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aria-controls="toc-Types_and_applications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Types and applications subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Types_and_applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Particle_detection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Particle_detection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Particle detection</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Particle_detection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gamma_and_X-ray_detection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gamma_and_X-ray_detection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Gamma and X-ray detection</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gamma_and_X-ray_detection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neutron_detection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neutron_detection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Neutron detection</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neutron_detection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gamma_measurement—personnel_protection_and_process_control" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gamma_measurement—personnel_protection_and_process_control"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Gamma measurement—personnel protection and process control</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gamma_measurement—personnel_protection_and_process_control-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physical_design" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physical_design"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Physical design</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Physical_design-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Guidance_on_application_use" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Guidance_on_application_use"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Guidance on application use</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Guidance_on_application_use-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gallery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gallery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Gallery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gallery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Geiger counter</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 62 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-62" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">62 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%AF_%D8%BA%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%BA%D8%B1" title="عداد غايغر – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="عداد غايغر" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geyger_say%C4%9Fac%C4%B1" title="Geyger sayğacı – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Geyger sayğacı" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%80_%D1%81%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%B3%D1%8B" title="Гейгер счетчигы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Гейгер счетчигы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%96%D1%87%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BA_%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Лічыльнік Гейгера – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Лічыльнік Гейгера" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2_%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%8F%D1%87" title="Гайгеров брояч – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Гайгеров брояч" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comptador_Geiger" title="Comptador Geiger – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Comptador Geiger" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geiger%C5%AFv%E2%80%93M%C3%BCller%C5%AFv_po%C4%8D%C3%ADta%C4%8D" title="Geigerův–Müllerův počítač – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Geigerův–Müllerův počítač" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geigert%C3%A6ller" title="Geigertæller – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Geigertæller" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geigeri_loendur" title="Geigeri loendur – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Geigeri loendur" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B5%CF%84%CF%81%CE%B7%CF%84%CE%AE%CF%82_%CE%93%CE%BA%CE%AC%CE%B9%CE%B3%CE%BA%CE%B5%CF%81" title="Μετρητής Γκάιγκερ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μετρητής Γκάιγκερ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contador_Geiger" title="Contador Geiger – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Contador Geiger" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalkulilo_Geiger" title="Kalkulilo Geiger – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kalkulilo Geiger" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geiger_kontagailu" title="Geiger kontagailu – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Geiger kontagailu" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B4%DA%AF%D8%B1_%DA%AF%D8%A7%DB%8C%DA%AF%D8%B1" title="شمارشگر گایگر – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="شمارشگر گایگر" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compteur_Geiger" title="Compteur Geiger – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Compteur Geiger" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B0%80%EC%9D%B4%EA%B1%B0_%EA%B3%84%EC%88%98%EA%B8%B0" title="가이거 계수기 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="가이거 계수기" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B0-%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B0" title="गाइगर-मूलर काउन्टर – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="गाइगर-मूलर काउन्टर" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geigerov_broja%C4%8D" title="Geigerov brojač – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Geigerov brojač" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pencacah_Geiger" title="Pencacah Geiger – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pencacah Geiger" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geiger_Contator" title="Geiger Contator – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Geiger Contator" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geiger-teljari" title="Geiger-teljari – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Geiger-teljari" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contatore_Geiger" title="Contatore Geiger – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Contatore Geiger" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%94_%D7%92%D7%99%D7%99%D7%92%D7%A8" title="מונה גייגר – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מונה גייגר" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%97%E0%B3%80%E0%B2%97%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D_-_%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%81%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%97%E0%B3%81%E0%B2%A3%E0%B2%95" title="ಗೀಗರ್ - ಮುಲ್ಲರ್ ಗುಣಕ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಗೀಗರ್ - ಮುಲ್ಲರ್ ಗುಣಕ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%B7%D0%B5%D1%80-%D0%9C%D1%8E%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%88" title="Гейзер-Мюллер есептегіш – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Гейзер-Мюллер есептегіш" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kont%C3%A8_jej%C3%A8" title="Kontè jejè – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Kontè jejè" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%80-_%D0%BC%D1%8E%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80_%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B3%D1%8B%D1%87%D1%8B" title="Гейгер- мюллер санагычы – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Гейгер- мюллер санагычы" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geigera_skait%C4%ABt%C4%81js" title="Geigera skaitītājs – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Geigera skaitītājs" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geigerio_ir_Miulerio_skaitiklis" title="Geigerio ir Miulerio skaitiklis – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Geigerio ir Miulerio skaitiklis" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geiger%E2%80%93M%C3%BCller-sz%C3%A1ml%C3%A1l%C3%B3" title="Geiger–Müller-számláló – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Geiger–Müller-számláló" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D1%98%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2_%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%98%D0%B0%D1%87" title="Гајгеров бројач – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Гајгеров бројач" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%BC_%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%97%E0%B4%A3%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%BC" title="ഗൈഗർ കൗണ്ടർ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഗൈഗർ കൗണ്ടർ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%80_%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%83%D1%80" title="Гейгер тоолуур – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Гейгер тоолуур" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geigerteller" title="Geigerteller – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Geigerteller" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AC%E3%82%A4%E3%82%AC%E3%83%BC%EF%BC%9D%E3%83%9F%E3%83%A5%E3%83%A9%E3%83%BC%E8%A8%88%E6%95%B0%E7%AE%A1" title="ガイガー＝ミュラー計数管 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ガイガー＝ミュラー計数管" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geigerteller" title="Geigerteller – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Geigerteller" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geigerteljar" title="Geigerteljar – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Geigerteljar" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%97%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%97%E0%AC%B0%E0%AD%8D_%E0%AC%95%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%89%E0%AC%A3%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%9F%E0%AC%B0%E0%AD%8D" title="ଗିଗର୍ କାଉଣ୍ଟର୍ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ଗିଗର୍ କାଉଣ୍ଟର୍" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geyger-Myuller_sanagichi" title="Geyger-Myuller sanagichi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Geyger-Myuller sanagichi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%DB%8C%DA%AF%D8%B1_%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%BE" title="گیگر ناپ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="گیگر ناپ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conteur_Geiger" title="Conteur Geiger – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Conteur Geiger" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Licznik_Geigera" title="Licznik Geigera – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Licznik Geigera" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contador_Geiger" title="Contador Geiger – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Contador Geiger" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contor_Geiger" title="Contor Geiger – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Contor Geiger" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%87%D1%91%D1%82%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Счётчик Гейгера – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Счётчик Гейгера" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geiger_counter" title="Geiger counter – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Geiger counter" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geigerov-M%C3%BCllerov_po%C4%8D%C3%ADta%C4%8D" title="Geigerov-Müllerov počítač – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Geigerov-Müllerov počítač" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D1%98%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%80%E2%80%94%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2_%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%98%D0%B0%D1%87" title="Гајгер—Милеров бројач – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Гајгер—Милеров бројач" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geigerov_broja%C4%8D" title="Geigerov brojač – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Geigerov brojač" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geigermittari" title="Geigermittari – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Geigermittari" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geigerm%C3%A4tare" title="Geigermätare – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Geigermätare" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aparatong_Geiger" title="Aparatong Geiger – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Aparatong Geiger" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF" title="கைகர் துகள் அளவி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கைகர் துகள் அளவி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B7%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%9A%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%81%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E2%80%93%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B6%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="เครื่องนับไกเกอร์–มึลเลอร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เครื่องนับไกเกอร์–มึลเลอร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geiger_sayac%C4%B1" title="Geiger sayacı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Geiger sayacı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%96%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Лічильник Гейгера – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Лічильник Гейгера" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%DB%8C%DA%AF%D8%B1_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%A4%D9%86%D9%B9%D8%B1" title="گیگر کاؤنٹر – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="گیگر کاؤنٹر" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%E1%BB%99_%C4%91%E1%BA%BFm_Geiger%E2%80%93M%C3%BCller" title="Bộ đếm Geiger–Müller – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Bộ đếm Geiger–Müller" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kontador_Geiger" title="Kontador Geiger – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Kontador Geiger" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9B%96%E9%9D%A9%E8%AE%A1%E6%95%B0%E5%99%A8" title="盖革计数器 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="盖革计数器" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%93%8B%E9%9D%A9%E8%A8%88%E6%95%B8%E5%99%A8" title="蓋革計數器 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="蓋革計數器" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9B%96%E9%9D%A9%E8%AE%A1%E6%95%B0%E5%99%A8" title="盖革计数器 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="盖革计数器" data-language-autonym="中文" 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class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Instrument used for measuring ionizing radiation</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the album, see <a href="/wiki/Geiger_Counter_(album)" title="Geiger Counter (album)"><i>Geiger Counter</i> (album)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output 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class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Geiger–Müller counter</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Geiger_counter.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Geiger_counter.jpg/220px-Geiger_counter.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Geiger_counter.jpg/330px-Geiger_counter.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Geiger_counter.jpg/440px-Geiger_counter.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2080" data-file-height="1544" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">A "two-piece" bench-type Geiger–Müller counter using a cylindrical end-window detector connected to an electronics module with analogue readout</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Other names</th><td class="infobox-data">Geiger Counter</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Inventor</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Hans_Geiger" title="Hans Geiger">Hans Geiger</a>,<br /><a href="/wiki/Walther_M%C3%BCller" title="Walther Müller">Walther Müller</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Related items</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Geiger%E2%80%93M%C3%BCller_tube" title="Geiger–Müller tube">Geiger–Müller tube</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="10" data-mwtitle="Giger_counter_sound_KCl.oga" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Giger_counter_sound_KCl.oga"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b6/Giger_counter_sound_KCl.oga/Giger_counter_sound_KCl.oga.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Giger_counter_sound_KCl.oga" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></span><figcaption>The sound of a geiger counter</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>Geiger counter</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/ɡ/: 'g' in 'guy'">ɡ</span><span title="/aɪ/: 'i' in 'tide'">aɪ</span><span title="/ɡ/: 'g' in 'guy'">ɡ</span><span title="/ər/: 'er' in 'letter'">ər</span></span>/</a></span></span>, <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling"><span style="font-size:90%">GY</span>-gər</i></a>;<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> also known as a <b>Geiger–Müller counter</b> or <b>G-M counter</b>) is an electronic instrument for detecting and measuring <a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">ionizing radiation</a> with the use of a <a href="/wiki/Geiger%E2%80%93M%C3%BCller_tube" title="Geiger–Müller tube">Geiger–Müller tube</a>. It is widely used in applications such as <a href="/wiki/Radiation_dosimetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation dosimetry">radiation dosimetry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radiological_protection" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiological protection">radiological protection</a>, <a href="/wiki/Experimental_physics" title="Experimental physics">experimental physics</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear industry">nuclear industry</a>. </p><p>"Geiger counter" is often used generically to refer to any form of <a href="/wiki/Dosimeter" title="Dosimeter">dosimeter</a> (or, <i>radiation-measuring device</i>), but scientifically, a Geiger counter is only one specific type of dosimeter. </p><p>It detects ionizing radiation such as <a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">alpha particles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beta_particle" title="Beta particle">beta particles</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">gamma rays</a> using the ionization effect produced in a <a href="/wiki/Geiger%E2%80%93M%C3%BCller_tube" title="Geiger–Müller tube">Geiger–Müller tube</a>, which gives its name to the instrument.<sup id="cite_ref-cent_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cent-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In wide and prominent use as a <a href="/wiki/Survey_meter" title="Survey meter">hand-held radiation survey instrument</a>, it is perhaps one of the world's best-known <a href="/wiki/Particle_detector" title="Particle detector">radiation detection</a> instruments. </p><p>The original detection principle was realized in 1908 at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Manchester" title="University of Manchester">University of Manchester</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but it was not until the development of the Geiger–Müller tube in 1928 that the Geiger counter could be produced as a practical instrument. Since then, it has been very popular due to its robust sensing element and relatively low cost. However, there are limitations in measuring high radiation rates and the <a href="/wiki/Electronvolt" title="Electronvolt">energy</a> of incident radiation.<sup id="cite_ref-knoll_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-knoll-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Geiger counter is one of the first examples of <a href="/wiki/Data_sonification" title="Data sonification">data sonification</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Principle_of_operation">Principle of operation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geiger_counter&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Principle of operation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Geiger-Muller-counter-en.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Geiger-Muller-counter-en.png/260px-Geiger-Muller-counter-en.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Geiger-Muller-counter-en.png/390px-Geiger-Muller-counter-en.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Geiger-Muller-counter-en.png/520px-Geiger-Muller-counter-en.png 2x" data-file-width="705" data-file-height="645" /></a><figcaption>Diagram of a Geiger counter using an "end window" tube for low-penetration radiation. A loudspeaker is also used for indication.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Geiger%E2%80%93M%C3%BCller_tube" title="Geiger–Müller tube">Geiger–Müller tube</a></div> <p>A Geiger counter consists of a Geiger–Müller tube (the sensing element which detects the radiation) and the processing electronics, which display the result. </p><p>The Geiger–Müller tube is filled with an inert gas such as <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neon" title="Neon">neon</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Argon" title="Argon">argon</a> at low pressure, to which a high voltage is applied. The tube briefly conducts electrical charge when <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">high energy particles</a> or <a href="/wiki/Gamma_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma rays">gamma radiation</a> make the gas conductive by ionization. The ionization is considerably amplified within the tube by the <a href="/wiki/Townsend_discharge" title="Townsend discharge">Townsend discharge</a> effect to produce an easily measured detection pulse, which is fed to the processing and display electronics. This large pulse from the tube makes the Geiger counter relatively cheap to manufacture, as the subsequent electronics are greatly simplified.<sup id="cite_ref-knoll_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-knoll-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The electronics also generate the high voltage, typically 400–900 volts, that has to be applied to the Geiger–Müller tube to enable its operation. This voltage must be carefully selected, as too high a voltage will allow for continuous discharge, damaging the instrument and invalidating the results. Conversely, too low a voltage will result in an electric field that is too weak to generate a current pulse.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The correct voltage is usually specified by the manufacturer. To help quickly terminate each discharge in the tube a small amount of halogen gas or organic material known as a <a href="/wiki/Geiger%E2%80%93M%C3%BCller_tube#Gas_quenching" title="Geiger–Müller tube">quenching mixture</a> is added to the fill gas. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Readout">Readout</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geiger_counter&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Readout"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are two types of detected radiation readout: <a href="/wiki/Counts_per_minute" title="Counts per minute">counts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Absorbed_dose" title="Absorbed dose">radiation dose</a>. </p> <ul><li>The counts display is the simplest, and shows the number of ionizing events detected, displayed either as a count rate, such as "counts per minute" or "counts per second", or as a total number of counts over a set time period (an integrated total). The counts readout is normally used when alpha or beta particles are being detected.</li> <li>More complex to achieve is a display of radiation dose rate, displayed in units such as the <a href="/wiki/Sievert" title="Sievert">sievert</a>, which is normally used for measuring gamma or X-ray dose rates. A Geiger–Müller tube can detect the presence of radiation, but not its <a href="/wiki/Electronvolt" title="Electronvolt">energy</a>, which influences the radiation's ionizing effect. Consequently, instruments measuring dose rate require the use of an <a href="/wiki/Geiger%E2%80%93M%C3%BCller_tube#Photon_energy_compensation" title="Geiger–Müller tube">energy compensated</a> Geiger–Müller tube, so that the dose displayed relates to the counts detected.<sup id="cite_ref-knoll_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-knoll-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The electronics will apply known factors to make this conversion, which is specific to each instrument and is determined by design and calibration.</li></ul> <p>The readout can be analog or digital, and modern instruments offer serial communications with a host computer or network. </p><p>There is usually an option to produce audible <a href="/wiki/Clicking_noise" class="mw-redirect" title="Clicking noise">clicks</a> representing the number of ionization events detected. This is the distinctive sound associated with handheld or portable Geiger counters. The purpose of this is to allow the user to concentrate on manipulation of the instrument while retaining auditory feedback on the radiation rate. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Limitations">Limitations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geiger_counter&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Limitations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are two main limitations of the Geiger counter: </p> <ol><li>Because the output pulse from a Geiger–Müller tube is always of the same magnitude (regardless of the energy of the incident radiation), the tube cannot differentiate between radiation types or measure radiation energy, which prevents it from correctly measuring <a href="/wiki/Dose_rate" title="Dose rate">dose rate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-knoll_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-knoll-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The tube is less accurate at high radiation rates, because each ionization event is followed by a "dead time", an insensitive period during which any further incident radiation does not result in a count. Typically, the dead time will reduce indicated count rates above about 10<sup>4</sup> to 10<sup>5</sup> counts per second, depending on the characteristic of the tube being used. <sup id="cite_ref-knoll_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-knoll-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While some counters have circuitry which can compensate for this, for measuring very high dose rates, <a href="/wiki/Ion_chamber" class="mw-redirect" title="Ion chamber">ion chamber</a> instruments are preferred for high radiation rates.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_and_applications">Types and applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geiger_counter&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Types and applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Geiger_counter_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Geiger_counter_2.jpg/220px-Geiger_counter_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Geiger_counter_2.jpg/330px-Geiger_counter_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Geiger_counter_2.jpg/440px-Geiger_counter_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3488" data-file-height="2320" /></a><figcaption>Geiger counter with pancake type probe</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Geiger_counter_in_use.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Geiger_counter_in_use.jpg/220px-Geiger_counter_in_use.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Geiger_counter_in_use.jpg/330px-Geiger_counter_in_use.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Geiger_counter_in_use.jpg/440px-Geiger_counter_in_use.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1331" data-file-height="1032" /></a><figcaption>Laboratory use of a Geiger counter with end-window probe to measure beta radiation</figcaption></figure> <p>The intended detection application of a Geiger counter dictates the tube design used. Consequently, there are a great many designs, but they can be generally categorized as "end-window", windowless "thin-walled", "thick-walled", and sometimes hybrids of these types. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Particle_detection">Particle detection</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geiger_counter&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Particle detection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first historical uses of the Geiger principle were to detect α- and β-particles, and the instrument is still used for this purpose today. For α-particles and low energy β-particles, the "end-window" type of a Geiger–Müller tube has to be used, as these particles have a limited range and are easily <a href="/wiki/Stopping_power_(particle_radiation)" title="Stopping power (particle radiation)">stopped</a> by a solid material. Therefore, the tube requires a window which is thin enough to allow as many as possible of these particles through to the fill gas. The window is usually made of <a href="/wiki/Mica" title="Mica">mica</a> with a density of about 1.5–2.0 mg/cm<sup>2</sup>.<sup id="cite_ref-cent_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cent-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>α-particles have the shortest range, and to detect these the window should ideally be within 10 mm of the radiation source due to α-particle <a href="/wiki/Attenuation" title="Attenuation">attenuation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-cent_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cent-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the Geiger–Müller tube produces a pulse output which is the same magnitude for all detected radiation, so a Geiger counter with an end window tube cannot distinguish between α- and β-particles.<sup id="cite_ref-knoll_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-knoll-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A skilled operator can use varying distance from a radiation source to differentiate between α- and high energy β-particles. </p><p>The "pancake" Geiger–Müller tube is a variant of the end-window probe, but designed with a larger detection area to make checking quicker. However, the pressure of the atmosphere against the low pressure of the fill gas limits the window size due to the limited strength of the window membrane. </p><p>Some β-particles can also be detected by a thin-walled "windowless" Geiger–Müller tube, which has no end-window, but allows high energy β-particles to pass through the tube walls. Although the tube walls have a greater stopping power than a thin end-window, they still allow these more energetic particles to reach the fill gas.<sup id="cite_ref-cent_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cent-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>End-window Geiger counters are still used as a general purpose, portable, <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">radioactive contamination</a> measurement and detection instrument, owing to their relatively low cost, robustness and relatively high detection efficiency; particularly with high energy β-particles.<sup id="cite_ref-knoll_4-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-knoll-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, for discrimination between α- and β-particles or provision of particle energy information, <a href="/wiki/Scintillation_counter" title="Scintillation counter">scintillation counters</a> or <a href="/wiki/Proportional_counter" title="Proportional counter">proportional counters</a> should be used.<sup id="cite_ref-ukhse_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ukhse-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Those instrument types are manufactured with much larger detector areas, which means that checking for surface contamination is quicker than with a Geiger counter. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gamma_and_X-ray_detection">Gamma and X-ray detection</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geiger_counter&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Gamma and X-ray detection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Geiger_counter_measuring_tree_at_Chernobyl.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Geiger_counter_measuring_tree_at_Chernobyl.jpg/220px-Geiger_counter_measuring_tree_at_Chernobyl.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Geiger_counter_measuring_tree_at_Chernobyl.jpg/330px-Geiger_counter_measuring_tree_at_Chernobyl.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Geiger_counter_measuring_tree_at_Chernobyl.jpg/440px-Geiger_counter_measuring_tree_at_Chernobyl.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>A Radhound Geiger counter measuring radiation emitted by a tree in <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl" title="Chernobyl">Chernobyl</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Geiger counters are widely used to detect <a href="/wiki/Gamma_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma radiation">gamma radiation</a> and <a href="/wiki/X-rays" class="mw-redirect" title="X-rays">X-rays</a>, collectively known as <a href="/wiki/Photons" class="mw-redirect" title="Photons">photons</a>, and for this the windowless tube is used. However, detection efficiency is low compared to alpha and beta particles. The article on the <a href="/wiki/Geiger%E2%80%93M%C3%BCller_tube" title="Geiger–Müller tube">Geiger–Müller tube</a> carries a more detailed account of the techniques used to detect photon radiation. For high energy photons, the tube relies on the interaction of the radiation with the tube wall, usually a material with a high <a href="/wiki/Atomic_number" title="Atomic number">atomic number</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Stainless_steel" title="Stainless steel">stainless steel</a> of 1–2 mm thickness, to produce free electrons within the tube wall, due to the <a href="/wiki/Photoelectric_effect" title="Photoelectric effect">photoelectric effect</a>. If these migrate out of the tube wall, they enter and ionize the fill gas.<sup id="cite_ref-knoll_4-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-knoll-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This effect increases the detection efficiency because the low-pressure gas in the tube has poorer interaction with higher energy photons than a steel tube. However, as photon energies decrease to low levels, there is greater gas interaction, and the contribution of direct gas interaction increases. At very low energies (less than 25 <a href="/wiki/Kiloelectronvolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiloelectronvolt">keV</a>), direct gas ionisation dominates, and a steel tube attenuates the incident photons. Consequently, at these energies, a typical tube design is a long tube with a thin wall which has a larger gas volume, to give an increased chance of direct interaction of a particle with the fill gas.<sup id="cite_ref-cent_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cent-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Above these low energy levels, there is a considerable variance in response to different photon energies of the same intensity, and a steel-walled tube employs what is known as "energy compensation" in the form of filter rings around the naked tube, which attempts to compensate for these variations over a large energy range.<sup id="cite_ref-cent_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cent-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A steel-walled Geiger–Müller tube is about 1% efficient over a wide range of energies.<sup id="cite_ref-cent_2-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cent-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neutron_detection">Neutron detection</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geiger_counter&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Neutron detection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=File:Boroncounter.svg&lang=en" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Boroncounter.svg/220px-Boroncounter.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="88" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Boroncounter.svg/330px-Boroncounter.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Boroncounter.svg/440px-Boroncounter.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="240" /></a><figcaption>Geiger tube filled with BF<sub>3</sub> for detection of thermal neutrons</figcaption></figure> <p>A variation of the Geiger tube can be used to exclusively measure radiation dosage from <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutrons</a> rather than from <a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">gammas</a> by the process of <a href="/wiki/Neutron_capture" title="Neutron capture">neutron capture</a>. The tube, which can contain the fill gas <a href="/wiki/Boron_trifluoride" title="Boron trifluoride">boron trifluoride</a> or <a href="/wiki/Helium-3" title="Helium-3">helium-3</a>, is surrounded by a plastic moderator that reduces neutron energies prior to capture. When a capture occurs in the fill gas, the energy released is registered in the detector. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_complete_Geiger_counter,_with_the_Geiger-Muller_tube_70_019.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/A_complete_Geiger_counter%2C_with_the_Geiger-Muller_tube_70_019.jpg/220px-A_complete_Geiger_counter%2C_with_the_Geiger-Muller_tube_70_019.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/A_complete_Geiger_counter%2C_with_the_Geiger-Muller_tube_70_019.jpg/330px-A_complete_Geiger_counter%2C_with_the_Geiger-Muller_tube_70_019.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/A_complete_Geiger_counter%2C_with_the_Geiger-Muller_tube_70_019.jpg/440px-A_complete_Geiger_counter%2C_with_the_Geiger-Muller_tube_70_019.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4160" data-file-height="3120" /></a><figcaption>A modern one-piece Geiger–Müller counter, including Geiger–Müller tube type 70 019 (at the top)</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gamma_measurement—personnel_protection_and_process_control"><span id="Gamma_measurement.E2.80.94personnel_protection_and_process_control"></span>Gamma measurement—personnel protection and process control</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geiger_counter&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Gamma measurement—personnel protection and process control"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While "Geiger counter" is practically synonymous with the hand-held variety, the Geiger principle is in wide use in installed "area gamma" alarms for personnel protection, as well as in process measurement and interlock applications. The processing electronics of such installations have a higher degree of sophistication and reliability than those of hand-held meters. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Physical_design">Physical design</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geiger_counter&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Physical design"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Geiger_tube_si8b.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Geiger_tube_si8b.jpg/220px-Geiger_tube_si8b.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Geiger_tube_si8b.jpg/330px-Geiger_tube_si8b.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Geiger_tube_si8b.jpg/440px-Geiger_tube_si8b.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2105" data-file-height="1819" /></a><figcaption>Pancake G-M tube used for alpha and beta detection; the delicate mica window is usually protected by a mesh when fitted in an instrument.</figcaption></figure> <p>For hand-held units there are two fundamental physical configurations: the "integral" unit with both detector and electronics in the same unit, and the "two-piece" design which has a separate detector probe and an electronics module connected by a short cable. </p><p>In the 1930s a mica window was added to the cylindrical design allowing low-penetration radiation to pass through with ease.<sup id="cite_ref-Korff,_SNTM_2012_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Korff,_SNTM_2012-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The integral unit allows single-handed operation, so the operator can use the other hand for personal security in challenging monitoring positions, but the two piece design allows easier manipulation of the detector, and is commonly used for alpha and beta surface contamination monitoring where careful manipulation of the probe is required or the weight of the electronics module would make operation unwieldy. A number of different sized detectors are available to suit particular situations, such as placing the probe in small apertures or confined spaces. </p><p>Gamma and X-Ray detectors generally use an "integral" design so the Geiger–Müller tube is conveniently within the electronics enclosure. This can easily be achieved because the casing usually has little attenuation, and is employed in ambient gamma measurements where distance from the source of radiation is not a significant factor. However, to facilitate more localised measurements such as "surface dose", the position of the tube in the enclosure is sometimes indicated by targets on the enclosure so an accurate measurement can be made with the tube at the correct orientation and a known distance from the surface. </p><p>There is a particular type of gamma instrument known as a "hot spot" detector which has the detector tube on the end of a long pole or flexible conduit. These are used to measure high radiation gamma locations whilst protecting the operator by means of distance shielding. </p><p>Particle detection of alpha and beta can be used in both integral and two-piece designs. A pancake probe (for alpha/beta) is generally used to increase the area of detection in two-piece instruments whilst being relatively light weight. In integral instruments using an end window tube there is a window in the body of the casing to prevent shielding of particles. There are also hybrid instruments which have a separate probe for particle detection and a gamma detection tube within the electronics module. The detectors are switchable by the operator, depending the radiation type that is being measured. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Guidance_on_application_use">Guidance on application use</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geiger_counter&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Guidance on application use"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> the <a href="/wiki/National_Radiological_Protection_Board" title="National Radiological Protection Board">National Radiological Protection Board</a> issued a user guidance note on selecting the best portable instrument type for the radiation measurement application concerned.<sup id="cite_ref-ukhse_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ukhse-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This covers all radiation protection instrument technologies and includes a guide to the use of G-M detectors. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geiger_counter&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PSM_V87_D120_Apparatus_for_counting_alpha_particles.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/PSM_V87_D120_Apparatus_for_counting_alpha_particles.png/220px-PSM_V87_D120_Apparatus_for_counting_alpha_particles.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="79" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/PSM_V87_D120_Apparatus_for_counting_alpha_particles.png/330px-PSM_V87_D120_Apparatus_for_counting_alpha_particles.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/PSM_V87_D120_Apparatus_for_counting_alpha_particles.png/440px-PSM_V87_D120_Apparatus_for_counting_alpha_particles.png 2x" data-file-width="630" data-file-height="227" /></a><figcaption>Rutherford & Geiger particle counter (1908). Alpha particles from a source in the firing tube were admitted through aperture "D" to the detecting vessel, which was a brass tube with a central co-axial wire "B" at a relative potential of 1320 volts DC. The aperture had a mica window so the detecting vessel could run at an <a href="/wiki/Absolute_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Absolute pressure">absolute pressure</a> of 2-5 mm of mercury. These conditions enabled creation of a <a href="/wiki/Townsend_discharge" title="Townsend discharge">Townsend discharge</a> for every alpha particle entering the vessel. At very low count rates these registered as "kicks" on an <a href="/wiki/Electrometer" title="Electrometer">electrometer</a> needle.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Early_Geiger_counter,_made_by_Hans_Geiger,_1932._(9663806938).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Early_Geiger_counter%2C_made_by_Hans_Geiger%2C_1932._%289663806938%29.jpg/220px-Early_Geiger_counter%2C_made_by_Hans_Geiger%2C_1932._%289663806938%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Early_Geiger_counter%2C_made_by_Hans_Geiger%2C_1932._%289663806938%29.jpg/330px-Early_Geiger_counter%2C_made_by_Hans_Geiger%2C_1932._%289663806938%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Early_Geiger_counter%2C_made_by_Hans_Geiger%2C_1932._%289663806938%29.jpg/440px-Early_Geiger_counter%2C_made_by_Hans_Geiger%2C_1932._%289663806938%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1250" data-file-height="935" /></a><figcaption>Early Geiger–Müller tube made in 1932 by Hans Geiger for laboratory use</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1908 <a href="/wiki/Hans_Geiger" title="Hans Geiger">Hans Geiger</a>, under the supervision of <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Victoria_University_of_Manchester" title="Victoria University of Manchester">Victoria University of Manchester</a> (now the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Manchester" title="University of Manchester">University of Manchester</a>), developed an experimental technique for detecting alpha particles that would later be used to develop the Geiger–Müller tube in 1928.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This early counter was only capable of detecting alpha particles and was part of a larger experimental apparatus. The fundamental ionization mechanism used was discovered by <a href="/wiki/John_Sealy_Townsend" title="John Sealy Townsend">John Sealy Townsend</a> between 1897 and 1901,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is known as the <a href="/wiki/Townsend_discharge" title="Townsend discharge">Townsend discharge</a>, which is the ionization of molecules by ion impact. </p><p>It was not until 1928 that Geiger and <a href="/wiki/Walther_M%C3%BCller" title="Walther Müller">Walther Müller</a> (a PhD student of Geiger) developed the sealed Geiger–Müller tube which used basic ionization principles previously used experimentally. Small and rugged, not only could it detect alpha and beta radiation as prior models had done, but also gamma radiation.<sup id="cite_ref-Korff,_SNTM_2012_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Korff,_SNTM_2012-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Now a practical radiation instrument could be produced relatively cheaply, and so the Geiger counter was born. As the tube output required little electronic processing, a distinct advantage in the <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">thermionic valve</a> era due to minimal valve count and low power consumption, the instrument achieved great popularity as a portable radiation detector. </p><p>Modern versions of the Geiger counter use halogen quench gases, a technique invented in 1947 by <a href="/wiki/Sidney_H._Liebson" title="Sidney H. Liebson">Sidney H. Liebson</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Halogen compounds have superseded the organic quench gases because of their much longer life and lower operating voltages; typically 400-900 volts.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gallery">Gallery</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geiger_counter&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Gallery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Transuranic_waste_casks.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Use of a "hot spot" detector on a long pole to survey waste casks."><img alt="Use of a "hot spot" detector on a long pole to survey waste casks." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Transuranic_waste_casks.jpg/120px-Transuranic_waste_casks.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Transuranic_waste_casks.jpg/180px-Transuranic_waste_casks.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Transuranic_waste_casks.jpg/240px-Transuranic_waste_casks.jpg 2x" data-file-width="978" data-file-height="731" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Use of a "hot spot" detector on a long pole to survey waste casks.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:RM-80_GM_with_LCD-90_Micro_Controller_and_Wireless_Bluetooth.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="G-M pancake detector (right) feeding a microcontroller data-logger (left) sending data to a PC via bluetooth. A radioactive rock was placed on the detector causing the graph (in background) to rise."><img alt="G-M pancake detector (right) feeding a microcontroller data-logger (left) sending data to a PC via bluetooth. A radioactive rock was placed on the detector causing the graph (in background) to rise." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/RM-80_GM_with_LCD-90_Micro_Controller_and_Wireless_Bluetooth.jpg/120px-RM-80_GM_with_LCD-90_Micro_Controller_and_Wireless_Bluetooth.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/RM-80_GM_with_LCD-90_Micro_Controller_and_Wireless_Bluetooth.jpg/180px-RM-80_GM_with_LCD-90_Micro_Controller_and_Wireless_Bluetooth.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/RM-80_GM_with_LCD-90_Micro_Controller_and_Wireless_Bluetooth.jpg/240px-RM-80_GM_with_LCD-90_Micro_Controller_and_Wireless_Bluetooth.jpg 2x" data-file-width="821" data-file-height="616" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">G-M pancake detector (right) feeding a microcontroller data-logger (left) sending data to a PC via <a href="/wiki/Bluetooth" title="Bluetooth">bluetooth</a>. A radioactive rock was placed on the detector causing the graph (in background) to rise.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cosmos_954_-_Recovery_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="G-M counters being used in the search for debris of satellite Kosmos 954"><img alt="G-M counters being used in the search for debris of satellite Kosmos 954" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Cosmos_954_-_Recovery_001.jpg/120px-Cosmos_954_-_Recovery_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="94" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Cosmos_954_-_Recovery_001.jpg/180px-Cosmos_954_-_Recovery_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Cosmos_954_-_Recovery_001.jpg/240px-Cosmos_954_-_Recovery_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="576" data-file-height="452" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">G-M counters being used in the search for debris of satellite <a href="/wiki/Kosmos_954" title="Kosmos 954">Kosmos 954</a> </div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geiger_counter&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Becquerel" title="Becquerel">Becquerel</a>, the SI unit of the radioactive decay rate of a quantity of radioactive material</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_defense_Geiger_counters" title="Civil defense Geiger counters">Civil defense Geiger counters</a>, handheld radiation monitors, both G-M <i>and</i> ion chambers</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counting_efficiency" title="Counting efficiency">Counting efficiency</a> the ratio of radiation events reaching a detector and the number it counts</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_sonification" title="Data sonification">Data sonification</a>, the interpretation or processing of data by sound</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dosimeter" title="Dosimeter">Dosimeter</a>, a device used by personnel to measure what radiation dose they have received</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionization_chamber" title="Ionization chamber">Ionization chamber</a>, the simplest ionising radiation detector</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaseous_ionization_detector" title="Gaseous ionization detector">Gaseous ionization detector</a>, an overview of the main gaseous detector types</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geiger%E2%80%93M%C3%BCller_tube" title="Geiger–Müller tube">Geiger–Müller tube</a>, provides a more detailed description of Geiger–Müller tube operation and types</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geiger_plateau" class="mw-redirect" title="Geiger plateau">Geiger plateau</a>, the correct operating voltage range for a Geiger–Müller tube</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photon_counting" title="Photon counting">Photon counting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">Radioactive decay</a>, the process by which unstable atoms emit radiation</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safecast_(organization)" class="mw-redirect" title="Safecast (organization)">Safecast (organization)</a>, use of Geiger–Müller counter technology in citizen science</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scintillation_counter" title="Scintillation counter">Scintillation counter</a>, a gasless radiation detector</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sievert" title="Sievert">Sievert</a>, the SI unit of stochastic effects of radiation on the human body</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geiger_counter&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 40em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dictionary.cambridge.org/pronunciation/english/geiger-counter">"Geiger counter | Pronunciation in English"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Geiger+counter+%26%23124%3B+Pronunciation+in+English&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdictionary.cambridge.org%2Fpronunciation%2Fenglish%2Fgeiger-counter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeiger+counter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cent-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cent_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cent_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cent_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cent_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cent_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cent_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cent_2-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">’’Geiger Muller Tubes; issue 1’’ published by Centronics Ltd, UK.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">E. Rutherford and H. Geiger (1908) "An electrical method of counting the number of α particles from radioactive substances," Proceedings of the Royal Society (London), Series A, vol. 81, no. 546, pages 141–161.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-knoll-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-knoll_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-knoll_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-knoll_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-knoll_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-knoll_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-knoll_4-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-knoll_4-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-knoll_4-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Glenn F Knoll. <i>Radiation Detection and Measurement</i>, third edition 2000. John Wiley and Sons, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-07338-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-471-07338-5">0-471-07338-5</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://accessibleoceans.whoi.edu/what-is-sonification/">"What is Sonification - Accessible Oceans"</a>. <i>What is data sonificaiton</i>. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-05-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=What+is+data+sonificaiton&rft.atitle=What+is+Sonification+-+Accessible+Oceans&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Faccessibleoceans.whoi.edu%2Fwhat-is-sonification%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeiger+counter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSiegelEskandari" class="citation web cs1">Siegel, Peter; Eskandari, Sephir. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cpp.edu/~pbsiegel/bio431/texnotes/chapter4.pdf">"Introduction to Geiger Counters"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170221172657/https://www.cpp.edu/~pbsiegel/bio431/texnotes/chapter4.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2017-02-21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Geiger+Counters&rft.aulast=Siegel&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Eskandari%2C+Sephir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cpp.edu%2F~pbsiegel%2Fbio431%2Ftexnotes%2Fchapter4.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeiger+counter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://xn--messgert-test-hfb.de/geigerzaehler/">"G-M detector function and measuring methods"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-03-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=G-M+detector+function+and+measuring+methods&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fxn--messgert-test-hfb.de%2Fgeigerzaehler%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeiger+counter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ukhse-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ukhse_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ukhse_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://files.site-fusion.co.uk/webfusion117640/file/instrumentsirp7.pdf.pdf">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180730235921/http://files.site-fusion.co.uk/webfusion117640/file/instrumentsirp7.pdf.pdf">Archived</a> 2018-07-30 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Selection, use and maintenance of portable monitoring instruments. UK HSE</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Korff,_SNTM_2012-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Korff,_SNTM_2012_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Korff,_SNTM_2012_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Korff, SNTM (2012) 20: 271. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007">10.1007</a> / s00048-012-0080-y</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">E. Rutherford and H. Geiger (1908) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jaezAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA141">"An electrical method of counting the number of α particles from radioactive substances,"</a> <i>Proceedings of the Royal Society (London)</i>, Series A, vol. 81, no. 546, pages 141–161.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John S. Townsend (1901) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=R64mG2pv0qAC&pg=PA198">"The conductivity produced in gases by the motion of negatively charged ions,"</a> <i>Philosophical Magazine</i>, series 6, <b>1</b> (2) : 198-227.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See: <ul><li>H. Geiger and W. Müller (1928), "Elektronenzählrohr zur Messung schwächster Aktivitäten" (Electron counting tube for the measurement of the weakest radioactivities), <i>Die Naturwissenschaften</i> (The Sciences), vol. 16, no. 31, pages 617–618.</li> <li>Geiger, H. and Müller, W. (1928) "Das Elektronenzählrohr" (The electron counting tube), <i>Physikalische Zeitschrift</i>, <b>29</b>: 839-841.</li> <li>Geiger, H. and Müller, W. (1929) "Technische Bemerkungen zum Elektronenzählrohr" (Technical notes on the electron counting tube), <i>Physikalische Zeitschrift</i>, <b>30</b>: 489-493.</li> <li>Geiger, H. and Müller, W. (1929) "Demonstration des Elektronenzählrohrs" (Demonstration of the electron counting tube), <i>Physikalische Zeitschrift</i>, <b>30</b>: 523 ff.</li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiebson1947" class="citation journal cs1">Liebson, S. H. (1947). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://drum.lib.umd.edu/bitstream/1903/17793/1/DP70461.pdf">"The Discharge Mechanism of Self-Quenching Geiger–Mueller Counters"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Physical_Review" title="Physical Review">Physical Review</a></i>. <b>72</b> (7): <span class="nowrap">602–</span>608. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1947PhRv...72..602L">1947PhRv...72..602L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.72.602">10.1103/PhysRev.72.602</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1903%2F17793">1903/17793</a></span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170921235703/http://drum.lib.umd.edu/bitstream/1903/17793/1/DP70461.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2017-09-21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review&rft.atitle=The+Discharge+Mechanism+of+Self-Quenching+Geiger%E2%80%93Mueller+Counters&rft.volume=72&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E602-%3C%2Fspan%3E608&rft.date=1947&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1903%2F17793&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRev.72.602&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1947PhRv...72..602L&rft.aulast=Liebson&rft.aufirst=S.+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdrum.lib.umd.edu%2Fbitstream%2F1903%2F17793%2F1%2FDP70461.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeiger+counter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.national-radiation-instrument-catalog.com/">"History of Portable Radiation Detection Instrumentation from the period 1920–60"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090113173535/http://www.national-radiation-instrument-catalog.com/">Archived</a> from the original on 2009-01-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-07-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History+of+Portable+Radiation+Detection+Instrumentation+from+the+period+1920%E2%80%9360&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.national-radiation-instrument-catalog.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeiger+counter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geiger_counter&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" 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navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Radiation_protection" title="Template:Radiation protection"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Radiation_protection" title="Template talk:Radiation protection"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Radiation_protection" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Radiation protection"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Radiation_protection582" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Radiation_protection" title="Radiation protection">Radiation protection</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Main articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_radiation" title="Background radiation">Background radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dosimetry" title="Dosimetry">Dosimetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_physics" title="Health physics">Health physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">Ionizing radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_dosimetry" title="Internal dosimetry">Internal dosimetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">Radioactive contamination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_source" title="Radioactive source">Radioactive sources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiobiology" title="Radiobiology">Radiobiology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Measurement <br />quantities and units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absorbed_dose" title="Absorbed dose">Absorbed dose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Becquerel" title="Becquerel">Becquerel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committed_dose" title="Committed dose">Committed dose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computed_tomography_dose_index" title="Computed tomography dose index">Computed tomography dose index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counts_per_minute" title="Counts per minute">Counts per minute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effective_dose_(radiation)" title="Effective dose (radiation)">Effective dose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equivalent_dose" title="Equivalent dose">Equivalent dose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gray_(unit)" title="Gray (unit)">Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mean_glandular_dose" title="Mean glandular dose">Mean glandular dose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monitor_unit" title="Monitor unit">Monitor unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rad_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rad (unit)">Rad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roentgen_(unit)" title="Roentgen (unit)">Roentgen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roentgen_equivalent_man" title="Roentgen equivalent man">Rem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sievert" title="Sievert">Sievert</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Instruments and <br />measurement techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airborne_particulate_radioactivity_monitoring" title="Airborne particulate radioactivity monitoring">Airborne radioactive particulate monitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dosimeter" title="Dosimeter">Dosimeter</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Geiger counter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion_chamber" class="mw-redirect" title="Ion chamber">Ion chamber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scintillation_counter" title="Scintillation counter">Scintillation counter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proportional_counter" title="Proportional counter">Proportional counter</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_monitoring" title="Radiation monitoring">Radiation monitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_detector" title="Semiconductor detector">Semiconductor detector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_meter" title="Survey meter">Survey meter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whole-body_counting" title="Whole-body counting">Whole-body counting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Protection techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lead_shielding" title="Lead shielding">Lead shielding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glovebox" title="Glovebox">Glovebox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potassium_iodide" title="Potassium iodide">Potassium iodide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radon_mitigation" title="Radon mitigation">Radon mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respirators" class="mw-redirect" title="Respirators">Respirators</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Euratom" title="Euratom">Euratom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_Physics_Society" title="Health Physics Society">HPS (USA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Atomic_Energy_Agency" title="International Atomic Energy Agency">IAEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Commission_on_Radiation_Units_and_Measurements" title="International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements">ICRU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Commission_on_Radiological_Protection" title="International Commission on Radiological Protection">ICRP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Radiation_Protection_Association" title="International Radiation Protection Association">IRPA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_for_Radiological_Protection" title="Society for Radiological Protection">SRP (UK)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Scientific_Committee_on_the_Effects_of_Atomic_Radiation" title="United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation">UNSCEAR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regulation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionising_Radiations_Regulations" title="Ionising Radiations Regulations">IRR (UK)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Regulatory_Commission" title="Nuclear Regulatory Commission">NRC (USA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Office_for_Nuclear_Regulation" title="Office for Nuclear Regulation">ONR (UK)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_Protection_Convention,_1960" title="Radiation Protection Convention, 1960">Radiation Protection Convention, 1960</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Radiation effects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acute_radiation_syndrome" title="Acute radiation syndrome">Acute radiation syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation-induced_cancer" title="Radiation-induced cancer">Radiation-induced cancer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable selfref">See also the categories <a href="/wiki/Category:Medical_physics" title="Category:Medical physics">Medical physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Category:Radiation_effects" title="Category:Radiation effects">Radiation effects</a>, <a href="/wiki/Category:Radioactivity" title="Category:Radioactivity">Radioactivity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Category:Radiobiology" title="Category:Radiobiology">Radiobiology</a>, and <a 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