nights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obeah" title="Obeah">Obeah</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Spirituals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veve" title="Veve">Veve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voodoo_doll" title="Voodoo doll">Voodoo doll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zombie" title="Zombie">Zombie</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #BFEAF9;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religious_syncretism" title="Religious syncretism">Diverse roots</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alusi" class="mw-redirect" title="Alusi">Alusi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Odinala" title="Odinala">Igbo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in the Americas">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholicism">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occultism" class="mw-redirect" title="Occultism">Western occultism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_witchcraft" title="European witchcraft">European witchcraft folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/If%C3%A1" title="Ifá">Ifá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kongo_religion" title="Kongo religion">Kongo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nkisi" title="Nkisi">Nkisi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bantu_spirituality" class="mw-redirect" title="Bantu spirituality">Bantu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loa" class="mw-redirect" title="Loa">Loa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dahomean_religion" title="Dahomean religion">Fon and Ewe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orisha" title="Orisha">Orisha</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yoruba_religion" title="Yoruba religion">Yoruba</a></li></ul></li> <li><a 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