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<li id="toc-Anti-Qing_rebellions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anti-Qing_rebellions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Anti-Qing rebellions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anti-Qing_rebellions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ming_loyalist_Muslims" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ming_loyalist_Muslims"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span> <span>Ming loyalist Muslims</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ming_loyalist_Muslims-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_revolts_in_Xinjiang,_Shaanxi_and_Gansu" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_revolts_in_Xinjiang,_Shaanxi_and_Gansu"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.2</span> <span>Early revolts in Xinjiang, Shaanxi and Gansu</span> </div> </a> <ul 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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Migrations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Migrations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Migrations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Migrations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Christian_missionary_activities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christian_missionary_activities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Christian missionary activities</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christian_missionary_activities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_en_Chine_sous_la_dynastie_Qing" title="Islam en Chine sous la dynastie Qing – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Islam en Chine sous la dynastie Qing" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_pada_masa_Dinasti_Qing" title="Islam pada masa Dinasti Qing – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Islam pada masa Dinasti Qing" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%D9%86%DA%AF_%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%AF%DB%92_%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%AD%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%85%D8%AA_%D9%88%DA%86_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85" title="چنگ خاندان دے دور حکومت وچ اسلام – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="چنگ خاندان دے دور حکومت وچ اسلام" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%D9%86%DA%AF_%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%86_%DA%A9%DB%92_%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%AD%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%85%D8%AA_%D9%85%DB%8C%DA%BA_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85" title="چنگ خاندان کے دور حکومت میں اسلام – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="چنگ خاندان کے دور حکومت میں اسلام" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks collapsible"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="font-size:88%; line-height:200%;"><span style="font-size:115%; font-weight:normal; padding-left:28px;">Part of a <a href="/wiki/Category:Islamism_templates" title="Category:Islamism templates">series</a> on</span><br /><span style="font-size:200%;"><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_China" title="Islam in China">Islam in China</a></span></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding:0.4em 0 0.4em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Great_Mosque_of_Xi%27an" title="Great Mosque of Xi'an"><img alt="Top of the Great Mosque of Xi'an" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Xian_Great_Mosque_07_%285458567815%29.jpg/210px-Xian_Great_Mosque_07_%285458567815%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Xian_Great_Mosque_07_%285458567815%29.jpg/315px-Xian_Great_Mosque_07_%285458567815%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Xian_Great_Mosque_07_%285458567815%29.jpg/420px-Xian_Great_Mosque_07_%285458567815%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam_in_China" title="History of Islam in China">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><div class="hlist"> <table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none;margin-top:0.3em;"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;"> By <a href="/wiki/Dynasties_of_China" title="Dynasties of China">dynasty</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_during_the_Tang_dynasty" title="Islam during the Tang dynasty">Tang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_during_the_Song_dynasty" title="Islam during the Song dynasty">Song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_during_the_Yuan_dynasty" title="Islam during the Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_during_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Islam during the Ming dynasty">Ming</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Qing</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;"> Rebellions and revolts</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jahriyya_revolt" title="Jahriyya revolt">Jahriyya revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panthay_Rebellion" title="Panthay Rebellion">Panthay Rebellion <span style="font-size:85%;">(1856–1873)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungan_Revolt_(1862%E2%80%931877)" title="Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)">First Dungan Revolt <span style="font-size:85%;">(1862–1877)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungan_Revolt_(1895%E2%80%931896)" title="Dungan Revolt (1895–1896)">Second Dungan Revolt <span style="font-size:85%;">(1895–1896)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afaqi_Khoja_revolts" title="Afaqi Khoja revolts">Afaqi Khoja revolts</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;"> Post-dynastic China</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_China_(1912%E2%80%93present)" title="Islam in China (1912–present)">1912–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Muslims_in_the_Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Chinese Muslims in the Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia_in_China" title="Islamophobia in China">Islamophobia</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Major figures</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afaq_Khoja" title="Afaq Khoja">Afaq Khoja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Du_Wenxiu" title="Du Wenxiu">Du Wenxiu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hu_Dahai" title="Hu Dahai">Hu Dahai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hu_Songshan" title="Hu Songshan">Hu Songshan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kasim_Tuet" title="Kasim Tuet">Kasim Tuet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Zhi_(scholar)" title="Liu Zhi (scholar)">Liu Zhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_Anliang" title="Ma Anliang">Ma Anliang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_Bufang" title="Ma Bufang">Ma Bufang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_Buqing" title="Ma Buqing">Ma Buqing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_Fuxiang" title="Ma Fuxiang">Ma Fuxiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_Gui_(general)" title="Ma Gui (general)">Ma Gui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_Hualong" title="Ma Hualong">Ma Hualong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_Laichi" title="Ma Laichi">Ma Laichi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_Mingxin" title="Ma Mingxin">Ma Mingxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_Qixi" title="Ma Qixi">Ma Qixi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_Wanfu" title="Ma Wanfu">Ma Wanfu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_Yize" title="Ma Yize">Ma Yize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_Zhu" title="Ma Zhu">Ma Zhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajall_Shams_al-Din_Omar" title="Ajall Shams al-Din Omar">Shams al-Din</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Su_fei-erh" title="Su fei-erh">Su fei-erh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeheidie%27erding" title="Yeheidie'erding">Yeheidie'erding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yusuf_Ma_Dexin" title="Yusuf Ma Dexin">Yusuf Ma Dexin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Daiyu" title="Wang Daiyu">Wang Daiyu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Chengzhi" title="Zhang Chengzhi">Zhang Chengzhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zheng_He" title="Zheng He">Zheng He</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Culture</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Islamic_architecture" title="Chinese Islamic architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Islamic_cuisine" title="Chinese Islamic cuisine">Cuisine</a> (<a href="/wiki/Uyghur_cuisine" title="Uyghur cuisine">Uyghur</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Kitab" title="Han Kitab">Han Kitab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mosques_in_China" title="List of mosques in China">Mosques</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gongbei_(Islamic_architecture)" title="Gongbei (Islamic architecture)">Shrines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sini_(script)" title="Sini (script)">Sini script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menhuan" title="Menhuan">Sufi orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_Arabic_alphabet" title="Uyghur Arabic alphabet">Uyghur Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiao%27erjing" title="Xiao'erjing">Xiao'erjing</a></li></ul> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Association_of_China" title="Islamic Association of China">Islamic Association of China</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Cities</li><li>Regions</li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Hong_Kong" title="Islam in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashgar" title="Kashgar">Kashgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linxia_Hui_Autonomous_Prefecture" title="Linxia Hui Autonomous Prefecture">Linxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Macau" title="Islam in Macau">Macau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ningxia" title="Ningxia">Ningxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Sichuan" title="Islam in Sichuan">Sichuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunhua_Salar_Autonomous_County" title="Xunhua Salar Autonomous County">Xunhua</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Groups</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahmadiyya_in_China" title="Ahmadiyya in China">Ahmadis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonan_people" title="Bonan people">Bonans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dongxiang_people" title="Dongxiang people">Dongxiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hui_people" title="Hui people">Hui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ili_Turk_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Ili Turk people">Ili Turks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakhs_in_China" title="Kazakhs in China">Kazakhs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_in_China" title="Kyrgyz in China">Kyrgyz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salar_people" title="Salar people">Salar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Tajiks" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Tajiks">Tajiks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Tatars" title="Chinese Tatars">Tatars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Muslims" title="Tibetan Muslims">Tibetans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utsul" class="mw-redirect" title="Utsul">Utsul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghurs" title="Uyghurs">Uyghurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uzbeks_in_China" title="Uzbeks in China">Uzbeks</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #21643d;padding-top:0.2em;border-bottom:1px solid #21643d;"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/15px-Allah-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/23px-Allah-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/31px-Allah-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="206" data-file-height="215" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Islam" title="Portal:Islam">Islam portal</a> • <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/16px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/24px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:China" title="Portal:China">China portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Islam_in_China" title="Template:Islam in China"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Islam_in_China" title="Template talk:Islam in China"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Islam_in_China" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Islam in China"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Manchu_people" title="Manchu people">Manchu</a>-led <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> (1644–1912), Islam was a significant religion in <a href="/wiki/Northwestern_China" title="Northwestern China">Northwestern China</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a>. There were five major Muslim rebellions during the Qing period. The first and last rebellions were caused by sectarian infighting between rival Sufi Muslim orders. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islam_during_the_Qing_dynasty&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anti-Qing_rebellions">Anti-Qing rebellions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islam_during_the_Qing_dynasty&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Anti-Qing rebellions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ming_loyalist_Muslims">Ming loyalist Muslims</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islam_during_the_Qing_dynasty&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Ming loyalist Muslims"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a>'s capture of the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> capital in 1644, Muslim Ming loyalists in Gansu led by Muslim leaders Milayin<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Ding Guodong led a revolt in 1646 against the Qing during the <a href="/wiki/Manchu_conquest_of_China#The_northwest" class="mw-redirect" title="Manchu conquest of China">Milayin rebellion</a> in order to drive the Qing out and restore the Ming Prince of Yanchang Zhu Sichuan to the throne as the emperor.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Muslim Ming loyalists were supported by Hami's Sultan Sa'id Baba and his son Prince Turumtay.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-auto_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Muslim Ming loyalists were joined by <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_people" title="Tibetan people">Tibetan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han</a> peoples in the revolt.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After fierce fighting, and negotiations, a peace agreement was agreed on in 1649, and Milayan and Ding nominally pledged allegiance to the Qing and were given ranks as members of the Qing military.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When other Ming loyalists in southern China made a resurgence and the Qing were forced to withdraw their forces from Gansu to fight them, Milayan and Ding once again took up arms and rebelled against the Qing.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Muslim Ming loyalists were then crushed by the Qing with 100,000 of them, including Milayin, Ding Guodong, and Turumtay killed in battle. </p><p>The Confucian Hui Muslim scholar Ma Zhu (1640-1710) served with the southern Ming loyalists against the Qing.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Zhu Yu'ai, the Ming Prince Gui was accompanied by Hui refugees when he fled from Huguang to the Burmese border in Yunnan and as a mark of their defiance against the Qing and loyalty to the Ming, they changed their surname to Ming.<sup id="cite_ref-Dillon2013_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dillon2013-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Early_revolts_in_Xinjiang,_Shaanxi_and_Gansu"><span id="Early_revolts_in_Xinjiang.2C_Shaanxi_and_Gansu"></span>Early revolts in Xinjiang, Shaanxi and Gansu</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islam_during_the_Qing_dynasty&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Early revolts in Xinjiang, Shaanxi and Gansu"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Emperor" title="Kangxi Emperor">Kangxi Emperor</a> incited anti-Muslim sentiment among the Mongols of <a href="/wiki/Qinghai" title="Qinghai">Qinghai</a> (Kokonor) in order to gain support against the <a href="/wiki/Dzungar_people" title="Dzungar people">Dzungar</a> <a href="/wiki/Oirats" title="Oirats">Oirat</a> Mongol leader <a href="/wiki/Galdan" class="mw-redirect" title="Galdan">Galdan</a>. Kangxi claimed that Chinese Muslims inside China such as <a href="/wiki/Salar_people" title="Salar people">Turkic Muslims in Qinghai</a> (Kokonor) were plotting with <a href="/wiki/Galdan" class="mw-redirect" title="Galdan">Galdan</a>, who he falsely claimed converted to Islam. Kangxi falsely claimed that Galdan had spurned and turned his back on Buddhism and the Dalai Lama and that he was plotting to install a Muslim as ruler of China after invading it in a conspiracy with Chinese Muslims. Kangxi also distrusted Muslims of Turfan and Hami.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From 1755–1757, the <a href="/wiki/Qianlong_Emperor" title="Qianlong Emperor">Qianlong Emperor</a> was at war with the <a href="/wiki/Dzungar_Khanate" title="Dzungar Khanate">Dzungar Khanate</a> in the northwest. With the conquest of the Dzungaria, there was attempt to divide the Xinjiang region into four sub-khanates under four chiefs who were subordinate to the emperor. Similarly, the Qing made members of was a member of the <a href="/wiki/Ak_Tagh" class="mw-redirect" title="Ak Tagh">Ak Taghliq</a> clan of <a href="/wiki/Khoja_(Turkestan)" title="Khoja (Turkestan)">East Turkestan Khojas</a>, rulers in the western <a href="/wiki/Tarim_Basin" title="Tarim Basin">Tarim Basin</a>, south of the <a href="/wiki/Tian_Shan" title="Tian Shan">Tianshan</a> Mountains. In 1758–59, however, rebellions against this arrangement broke out both north and south of the Tian Shan mountains. Then in the oasis of Ush to the south of <a href="/wiki/Lake_Balkash" class="mw-redirect" title="Lake Balkash">Lake Balkash</a> in 1765. </p><p>The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ush_rebellion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ush rebellion (page does not exist)">Ush rebellion</a> in 1765 by Uyghurs against the <a href="/wiki/Manchus" class="mw-redirect" title="Manchus">Manchus</a> occurred after Uyghur women were gang raped by the servants and son of Manchu official Su-cheng.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was said that <i>Ush Muslims had long wanted to sleep on [Sucheng and son's] hides and eat their flesh.</i> because of the rape of Uyghur Muslim women for months by the Manchu official Sucheng and his son.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Manchu Emperor ordered that the Uyghur rebel town be massacred, the Qing forces enslaved all the Uyghur children and women and slaughtered the Uyghur men.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Manchu soldiers and Manchu officials regularly having sex with or raping Uyghur women caused massive hatred and anger by Uyghur Muslims to Manchu rule. The <a href="/wiki/%C4%80f%C4%81q%C4%AB_Khoja_Holy_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Āfāqī Khoja Holy War">invasion by Jahangir Khoja</a> was preceded by another Manchu official, Binjing who raped a Muslim daughter of the Kokan aqsaqal from 1818 to 1820. The Qing sought to cover up the rape of Uyghur women by Manchus to prevent anger against their rule from spreading among the Uyghurs.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Professor of Chinese and Central Asian History at Georgetown University, James A. Millward wrote that foreigners often mistakenly think that Ürümqi was originally a Uyghur city and that the Chinese destroyed its Uyghur character and culture, however, Ürümqi was founded as a Chinese city by <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hui_people" title="Hui people">Hui</a> (Tungans), and it is the Uyghurs who are new to the city.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Khalili_Collection_Hajj_and_Arts_of_Pilgrimage_MSS_1288_hajj_map.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Khalili_Collection_Hajj_and_Arts_of_Pilgrimage_MSS_1288_hajj_map.jpg/220px-Khalili_Collection_Hajj_and_Arts_of_Pilgrimage_MSS_1288_hajj_map.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Khalili_Collection_Hajj_and_Arts_of_Pilgrimage_MSS_1288_hajj_map.jpg/330px-Khalili_Collection_Hajj_and_Arts_of_Pilgrimage_MSS_1288_hajj_map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Khalili_Collection_Hajj_and_Arts_of_Pilgrimage_MSS_1288_hajj_map.jpg/440px-Khalili_Collection_Hajj_and_Arts_of_Pilgrimage_MSS_1288_hajj_map.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3168" data-file-height="2712" /></a><figcaption>Late 19th century map of <a href="/wiki/Hajj" title="Hajj">Hajj</a> pilgrimage routes, by land and by sea, from China to <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Gansu" title="Gansu">Gansu</a>, disagreements between the adherents of Khafiya and Jahriya, two forms of <a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufism</a> as well as perceived mismanagement, corruption, and anti-Muslim attitudes of the Qing officials resulted in attempted uprisings by <a href="/wiki/Hui_people" title="Hui people">Hui</a> and <a href="/wiki/Salar_people" title="Salar people">Salar</a> followers of the Jahriya in 1781<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 1784, but they were easily and promptly suppressed,<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with the help of the Khafiya. Han, Hui, and Dongxiang joined the Salar Jahriyya in the 1781 revolt against the Qing.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Jahriyya_revolt" title="Jahriyya revolt">Jahriyya revolt</a> sectarian violence between two suborders of the <a href="/wiki/Naqshbandi" title="Naqshbandi">Naqshbandi</a> Sufis, the Jahriyya Sufi Muslims and their rivals, the Khafiyya Sufi Muslims, led to a Jahriyya Sufi Muslim rebellion which the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> in China crushed with the help of the Khafiyya Sufi Muslims.<sup id="cite_ref-LipmanLipman1990_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LipmanLipman1990-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>More than 1000 Hui Muslim children and women from the Sufi Jahriya order in eastern Gansu were massacred by Qing Banner general Li Shiyao during a 1784 uprising by Hui Jahriyya Muslims Zhang Wenqing and Tian Wu, 3 years after an early 1781 rebellion by Salar Sufi Jahriyya members when the Qing executed Jahriya leader <a href="/wiki/Ma_Mingxin" title="Ma Mingxin">Ma Mingxin</a>. The Qing government under Qianlong then ordered the extermination of the Sufi Jahriya "New Teaching" and banned adoption of non-Muslim children by Muslims, converting non-Muslims to Muslim and banning new mosques from being built. Some Sufi Khafiya "Old Teaching" Muslims still served in Qing forces in fighting against the Jahriya Sufi "New Teaching" Muslims despite the fact that those laws forbdding them from spreading their religion applied to them too.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Li Shiyao was a member of the Qing Eight Banners and related to the Qing royal family. </p><p>Kashgaria was able to be free of Qing control during an invasion by <a href="/wiki/Jahangir_Khoja" title="Jahangir Khoja">Jahangir Khoja</a> who had invaded from Kokand, which lasted from 1820–1828. The oases of <a href="/wiki/Kashgar" title="Kashgar">Kashgar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yarkant_County" title="Yarkant County">Yarkand</a> were not recaptured by the Qing until 1828, after a three-year campaign. Hui Muslim merchants helped the Qing fight off Jahangir Khoja and his Turkic Kokandi invaders.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Uyghurs" title="Uyghurs">Uyghur</a> Muslim <a href="/wiki/Sayyid" title="Sayyid">Sayyid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Naqshbandi" title="Naqshbandi">Naqshbandi</a> <a href="/wiki/Sufi" class="mw-redirect" title="Sufi">Sufi</a> rebel of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Afaqi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Afaqi (page does not exist)">Afaqi</a> suborder, <a href="/wiki/Jahangir_Khoja" title="Jahangir Khoja">Jahangir Khoja</a> was <a href="/wiki/Lingchi" title="Lingchi">sliced to death (Lingchi)</a> in 1828 by the Manchus for <a href="/wiki/%C4%80f%C4%81q%C4%AB_Khoja_Holy_War#Military_expeditions_with_the_support_of_Khoqand" class="mw-redirect" title="Āfāqī Khoja Holy War">leading a rebellion against the Qing</a>. In Kashgaria, this was followed by another invasion in 1829 by Mahommed Ali Khan and Yusuf Khoja, the brother of Jahangir. In 1846, a new <a href="/wiki/Khoja_(Turkestan)" title="Khoja (Turkestan)">Khoja</a> revolt in <a href="/wiki/Kashgar" title="Kashgar">Kashgar</a> under Kath Tora led to his accession to rulership of Kashgar as an authoritarian ruler. His reign, however, was brief, for at the end of seventy-five days, on the approach of the Chinese, he fled back to <a href="/wiki/Kokand" title="Kokand">Kokand</a> amid the jeers of the inhabitants.<sup id="cite_ref-Holy_War_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holy_War-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The last of the Khoja revolts was in 1857 under <a href="/wiki/Wali_Khan_(khoja)" title="Wali Khan (khoja)">Wali Khan</a>, a self-indulgent debaucherer, and the murderer of the famous <a href="/wiki/Germans" title="Germans">German</a> explorer, <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Schlagintweit" title="Adolf Schlagintweit">Adolf Schlagintweit</a>. Wali Khan had invaded <a href="/wiki/Kashgar" title="Kashgar">Kashgar</a> from his base in <a href="/wiki/Kokand" title="Kokand">Kokand</a>, capturing Kashgar. Aside from his execution of Adolf Schlagintweit, his cruelty found many other reflections in the local legends. It is said that he killed so many innocent Muslims that four or six minarets were built from the skulls of the victims (<i>kala minara</i>); or that once, when an artisan made a sabre for him, he tested the weapon by cutting off the artisan's son head, who came with his father and was standing nearby, after that with words " it's a really good sabre " he presented artisan with a gift. This reign of tyranny did not make Kashgarians miss the Khoja too much when he was defeated by Qing troops after ruling the city for four months and forced to flee back to Kokand.<sup id="cite_ref-Holy_War_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holy_War-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The local Muslims living under <a href="/wiki/Yakub_Beg_of_Yettishar" title="Yakub Beg of Yettishar">Yaqub Beg</a>'s rule in Kashgaria after he took over the area from the Qing, found the conditions under Yaqub Beg to be oppressive and recalled Qing rule favorably and in a positive manner.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Panthay_Rebellion">Panthay Rebellion</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islam_during_the_Qing_dynasty&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Panthay Rebellion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Panthay_Rebellion" title="Panthay Rebellion">Panthay Rebellion</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Panthay_Rebellion" title="Panthay Rebellion">Panthay Rebellion</a> lasted from 1855 to 1873. The war took place mostly in the southwestern <a href="/wiki/Province" title="Province">province</a> of <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a>. Disagreements between <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> and non-Muslim tin miners was the spark that lit the tensions that led to war. The <a href="/wiki/Hui_people" title="Hui people">Muslims</a> were led by, for the most part of the war, by <a href="/wiki/Du_Wenxiu" title="Du Wenxiu">Du Wenxiu</a> (1823–1872), a Muslim from a family of <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han Chinese</a> origin which had converted to Islam.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Du Wenxiu raised the banner of his revolt in the name of driving the Manchus out of China and establishing unity between Han and Hui. The insurgents took the city of <a href="/wiki/Dali,_Yunnan" class="mw-redirect" title="Dali, Yunnan">Dali</a> and declared the new nation of Pingnan Guo, meaning “the Pacified Southern Nation”. The rebellion found support among <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>'s aboriginal population and <a href="/wiki/Burma" class="mw-redirect" title="Burma">Burma</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lonely_Planet_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lonely_Planet-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Manchu official Shuxing'a started an anti-Muslim massacre which led to the <a href="/wiki/Panthay_Rebellion" title="Panthay Rebellion">Panthay Rebellion</a>. Shuxing'a developed a deep hatred of Muslims after an incident where he was stripped naked and nearly lynched by a mob of Muslims. He ordered several Muslim rebels to be slow sliced to death.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Tariq_Ali" title="Tariq Ali">Tariq Ali</a> wrote about the real incident in one of his novels, claiming the Muslims who had nearly lynched Shuxing'a were not Hui Muslims but belonged to another ethnicity but nevertheless the Manchu official blamed all Muslims for the incident.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dungan_Revolt">Dungan Revolt</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islam_during_the_Qing_dynasty&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Dungan Revolt"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dungan_Revolt_(1862%E2%80%931877)" title="Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)">Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)</a></div> <p>The Dungan Revolt by the <a href="/wiki/Hui_people" title="Hui people">Hui</a> from the provinces of <a href="/wiki/Shaanxi" title="Shaanxi">Shaanxi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gansu" title="Gansu">Gansu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ningxia" title="Ningxia">Ningxia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a>, broke out due to a pricing dispute over bamboo poles which a Han merchant was selling to a Hui. It lasted from 1862 to 1877. The failure of the revolt led to the flight of many <a href="/wiki/Dungan_people" title="Dungan people">Dungan</a> people into <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Russia">Imperial Russia</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rebellions">Rebellions</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islam_during_the_Qing_dynasty&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Rebellions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the mid-nineteenth century, the <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslims</a> revolted against the Qing dynasty, most notably in the <a href="/wiki/Dungan_Revolt_(1862%E2%80%931877)" title="Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)">Dungan Revolt</a> (1862–1877) and the <a href="/wiki/Panthay_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Panthay rebellion">Panthay rebellion</a> 1856–1873) in <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a>. One million people died in the <a href="/wiki/Panthay_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Panthay rebellion">Panthay rebellion</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Lonely_Planet_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lonely_Planet-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-chineseciv_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chineseciv-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and several million died in the <a href="/wiki/Dungan_Revolt_(1862%E2%80%931877)" title="Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)">Dungan Revolt</a><sup id="cite_ref-chineseciv_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chineseciv-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, Muslims in other parts of China proper like in the east and southern provinces who did not revolt, were not affected at all by the rebellion, and experienced no genocide, nor did they seek to revolt. It was reported that Muslim villages in Henan province, which was next to Shaanxi, were totally unaffected and relations between Han and Hui continued normally. The <a href="/wiki/Hui_people" title="Hui people">Hui</a> Muslim population of Beijing was unaffected by the Muslim rebels during the Dungan Revolt.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Elisabeth Allès wrote that the relationship between Hui Muslim and Han peoples continued normally in the <a href="/wiki/Henan" title="Henan">Henan</a> area, with no ramifications or consequences from the Muslim rebellions of other areas. Allès wrote in the document "Notes on some joking relationships between Hui and Han villages in Henan" published by French Centre for Research on Contemporary China that "The major Muslim revolts in the middle of the nineteenth century which involved the Hui in Shaanxi, Gansu and Yunnan, as well as the Uyghurs in Xinjiang, do not seem to have had any direct effect on this region of the central plain."<sup id="cite_ref-Allès_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allès-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many Muslims like <a href="/wiki/Ma_Zhan%27ao" title="Ma Zhan'ao">Ma Zhan'ao</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ma_Anliang" title="Ma Anliang">Ma Anliang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dong_Fuxiang" title="Dong Fuxiang">Dong Fuxiang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ma_Qianling" title="Ma Qianling">Ma Qianling</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ma_Rulong_(Qing_general)" title="Ma Rulong (Qing general)">Ma Julung</a> defected to the Qing dynasty side, and helped the Qing general <a href="/wiki/Zuo_Zongtang" title="Zuo Zongtang">Zuo Zongtang</a> exterminate the Muslim rebels. These Muslim generals belonged to the <a href="/wiki/Khafiya" class="mw-redirect" title="Khafiya">Khafiya</a> sect, and they helped Qing massacre Jahariyya rebels. General Zuo moved the Han around Hezhou out of the area and relocated them as a reward for the Muslims there helping Qing kill other Muslim rebels. </p><p>These pro-Qing Hui warlords rose to power by their fighting against Muslim rebels.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The sons of the defected Muslim warlords of the Dungan Revolt (1862–1877) helped the Qing crush the Muslim rebels in the <a href="/wiki/Dungan_Revolt_(1895%E2%80%931896)" title="Dungan Revolt (1895–1896)">Dungan Revolt (1895–1896)</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1895, another <a href="/wiki/Dungan_Revolt_(1895%E2%80%931896)" title="Dungan Revolt (1895–1896)">Dungan Revolt</a> broke out, and loyalist Muslims like <a href="/wiki/Dong_Fuxiang" title="Dong Fuxiang">Dong Fuxiang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ma_Anliang" title="Ma Anliang">Ma Anliang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ma_Guoliang" title="Ma Guoliang">Ma Guoliang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ma_Fulu" title="Ma Fulu">Ma Fulu</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ma_Fuxiang" title="Ma Fuxiang">Ma Fuxiang</a> suppressed and massacred the rebel Muslims led by <a href="/wiki/Ma_Dahan" title="Ma Dahan">Ma Dahan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ma_Yonglin" title="Ma Yonglin">Ma Yonglin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ma_Wanfu" title="Ma Wanfu">Ma Wanfu</a>. The 1895 revolt was similar to the 1781 Jahriyya revolt in that it began with fighting between different Muslim factions,<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that they had tried to resolve the dispute between the factions through the legal system of China before turning to violence.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A Muslim army called the <a href="/wiki/Kansu_Braves" title="Kansu Braves">Kansu Braves</a> led by General <a href="/wiki/Dong_Fuxiang" title="Dong Fuxiang">Dong Fuxiang</a> fought for the Qing dynasty against the foreigners during the <a href="/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Rebellion</a>. They included well known Generals like <a href="/wiki/Ma_Anliang" title="Ma Anliang">Ma Anliang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ma_Fulu" title="Ma Fulu">Ma Fulu</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ma_Fuxiang" title="Ma Fuxiang">Ma Fuxiang</a>. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a> the Qing armies only massacred the Muslims who had rebelled, and spared Muslims who took no part in the uprising.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to sending Han exiles convicted of crimes to Xinjiang to be slaves of Banner garrisons there, the Qing also practiced reverse exile, exiling Inner Asian (Mongol, Russian and Muslim criminals from Mongolia and Inner Asia) to <a href="/wiki/China_proper" title="China proper">China proper</a> where they would serve as slaves in Han Banner garrisons in Guangzhou. Russian, Oirats and Muslims (Oros. Ulet. Hoise jergi weilengge niyalma) such as Yakov and Dmitri were exiled to the Han banner garrison in Guangzhou.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1780s after the Muslim rebellion in Gansu started by Zhang Wenqing 張文慶 was defeated, Muslims like Ma Jinlu 馬進祿 were exiled to the Han Banner garrison in Guangzhou to become slaves to Han Banner officers.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Qing code regulating Mongols in Mongolia sentenced Mongol criminals to exile and to become slaves to Han bannermen in Han Banner garrisons in China proper.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Hui Muslim community was divided in its support for the 1911 <a href="/wiki/Xinhai_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Xinhai Revolution">Xinhai Revolution</a>. The Hui Muslims of Shaanxi supported the revolutionaries and the Hui Muslims of Gansu supported the Qing. The native Hui Muslims of Xi'an (Shaanxi province) joined the Han Chinese revolutionaries in slaughtering the entire 20,000 Manchu population of Xi'an.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The native Hui Muslims of Gansu province led by general <a href="/wiki/Ma_Anliang" title="Ma Anliang">Ma Anliang</a> sided with the Qing and prepared to attack the anti-Qing revolutionaries of Xi'an city. Only some wealthy Manchus who were ransomed and Manchu females survived. Wealthy Han Chinese seized Manchu girls to become their slaves<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and poor Han Chinese troops seized young Manchu women to be their wives.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Young pretty Manchu girls were also seized by Hui Muslims of Xi'an during the massacre and brought up as Muslims.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islam_during_the_Qing_dynasty&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:5668-Linxia-City-Hongyuan-Park-south-gates-and-Wanshou-Guan-Pagoda.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/5668-Linxia-City-Hongyuan-Park-south-gates-and-Wanshou-Guan-Pagoda.jpg/220px-5668-Linxia-City-Hongyuan-Park-south-gates-and-Wanshou-Guan-Pagoda.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/5668-Linxia-City-Hongyuan-Park-south-gates-and-Wanshou-Guan-Pagoda.jpg/330px-5668-Linxia-City-Hongyuan-Park-south-gates-and-Wanshou-Guan-Pagoda.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/5668-Linxia-City-Hongyuan-Park-south-gates-and-Wanshou-Guan-Pagoda.jpg/440px-5668-Linxia-City-Hongyuan-Park-south-gates-and-Wanshou-Guan-Pagoda.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>The dome of <a href="/wiki/Qi_Jingyi" title="Qi Jingyi">Qi Jingyi</a>'s <i>Gongbei</i> (shrine) seen over the wall of Hongyuan Park in Linxia</figcaption></figure> <p>In the Qing dynasty, Muslims had many mosques in the large cities, with particularly important ones in <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xi%27an" title="Xi'an">Xi'an</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hangzhou" title="Hangzhou">Hangzhou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a>, and other places (in addition to those in the western Muslim regions). The architecture typically employed traditional Chinese styles, with <a href="/wiki/Arabic_(language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic (language)">Arabic</a>-language inscriptions being the chief distinguishing feature. Many Muslims held government positions, including positions of importance, particularly in the army. </p><p>The Qing treated Han and Hui civilians in the same legal category. Both Han and Hui were moved from the walled city in Beijing to the outside,<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while only <a href="/wiki/Eight_Banners" title="Eight Banners">Bannermen</a> could reside inside the walled city. </p><p>The origin of Hui in Ürümqi is often indicated by the names of their Mosques.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Huijiangzhi_(Gazetteer_of_the_Muslim_Regions),_1772..jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Huijiangzhi_%28Gazetteer_of_the_Muslim_Regions%29%2C_1772..jpg/220px-Huijiangzhi_%28Gazetteer_of_the_Muslim_Regions%29%2C_1772..jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="348" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/Huijiangzhi_%28Gazetteer_of_the_Muslim_Regions%29%2C_1772..jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="516" /></a><figcaption>Painting depicting a Chinese Muslim, during the reign of the Qing dynasty.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufism</a> spread throughout the Northwestern China in the early decades of the Qing dynasty (mid-17th century through early 18th century), helped by somewhat easier travel between China and the Middle East.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among the Sufi orders found in China are the Kubrawiyya, Naqshbandiyya, and Qadiriyya.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Naqshbandiyya spread to China via Yemen and Central Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most Islamic proselytization activity occurred within the Muslim community itself between different sects and was not directed at non-Muslims, proselytizers who sought to convert other Muslims included people like Qi Jingyi, Ma Mingxin, Ma Qixi, and Ma Laichi.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some Sufi orders wear distinctive headgear, a six cornered hat can be found in China.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most important <a href="/wiki/Sufi_order" class="mw-redirect" title="Sufi order">Sufi orders</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Menhuan" title="Menhuan">menhuan</a></i>) included: </p> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Qadiriyya" title="Qadiriyya">Qadiriyya</a>, which was established in China through <a href="/wiki/Qi_Jingyi" title="Qi Jingyi">Qi Jingyi</a> (祁静一), also known as Hilal al-Din (1656–1719), student of the famous <a href="/wiki/Khoja_(Turkestan)" title="Khoja (Turkestan)">Central Asian Sufi teachers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Khoja_Afaq" class="mw-redirect" title="Khoja Afaq">Khoja Afaq</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Koja_Abd_Alla&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Koja Abd Alla (page does not exist)">Koja Abd Alla</a>. He was known among the Hui Sufis as Qi Daozu (Grand Master Qi). The shrine complex around "great tomb" (<i>Da <a href="/wiki/Gongbei_(Islamic_architecture)" title="Gongbei (Islamic architecture)">Gongbei</a></i>) in <a href="/wiki/Linxia_City" title="Linxia City">Linxia</a> remains the center of the Qadiriyya in China.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Khufiyya" title="Khufiyya">Khufiyya</a>: a <a href="/wiki/Naqshbandi" title="Naqshbandi">Naqshbandi</a> order, established in China by <a href="/wiki/Ma_Laichi" title="Ma Laichi">Ma Laichi</a> (1681–1766).</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Jahriyya" title="Jahriyya">Jahriyya</a>: another <a href="/wiki/Naqshbandi" title="Naqshbandi">Naqshbandi</a> <i>menhuan</i>, founded by <a href="/wiki/Ma_Mingxin" title="Ma Mingxin">Ma Mingxin</a> (1719–1781).</li></ul> <p>Chinese Hui Sufis developed a new type of organization called the <a href="/wiki/Menhuan" title="Menhuan">menhuan</a>, centered around a lineage of Sufi masters.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Hui Muslim scholar <a href="/wiki/Liu_Zhi_(scholar)" title="Liu Zhi (scholar)">Liu Zhi</a> wrote about Sufism in Chinese and translated Sufi writings from their original languages.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Hui Muslim scholar <a href="/wiki/Wang_Daiyu" title="Wang Daiyu">Wang Daiyu</a> used Confucian, Daoist, and Buddhist terminology in his Islamic writings.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Liu Zhi and Wang Daiyu were both <a href="/wiki/Gedimu" title="Gedimu">Gedimu</a> (non-Sufi) Muslims and argued that Muslims could be loyal both to the <a href="/wiki/Mandate_of_Heaven" title="Mandate of Heaven">Mandate of Heaven</a> and Allah, justifying Muslim obedience to the Qing government, since Allah was reflected by the Mandate of Haven in this world.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Liu Zhi and Wang Daiyu's writings became part of the <a href="/wiki/Han_Kitab" title="Han Kitab">Han Kitab</a>, a Chinese Islamic text which synthesized Islam and <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a>, using Confucian terminology to explain Islam.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Liu Zhi met and talked with the Vice Minister of the Board of War regarding Islam, convincing him that Confucian principles were supported by Islam so that it should not be regarded as heretical.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Liu Zhi used neo-Confucianism in his Islamic work titled as "The Philosophy of Arabia", and it was written that the book "illuminates" Confucianism, while Confucianism was at odds with Buddhism and Taoism, in a preface to the book by the non-Muslim Vice-Minister of the Board of Propriety.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Migrations">Migrations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islam_during_the_Qing_dynasty&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Migrations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Chin_Haw" title="Chin Haw">Chin Haw</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Chin_Haw" title="Chin Haw">Chin Haw</a> are a group of Chinese immigrants who arrived in Thailand via Burma or Laos. Most of them were from <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a> and about a third were Muslim. </p><p>In the 19th century, Chinese Muslims also became some of the first Muslims in <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a> (See <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_New_Zealand" title="Islam in New Zealand">Islam in New Zealand</a>). They came as golddiggers to work in the Dunstan gold fields in <a href="/wiki/Otago" title="Otago">Otago</a> in 1868.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Christian_missionary_activities">Christian missionary activities</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islam_during_the_Qing_dynasty&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Christian missionary activities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Broomhall-The-baptism-of-a-Chinese-Moslem.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Broomhall-The-baptism-of-a-Chinese-Moslem.png/180px-Broomhall-The-baptism-of-a-Chinese-Moslem.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Broomhall-The-baptism-of-a-Chinese-Moslem.png/269px-Broomhall-The-baptism-of-a-Chinese-Moslem.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Broomhall-The-baptism-of-a-Chinese-Moslem.png/359px-Broomhall-The-baptism-of-a-Chinese-Moslem.png 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="1560" /></a><figcaption>Christian missionaries baptizing a 79-year-old Chinese Muslim. (No later than 1908).</figcaption></figure> <p>As the presence of Christian <a href="/wiki/Missionary" title="Missionary">missionaries</a> of various sects increased in China after the Opium Wars, they became interested in converting China's Muslims to Christianity. A significant amount of research was dedicated to the Muslim "problem", as <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Broomhall" title="Marshall Broomhall">Marshall Broomhall</a> called it, but the effort resulted in no large-scale conversions. </p><p>Under the "fundamental laws" of China, one section is titled "Wizards, Witches, and all Superstitions, prohibited." The <a href="/wiki/Jiaqing_Emperor" title="Jiaqing Emperor">Jiaqing Emperor</a> in 1814 A.D. added a sixth clause in this section with reference to Christianity. It was modified in 1821 and printed in 1826 by the <a href="/wiki/Daoguang_Emperor" title="Daoguang Emperor">Daoguang Emperor</a>. It sentenced Europeans to death for spreading Christianity among Han Chinese and Manchus (tartars). Christians who would not repent their conversion were sent to Muslim cities in Xinjiang, to be given as slaves to Muslim leaders and <a href="/wiki/Baig" class="mw-redirect" title="Baig">beys</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islam_during_the_Qing_dynasty&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_during_the_Tang_dynasty" title="Islam during the Tang dynasty">Islam during the Tang dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_during_the_Song_dynasty" title="Islam during the Song dynasty">Islam during the Song dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_during_the_Yuan_dynasty" title="Islam during the Yuan dynasty">Islam during the Yuan dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_during_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Islam during the Ming dynasty">Islam during the Ming dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism_during_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Shamanism during the Qing dynasty">Shamanism during the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">Religion in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_China" title="Demographics of China">Demographics of China</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islam_during_the_Qing_dynasty&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMillward1998" class="citation book cs1">Millward, James A. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MC6sAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA298"><i>Beyond the Pass: Economy, Ethnicity, and Empire in Qing Central Asia, 1759-1864</i></a> (illustrated ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 298. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0804729338" title="Special:BookSources/978-0804729338"><bdi>978-0804729338</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 April</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beyond+the+Pass%3A+Economy%2C+Ethnicity%2C+and+Empire+in+Qing+Central+Asia%2C+1759-1864&rft.pages=298&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0804729338&rft.aulast=Millward&rft.aufirst=James+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMC6sAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA298&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+during+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLipman1998" class="citation book cs1">Lipman, Jonathan Neaman (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Y8Nzux7z6KAC&pg=PA37"><i>Familiar strangers: a history of Muslims in Northwest China</i></a>. University of Washington Press. p. 53. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0295800554" title="Special:BookSources/978-0295800554"><bdi>978-0295800554</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 April</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Familiar+strangers%3A+a+history+of+Muslims+in+Northwest+China&rft.pages=53&rft.pub=University+of+Washington+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0295800554&rft.aulast=Lipman&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+Neaman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DY8Nzux7z6KAC%26pg%3DPA37&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+during+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLipman1998" class="citation book cs1">Lipman, Jonathan Neaman (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Y8Nzux7z6KAC&q=milayin&pg=PA38"><i>Familiar strangers: a history of Muslims in Northwest China</i></a>. University of Washington Press. p. 54. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0295800554" title="Special:BookSources/978-0295800554"><bdi>978-0295800554</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 April</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Familiar+strangers%3A+a+history+of+Muslims+in+Northwest+China&rft.pages=54&rft.pub=University+of+Washington+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0295800554&rft.aulast=Lipman&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+Neaman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DY8Nzux7z6KAC%26q%3Dmilayin%26pg%3DPA38&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+during+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillward1998" class="citation book cs1">Millward, James A. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MC6sAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA171"><i>Beyond the Pass: Economy, Ethnicity, and Empire in Qing Central Asia, 1759-1864</i></a> (illustrated ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 171. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0804729338" title="Special:BookSources/978-0804729338"><bdi>978-0804729338</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 April</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beyond+the+Pass%3A+Economy%2C+Ethnicity%2C+and+Empire+in+Qing+Central+Asia%2C+1759-1864&rft.pages=171&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0804729338&rft.aulast=Millward&rft.aufirst=James+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMC6sAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA171&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+during+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDwyer2007" class="citation book cs1">Dwyer, Arienne M. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 April</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Salar%3A+A+Study+in+Inner+Asian+Language+Contact+Processes%2C+Part+1&rft.pages=8&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Otto+Harrassowitz+Verlag&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-3447040914&rft.aulast=Dwyer&rft.aufirst=Arienne+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DciShtCrJijIC%26pg%3DPA8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+during+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLipman1998" class="citation book cs1">Lipman, Jonathan Neaman (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Y8Nzux7z6KAC&pg=PA39"><i>Familiar strangers: a history of Muslims in Northwest China</i></a>. University of Washington Press. p. 55. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0295800554" title="Special:BookSources/978-0295800554"><bdi>978-0295800554</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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University of California Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_8nXLwSG2O8AC/page/n820">802</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520048041" title="Special:BookSources/978-0520048041"><bdi>978-0520048041</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 April</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=GREAT+ENTERPRISE&rft.pages=802&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0520048041&rft.aulast=WAKEMAN+JR.&rft.aufirst=FREDERIC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbub_gb_8nXLwSG2O8AC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+during+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWAKEMAN_JR.1986" class="citation book cs1">WAKEMAN JR., FREDERIC (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_8nXLwSG2O8AC"><i>GREAT ENTERPRISE</i></a>. University of California Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_8nXLwSG2O8AC/page/n821">803</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520048041" title="Special:BookSources/978-0520048041"><bdi>978-0520048041</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 April</span> 2014</span>. <q>milayin.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=GREAT+ENTERPRISE&rft.pages=803&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0520048041&rft.aulast=WAKEMAN+JR.&rft.aufirst=FREDERIC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbub_gb_8nXLwSG2O8AC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+during+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrownPierce2013" class="citation book cs1">Brown, Rajeswary Ampalavanar; Pierce, Justin, eds. 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Harvard University Press. pp. 191, 192. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674042025" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674042025"><bdi>978-0674042025</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+Marches+West%3A+The+Qing+Conquest+of+Central+Eurasia&rft.pages=191%2C+192&rft.edition=reprint&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0674042025&rft.aulast=Perdue&rft.aufirst=Peter+C&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJ4L-_cjmSqoC%26pg%3DPA191&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+during+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillward1998" class="citation book cs1">Millward, James A. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7ir2CAAAQBAJ&pg=PA124"><i>Beyond the Pass: Economy, Ethnicity, and Empire in Qing Central Asia, 1759-1864</i></a>. Stanford University Press. p. 124. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0804797927" title="Special:BookSources/0804797927"><bdi>0804797927</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beyond+the+Pass%3A+Economy%2C+Ethnicity%2C+and+Empire+in+Qing+Central+Asia%2C+1759-1864&rft.pages=124&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0804797927&rft.aulast=Millward&rft.aufirst=James+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7ir2CAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA124&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+during+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewby2005" class="citation book cs1">Newby, L. J. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KTmO416hNQ8C&pg=PA39"><i>The Empire And the Khanate: A Political History of Qing Relations With Khoqand C1760-1860</i></a> (illustrated ed.). BRILL. p. 39. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9004145508" title="Special:BookSources/9004145508"><bdi>9004145508</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Empire+And+the+Khanate%3A+A+Political+History+of+Qing+Relations+With+Khoqand+C1760-1860&rft.pages=39&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9004145508&rft.aulast=Newby&rft.aufirst=L.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKTmO416hNQ8C%26pg%3DPA39&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+during+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWang2017" class="citation journal cs1">Wang, Ke (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190601180055/http://www.lib.kobe-u.ac.jp/repository/81009892.pdf">"Between the "Ummah" and "China"：The Qing Dynasty's Rule over Xinjiang Uyghur Society"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of Intercultural Studies</i>. <b>48</b>. Kobe University: 204. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lib.kobe-u.ac.jp/repository/81009892.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2019-06-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-06-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Intercultural+Studies&rft.atitle=Between+the+%22Ummah%22+and+%22China%22%EF%BC%9AThe+Qing+Dynasty%27s+Rule+over+Xinjiang+Uyghur+Society&rft.volume=48&rft.pages=204&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Ke&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lib.kobe-u.ac.jp%2Frepository%2F81009892.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+during+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillward2007" class="citation book cs1">Millward, James A. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8FVsWq31MtMC&pg=PA108"><i>Eurasian Crossroads: A History of Xinjiang</i></a> (illustrated ed.). Columbia University Press. p. 108. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0231139243" title="Special:BookSources/978-0231139243"><bdi>978-0231139243</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eurasian+Crossroads%3A+A+History+of+Xinjiang&rft.pages=108&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0231139243&rft.aulast=Millward&rft.aufirst=James+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8FVsWq31MtMC%26pg%3DPA108&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+during+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillward2007" class="citation book cs1">Millward, James A. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8FVsWq31MtMC&pg=PA109"><i>Eurasian Crossroads: A History of Xinjiang</i></a> (illustrated ed.). Columbia University Press. p. 109. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0231139243" title="Special:BookSources/978-0231139243"><bdi>978-0231139243</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eurasian+Crossroads%3A+A+History+of+Xinjiang&rft.pages=109&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0231139243&rft.aulast=Millward&rft.aufirst=James+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8FVsWq31MtMC%26pg%3DPA109&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+during+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillward1998" class="citation book cs1">Millward, James A. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7ir2CAAAQBAJ&pg=PA206"><i>Beyond the Pass: Economy, Ethnicity, and Empire in Qing Central Asia, 1759-1864</i></a>. Stanford University Press. pp. 206–207. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0804797927" title="Special:BookSources/0804797927"><bdi>0804797927</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beyond+the+Pass%3A+Economy%2C+Ethnicity%2C+and+Empire+in+Qing+Central+Asia%2C+1759-1864&rft.pages=206-207&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0804797927&rft.aulast=Millward&rft.aufirst=James+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7ir2CAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA206&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+during+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillward1998" class="citation book cs1">Millward, James A. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 April</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beyond+the+Pass%3A+Economy%2C+Ethnicity%2C+and+Empire+in+Qing+Central+Asia%2C+1759-1864&rft.pages=134&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0804729338&rft.aulast=Millward&rft.aufirst=James+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMC6sAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA134&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+during+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDwyer2007" class="citation book cs1">Dwyer, Arienne M. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 April</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Salar%3A+A+Study+in+Inner+Asian+Language+Contact+Processes%2C+Part+1&rft.pages=20&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Otto+Harrassowitz+Verlag&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-3447040914&rft.aulast=Dwyer&rft.aufirst=Arienne+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DciShtCrJijIC%26pg%3DPA20&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+during+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLipman1984" class="citation journal cs1">Lipman, Jonathan N. (Jul 1984). "Ethnicity and Politics in Republican China: The Ma Family Warlords of Gansu". <i>Modern China</i>. <b>10</b> (3). Sage Publications, Inc.: 293. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F009770048401000302">10.1177/009770048401000302</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/189017">189017</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143843569">143843569</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modern+China&rft.atitle=Ethnicity+and+Politics+in+Republican+China%3A+The+Ma+Family+Warlords+of+Gansu&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=293&rft.date=1984-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143843569%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F189017%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F009770048401000302&rft.aulast=Lipman&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+during+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLipman1984" class="citation journal cs1">Lipman, Jonathan N. (Jul 1984). "Ethnicity and Politics in Republican China: The Ma Family Warlords of Gansu". <i>Modern China</i>. <b>10</b> (3). Sage Publications, Inc.: 294. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F009770048401000302">10.1177/009770048401000302</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/189017">189017</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143843569">143843569</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modern+China&rft.atitle=Ethnicity+and+Politics+in+Republican+China%3A+The+Ma+Family+Warlords+of+Gansu&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=294&rft.date=1984-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143843569%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F189017%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F009770048401000302&rft.aulast=Lipman&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+during+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDwyer2007" class="citation book cs1">Dwyer, Arienne M. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ciShtCrJijIC&pg=PA21"><i>Salar: A Study in Inner Asian Language Contact Processes, Part 1</i></a> (illustrated ed.). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3447040914" title="Special:BookSources/978-3447040914"><bdi>978-3447040914</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 April</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Salar%3A+A+Study+in+Inner+Asian+Language+Contact+Processes%2C+Part+1&rft.pages=21&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Otto+Harrassowitz+Verlag&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-3447040914&rft.aulast=Dwyer&rft.aufirst=Arienne+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DciShtCrJijIC%26pg%3DPA21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+during+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LipmanLipman1990-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-LipmanLipman1990_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJonathan_N._LipmanJonathan_Neaman_LipmanStevan_Harrell1990" class="citation book cs1">Jonathan N. Lipman; Jonathan Neaman Lipman; Stevan Harrell (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ShGfcJiA-oAC&q=1781+jahriyya&pg=PA76"><i>Violence in China: Essays in Culture and Counterculture</i></a>. SUNY Press. p. 76. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-0113-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-0113-2"><bdi>978-0-7914-0113-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Violence+in+China%3A+Essays+in+Culture+and+Counterculture&rft.pages=76&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-0113-2&rft.au=Jonathan+N.+Lipman&rft.au=Jonathan+Neaman+Lipman&rft.au=Stevan+Harrell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DShGfcJiA-oAC%26q%3D1781%2Bjahriyya%26pg%3DPA76&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+during+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLIPMAN1997" class="citation book cs1">LIPMAN, JONATHAN N. (1997). "4 / Strategies of Resistance Integration by Violence". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uw.manifoldapp.org/read/b1e86876-32e9-40cd-a327-1c580b063bbd/section/f009a061-483a-4284-86bd-8459d7cc5b92"><i>Familiar Strangers : A History of Muslims in Northwest China</i></a>. University of Washington Press. pp. 112–114. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-295-97644-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-295-97644-6"><bdi>0-295-97644-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=4+%2F+Strategies+of+Resistance+Integration+by+Violence&rft.btitle=Familiar+Strangers+%3A+A+History+of+Muslims+in+Northwest+China&rft.pages=112-114&rft.pub=University+of+Washington+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-295-97644-6&rft.aulast=LIPMAN&rft.aufirst=JONATHAN+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fuw.manifoldapp.org%2Fread%2Fb1e86876-32e9-40cd-a327-1c580b063bbd%2Fsection%2Ff009a061-483a-4284-86bd-8459d7cc5b92&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+during+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillward1998" class="citation book cs1">Millward, James A. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MC6sAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA167"><i>Beyond the Pass: Economy, Ethnicity, and Empire in Qing Central Asia, 1759-1864</i></a> (illustrated ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 167. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0804729338" title="Special:BookSources/978-0804729338"><bdi>978-0804729338</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 April</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beyond+the+Pass%3A+Economy%2C+Ethnicity%2C+and+Empire+in+Qing+Central+Asia%2C+1759-1864&rft.pages=167&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0804729338&rft.aulast=Millward&rft.aufirst=James+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMC6sAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA167&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+during+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Holy_War-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Holy_War_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Holy_War_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKim" class="citation book cs1">Kim, Hodong. <i>Holy War in China: The Muslim Rebellion and State in Chinese Central Asia, 1864-1877</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Holy+War+in+China%3A+The+Muslim+Rebellion+and+State+in+Chinese+Central+Asia%2C+1864-1877&rft.aulast=Kim&rft.aufirst=Hodong&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+during+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillward1998" class="citation book cs1">Millward, James A. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MC6sAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA147"><i>Beyond the Pass: Economy, Ethnicity, and Empire in Qing Central Asia, 1759-1864</i></a> (illustrated ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 147. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0804729338" title="Special:BookSources/978-0804729338"><bdi>978-0804729338</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 April</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beyond+the+Pass%3A+Economy%2C+Ethnicity%2C+and+Empire+in+Qing+Central+Asia%2C+1759-1864&rft.pages=147&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0804729338&rft.aulast=Millward&rft.aufirst=James+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMC6sAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA147&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+during+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Forbes, Andrew ; Henley, David (2011). <i>Traders of the Golden Triangle</i>. Chiang Mai: Cognoscenti Books. ASIN: B006GMID5K</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lonely_Planet-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lonely_Planet_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lonely_Planet_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Damsan Harper, Steve Fallon, Katja Gaskell, Julie Grundvig, Carolyn Heller, Thomas Huhti, Bradley Maynew, Christopher Pitts. Lonely Planet China. 9. 2005. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-74059-687-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-74059-687-0">1-74059-687-0</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAtwill2005" class="citation book cs1">Atwill, David G. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Da2M_viEclEC&pg=PA89"><i>The Chinese Sultanate: Islam, Ethnicity, and the Panthay Rebellion in Southwest China, 1856-1873</i></a> (illustrated ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 89. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0804751595" title="Special:BookSources/0804751595"><bdi>0804751595</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Chinese+Sultanate%3A+Islam%2C+Ethnicity%2C+and+the+Panthay+Rebellion+in+Southwest+China%2C+1856-1873&rft.pages=89&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0804751595&rft.aulast=Atwill&rft.aufirst=David+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDa2M_viEclEC%26pg%3DPA89&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+during+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWellman2007" class="citation book cs1">Wellman, James K. Jr., ed. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CfweAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA121"><i>Belief and Bloodshed: Religion and Violence across Time and Tradition</i></a>. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 121. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0742571341" title="Special:BookSources/978-0742571341"><bdi>978-0742571341</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Belief+and+Bloodshed%3A+Religion+and+Violence+across+Time+and+Tradition&rft.pages=121&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield+Publishers&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0742571341&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCfweAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA121&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+during+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAli2014" class="citation book cs1">Ali, Tariq (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iS8XAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT1637"><i>The Islam Quintet: Shadows of the Pomegranate Tree, The Book of Saladin, The Stone Woman, A Sultan in Palermo, and Night of the Golden Butterfly</i></a>. Open Road Media. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1480448582" title="Special:BookSources/978-1480448582"><bdi>978-1480448582</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Islam+Quintet%3A+Shadows+of+the+Pomegranate+Tree%2C+The+Book+of+Saladin%2C+The+Stone+Woman%2C+A+Sultan+in+Palermo%2C+and+Night+of+the+Golden+Butterfly&rft.pub=Open+Road+Media&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1480448582&rft.aulast=Ali&rft.aufirst=Tariq&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiS8XAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT1637&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+during+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAli2010" class="citation book cs1">Ali, Tariq (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2NUmoF9KvjQC&pg=PA90"><i>Night of the Golden Butterfly (Vol. 5) (The Islam Quintet)</i></a>. Verso Books. p. 90. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1844676118" title="Special:BookSources/978-1844676118"><bdi>978-1844676118</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Night+of+the+Golden+Butterfly+%28Vol.+5%29+%28The+Islam+Quintet%29&rft.pages=90&rft.pub=Verso+Books&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1844676118&rft.aulast=Ali&rft.aufirst=Tariq&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2NUmoF9KvjQC%26pg%3DPA90&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+during+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-chineseciv-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-chineseciv_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chineseciv_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Gernet, Jacques. A History of Chinese Civilization. 2. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521497124" title="Special:BookSources/0521497124">0521497124</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHugh_D._R._Baker1990" class="citation book cs1">Hugh D. R. Baker (1990). <i>Hong Kong images: people and animals</i>. Hong Kong University Press. p. 55. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-962-209-255-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-962-209-255-6"><bdi>978-962-209-255-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hong+Kong+images%3A+people+and+animals&rft.pages=55&rft.pub=Hong+Kong+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-962-209-255-6&rft.au=Hugh+D.+R.+Baker&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+during+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Allès-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Allès_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllès2007" class="citation journal cs1">Allès, Elizabeth (17 January 2007) [September–October 2003]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chinaperspectives.revues.org/document649.html">"Notes on some joking relationships between Hui and Han villages in Henan"</a>. <i>China Perspectives</i>. <b>2003</b> (49) (Online ed.): 6<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-07-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=China+Perspectives&rft.atitle=Notes+on+some+joking+relationships+between+Hui+and+Han+villages+in+Henan&rft.volume=2003&rft.issue=49&rft.pages=6&rft.date=2007-01-17&rft.aulast=All%C3%A8s&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fchinaperspectives.revues.org%2Fdocument649.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+during+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lipman, Jonathan N. “Ethnicity and Politics in Republican China: The Ma Family Warlords of Gansu.” Modern China, vol. 10, no. 3, 1984, p. 294. JSTOR, JSTOR, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/189017?seq=10#page_scan_tab_contents">https://www.jstor.org/stable/189017?seq=10#page_scan_tab_contents</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lipman, Jonathan N. “Ethnicity and Politics in Republican China: The Ma Family Warlords of Gansu.” Modern China, vol. 10, no. 3, 1984, p. 298. JSTOR, JSTOR, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/189017?seq=14#page_scan_tab_contents">https://www.jstor.org/stable/189017?seq=14#page_scan_tab_contents</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLipman1984" class="citation journal cs1">Lipman, Jonathan N. (Jul 1984). "Ethnicity and Politics in Republican China: The Ma Family Warlords of Gansu". <i>Modern China</i>. <b>10</b> (3). Sage Publications, Inc.: 298. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F009770048401000302">10.1177/009770048401000302</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/189017">189017</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143843569">143843569</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modern+China&rft.atitle=Ethnicity+and+Politics+in+Republican+China%3A+The+Ma+Family+Warlords+of+Gansu&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=298&rft.date=1984-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143843569%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F189017%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F009770048401000302&rft.aulast=Lipman&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+during+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLipman1984" class="citation journal cs1">Lipman, Jonathan N. (Jul 1984). "Ethnicity and Politics in Republican China: The Ma Family Warlords of Gansu". <i>Modern China</i>. <b>10</b> (3). Sage Publications, Inc.: 299. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F009770048401000302">10.1177/009770048401000302</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/189017">189017</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143843569">143843569</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modern+China&rft.atitle=Ethnicity+and+Politics+in+Republican+China%3A+The+Ma+Family+Warlords+of+Gansu&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=299&rft.date=1984-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143843569%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F189017%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F009770048401000302&rft.aulast=Lipman&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+during+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael_Dillon1999" class="citation book cs1">Michael Dillon (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hUEswLE4SWUC&q=ma+anliang+disown&pg=PA72"><i>China's Muslim Hui community: migration, settlement and sects</i></a>. Richmond: Curzon Press. p. 77. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-1026-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-1026-3"><bdi>978-0-7007-1026-3</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-06-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+Muslim+Hui+community%3A+migration%2C+settlement+and+sects&rft.place=Richmond&rft.pages=77&rft.pub=Curzon+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-7007-1026-3&rft.au=Michael+Dillon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhUEswLE4SWUC%26q%3Dma%2Banliang%2Bdisown%26pg%3DPA72&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+during+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yongwei, MWLFZZ, FHA 03-0188-2740-032, QL 43.3.30 (April 26, 1778).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Šande 善德, MWLFZZ, FHA 03-0193-3238-046, QL 54.5.6 (May 30, 1789) and Šande, MWLFZZ, FHA 03-0193-3248-028, QL 54.6.30 (August 20, 1789).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">1789 Mongol Code (Ch. 蒙履 Menggu lüli, Mo. Mongγol čaγaǰin-u bičig), (Ch. 南省，給駐防爲, Mo. emün-e-tü muji-dur čölegüljü sergeyilen sakiγči quyaγ-ud-tur boγul bolγ-a). Mongol Code 蒙例 (Beijing: Lifan yuan, 1789; reprinted Taipei: Chengwen chubanshe, 1968), p. 124. Batsukhin Bayarsaikhan, Mongol Code (Mongγol čaγaǰin - u bičig), Monumenta Mongolia IV (Ulaanbaatar: Centre for Mongol Studies, National University of Mongolia, 2004), p. 142.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBackhouseOtwayBland1914" class="citation book cs1">Backhouse, Sir Edmund; Otway, John; Bland, Percy (1914). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/annalsmemoirsoft002081mbp"><i>Annals & Memoirs of the Court of Peking: (from the 16th to the 20th Century)</i></a> (reprint ed.). Houghton Mifflin. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/annalsmemoirsoft002081mbp/page/n241">209</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Annals+%26+Memoirs+of+the+Court+of+Peking%3A+%28from+the+16th+to+the+20th+Century%29&rft.pages=209&rft.edition=reprint&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin&rft.date=1914&rft.aulast=Backhouse&rft.aufirst=Sir+Edmund&rft.au=Otway%2C+John&rft.au=Bland%2C+Percy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fannalsmemoirsoft002081mbp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+during+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Mj4wAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA779"><i>The Atlantic, Volume 112</i></a>. Atlantic Monthly Company. 1913. p. 779.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Atlantic%2C+Volume+112&rft.pages=779&rft.pub=Atlantic+Monthly+Company&rft.date=1913&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMj4wAQAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA779&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+during+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SGACAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA779"><i>The Atlantic Monthly, Volume 112</i></a>. Atlantic Monthly Company. 1913. p. 779.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Atlantic+Monthly%2C+Volume+112&rft.pages=779&rft.pub=Atlantic+Monthly+Company&rft.date=1913&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSGACAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA779&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+during+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRhoads2000" class="citation book cs1">Rhoads, Edward J. M. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QiM2pF5PDR8C&pg=PA192"><i>Manchus and Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928</i></a> (illustrated, reprint ed.). University of Washington Press. p. 192. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0295980400" title="Special:BookSources/0295980400"><bdi>0295980400</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Manchus+and+Han%3A+Ethnic+Relations+and+Political+Power+in+Late+Qing+and+Early+Republican+China%2C+1861%E2%80%931928&rft.pages=192&rft.edition=illustrated%2C+reprint&rft.pub=University+of+Washington+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0295980400&rft.aulast=Rhoads&rft.aufirst=Edward+J.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQiM2pF5PDR8C%26pg%3DPA192&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+during+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRhoads2000" class="citation book cs1">Rhoads, Edward J. M. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QiM2pF5PDR8C&pg=PA193"><i>Manchus and Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928</i></a> (illustrated, reprint ed.). University of Washington Press. p. 193. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0295980400" title="Special:BookSources/0295980400"><bdi>0295980400</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Manchus+and+Han%3A+Ethnic+Relations+and+Political+Power+in+Late+Qing+and+Early+Republican+China%2C+1861%E2%80%931928&rft.pages=193&rft.edition=illustrated%2C+reprint&rft.pub=University+of+Washington+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0295980400&rft.aulast=Rhoads&rft.aufirst=Edward+J.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQiM2pF5PDR8C%26pg%3DPA193&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+during+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFitzgeraldKotker1969" class="citation book cs1">Fitzgerald, Charles Patrick; Kotker, Norman (1969). Kotker, Norman (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vPRxAAAAMAAJ&q=manchu+girls"><i>The Horizon history of China</i></a> (illustrated ed.). American Heritage Pub. Co. p. 365. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780828100052" title="Special:BookSources/9780828100052"><bdi>9780828100052</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Horizon+history+of+China&rft.pages=365&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=American+Heritage+Pub.+Co.&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=9780828100052&rft.aulast=Fitzgerald&rft.aufirst=Charles+Patrick&rft.au=Kotker%2C+Norman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvPRxAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dmanchu%2Bgirls&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+during+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillward1998" class="citation book cs1">Millward, James A. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MC6sAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA132"><i>Beyond the Pass: Economy, Ethnicity, and Empire in Qing Central Asia, 1759-1864</i></a> (illustrated ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 132. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0804729338" title="Special:BookSources/978-0804729338"><bdi>978-0804729338</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 April</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beyond+the+Pass%3A+Economy%2C+Ethnicity%2C+and+Empire+in+Qing+Central+Asia%2C+1759-1864&rft.pages=132&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0804729338&rft.aulast=Millward&rft.aufirst=James+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMC6sAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA132&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+during+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillward1998" class="citation book cs1">Millward, James A. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MC6sAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA169"><i>Beyond the Pass: Economy, Ethnicity, and Empire in Qing Central Asia, 1759-1864</i></a> (illustrated ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 169. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0804729338" title="Special:BookSources/978-0804729338"><bdi>978-0804729338</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 April</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beyond+the+Pass%3A+Economy%2C+Ethnicity%2C+and+Empire+in+Qing+Central+Asia%2C+1759-1864&rft.pages=169&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0804729338&rft.aulast=Millward&rft.aufirst=James+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMC6sAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA169&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+during+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gladney (1999)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeener2004" class="citation book cs1">Feener, R. Michael, ed. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zsjuQaGLRUkC&q=China+sufi+adopt&pg=PA165"><i>Islam in World Cultures: Comparative Perspectives</i></a> (illustrated ed.). ABC-CLIO. p. 165. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1576075166" title="Special:BookSources/978-1576075166"><bdi>978-1576075166</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 April</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam+in+World+Cultures%3A+Comparative+Perspectives&rft.pages=165&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1576075166&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzsjuQaGLRUkC%26q%3DChina%2Bsufi%2Badopt%26pg%3DPA165&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+during+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDillon2003" class="citation book cs1">Dillon, Michael (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1ia-2lDtGH4C&pg=PA16"><i>Xinjiang: China's Muslim Far Northwest</i></a>. Durham East Asia Series. Routledge. p. 16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1134360963" title="Special:BookSources/978-1134360963"><bdi>978-1134360963</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 April</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Xinjiang%3A+China%27s+Muslim+Far+Northwest&rft.series=Durham+East+Asia+Series&rft.pages=16&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1134360963&rft.aulast=Dillon&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1ia-2lDtGH4C%26pg%3DPA16&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+during+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDillon2004" class="citation book cs1">Dillon, Michael (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oWj9NreO9zYC&q=China+sufi+adopt&pg=PA16"><i>Xinjiang: China's Muslim Far Northwest</i></a>. Durham East Asia Series. Taylor & Francis. p. 16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0203166642" title="Special:BookSources/978-0203166642"><bdi>978-0203166642</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 April</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Xinjiang%3A+China%27s+Muslim+Far+Northwest&rft.series=Durham+East+Asia+Series&rft.pages=16&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0203166642&rft.aulast=Dillon&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoWj9NreO9zYC%26q%3DChina%2Bsufi%2Badopt%26pg%3DPA16&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+during+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGladney1996" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Gladney, Dru C. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_hJ9aht6nZQC&q=China+sufi+adopt&pg=PA59"><i>Muslim Chinese: Ethnic Nationalism in the People's Republic</i></a>. Vol. 149 of Harvard East Asian monographs (illustrated ed.). Harvard Univ Asia Center. p. 59. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674594975" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674594975"><bdi>978-0674594975</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0073-0483">0073-0483</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 April</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Muslim+Chinese%3A+Ethnic+Nationalism+in+the+People%27s+Republic&rft.pages=59&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Harvard+Univ+Asia+Center&rft.date=1996&rft.issn=0073-0483&rft.isbn=978-0674594975&rft.aulast=Gladney&rft.aufirst=Dru+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_hJ9aht6nZQC%26q%3DChina%2Bsufi%2Badopt%26pg%3DPA59&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+during+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRenard2005" class="citation book cs1">Renard, John (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qqG240d2L5sC&q=sufi+china+celibate&pg=PA104"><i>Historical Dictionary of Sufism</i></a>. Historical Dictionaries of Religions, Philosophies, and Movements Series. Scarecrow Press. p. 104. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0810865402" title="Special:BookSources/978-0810865402"><bdi>978-0810865402</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 April</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+Sufism&rft.series=Historical+Dictionaries+of+Religions%2C+Philosophies%2C+and+Movements+Series&rft.pages=104&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0810865402&rft.aulast=Renard&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqqG240d2L5sC%26q%3Dsufi%2Bchina%2Bcelibate%26pg%3DPA104&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+during+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRenard2009" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Renard, John (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cTlmtoozRV0C&q=sufi+china+celibate&pg=PA104"><i>The A to Z of Sufism</i></a>. Vol. 44 of The A to Z Guide Series. Scarecrow Press. p. 104. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0810863439" title="Special:BookSources/978-0810863439"><bdi>978-0810863439</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 April</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+A+to+Z+of+Sufism&rft.pages=146&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0810863439&rft.aulast=Renard&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcTlmtoozRV0C%26q%3DChina%2Bsufi%2Badopt%26pg%3DPA146&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+during+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRenard2005" class="citation book cs1">Renard, John (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qqG240d2L5sC&q=China+sufi+adopt&pg=PA146"><i>Historical Dictionary of Sufism</i></a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 April</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+Sufism&rft.series=Historical+Dictionaries+of+Religions%2C+Philosophies%2C+and+Movements+Series&rft.pages=146&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0810865402&rft.aulast=Renard&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqqG240d2L5sC%26q%3DChina%2Bsufi%2Badopt%26pg%3DPA146&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+during+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurata2000" class="citation book cs1">Murata, Sachiko (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cVFDIPIv3ZgC&q=China+sufi+adopt&pg=PA9"><i>Chinese Gleams of Sufi Light: Wang Tai-yu's Great Learning of the Pure and Real and Liu Chih's Displaying the Concealment of the Real Realm. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-07-06</span></span>. <q>mohammedan slaves to beys.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Life+among+the+Chinese%3A+with+characteristic+sketches+and+incidents+of+missionary+operations+and+prospects+in+China&rft.pages=336&rft.pub=Carlton+%26+Porter&rft.date=1861&rft.au=Robert+Samuel+Maclay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flifeamongchines00maclgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+during+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islam_during_the_Qing_dynasty&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Forbes, Andrew ; Henley, David (2011). <i>Traders of the Golden Triangle</i> (chapter on Du Wenxiu, the Panthay Rebellion and the founding of Panglong in Burma). Chiang Mai: Cognoscenti Books. ASIN: B006GMID5K</li> <li>Kim Hodong, "Holy War in China: The Muslim Rebellion and State in Chinese Central Asia, 1864-1877". Stanford University Press (March 2004). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8047-4884-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-8047-4884-5">0-8047-4884-5</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeim1954" class="citation book cs1">Keim, Jean (1954). <i>Les Musulmans Chinois</i>. France Asie.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Les+Musulmans+Chinois&rft.pub=France+Asie&rft.date=1954&rft.aulast=Keim&rft.aufirst=Jean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+during+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Gernet, Jacques. A History of Chinese Civilization. 2. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-49712-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-49712-4">0-521-49712-4</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRingSalkinLa_Boda1996" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Ring, Trudy; Salkin, Robert M.; La Boda, Sharon, eds. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vWLRxJEU49EC"><i>International Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania</i></a>. Vol. 5 of International Dictionary of Historic Places (illustrated, annotated ed.). Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1884964046" title="Special:BookSources/978-1884964046"><bdi>978-1884964046</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 April</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=International+Dictionary+of+Historic+Places%3A+Asia+and+Oceania&rft.edition=illustrated%2C+annotated&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-1884964046&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvWLRxJEU49EC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam+during+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Qing_dynasty_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Qing_dynasty_topics" title="Template:Qing dynasty topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Qing_dynasty_topics" title="Template talk:Qing dynasty topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Qing_dynasty_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Qing dynasty topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Qing_dynasty_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="History of the Qing dynasty">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Early <div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size:85%;">(1616–1683)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jurchen_unification" title="Jurchen unification">Jurchen unification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Jin_(1616%E2%80%931636)" title="Later Jin (1616–1636)">Later Jin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Grievances" title="Seven Grievances">Seven Grievances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Jin_invasion_of_Joseon" title="Later Jin invasion of Joseon">Later Jin invasion of Joseon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_invasion_of_Joseon" title="Qing invasion of Joseon">Qing invasion of Joseon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_from_Ming_to_Qing" title="Transition from Ming to Qing">Transition from Ming to Qing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shanhai_Pass" title="Battle of Shanhai Pass">Battle of Shanhai Pass</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Clearance" title="Great Clearance">Great Clearance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Penghu" title="Battle of Penghu">Battle of Penghu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Three_Feudatories" title="Revolt of the Three Feudatories">Revolt of the Three Feudatories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/High_Qing_era" title="High Qing era">High Qing</a> <div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size:85%;">(1683–1799)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Russian_border_conflicts" title="Sino-Russian border conflicts">Sino-Russian border conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzungar%E2%80%93Qing_Wars" title="Dzungar–Qing Wars">Dzungar–Qing Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_expedition_to_Tibet_(1720)" title="Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)">Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Rites_controversy" title="Chinese Rites controversy">Chinese Rites controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten_Great_Campaigns" title="Ten Great Campaigns">Ten Great Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miao_Rebellion_(1735%E2%80%931736)" title="Miao Rebellion (1735–1736)">Miao Rebellion (1735–1736)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lhasa_riot_of_1750" title="Lhasa riot of 1750">Lhasa riot of 1750</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Altishahr_Khojas" title="Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas">Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afaqi_Khoja_revolts" title="Afaqi Khoja revolts">Afaqi Khoja revolts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Burmese_War" title="Sino-Burmese War">Sino-Burmese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lin_Shuangwen_rebellion" title="Lin Shuangwen rebellion">Lin Shuangwen rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ng%E1%BB%8Dc_H%E1%BB%93i-%C4%90%E1%BB%91ng_%C4%90a" title="Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa">Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Nepalese_War" title="Sino-Nepalese War">Sino-Nepalese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miao_Rebellion_(1795%E2%80%931806)" title="Miao Rebellion (1795–1806)">Miao Rebellion (1795–1806)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Lotus_Rebellion" title="White Lotus Rebellion">White Lotus Rebellion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">19th century <div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size:85%;">(1801–1900)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eight_Trigrams_uprising_of_1813" title="Eight Trigrams uprising of 1813">Eight Trigrams uprising of 1813</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Opium_War" title="First Opium War">First Opium War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogra%E2%80%93Tibetan_war" title="Dogra–Tibetan war">Dogra–Tibetan war (Sino-Sikh war)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion" title="Taiping Rebellion">Taiping Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nian_Rebellion" title="Nian Rebellion">Nian Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Turban_Rebellion_(1854%E2%80%931856)" title="Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856)">Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_Swords_Society" title="Small Swords Society">Small Swords Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miao_Rebellion_(1854%E2%80%931873)" title="Miao Rebellion (1854–1873)">Miao Rebellion (1854–1873)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepal%E2%80%93Tibet_War_(1855%E2%80%931856)" title="Nepal–Tibet War (1855–1856)">Nepal–Tibet War (1855–1856)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panthay_Rebellion" title="Panthay Rebellion">Panthay Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Opium_War" title="Second Opium War">Second Opium War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punti%E2%80%93Hakka_Clan_Wars" title="Punti–Hakka Clan Wars">Punti–Hakka Clan Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amur_Annexation" title="Amur Annexation">Amur Annexation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-Strengthening_Movement" title="Self-Strengthening Movement">Self-Strengthening Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongzhi_Restoration" title="Tongzhi Restoration">Tongzhi Restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungan_Revolt_(1862%E2%80%931877)" title="Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)">Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudan_incident" title="Mudan incident">Mudan incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tianjin_Massacre" title="Tianjin Massacre">Tianjin Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margary_Affair" title="Margary Affair">Margary Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Taiwan_(1874)" title="Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874)">Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Chinese_Famine_of_1876%E2%80%931879" title="Northern Chinese Famine of 1876–1879">Northern Chinese Famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_reconquest_of_Xinjiang" title="Qing reconquest of Xinjiang">Qing reconquest of Xinjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-French_War" title="Sino-French War">Sino-French War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikkim_expedition" title="Sikkim expedition">Sikkim expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jindandao_incident" title="Jindandao incident">Jindandao incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War" title="First Sino-Japanese War">First Sino-Japanese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gongche_Shangshu_movement" title="Gongche Shangshu movement">Gongche Shangshu movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungan_Revolt_(1895%E2%80%931896)" title="Dungan Revolt (1895–1896)">Dungan Revolt (1895–1896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Days%27_Reform" title="Hundred Days' Reform">Hundred Days' Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_plague_pandemic" title="Third plague pandemic">Third plague pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Rebellion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Red_Lanterns_(Boxer_Uprising)" title="Red Lanterns (Boxer Uprising)">Red Lanterns</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight-Nation_Alliance" title="Eight-Nation Alliance">Eight-Nation Alliance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_decree_of_declaration_of_war_against_foreign_powers" title="Imperial decree of declaration of war against foreign powers">Declaration of war</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">20th century <div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size:85%;">(1901–1912)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Qing_reforms" title="Late Qing reforms">Late Qing reforms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_expedition_to_Tibet" title="British expedition to Tibet">British expedition to Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batang_uprising" title="Batang uprising">1905 Batang uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preparative_Constitutionalism" title="Preparative Constitutionalism">Preparative Constitutionalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1909_Chinese_parliamentary_election" title="1909 Chinese parliamentary election">1909 Parliamentary election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1909_Chinese_provincial_elections" title="1909 Chinese provincial elections">1909 Provincial Assembly elections</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_expedition_to_Tibet_(1910)" title="Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910)">Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchurian_plague" title="Manchurian plague">Manchurian plague</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Railway_Protection_Movement" title="Railway Protection Movement">Railway Protection Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">1911 Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wuchang_Uprising" title="Wuchang Uprising">Wuchang Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinhai_Lhasa_turmoil" title="Xinhai Lhasa turmoil">Xinhai Lhasa turmoil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Revolution_of_1911" title="Mongolian Revolution of 1911">Mongolian Revolution of 1911</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution_in_Xinjiang" title="1911 Revolution in Xinjiang">1911 Revolution in Xinjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Edict_of_the_Abdication_of_the_Qing_Emperor" title="Imperial Edict of the Abdication of the Qing Emperor">Imperial Edict of the Abdication of Puyi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Favourable_Treatment_of_the_Great_Qing_Emperor_after_His_Abdication" title="Articles of Favourable Treatment of the Great Qing Emperor after His Abdication">Articles of Favourable Treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_Restoration" title="Manchu Restoration">Manchu Restoration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Government of the Qing dynasty">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">Emperor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_emperors_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="List of emperors of the Qing dynasty">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_emperors_family_tree_(late)#Qing_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese emperors family tree (late)">Family tree</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advisory_Council_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Advisory Council (Qing dynasty)">Advisory Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amban" title="Amban">Amban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consultative_Bureau" class="mw-redirect" title="Consultative Bureau">Consultative Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cup_of_Solid_Gold" title="Cup of Solid Gold">Cup of Solid Gold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dates_of_establishment_of_diplomatic_relations_with_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations with the Qing dynasty">Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Da-Qing_Bank" title="Da-Qing Bank">Da-Qing Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deliberative_Council_of_Princes_and_Ministers" title="Deliberative Council of Princes and Ministers">Deliberative Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="List of diplomatic missions of the Qing dynasty">Diplomatic missions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Flag of the Qing dynasty">Flag of the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Council_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Grand Council (Qing dynasty)">Grand Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Qing_Legal_Code" title="Great Qing Legal Code">Great Qing Legal Code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Clan_Court" title="Imperial Clan Court">Imperial Clan Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Commissioner_(China)" title="Imperial Commissioner (China)">Imperial Commissioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Household_Department" title="Imperial Household Department">Imperial Household Department</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lifan_Yuan" title="Lifan Yuan">Lifan Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Posts_and_Communications" title="Ministry of Posts and Communications">Ministry of Posts and Communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nine_Gates_Infantry_Commander" title="Nine Gates Infantry Commander">Nine Gates Infantry Commander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_coordinator_and_provincial_governor" title="Grand coordinator and provincial governor">Provincial governor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provincial_military_commander" title="Provincial military commander">Provincial military commander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principles_of_the_Constitution_(1908)" class="mw-redirect" title="Principles of the Constitution (1908)">Principles of the Constitution (1908)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_and_noble_ranks_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty">Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ejen" title="Ejen">Ejen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Administrative divisions of the Qing dynasty">Administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroys_in_China" title="Viceroys in China">Viceroys</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Zhili" title="Viceroy of Zhili">Zhili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Shaan-Gan" title="Viceroy of Shaan-Gan">Shaan-Gan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Liangjiang" title="Viceroy of Liangjiang">Liangjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Huguang" title="Viceroy of Huguang">Huguang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Sichuan" title="Viceroy of Sichuan">Sichuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Min-Zhe" title="Viceroy of Min-Zhe">Min-Zhe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Liangguang" title="Viceroy of Liangguang">Liangguang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Yun-Gui" title="Viceroy of Yun-Gui">Yun-Gui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_the_Three_Eastern_Provinces" title="Viceroy of the Three Eastern Provinces">Three Eastern Provinces</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zongli_Yamen" title="Zongli Yamen">Zongli Yamen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Military of the Qing dynasty">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beiyang_Army" title="Beiyang Army">Beiyang Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight_Banners" title="Eight Banners">Eight Banners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ever_Victorious_Army" title="Ever Victorious Army">Ever Victorious Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Standard_Army" title="Green Standard Army">Green Standard Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Guards_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Imperial Guards (Qing dynasty)">Imperial Guards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firearm_Battalion" title="Firearm Battalion">Firearm Battalion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peking_Field_Force" title="Peking Field Force">Peking Field Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Army" title="New Army">New Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hushenying" title="Hushenying">Hushenying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuishiying" title="Shuishiying">Shuishiying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuwei_Corps" title="Wuwei Corps">Wuwei Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yong_Ying" title="Yong Ying">Yong Ying</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chu_Army" title="Chu Army">Chu Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huai_Army" title="Huai Army">Huai Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiang_Army" title="Xiang Army">Xiang Army</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Chinese_Navy" title="Imperial Chinese Navy">Navy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Special regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" title="Qing dynasty in Inner Asia">Inner Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchuria_under_Qing_rule" title="Manchuria under Qing rule">Manchuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolia_under_Qing_rule" title="Mongolia under Qing rule">Mongolia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_Mongolia_during_Qing" title="Administrative divisions of Mongolia during Qing">Administrative divisions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibet_under_Qing_rule" title="Tibet under Qing rule">Tibet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Urn" title="Golden Urn">Golden Urn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Qing_ambans_in_Tibet" title="List of Qing ambans in Tibet">List of ambans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_under_Qing_rule" title="Xinjiang under Qing rule">Xinjiang</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Xinjiang_under_Qing_rule" title="Timeline of Xinjiang under Qing rule">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_of_Ili" title="General of Ili">General of Ili</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_under_Qing_rule" title="Taiwan under Qing rule">Taiwan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Guest_House_of_Imperial_Envoys" title="Guest House of Imperial Envoys">Guest House of Imperial Envoys</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Palaces &<br />mausoleums</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chengde_Mountain_Resort" title="Chengde Mountain Resort">Chengde Mountain Resort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forbidden_City" title="Forbidden City">Forbidden City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hetu_Ala" title="Hetu Ala">Hetu Ala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mukden_Palace" title="Mukden Palace">Mukden Palace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Summer_Palace" title="Old Summer Palace">Old Summer Palace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Summer_Palace" title="Summer Palace">Summer Palace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Qing_tombs" title="Eastern Qing tombs">Eastern Qing tombs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Qing_tombs" title="Western Qing tombs">Western Qing tombs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuling_Mausoleum" title="Fuling Mausoleum">Fuling Mausoleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhao_Mausoleum_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Zhao Mausoleum (Qing dynasty)">Zhao Mausoleum (Qing dynasty)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Tombs_of_the_Ming_and_Qing_Dynasties" title="Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties">Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Society &<br />culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Booi_Aha" title="Booi Aha">Booi Aha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Changzhou_School_of_Thought" title="Changzhou School of Thought">Changzhou School of Thought</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Complete_Classics_Collection_of_Ancient_China" title="Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China">Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dibao" title="Dibao">Dibao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Economy of the Qing dynasty">Economy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Qing_dynasty%27s_economic_performance" title="Criticism of Qing dynasty's economic performance">performance criticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Wangs" title="Four Wangs">Four Wangs</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ming" title="History of Ming">History of Ming</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Dictionary" title="Kangxi Dictionary">Kangxi Dictionary</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaozheng" title="Kaozheng">Kaozheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_inquisition" title="Literary inquisition">Literary inquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_Han_Imperial_Feast" class="mw-redirect" title="Manchu Han Imperial Feast">Manchu Han Imperial Feast</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Peiwen_Yunfu" title="Peiwen Yunfu">Peiwen Yunfu</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pentaglot_Dictionary" title="Pentaglot Dictionary">Pentaglot Dictionary</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_official_headwear" title="Qing official headwear">Qing official headwear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_poetry" title="Qing poetry">Qing poetry</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Complete_Tang_Poems" title="Complete Tang Poems">Complete Tang Poems</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queue_(hairstyle)" title="Queue (hairstyle)">Queue</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Researches_on_Manchu_Origins" title="Researches on Manchu Origins">Researches on Manchu Origins</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_Edict_of_the_Kangxi_Emperor" title="Sacred Edict of the Kangxi Emperor">Sacred Edict of the Kangxi Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism_during_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Shamanism during the Qing dynasty">Shamanism during the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Islam during the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Siku_Quanshu" title="Siku Quanshu">Complete Library of the Four Treasuries</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Siku_Quanshu_Zongmu_Tiyao" title="Siku Quanshu Zongmu Tiyao">Annotated Bibliography</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_treaties_of_China_before_the_People%27s_Republic#Qing_dynasty" title="List of treaties of China before the People's Republic">Treaties</a><br /></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Kyakhta_(1727)" title="Treaty of Kyakhta (1727)">Treaty of Kyakhta (1727)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nerchinsk" title="Treaty of Nerchinsk">Treaty of Nerchinsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unequal_treaties" title="Unequal treaties">Unequal treaties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boxer_Protocol" title="Boxer Protocol">Boxer Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burlingame_Treaty" title="Burlingame Treaty">Burlingame Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chefoo_Convention" title="Chefoo Convention">Chefoo Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_Between_Great_Britain_and_China_Respecting_Tibet" title="Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet">Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_for_the_Extension_of_Hong_Kong_Territory" title="Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory">Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_of_Peking" title="Convention of Peking">Convention of Peking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_of_Tientsin" title="Convention of Tientsin">Convention of Tientsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li%E2%80%93Lobanov_Treaty" title="Li–Lobanov Treaty">Li–Lobanov Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Portuguese_Treaty_of_Peking" title="Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking">Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Aigun" title="Treaty of Aigun">Treaty of Aigun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_the_Bogue" title="Treaty of the Bogue">Treaty of the Bogue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Canton" title="Treaty of Canton">Treaty of Canton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Kulja" title="Treaty of Kulja">Treaty of Kulja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nanking" title="Treaty of Nanking">Treaty of Nanking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Saint_Petersburg_(1881)" title="Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)">Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Shimonoseki" title="Treaty of Shimonoseki">Treaty of Shimonoseki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tarbagatai" title="Treaty of Tarbagatai">Treaty of Tarbagatai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tientsin" title="Treaty of Tientsin">Treaty of Tientsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Wanghia" title="Treaty of Wanghia">Treaty of Wanghia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Whampoa" title="Treaty of Whampoa">Treaty of Whampoa</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Currency</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty_coinage" title="Qing dynasty coinage">Coinage</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zhiqian" title="Zhiqian">Zhiqian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Tongbao" title="Kangxi Tongbao">Kangxi Tongbao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qianlong_Tongbao" title="Qianlong Tongbao">Qianlong Tongbao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hongqian" title="Hongqian">Hongqian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Qing_Copper_Coin" title="Great Qing Copper Coin">Great Qing Copper Coin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Qing_Gold_Coin" title="Great Qing Gold Coin">Great Qing Gold Coin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Paper_money_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Paper money of the Qing dynasty">Paper money</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Qing_Treasure_Note" title="Great Qing Treasure Note">Great Qing Treasure Note</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hubu_Guanpiao" title="Hubu Guanpiao">Hubu Guanpiao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banknotes_of_the_Da_Qing_Bank" title="Banknotes of the Da Qing Bank">Banknotes of the Da Qing Bank</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aisin_Gioro" class="mw-redirect" title="Aisin Gioro">Aisin Gioro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Qing_sentiment" title="Anti-Qing sentiment">Anti-Qing sentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canton_System" title="Canton System">Canton System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuang_Guandong" title="Chuang Guandong">Chuang Guandong</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Draft_History_of_Qing" title="Draft History of Qing">Draft History of Qing</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Qing_(People%27s_Republic)" title="History of Qing (People's Republic)">History of Qing (People's Republic)</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_hunt_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Imperial hunt of the Qing dynasty">Imperial hunt of the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Legacy of the Qing dynasty">Legacy of the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_people" title="Manchu people">Manchu people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Names of the Qing dynasty">Names of the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Qing_History" title="New Qing History">New Qing History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_late_anti-Qing_rebellions" title="Timeline of late anti-Qing rebellions">Timeline of late anti-Qing rebellions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_ports" title="Treaty ports">Treaty ports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willow_Palisade" title="Willow Palisade">Willow Palisade</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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