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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Arc_lighting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arc_lighting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Arc lighting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arc_lighting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Edison's_direct_current_company" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Edison's_direct_current_company"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Edison's direct current company</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Edison's_direct_current_company-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Westinghouse_and_alternating_current" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Westinghouse_and_alternating_current"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Westinghouse and alternating current</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Westinghouse_and_alternating_current-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_spread_of_AC" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_spread_of_AC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>The spread of AC</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_spread_of_AC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Safety_concerns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Safety_concerns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Safety concerns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Safety_concerns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Edison's_anti-AC_stance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Edison's_anti-AC_stance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Edison's anti-AC stance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Edison's_anti-AC_stance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Execution_by_electricity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Execution_by_electricity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>Execution by electricity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Execution_by_electricity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anti-AC_backlash" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anti-AC_backlash"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Anti-AC backlash</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Anti-AC_backlash-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Anti-AC backlash subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Anti-AC_backlash-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Harold_Brown's_crusade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Harold_Brown's_crusade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Harold Brown's crusade</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Harold_Brown's_crusade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Brown's_demonstrations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brown's_demonstrations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Brown's demonstrations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brown's_demonstrations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Collusion_with_Edison" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Collusion_with_Edison"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>Collusion with Edison</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Collusion_with_Edison-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Patents_and_mergers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Patents_and_mergers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Patents and mergers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Patents_and_mergers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_peak_of_the_war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_peak_of_the_war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>The peak of the war</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_peak_of_the_war-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle The peak of the war subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-The_peak_of_the_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Associating_AC_and_Westinghouse_with_the_electric_chair" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Associating_AC_and_Westinghouse_with_the_electric_chair"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Associating AC and Westinghouse with the electric chair</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Associating_AC_and_Westinghouse_with_the_electric_chair-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Kemmler_appeal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Kemmler_appeal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.1</span> <span>The Kemmler appeal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Kemmler_appeal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Brown's_collusion_exposed" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brown's_collusion_exposed"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Brown's collusion exposed</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brown's_collusion_exposed-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_"Electric_Wire_Panic"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_"Electric_Wire_Panic""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>The "Electric Wire Panic"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_"Electric_Wire_Panic"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_current_war_ends" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_current_war_ends"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>The current war ends</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_current_war_ends-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle The current war ends subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-The_current_war_ends-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Aftermath</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Remnant_and_existent_DC_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Remnant_and_existent_DC_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Remnant and existent DC systems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Remnant_and_existent_DC_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">War of the currents</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 29 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-29" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">29 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="حرب التيارات – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حرب التيارات" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A7%8E_%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7" title="তড়িৎ যুদ্ধ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="তড়িৎ যুদ্ধ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_dels_corrents" title="Guerra dels corrents – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Guerra dels corrents" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A1lka_proud%C5%AF" title="Válka proudů – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Válka proudů" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stromkrieg" title="Stromkrieg – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Stromkrieg" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_de_las_corrientes" title="Guerra de las corrientes – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Guerra de las corrientes" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korronteen_gerra" title="Korronteen gerra – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Korronteen gerra" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF_%D8%AC%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7" title="جنگ جریان‌ها – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جنگ جریان‌ها" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerre_des_courants" title="Guerre des courants – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Guerre des courants" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_das_correntes" title="Guerra das correntes – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Guerra das correntes" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%84%EB%A5%98_%EC%A0%84%EC%9F%81" title="전류 전쟁 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="전류 전쟁" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rat_struja" title="Rat struja – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Rat struja" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perang_arus" title="Perang arus – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Perang arus" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_delle_correnti" title="Guerra delle correnti – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Guerra delle correnti" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%9C%D7%97%D7%9E%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%96%D7%A8%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%9D" title="מלחמת הזרמים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מלחמת הזרמים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perang_Arus_Elektrik" title="Perang Arus Elektrik – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Perang Arus Elektrik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oorlog_van_de_stromen" title="Oorlog van de stromen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Oorlog van de stromen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E6%B5%81%E6%88%A6%E4%BA%89" title="電流戦争 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="電流戦争" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Str%C3%B8mkrigen" title="Strømkrigen – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Strømkrigen" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gu%C3%A8rra_dels_corrents" title="Guèrra dels corrents – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Guèrra dels corrents" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_das_Correntes" title="Guerra das Correntes – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Guerra das Correntes" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2" title="Война токов – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Война токов" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%82_%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Рат струја – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Рат струја" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rat_struja" title="Rat struja – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Rat struja" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Str%C3%B6mkriget" title="Strömkriget – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Strömkriget" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%9F%E0%B8%9F%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%B2" title="สงครามกระแสไฟฟ้า – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สงครามกระแสไฟฟ้า" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a 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searchaux" style="display:none">Introduction of competing electric power transmission systems in the late 1880s and early 1890s</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the battle between electrical distribution methods. For the 2017 film, see <a href="/wiki/The_Current_War" title="The Current War">The Current War</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:402px;max-width:402px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:195px;max-width:195px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:263px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Thomas_Edison_c1882.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Thomas_Edison_c1882.jpg/193px-Thomas_Edison_c1882.jpg" decoding="async" width="193" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Thomas_Edison_c1882.jpg/290px-Thomas_Edison_c1882.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Thomas_Edison_c1882.jpg/386px-Thomas_Edison_c1882.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1526" data-file-height="2082" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">American inventor and businessman <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Edison" title="Thomas Edison">Thomas Edison</a> established the first investor-owned electric utility in 1882, basing its infrastructure on DC power.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:203px;max-width:203px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:263px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:George_Westinghouse_1884.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/George_Westinghouse_1884.png/201px-George_Westinghouse_1884.png" decoding="async" width="201" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/George_Westinghouse_1884.png/302px-George_Westinghouse_1884.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/George_Westinghouse_1884.png/402px-George_Westinghouse_1884.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1313" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">American entrepreneur and engineer <a href="/wiki/George_Westinghouse" title="George Westinghouse">George Westinghouse</a> introduced a rival AC-based power distribution network in 1886.</div></div></div></div></div> <p>The <b>war of the currents</b> was a series of events surrounding the introduction of competing <a href="/wiki/Electric_power_transmission" title="Electric power transmission">electric power transmission</a> systems in the late 1880s and early 1890s. It grew out of two lighting systems developed in the late 1870s and early 1880s: <a href="/wiki/Arc_lamp" title="Arc lamp">arc lamp</a> street lighting running on high-voltage <a href="/wiki/Alternating_current" title="Alternating current">alternating current</a> (AC), and large-scale low-voltage <a href="/wiki/Direct_current" title="Direct current">direct current</a> (DC) indoor <a href="/wiki/Incandescent_lamp" class="mw-redirect" title="Incandescent lamp">incandescent lighting</a> being marketed by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Edison" title="Thomas Edison">Thomas Edison</a>'s company.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESkrabec201286_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkrabec201286-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1886, the Edison system was faced with new competition: an alternating current system initially introduced by <a href="/wiki/George_Westinghouse" title="George Westinghouse">George Westinghouse</a>'s company that used <a href="/wiki/Transformer" title="Transformer">transformers</a> to step down from a high voltage so AC could be used for indoor lighting. Using high voltage allowed an AC system to transmit power over longer distances from more efficient large central generating stations. As the use of AC spread rapidly with other companies deploying their own systems, the <a href="/wiki/Edison_Electric_Light_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Edison Electric Light Company">Edison Electric Light Company</a> claimed in early 1888 that high voltages used in an alternating current system were hazardous, and that the design was inferior to, and infringed on the patents behind, their direct current system. </p><p>In the spring of 1888, a media furor arose over electrical fatalities caused by pole-mounted high-voltage AC lines, attributed to the greed and callousness of the arc lighting companies that operated them. In June of that year <a href="/wiki/Harold_P._Brown" title="Harold P. Brown">Harold P. Brown</a>, a New York electrical engineer, claimed the AC-based lighting companies were putting the public at risk using high-voltage systems installed in a slipshod manner. Brown also claimed that alternating current was more dangerous than direct current and tried to prove this by publicly killing animals with both currents, with technical assistance from Edison Electric. The Edison company and Brown colluded further in their parallel goals to limit the use of AC with attempts to push through legislation to severely limit AC installations and voltages. Both also colluded with Westinghouse's chief AC rival, the <a href="/wiki/Thomson-Houston_Electric_Company" title="Thomson-Houston Electric Company">Thomson-Houston Electric Company</a>, to make sure the first <a href="/wiki/Electric_chair" title="Electric chair">electric chair</a> was powered by a Westinghouse AC generator. </p><p>By the early 1890s, the war was winding down. Further deaths caused by AC lines in New York City forced electric companies to fix safety problems. Thomas Edison no longer controlled Edison Electric, and subsidiary companies were beginning to add AC to the systems they were building. Mergers reduced competition between companies, including the merger of Edison Electric with their largest competitor, Thomson-Houston, forming <a href="/wiki/General_Electric" title="General Electric">General Electric</a> in 1892. Edison Electric's merger with their chief alternating current rival brought an end to <i>the war of the currents</i> and created a new company that now controlled three quarters of the US electrical business.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEssig2009268_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEssig2009268-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley201128–29_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley201128–29-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Westinghouse won the bid to supply electrical power for the <a href="/wiki/World%27s_Columbian_Exposition" title="World's Columbian Exposition">World's Columbian Exposition</a> in 1893 and won the major part of the contract to build <a href="/wiki/Niagara_Falls#Hydroelectric_power" title="Niagara Falls">Niagara Falls hydroelectric project</a> later that year (partially splitting the contract with General Electric). DC commercial power distribution systems declined rapidly in numbers throughout the 20th century; the last DC utility in New York City was shut down in 2007.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=War_of_the_currents&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_electric_power_transmission" title="History of electric power transmission">History of electric power transmission</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Brush_Company_arc_light_madison_square_new_york_1882.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Brush_Company_arc_light_madison_square_new_york_1882.png/220px-Brush_Company_arc_light_madison_square_new_york_1882.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="329" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Brush_Company_arc_light_madison_square_new_york_1882.png/330px-Brush_Company_arc_light_madison_square_new_york_1882.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Brush_Company_arc_light_madison_square_new_york_1882.png/440px-Brush_Company_arc_light_madison_square_new_york_1882.png 2x" data-file-width="1246" data-file-height="1861" /></a><figcaption>Very bright arc lighting (such as this one in 1882 New York) could only be used outdoors or in large indoor spaces where they could be mounted high out of people's sight line.</figcaption></figure> <p>The war of the currents grew out of the development of two lighting systems; <a href="/wiki/Arc_lamp" title="Arc lamp">arc lighting</a> running on alternating current and <a href="/wiki/Incandescent_lamp" class="mw-redirect" title="Incandescent lamp">incandescent lighting</a> running on direct current.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESkrabec201286_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkrabec201286-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both were supplanting <a href="/wiki/Gas_lighting" title="Gas lighting">gas lighting</a> systems, with arc lighting taking over large area/street lighting, and incandescent lighting replacing gas for business and residential indoor lighting. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arc_lighting">Arc lighting</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=War_of_the_currents&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Arc lighting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By the late 1870s, <a href="/wiki/Arc_lamp" title="Arc lamp">arc lamp</a> systems were beginning to be installed in cities, powered by central generating plants. Arc lighting was capable of lighting streets, factory yards, or the interior of large buildings. Arc lamp systems used high voltages (above 3,000 volts) to supply current to multiple series-connected lamps,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and some ran better on alternating current.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonnes200347_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonnes200347-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>1880 saw the installation of large-scale arc lighting systems in several US cities including a central station set up by the <a href="/wiki/Brush_Electric_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Brush Electric Company">Brush Electric Company</a> in December 1880 to supply a 2-mile (3.2 km) length of Broadway in New York City with a 3,500–volt demonstration arc lighting system.<sup id="cite_ref-huji_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-huji-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The disadvantages of arc lighting were: it was maintenance intensive, buzzed, flickered, constituted a fire hazard, was really only suitable for outdoor lighting, and, at the high voltages used, was dangerous to work with.<sup id="cite_ref-Center_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Center-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Edison's_direct_current_company"><span id="Edison.27s_direct_current_company"></span>Edison's direct current company</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=War_of_the_currents&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Edison's direct current company"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Laying_the_electrical_Tubes_electric_lines_under_street_Edison_Pearl_Street_Utility_June_21_1882_Harpers_Weekly_-_detail.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Laying_the_electrical_Tubes_electric_lines_under_street_Edison_Pearl_Street_Utility_June_21_1882_Harpers_Weekly_-_detail.png/220px-Laying_the_electrical_Tubes_electric_lines_under_street_Edison_Pearl_Street_Utility_June_21_1882_Harpers_Weekly_-_detail.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Laying_the_electrical_Tubes_electric_lines_under_street_Edison_Pearl_Street_Utility_June_21_1882_Harpers_Weekly_-_detail.png/330px-Laying_the_electrical_Tubes_electric_lines_under_street_Edison_Pearl_Street_Utility_June_21_1882_Harpers_Weekly_-_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Laying_the_electrical_Tubes_electric_lines_under_street_Edison_Pearl_Street_Utility_June_21_1882_Harpers_Weekly_-_detail.png/440px-Laying_the_electrical_Tubes_electric_lines_under_street_Edison_Pearl_Street_Utility_June_21_1882_Harpers_Weekly_-_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="981" data-file-height="698" /></a><figcaption>Workmen burying Edison DC power lines under the streets in New York City in 1882. This costly practice played to Edison's favor in public perceptions after several deaths were caused by overhead high voltage AC lines.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley2011_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley2011-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>In 1878 inventor Thomas Edison saw a market for a system that could bring electric lighting directly into a customer's business or home, a niche not served by arc lighting systems.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERockman2004131_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERockman2004131-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1882 the investor-owned utility <a href="/wiki/Edison_Illuminating_Company" title="Edison Illuminating Company">Edison Illuminating Company</a> was established in New York City. Edison designed his utility to compete with the then established gas lighting utilities, basing it on a relatively low 110-volt direct current supply to power a high resistance incandescent lamp he had invented for the system. Edison direct current systems would be sold to cities throughout the United States, making it a standard with Edison controlling all technical development and holding all the key patents.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcNichol200680_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcNichol200680-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Direct current worked well with incandescent lamps, which were the principal load of the day. Direct-current systems could be directly used with storage batteries, providing valuable load-leveling and backup power during interruptions of generator operation. Direct-current generators could be easily paralleled, allowing economical operation by using smaller machines during periods of light load and improving reliability. Edison had invented a meter to allow customers to be billed for energy proportional to consumption, but this meter worked only with direct current. Direct current also worked well with electric motors, an advantage DC held throughout the 1880s. The primary drawback with the Edison direct current system was that it ran at 110 volts from generation to its final destination giving it a relatively short useful transmission range: to keep the size of the expensive copper conductors down generating plants had to be situated in the middle of population centers and could only supply customers less than a mile from the plant. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Westinghouse_and_alternating_current">Westinghouse and alternating current</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=War_of_the_currents&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Westinghouse and alternating current"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Westinghouse_Electric_Company_(1888_catalogue).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Westinghouse_Electric_Company_%281888_catalogue%29.jpg/220px-Westinghouse_Electric_Company_%281888_catalogue%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Westinghouse_Electric_Company_%281888_catalogue%29.jpg/330px-Westinghouse_Electric_Company_%281888_catalogue%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Westinghouse_Electric_Company_%281888_catalogue%29.jpg/440px-Westinghouse_Electric_Company_%281888_catalogue%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5736" data-file-height="3573" /></a><figcaption>Westinghouse Electric Company 1888 catalog advertising their "Alternating System".</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1884 <a href="/wiki/Pittsburgh" title="Pittsburgh">Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania</a> inventor and <a href="/wiki/Entrepreneur" class="mw-redirect" title="Entrepreneur">entrepreneur</a> <a href="/wiki/George_Westinghouse" title="George Westinghouse">George Westinghouse</a> entered the electric lighting business when he started to develop a DC system and hired <a href="/wiki/William_Stanley,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="William Stanley, Jr.">William Stanley, Jr.</a> to work on it. In 1885 he read an article in UK technical journal <i>Engineering</i> that described alternating current systems under development.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoran200742_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoran200742-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By that time alternating current had gained a key advantage over direct current with the development of <a href="/wiki/Transformer" title="Transformer">transformers</a> that allowed the voltage to be "stepped up" to much higher transmission voltages and then dropped down to a lower end user voltage for business and residential use.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcNichol200681_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcNichol200681-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The high voltages allowed a central generating station to supply a large area, up to 7-mile (11 km) long circuits.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Westinghouse saw this as a way to build a truly competitive system instead of simply building another barely competitive DC lighting system using patents just different enough to get around the Edison patents.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Edison DC system of centralized DC plants with their short transmission range also meant there was a patchwork of un-supplied customers between Edison's plants that Westinghouse could easily supply with AC power. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:William-Stanley_jr.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/William-Stanley_jr.jpg/220px-William-Stanley_jr.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="288" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/William-Stanley_jr.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="303" data-file-height="396" /></a><figcaption>William Stanley developed the first practical AC transformer for Westinghouse and helped build the first AC systems.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1885 Westinghouse purchased the US patents rights to a transformer developed by French engineer <a href="/wiki/Lucien_Gaulard" title="Lucien Gaulard">Lucien Gaulard</a> (financed by British engineer <a href="/wiki/John_Dixon_Gibbs" title="John Dixon Gibbs">John Dixon Gibbs</a>). He imported several of these "Gaulard–Gibbs" transformers as well as <a href="/wiki/Siemens_AG" class="mw-redirect" title="Siemens AG">Siemens</a> AC <a href="/wiki/Generator_(device)" class="mw-redirect" title="Generator (device)">generators</a> to begin experimenting with an AC-based lighting system in <a href="/wiki/Pittsburgh" title="Pittsburgh">Pittsburgh</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Whelan_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Whelan-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That same year William Stanley used the Gaulard-Gibbs design and designs from the Hungarian <a href="/wiki/Ganz_company" class="mw-redirect" title="Ganz company">Ganz company</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Transformer#Closed-core_transformers_and_parallel_power_distribution" title="Transformer"> Z.B.D. transformer</a> to develop the first practical transformer.<sup id="cite_ref-Whelan_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Whelan-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Westinghouse_Electric_Company" title="Westinghouse Electric Company">Westinghouse Electric Company</a> was formed at the beginning of 1886. </p><p>In March 1886 Stanley, with Westinghouse's backing, installed the first multiple-voltage AC power system, a demonstration incandescent lighting system, in Great Barrington, Massachusetts.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Expanded to the point where it could light 23 businesses along main street with very little power loss over 4000 feet, the system used transformers to step 500 AC volts at the street down to 100 volts to power incandescent lamps at each location.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By fall of 1886 Westinghouse, Stanley, and <a href="/wiki/Oliver_B._Shallenberger" title="Oliver B. Shallenberger">Oliver B. Shallenberger</a> had built the first commercial AC power system in the US in <a href="/wiki/Buffalo,_New_York" title="Buffalo, New York">Buffalo, New York</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_spread_of_AC">The spread of AC</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=War_of_the_currents&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: The spread of AC"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By the end of 1887 Westinghouse had 68 alternating current power stations to Edison's 121 DC-based stations. To make matters worse for Edison, the <a href="/wiki/Thomson-Houston_Electric_Company" title="Thomson-Houston Electric Company">Thomson-Houston Electric Company</a> of <a href="/wiki/Lynn,_Massachusetts" title="Lynn, Massachusetts">Lynn, Massachusetts</a> (another competitor offering AC- and DC-based systems) had built 22 power stations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley2011_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley2011-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thomson-Houston was expanding their business while trying to avoid patent conflicts with Westinghouse, arranging deals such as coming to agreements over lighting company territory, paying a royalty to use the Stanley AC transformer patent, and allowing Westinghouse to use their <a href="/wiki/William_E._Sawyer" title="William E. Sawyer">Sawyer-Man</a> incandescent bulb patent. Besides Thomson-Houston and Brush there were other competitors at the time, including the <a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_Illuminating_Company&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="United States Illuminating Company (page does not exist)">United States Illuminating Company</a> and the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Waterhouse_Electric_Light_Company&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Waterhouse Electric Light Company (page does not exist)">Waterhouse Electric Light Company</a>. All of the companies had their own electric power systems, arc lighting systems, and even incandescent lamp designs for domestic lighting, leading to constant lawsuits and patent battles between themselves and with Edison.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESkrabec200797_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkrabec200797-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Safety_concerns">Safety concerns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=War_of_the_currents&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Safety concerns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Blizzard_1888_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Blizzard_1888_01.jpg/220px-Blizzard_1888_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="314" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Blizzard_1888_01.jpg/330px-Blizzard_1888_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Blizzard_1888_01.jpg/440px-Blizzard_1888_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1713" /></a><figcaption>The myriad of telephone, telegraph, and power lines over the streets of New York City in a photo of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Blizzard_of_1888" title="Great Blizzard of 1888">Great Blizzard of 1888</a>. An AC line that fell during the storm led to the electrocution of a boy that spring.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Elihu_Thomson" title="Elihu Thomson">Elihu Thomson</a> of Thomson-Houston was concerned about AC safety and put a great deal of effort into developing a lightning arrestor for high-tension power lines as well as a magnetic blowout switch that could shut the system down in a power surge, a safety feature the Westinghouse system did not have.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thomson also worried about what would happen with the equipment after they sold it, assuming customers would follow a risky practice of installing as many lights and generators as they could get away with. He also thought the idea of using AC lighting in residential homes was too dangerous and had the company hold back on that type of installation until a safer transformer could be developed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHigonnetLandesRosovsky199189_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHigonnetLandesRosovsky199189-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Due to the hazards presented by high voltage electrical lines most European cities and the city of Chicago in the US required them to be buried underground.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEssig2009137_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEssig2009137-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The City of New York did not require burying and had little in the way of regulation so by the end of 1887 the mishmash of overhead wires for telephone, telegraph, fire and burglar alarm systems in Manhattan were now mixed with haphazardly strung AC lighting system wires carrying up to 6,000 volts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlein2010263_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlein2010263-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Insulator_(electricity)" title="Insulator (electricity)">Insulation</a> on power lines was rudimentary, with one electrician referring to it as having as much value "as a molasses covered rag", and exposure to the elements was eroding it over time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEssig2009137_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEssig2009137-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A third of the wires were simply abandoned by defunct companies and slowly deteriorating, causing damage to, and shorting out the other lines. Besides being an <a href="/wiki/Eyesore" title="Eyesore">eyesore</a>, New Yorkers were annoyed when a large March 1888 snowstorm (the <a href="/wiki/Great_Blizzard_of_1888" title="Great Blizzard of 1888">Great Blizzard of 1888</a>) tore down a large number of the lines, cutting off utilities in the city. This spurred on the idea of having these lines moved underground but it was stopped by a court injunction obtained by Western Union. Legislation to give all the utilities 90 days to move their lines into underground conduits supplied by the city was slowly making its way through the government but that was also being fought in court by the United States Illuminating Company, who claimed their AC lines were perfectly safe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlein2010263_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlein2010263-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEssig2009139_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEssig2009139-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Edison's_anti-AC_stance"><span id="Edison.27s_anti-AC_stance"></span>Edison's anti-AC stance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=War_of_the_currents&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Edison's anti-AC stance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As AC systems continued to spread into territories covered by DC systems, with the companies seeming to impinge on Edison patents including incandescent lighting, things got worse for the company. The price of copper was rising, adding to the expense of Edison's low voltage DC system, which required much heavier copper wires than higher voltage AC systems. Thomas Edison's own colleagues and engineers were trying to get him to consider AC. Edison's sales force was continually losing bids in municipalities that opted for cheaper AC systems<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStross2007171_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStross2007171-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Edison Electric Illuminating Company president <a href="/wiki/Edward_Hibberd_Johnson" title="Edward Hibberd Johnson">Edward Hibberd Johnson</a> pointed out that if the company stuck with an all DC system it would not be able to do business in small towns and even mid-sized cities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonnes2003144–145_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonnes2003144–145-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Edison Electric had a patent option on the <a href="/wiki/Transformer#Closed-core_transformers_and_parallel_power_distribution" title="Transformer">ZBD transformer</a>, and a 1886 confidential in-house report by electrical engineer <a href="/wiki/Frank_Sprague" class="mw-redirect" title="Frank Sprague">Frank Sprague</a> had recommended that the company go AC, but Thomas Edison was against the idea.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonnes2003146_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonnes2003146-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoran200760_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoran200760-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After Westinghouse installed his first large scale system, Edison wrote in a November 1886 private letter to Edward Johnson, "Just as certain as death Westinghouse will kill a customer within six months after he puts in a system of any size, He has got a new thing and it will require a great deal of experimenting to get it working practically."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlein2010257_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlein2010257-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Edison seemed to hold a view that the very high voltage used in AC systems was too dangerous and that it would take many years to develop a safe and workable system.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonnes2003146_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonnes2003146-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Safety and avoiding the bad press of killing a customer had been one of the goals in designing his DC system<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStross2007174_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStross2007174-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and he worried that a death caused by a mis-installed AC system could hold back the use of electricity in general.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonnes2003146_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonnes2003146-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Edison's understanding of how AC systems worked seemed to be extensive. He noted what he saw as inefficiencies and that, combined with the capital costs in trying to finance very large generating plants, led him to believe there would be very little cost savings in an AC venture.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Edison was also of the opinion that DC was a superior system (a fact that he was sure the public would come to recognize) and inferior AC technology was being used by other companies as a way to get around his DC patents.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStross2007171–174_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStross2007171–174-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In February 1888 Edison Electric president Edward Johnson published an 84-page pamphlet titled "<i>A Warning from the Edison Electric Light Company</i>" and sent it to newspapers and to companies that had purchased or were planning to purchase electrical equipment from Edison competitors, including Westinghouse and Thomson-Houston, stating that the competitors were infringing on Edison's incandescent light and other electrical patents.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEssig2009135_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEssig2009135-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span class="citation-needed-content" style="padding-left:0.1em; padding-right:0.1em; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); border:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle, #c8ccd1);">It warned that purchasers could find themselves on the losing side of a court case if those patents were upheld. The pamphlet also emphasized the safety and efficiency of direct current, with the claim DC had not caused a single death, and included newspaper stories of accidental electrocutions caused by alternating current.</span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Execution_by_electricity">Execution by electricity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=War_of_the_currents&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Execution by electricity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Electric_chair" title="Electric chair">Electric chair</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EXECUTION_BY_ELECTRICITY_electric_chair_illustration_Scientific_American_Volumes_58-59_June_30_1888.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/EXECUTION_BY_ELECTRICITY_electric_chair_illustration_Scientific_American_Volumes_58-59_June_30_1888.png/220px-EXECUTION_BY_ELECTRICITY_electric_chair_illustration_Scientific_American_Volumes_58-59_June_30_1888.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/EXECUTION_BY_ELECTRICITY_electric_chair_illustration_Scientific_American_Volumes_58-59_June_30_1888.png/330px-EXECUTION_BY_ELECTRICITY_electric_chair_illustration_Scientific_American_Volumes_58-59_June_30_1888.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/EXECUTION_BY_ELECTRICITY_electric_chair_illustration_Scientific_American_Volumes_58-59_June_30_1888.png/440px-EXECUTION_BY_ELECTRICITY_electric_chair_illustration_Scientific_American_Volumes_58-59_June_30_1888.png 2x" data-file-width="2050" data-file-height="1700" /></a><figcaption>A June 30, 1888 <i><a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a></i> illustration of what the new <a href="/wiki/Electric_chair" title="Electric chair">electric chair</a> might look like.</figcaption></figure> <p>As arc lighting systems spread, so did stories of how the high voltages involved were killing people, usually unwary linemen, a strange new phenomenon that seemed to instantaneously strike a victim dead.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStross2007171–173_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStross2007171–173-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One such story in 1881 of a drunken dock worker dying after he grabbed a large electric dynamo led Buffalo, New York dentist <a href="/wiki/Alfred_P._Southwick" title="Alfred P. Southwick">Alfred P. Southwick</a> to seek some application for the curious phenomenon.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrandon199912–14_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrandon199912–14-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He worked with local physician <a href="/wiki/George_Fell" title="George Fell">George E. Fell</a> and the Buffalo <a href="/wiki/American_Society_for_the_Prevention_of_Cruelty_to_Animals" title="American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals">ASPCA</a>, electrocuting hundreds of stray dogs, to come up with a method to euthanize animals via electricity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrandon199921_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrandon199921-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Southwick's 1882 and 1883 articles on how electrocution could be a replacement for <a href="/wiki/Hanging" title="Hanging">hanging</a>, using a restraint similar to a dental chair (an <a href="/wiki/Electric_chair" title="Electric chair">electric chair</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrandon199924_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrandon199924-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> caught the attention of New York State politicians who, following a series of botched hangings, were desperately seeking an alternative. An 1886 commission appointed by New York governor <a href="/wiki/David_B._Hill" title="David B. Hill">David B. Hill</a>, which including Southwick, recommended in 1888 that executions be carried out by electricity using the electric chair.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There were early indications that this new form of execution would become mixed up with the war of currents. As part of their <a href="/wiki/Trier_of_fact" title="Trier of fact">fact-finding</a>, the commission sent out surveys to hundreds of experts on law and medicine, seeking their opinions, as well as contacting electrical experts, including Elihu Thomson and Thomas Edison.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrandon199954_&_57–58_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrandon199954_&_57–58-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In late 1887, when death penalty commission member Southwick contacted Edison, the inventor stated he was against capital punishment and wanted nothing to do with the matter. After further prompting, Edison hit out at his chief electric power competitor, George Westinghouse, in what may have been the opening salvo in the war of currents, stating in a December 1887 letter to Southwick that it would be best to use current generated by "'alternating machines,' manufactured principally in this country by Geo. Westinghouse".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonnes2003420_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonnes2003420-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Soon after the execution by electricity bill passed in June 1888, Edison was asked by a New York government official what means would be the best way to implement the state's new form of execution. "Hire out your criminals as linemen to the New York electric lighting companies" was Edison's <a href="/wiki/Tongue_in_cheek" class="mw-redirect" title="Tongue in cheek">tongue-in-cheek</a> answer.<sup id="cite_ref-ReynoldsBernstein_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReynoldsBernstein-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Anti-AC_backlash">Anti-AC backlash</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=War_of_the_currents&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Anti-AC backlash"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As the number of deaths attributed to high voltage lighting around the country continued to mount, a cluster of deaths in New York City in the spring of 1888 related to AC arc lighting set off a media frenzy against the "deadly arc-lighting current"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStross2007172_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStross2007172-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the seemingly callous lighting companies that used it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonnes2003143_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonnes2003143-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEssig2009139–140_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEssig2009139–140-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These deaths included a 15-year-old boy killed on April 15 by a broken telegraph line that had been energized with alternating current from a United States Illuminating Company line; a clerk killed two weeks later by an AC line; and a Brush Electric Company lineman killed in May by the AC line he was cutting. The press in New York seemed to switch overnight from stories about electric lights vs gas lighting to "death by wire" incidents, with each new report seeming to fan public resentment against high voltage AC and the dangerously tangled overhead electrical wires in the city.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlein2010263_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlein2010263-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonnes2003143_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonnes2003143-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Harold_Brown's_crusade"><span id="Harold_Brown.27s_crusade"></span>Harold Brown's crusade</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=War_of_the_currents&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Harold Brown's crusade"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Harold_Pitney_Brown_engineer_1857_1932.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Harold_Pitney_Brown_engineer_1857_1932.png/220px-Harold_Pitney_Brown_engineer_1857_1932.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Harold_Pitney_Brown_engineer_1857_1932.png/330px-Harold_Pitney_Brown_engineer_1857_1932.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/Harold_Pitney_Brown_engineer_1857_1932.png 2x" data-file-width="399" data-file-height="464" /></a><figcaption>Electrical engineer Harold Pitney Brown emerged in June 1888 as an anti-AC crusader.</figcaption></figure> <p>At this point an electrical engineer named <a href="/wiki/Harold_P._Brown" title="Harold P. Brown">Harold P. Brown</a>, who at that time seemed to have no connection to the Edison company,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonnes2003166_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonnes2003166-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> sent a June 5, 1888 letter to the editor of the <i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Post" title="New York Post">New York Post</a></i> claiming the root of the problem was the alternating current (AC) system being used. Brown argued that the AC system was inherently dangerous and "damnable" and asked why the "public must submit to constant danger from sudden death" just so utilities could use a cheaper AC system. </p><p>At the beginning of attacks on AC, Westinghouse, in a June 7, 1888 letter, tried to defuse the situation. He invited Edison to visit him in Pittsburgh and said "I believe there has been a systemic attempt on the part of some people to do a great deal of mischief and create as great a difference as possible between the Edison Company and The Westinghouse Electric Co., when there ought to be an entirely different condition of affairs". Edison thanked him but said "My laboratory work consumes the whole of my time".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonnes2003167_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonnes2003167-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On June 8, Brown was lobbying in person before the New York Board of Electrical Control, asking that his letter to the paper be read into the meeting's record and demanding severe regulations on AC including limiting voltage to 300 volts, a level that would make AC next to useless for transmission. There were many rebuttals to Brown's claims in the newspapers and letters to the board, with people pointing out he was showing no scientific evidence that AC was more dangerous than DC. Westinghouse pointed out in letters to various newspapers the number of fires caused by DC equipment and suggested that Brown was obviously being controlled by Edison, something Brown continually denied. </p><p>A July edition of <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Electrical_Journal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Electrical Journal (page does not exist)">The Electrical Journal</a></i> covered Brown's appearance before the New York Board of Electrical Control and the debate in technical societies over the merits of DC and AC, noting that:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEssig2009135_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEssig2009135-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p><big><i>The battle of the currents is being fought this week in New York.</i></big></p></blockquote> <p>At a July meeting Board of Electrical Control, Brown's criticisms of AC and even his knowledge of electricity was challenged by other electrical engineers, some of whom worked for Westinghouse. At this meeting, supporters of AC provided anecdotal stories from electricians on how they had survived shocks from AC at voltages up to 1000 volts and argued that DC was the more dangerous of the two.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEssig2009141_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEssig2009141-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Brown's_demonstrations"><span id="Brown.27s_demonstrations"></span>Brown's demonstrations</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=War_of_the_currents&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Brown's demonstrations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Brown, determined to prove alternating current was more dangerous than direct current, at some point contacted Thomas Edison to see if he could make use of equipment to conduct experiments. Edison immediately offered to assist Brown in his crusade against AC companies. Before long, Brown was loaned space and equipment at Edison's West Orange, New Jersey laboratory, as well as laboratory assistant <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Kennelly" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur Kennelly">Arthur Kennelly</a>. </p><p>Brown paid local children to collect stray dogs off the street for his experiments with direct and alternating current.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonnes2003173_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonnes2003173-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After much experimentation killing a series of dogs, Brown held a public demonstration on July 30 in a lecture room at <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia College</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERockman2004469_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERockman2004469-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With many participants shouting for the demonstration to stop and others walking out, Brown subjected a caged dog to several shocks with increasing levels of direct current up to 1,000 volts, which the dog survived. Brown then applied 330 volts of alternating current which killed the dog. Four days later he held a second demonstration to answer critics' claims that the DC probably weakened the dog before it died. In this second demonstration, three dogs were killed in quick succession with 300 volts of AC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonnes2003174_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonnes2003174-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Brown wrote to a colleague that he was sure this demonstration would get the New York Board of Electrical Control to limit AC installations to 300 volts. Brown's campaign to restrict AC to 300 volts was unsuccessful but legislation did come close to passing in Ohio and Virginia.<sup id="cite_ref-Carlson2003,285_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carlson2003,285-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Collusion_with_Edison">Collusion with Edison</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=War_of_the_currents&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Collusion with Edison"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>What brought Brown to the forefront of the debate over AC and his motives remain unclear,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonnes2003166_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonnes2003166-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but historians note there grew to be some form of collusion between the Edison company and Brown.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonnes2003166_47-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonnes2003166-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrandon199970_&_261_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrandon199970_&_261-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Edison records seem to show it was Edison Electric Light treasurer Francis S. Hastings who came up with the idea of using Brown and several New York physicians to attack Westinghouse and the other AC companies in retaliation for what Hastings thought were unscrupulous bids by Westinghouse for lighting contracts in <a href="/wiki/Denver" title="Denver">Denver</a> and <a href="/wiki/Minneapolis" title="Minneapolis">Minneapolis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Carlson2003,285_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carlson2003,285-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hasting brought Brown and Edison together<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlein2010Chapter_13_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlein2010Chapter_13-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was in continual contact with Brown.<sup id="cite_ref-Carlson2003,285_54-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carlson2003,285-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Edison Electric seemed to be footing the bill for some of Brown's publications on the dangers of AC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEssig2009157_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEssig2009157-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, Thomas Edison himself sent a letter to the city government of <a href="/wiki/Scranton,_Pennsylvania" title="Scranton, Pennsylvania">Scranton, Pennsylvania</a> recommending Brown as an expert on the dangers of AC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonnes2003174_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonnes2003174-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of this collusion was exposed in letters stolen from Brown's office and published in August 1889. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Patents_and_mergers">Patents and mergers</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=War_of_the_currents&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Patents and mergers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:N.Tesla.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/N.Tesla.JPG/170px-N.Tesla.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/N.Tesla.JPG/255px-N.Tesla.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/N.Tesla.JPG/340px-N.Tesla.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2563" data-file-height="3348" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Nikola_Tesla" title="Nikola Tesla">Nikola Tesla</a>'s induction motor patent was acquired by Westinghouse in July 1888 with plans to incorporate it in a completely integrated AC system.</figcaption></figure> <p>During this period Westinghouse continued to pour money and engineering resources into the goal of building a completely integrated AC system. To gain control of the Sawyer-Man lamp patents he bought <a href="/w/index.php?title=Consolidated_Electric_Light&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Consolidated Electric Light (page does not exist)">Consolidated Electric Light</a> in 1887. He bought the Waterhouse Electric Light Company in 1888 and the United States Illuminating Company in 1890, giving Westinghouse their own arc lighting systems as well as control over all the major incandescent lamp patents not controlled by Edison.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlein2010281_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlein2010281-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In April 1888 Westinghouse engineer <a href="/wiki/Oliver_B._Shallenberger" title="Oliver B. Shallenberger">Oliver B. Shallenberger</a> developed an <a href="/wiki/Electricity_meter" title="Electricity meter">induction meter</a> that used a <a href="/wiki/Rotating_magnetic_field" title="Rotating magnetic field">rotating magnetic field</a> for measuring <a href="/wiki/Alternating_current" title="Alternating current">alternating current</a>, giving the company a way to calculate how much electricity a customer used.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In July 1888 Westinghouse paid a substantial amount to license <a href="/wiki/Nikola_Tesla" title="Nikola Tesla">Nikola Tesla</a>'s US patents for a poly-phase AC <a href="/wiki/Induction_motor" title="Induction motor">induction motor</a><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and obtained a patent option on Galileo Ferraris' induction motor design.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonnes2003_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonnes2003-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the acquisition of a feasible AC motor gave Westinghouse a key patent in building a completely integrated AC system, the general shortage of cash the company was going through by 1890 meant development had to be put on hold for a while.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESkrabec2007127_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkrabec2007127-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The difficulties of obtaining funding for such a capital intensive business was becoming a serious problem for the company and 1890 saw the first of several attempts by investor <a href="/wiki/J._P._Morgan" title="J. P. Morgan">J. P. Morgan</a> to take over Westinghouse Electric.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESkrabec2007128–130_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkrabec2007128–130-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Thomson-Houston was continuing to expand, buying seven smaller electric companies including a purchase of the Brush Electric Company in 1889.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlein2010292_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlein2010292-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1890 Thomson-Houston controlled the majority of the arc lighting systems in the US and a collection of its own US AC patents. Several of the business deals between Thomson-Houston and Westinghouse fell apart and in April 1888 a judge rolled back part of Westinghouse's original Gaulard Gibbs patent, stating it only covered transformers linked in series.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlein2010292_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlein2010292-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With the help of the financier <a href="/wiki/Henry_Villard" title="Henry Villard">Henry Villard</a> the Edison group of companies also went through a series of mergers: <i>Edison Lamp Company</i>, a lamp manufacturer in <a href="/wiki/East_Newark,_New_Jersey" title="East Newark, New Jersey">East Newark</a>, New Jersey; <i><a href="/wiki/Edison_Machine_Works" title="Edison Machine Works">Edison Machine Works</a></i>, a manufacturer of <a href="/wiki/Dynamo" title="Dynamo">dynamos</a> and large <a href="/wiki/Electric_motor" title="Electric motor">electric motors</a> in <a href="/wiki/Schenectady,_New_York" title="Schenectady, New York">Schenectady, New York</a>; <i>Bergmann & Company</i>, a manufacturer of electric <a href="/wiki/Light_fixture" title="Light fixture">lighting fixtures</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lightbulb_sockets" class="mw-redirect" title="Lightbulb sockets">sockets</a>, and other electric lighting devices; and <i>Edison Electric Light Company</i>, the <a href="/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">patent</a>-holding company and the financial arm backed by <a href="/wiki/J.P._Morgan" class="mw-redirect" title="J.P. Morgan">J.P. Morgan</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Vanderbilt_family" title="Vanderbilt family">Vanderbilt family</a> for Edison's lighting experiments, merged.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The new company, <i>Edison General Electric Company</i>, was formed in January 1889 with the help of <a href="/wiki/Drexel,_Morgan_%26_Co." class="mw-redirect" title="Drexel, Morgan & Co.">Drexel, Morgan & Co.</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grosvenor_Lowrey" title="Grosvenor Lowrey">Grosvenor Lowrey</a> with Villard as president.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It later included the <a href="/wiki/Sprague_Electric_Railway_%26_Motor_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Sprague Electric Railway & Motor Company">Sprague Electric Railway & Motor Company</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_peak_of_the_war">The peak of the war</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=War_of_the_currents&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: The peak of the war"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Through the fall of 1888 a battle of words with Brown specifically attacking Westinghouse continued to escalate. In November George Westinghouse challenged Brown's assertion in the pages of the <i>Electrical Engineer</i> that the Westinghouse AC systems had caused 30 deaths. The magazine investigated the claim and found at most only two of the deaths could be attributed to Westinghouse installations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoran2007118_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoran2007118-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Associating_AC_and_Westinghouse_with_the_electric_chair">Associating AC and Westinghouse with the electric chair</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=War_of_the_currents&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Associating AC and Westinghouse with the electric chair"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although New York had a criminal procedure code that specified electrocution via an electric chair, it did not spell out the type of electricity, the amount of current, or its method of supply, since these were still relative unknowns.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoran2007102–104_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoran2007102–104-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The New York Medico-Legal Society, an informal society composed of doctors and lawyers, was given the task of working out the details and in late 1888 through early 1889 conducted a series of animal experiments on voltage amounts, electrode design and placement, and skin conductivity. During this time they sought the advice of Harold Brown as a consultant. This ended up expanding the war of currents into the development of the chair and the general debate over capital punishment in the US.<sup id="cite_ref-ReynoldsBernstein_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReynoldsBernstein-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the Medico-Legal Society formed their committee in September 1888 chairman <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Peterson" title="Frederick Peterson">Frederick Peterson</a>, who had been an assistant at Brown's July 1888 public electrocution of dogs with AC at Columbia College,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoran2007102_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoran2007102-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> had the results of those experiments submitted to the committee. The claims that AC was more deadly than DC and was the best current to use was questioned, with some committee members pointing out that Brown's experiments were not scientifically carried out and were on animals smaller than a human being. At their November meeting the committee recommended 3,000 volts although the type of electricity, <a href="/wiki/Direct_current" title="Direct current">direct current</a> or <a href="/wiki/Alternating_current" title="Alternating current">alternating current</a>, was not determined.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoran2007102_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoran2007102-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Harold_Pitney_Brown_edison_electrocute_horse_1888_New_York_Medico-Legal_Journal_vol_6_issue_4.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Harold_Pitney_Brown_edison_electrocute_horse_1888_New_York_Medico-Legal_Journal_vol_6_issue_4.png/220px-Harold_Pitney_Brown_edison_electrocute_horse_1888_New_York_Medico-Legal_Journal_vol_6_issue_4.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Harold_Pitney_Brown_edison_electrocute_horse_1888_New_York_Medico-Legal_Journal_vol_6_issue_4.png/330px-Harold_Pitney_Brown_edison_electrocute_horse_1888_New_York_Medico-Legal_Journal_vol_6_issue_4.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Harold_Pitney_Brown_edison_electrocute_horse_1888_New_York_Medico-Legal_Journal_vol_6_issue_4.png/440px-Harold_Pitney_Brown_edison_electrocute_horse_1888_New_York_Medico-Legal_Journal_vol_6_issue_4.png 2x" data-file-width="1790" data-file-height="1279" /></a><figcaption>Harold Brown demonstrating the killing power of AC to the New York Medico-Legal Society by electrocuting a horse at Thomas Edison's West Orange laboratory.</figcaption></figure> <p>In order to more conclusively prove to the committee that AC was more deadly than DC, Brown contacted Edison Electric Light treasurer Francis S. Hastings to arrange the use of the West Orange laboratory.<sup id="cite_ref-ReynoldsBernstein_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReynoldsBernstein-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There on December 5, 1888 Brown set up an experiment with members of the press, members of the Medico-Legal Society, the chairman of the death penalty commission, and Thomas Edison looking on. Brown used alternating current for all of his tests on animals larger than a human, including 4 calves and a lame horse, all dispatched with 750 volts of AC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEssig2009152–155_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEssig2009152–155-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Based on these results the Medico-Legal Society's December meeting recommended the use of 1,000–1,500 volts of alternating current for executions and newspapers noted the AC used was half the voltage used in the power lines over the streets of American cities. </p><p>Westinghouse criticized these tests as a skewed self-serving demonstration designed to be a direct attack on alternating current.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrandon199982_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrandon199982-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On December 13 in a letter to the <i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Times">New York Times</a></i>, Westinghouse spelled out where Brown's experiments were wrong and claimed again that Brown was being employed by the Edison company. Brown's December 18 letter refuted the claims and Brown even challenged Westinghouse to an electrical duel, with Brown agreeing to be shocked by ever-increasing amounts of DC power if Westinghouse submitted himself to the same amount of increasing AC power, first to quit loses.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrandon199982_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrandon199982-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Westinghouse declined the offer. </p><p>In March 1889 when members of the Medico-Legal Society embarked on another series of tests to work out the details of electrode composition and placement they turned to Brown for technical assistance.<sup id="cite_ref-ReynoldsBernstein_42-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReynoldsBernstein-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEssig2009225_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEssig2009225-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Edison treasurer Hastings tried unsuccessfully to obtain a Westinghouse AC generator for the test.<sup id="cite_ref-ReynoldsBernstein_42-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReynoldsBernstein-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They ended up using Edison's West Orange laboratory for the animal tests. </p><p>Also in March, Superintendent of Prisons <a href="/w/index.php?title=Austin_Lathrop_(New_York)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Austin Lathrop (New York) (page does not exist)">Austin Lathrop</a> asked Brown if he could supply the equipment needed for the executions as well as design the electric chair. Brown turned down the job of designing the chair but did agree to fulfill the contract to supply the necessary electrical equipment.<sup id="cite_ref-ReynoldsBernstein_42-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReynoldsBernstein-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The state refused to pay up front, and Brown apparently turned to Edison Electric as well as Thomson-Houston Electric Company to help obtaining the equipment. This became another behind-the-scenes maneuver to acquire Westinghouse AC generators to supply the current, apparently with the help of the Edison company and Westinghouse's chief AC rival, Thomson-Houston.<sup id="cite_ref-ReynoldsBernstein_42-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReynoldsBernstein-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEssig2009190–195_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEssig2009190–195-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thomson-Houston arranged to acquire three Westinghouse AC generators by replacing them with new Thomson-Houston AC generators. Thomson-Houston president <a href="/wiki/Charles_A._Coffin" title="Charles A. Coffin">Charles Coffin</a> had at least two reasons for obtaining the Westinghouse generators; he did not want his company's equipment to be associated with the death penalty and he wanted to use one to prove a point, paying Brown to set up a public efficiency test to show that Westinghouse's sales claim of manufacturing 50% more efficient generators was false.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEssig2009193_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEssig2009193-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>That spring Brown published "The Comparative Danger to Life of the Alternating and Continuous Electrical Current" detailing the animal experiments done at Edison's lab and claiming they showed AC was far deadlier than DC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoran2007106_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoran2007106-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This 61-page professionally printed booklet (possibly paid for by the Edison company) was sent to government officials, newspapers, and businessmen in towns with populations greater than 5,000 inhabitants.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEssig2009157_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEssig2009157-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In May 1889 when New York had its first criminal sentenced to be executed in the electric chair, a street merchant named <a href="/wiki/William_Kemmler" title="William Kemmler">William Kemmler</a>, there was a great deal of discussion in the editorial column of the <i>New York Times</i> as to what to call the then-new form of execution. The term "<i>Westinghouse</i>d" was put forward as well as "<i>Gerry</i>cide" (after death penalty commission head <a href="/wiki/Elbridge_Thomas_Gerry" title="Elbridge Thomas Gerry">Elbridge Gerry</a>), and "<i>Brown</i>ed".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoran2007xxi–xxii_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoran2007xxi–xxii-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>The Times</i> hated the word that was eventually adopted, <a href="/wiki/Electrocution" title="Electrocution">electrocution</a>, describing it as being pushed forward by "pretentious ignoramuses".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoran2007xxii_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoran2007xxii-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of Edison's lawyers wrote to his colleague expressing an opinion that Edison's preference for <i>dynamort</i>, <i>ampermort</i> and <i>electromort</i> were not good terms but thought <i>Westinghouse</i>d was the best choice.<i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoran2007xxi–xxii_78-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoran2007xxi–xxii-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_Kemmler_appeal">The Kemmler appeal</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=War_of_the_currents&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: The Kemmler appeal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:William_Kemmler.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/William_Kemmler.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="286" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="286" /></a><figcaption>After William Kemmler was sentenced to death in the electric chair his appeal was financed by Westinghouse, an attempt to prevent Westinghouse AC generators from being used in an execution, by repealing the electrocution law.</figcaption></figure> <p>William Kemmler was sentenced to die in the <a href="/wiki/Electric_chair" title="Electric chair">electric chair</a> around June 24, 1889, but before the sentence could be carried out an appeal was filed on the grounds that it constituted <a href="/wiki/Cruel_and_unusual_punishment" title="Cruel and unusual punishment">cruel and unusual punishment</a> under the U.S. Constitution. It became obvious to the press and everyone involved that the politically connected (and expensive) lawyer who filed the appeal, <a href="/wiki/William_Bourke_Cockran" title="William Bourke Cockran">William Bourke Cockran</a>, had no connection to the case but did have connection to the Westinghouse company, obviously paying for his services.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrandon1999101_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrandon1999101-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During <a href="/wiki/Trier_of_fact" title="Trier of fact">fact-finding</a> hearings held around the state beginning on July 9 in New York City, Cockran used his considerable skills as a cross-examiner and <a href="/wiki/Orator" title="Orator">orator</a> to attack Brown, Edison, and their supporters. His strategy was to show that Brown had falsified his test on the killing power of AC and to prove that electricity would not cause certain death and simply lead to torturing the condemned. In cross examination he questioned Brown's lack of credentials in the electrical field and brought up possible collusion between Brown and Edison, which Brown again denied. Many witnesses were called by both sides to give firsthand anecdotal accounts about encounters with electricity and evidence was given by medical professionals on the human body's nervous system and the electrical conductivity of skin. Brown was accused of fudging his tests on animals, hiding the fact that he was using lower <a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">current</a> DC and high-current AC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrandon1999119_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrandon1999119-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the hearing convened for a day at Edison's West Orange lab to witness demonstrations of skin resistance to electricity, Brown almost got in a fight with a Westinghouse representative, accusing him of being in the Edison laboratory to conduct <a href="/wiki/Industrial_espionage" title="Industrial espionage">industrial espionage</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrandon1999115_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrandon1999115-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Newspapers noted the often contradictory testimony was raising public doubts about the electrocution law but after Edison took the stand many accepted assurances from the "wizard of Menlo Park" that 1,000 volts of AC would easily kill any man.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrandon1999125_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrandon1999125-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the gathered testimony was submitted and the two sides presented their case, Judge Edwin Day ruled against Kemmler's appeal on October 9 and US Supreme Court denied Kemmler's appeal on May 23, 1890.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcNichol2006120_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcNichol2006120-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When the chair was first used, on August 6, 1890, the technicians on hand misjudged the voltage needed to kill William Kemmler. After the first jolt of electricity Kemmler was found to be still breathing. The procedure had to be repeated and a reporter on hand described it as "an awful spectacle, far worse than hanging." George Westinghouse commented: "They would have done better using an axe."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcNichol2006125_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcNichol2006125-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Brown's_collusion_exposed"><span id="Brown.27s_collusion_exposed"></span>Brown's collusion exposed</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=War_of_the_currents&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Brown's collusion exposed"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On August 25, 1889 the <a href="/wiki/New_York_Sun" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Sun">New York Sun</a> ran a story headlined: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"<i>For Shame, Brown! – Disgraceful Facts About the Electric Killing Scheme; Queer Work for a State's Expert; Paid by One Electric Company to Injure Another</i>"</p></blockquote> <p>The story was based on 45 letters stolen from Brown's office that spelled out Brown's collusion with Thomson-Houston and Edison Electric. The majority of the letters were correspondence between Brown and Thomson-Houston on the topic of acquiring the three Westinghouse generators for the state of New York as well as using one of them in an efficiency test. They also showed that Brown had received $5,000 from Edison Electric to purchase the surplus Westinghouse generators from Thomson-Houston. Further Edison involvement was contained in letters from Edison treasurer Hastings asking Brown to send anti-AC pamphlets to all the legislators in the state of <a href="/wiki/Missouri" title="Missouri">Missouri</a> (at the company's expense), Brown requesting that a letter of recommendation from Thomas Edison be sent to Scranton, Pennsylvania, as well as Edison and Arthur Kennelly coaching Brown in his upcoming testimony in the Kemmler appeal trial.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEssig2009190–195_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEssig2009190–195-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-inventionandtech.com_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-inventionandtech.com-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonnes2003191–198_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonnes2003191–198-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Brown was not slowed down by this revelation and characterized his efforts to expose Westinghouse as the same as going after a grocer who sells poison and calls it sugar.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEssig2009190–195_75-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEssig2009190–195-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-inventionandtech.com_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-inventionandtech.com-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonnes2003191–198_87-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonnes2003191–198-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_"Electric_Wire_Panic""><span id="The_.22Electric_Wire_Panic.22"></span>The "Electric Wire Panic"</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=War_of_the_currents&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: The "Electric Wire Panic""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Feeks_Western_Union_lineman_killed_by_AC_October_11_1889.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/John_Feeks_Western_Union_lineman_killed_by_AC_October_11_1889.png/220px-John_Feeks_Western_Union_lineman_killed_by_AC_October_11_1889.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="319" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/John_Feeks_Western_Union_lineman_killed_by_AC_October_11_1889.png/330px-John_Feeks_Western_Union_lineman_killed_by_AC_October_11_1889.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/John_Feeks_Western_Union_lineman_killed_by_AC_October_11_1889.png/440px-John_Feeks_Western_Union_lineman_killed_by_AC_October_11_1889.png 2x" data-file-width="1035" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption>The death of Western Union Lineman John Feeks led to laws finally being passed to move AC lines underground in New York City.</figcaption></figure> <p>1889 saw another round of deaths attributed to alternating current including a lineman in Buffalo, New York, four linemen in New York City, and a New York fruit merchant who was killed when the display he was using came in contact with an overhead line. NYC Mayor <a href="/wiki/Hugh_J._Grant" title="Hugh J. Grant">Hugh J. Grant</a>, in a meeting with the Board of Electrical Control and the AC electric companies, rejected the claims that the AC lines were perfectly safe saying "we get news of all who touch them through the coroners office".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlein2010263_24-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlein2010263-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On October 11, 1889, John Feeks, a Western Union lineman, was high up in the tangle of overhead electrical wires working on what were supposed to be low-voltage telegraph lines in a busy Manhattan district. As the lunchtime crowd below looked on he grabbed a nearby line that, unknown to him, had been shorted many blocks away with a high-voltage AC line. The jolt entered through his bare right hand and exited his left steel studded climbing boot. Feeks was killed almost instantly, his body falling into the tangle of wire, sparking, burning, and smoldering for the better part of an hour while a horrified crowd of thousands gathered below. The source of the power that killed Feeks was not determined although United States Illuminating Company lines ran nearby.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStross2007179_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStross2007179-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Feeks' public death sparked a new round of people fearing the electric lines over their heads in what has been called the "Electric Wire Panic".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlein2010_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlein2010-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The blame seemed to settle on Westinghouse since, Westinghouse having bought many of the lighting companies involved, people assumed Feeks' death was the fault of a Westinghouse subsidiary.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlein2010_89-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlein2010-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Newspapers joined into the public outcry following Feeks' death, pointing out men's lives "were cheaper to this monopoly than insulated wires" and calling for the executives of AC companies to be charged with <a href="/wiki/Manslaughter" title="Manslaughter">manslaughter</a>. The October 13, 1889, New Orleans <i><a href="/wiki/Times-Picayune" class="mw-redirect" title="Times-Picayune">Times-Picayune</a></i> noted "Death does not stop at the door, but comes right into the house, and perhaps as you are closing a door or turning on the gas you are killed."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEssig2009217_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEssig2009217-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Harold Brown's reputation was rehabilitated almost overnight with newspapers and magazines seeking his opinion and reporters following him around New York City where he measured how much current was leaking from AC power lines.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEssig2009218_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEssig2009218-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thomas_Edison_1.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Thomas_Edison_1.png/220px-Thomas_Edison_1.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="334" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Thomas_Edison_1.png/330px-Thomas_Edison_1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Thomas_Edison_1.png/440px-Thomas_Edison_1.png 2x" data-file-width="1011" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>The death of John Feeks marked the first time Edison publicly denounced alternating current.</figcaption></figure> <p>At the peak of the war of currents, Edison himself joined the public debate for the first time, denounced AC current in a November 1889 article in the <i><a href="/wiki/North_American_Review" title="North American Review">North American Review</a></i> titled "The Dangers of Electric Lighting". Edison put forward the view that burying the high-voltage lines was not a solution, and would simply move the deaths underground and be a "constant menace" that could short with other lines threatening people's homes and lives.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStross2007179_88-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStross2007179-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonnes2003200_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonnes2003200-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He stated the only way to make AC safe was to limit its voltage and vowed Edison Electric would never adopt AC as long as he was in charge.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStross2007179_88-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStross2007179-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>George Westinghouse was characterized as a villain trying to defend pole-mounted AC installations that he knew were unsafe, and fumbled his replies to the questions put to him by reporters, attempting to point out all the other things in a large city that were more dangerous than AC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlein2010_89-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlein2010-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStross2007179_88-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStross2007179-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, his subsequent response, printed in the <i>North American Review</i>, was much improved, highlighting that his AC/transformer system actually used lower household voltages than the Edison DC system. He also pointed out 87 deaths in one year caused by street cars and gas lighting, versus only 5 accidental electrocutions and no in-home deaths attributed to AC current.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStross2007179_88-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStross2007179-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The crowd that watched Feeks contained many New York <a href="/wiki/Aldermen" class="mw-redirect" title="Aldermen">aldermen</a> due to the site of the accident being near the New York government offices and the horrifying affair galvanized them into the action of passing the law on moving utilities underground.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStross2007178_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStross2007178-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The electric companies involved obtained an injunction preventing their lines from being cut down immediately but shut down most of their lighting until the situation was settled, plunging many New York streets into darkness.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKlein2010292_65-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlein2010292-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The legislation ordering the cutting down of all of the utility lines was finally upheld by the <a href="/wiki/New_York_Supreme_Court" title="New York Supreme Court">New York Supreme Court</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too vague attribution or weasel words. (August 2024)">which?</span></a></i>]</sup> in December. The AC lines were cut down, keeping many New York City streets in darkness for the rest of the winter, since little had been done by the overpaid <a href="/wiki/Tammany_Hall" title="Tammany Hall">Tammany Hall</a> city supervisors who were supposed arrange the building of the underground "subways" to house them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonnes2003200_92-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonnes2003200-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_current_war_ends">The current war ends</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=War_of_the_currents&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: The current war ends"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Even with the Westinghouse propaganda losses, the war of currents itself was winding down with direct current on the losing side. This was due in part to Thomas Edison himself leaving the electric power business.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHughes1993125–126_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHughes1993125–126-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Edison was becoming marginalized in his own company, having lost majority control in the 1889 merger that formed Edison General Electric.<sup id="cite_ref-Sloat1979,316_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sloat1979,316-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1890, he told president <a href="/wiki/Henry_Villard" title="Henry Villard">Henry Villard</a> he thought it was time to retire from the lighting business and moved on to an iron ore refining project that preoccupied his time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley201128–29_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley201128–29-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Edison's dogmatic anti-AC values were no longer controlling the company. By 1889, Edison's Electric's own subsidiaries were lobbying to add AC power transmission to their systems, and in October 1890, <a href="/wiki/Edison_Machine_Works" title="Edison Machine Works">Edison Machine Works</a> began developing AC-based equipment. </p><p>With Thomas Edison no longer involved with Edison General Electric, the war of currents came to a close with a financial merger.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHughes1993120–121_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHughes1993120–121-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Edison president Henry Villard, who had engineered the merger that formed Edison General Electric, was continually working on the idea of merging that company with Thomson-Houston or Westinghouse. He saw a real opportunity in 1891. The market was in a general downturn causing cash shortages for all the companies concerned and Villard was in talks with Thomson-Houston, which was now Edison General Electric's biggest competitor. Thomson-Houston had a habit of saving money on development by buying, or sometimes stealing, patents. Patent conflicts were stymieing the growth of both companies and the idea of saving on some 60 ongoing lawsuits as well as saving on profit losses of trying to undercut each other by selling generating plants below cost pushed forward the idea of this merger in financial circles.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley201128–29_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley201128–29-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sloat1979,316_95-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sloat1979,316-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Edison hated the idea and tried to hold it off, but Villard thought his company, now winning its incandescent light patent lawsuits in the courts, was in a position to dictate the terms of any merger.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley201128–29_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley201128–29-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a committee of financiers, which included <a href="/wiki/J.P._Morgan" class="mw-redirect" title="J.P. Morgan">J.P. Morgan</a>, worked on the deal in early 1892, things went against Villard. In Morgan's view, Thomson-Houston looked on the books to be the stronger of the two companies and engineered a behind the scenes deal announced on April 15, 1892, that put the management of Thomson-Houston in control of the new company, now called <a href="/wiki/General_Electric" title="General Electric">General Electric</a> (dropping Edison's name). Thomas Edison was not aware of the deal until the day before it happened. </p><p>The fifteen electric companies that existed five years before had merged down to two: General Electric and Westinghouse. The war of currents came to an end, and this merger of the Edison company, along with its lighting patents, and the Thomson-Houston, with its AC patents, created a company that controlled three quarters of the US electrical business.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEssig2009268_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEssig2009268-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley201128–29_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley201128–29-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From this point on, General Electric and Westinghouse were both marketing alternating current systems.<sup id="cite_ref-Garud2009,249_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garud2009,249-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Edison put on a brave face, noting to the media how his stock had gained value in the deal, but privately he was bitter that his company and all of his patents had been turned over to the competition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEssig2009268_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEssig2009268-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=War_of_the_currents&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Aftermath"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Even though the institutional war of currents had ended in a financial merger, the technical difference between direct and alternating current systems followed a much longer technical merger.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHughes1993120–121_96-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHughes1993120–121-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to innovation in the US and Europe, alternating current's economy of scale with very large generating plants linked to loads via long-distance transmission was slowly being combined with the ability to link it up with all of the existing systems that needed to be supplied. These included single phase AC systems, poly-phase AC systems, low-voltage incandescent lighting, high voltage arc lighting, and existing DC motors in factories and street cars. In the engineered <i>universal system</i> these technological differences were temporarily being bridged via the development of <a href="/wiki/Rotary_converter" title="Rotary converter">rotary converters</a> and <a href="/wiki/Motor%E2%80%93generator" title="Motor–generator">motor–generators</a> that allowed the large number of legacy systems to be connected to the AC grid.<sup id="cite_ref-Garud2009,249_97-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garud2009,249-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHughes1993120–121_96-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHughes1993120–121-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These stopgaps were slowly replaced as older systems were retired or upgraded. </p><p>In May 1892, Westinghouse Electric managed to underbid General Electric on the contract to electrify the <a href="/wiki/World%27s_Columbian_Exposition" title="World's Columbian Exposition">World's Columbian Exposition</a> in Chicago and, although they made no profit, their demonstration of a safe, effective and highly flexible universal alternating current system powering all of the disparate electrical systems at the Exposition led to them winning the bid at the end of that year to build an AC power station at <a href="/wiki/Niagara_Falls" title="Niagara Falls">Niagara Falls</a>. General Electric was awarded contracts to build AC transmission lines and transformers in that project and further bids at Niagara were split with GE who were quickly catching up in the AC field<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEssig2009268_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEssig2009268-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> due partly to <a href="/wiki/Charles_Proteus_Steinmetz" title="Charles Proteus Steinmetz">Charles Proteus Steinmetz</a>, a Prussian mathematician who was the first person to fully understand AC power from a solid mathematical standpoint. General Electric hired many talented new engineers to improve its design of transformers, generators, motors and other apparatus.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A three-phase three-wire transmission system had already been deployed in Europe at the <a href="/wiki/International_Electro-Technical_Exhibition_-_1891" class="mw-redirect" title="International Electro-Technical Exhibition - 1891">International Electro-Technical Exhibition</a> of 1891, where <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Dolivo-Dobrovolsky" title="Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky">Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky</a> used this system to transmit electric power over a distance of 176 km with 75% efficiency. In 1891 he also created a three-phase transformer, the short-circuited (squirrel-cage) induction motor and designed the world's first three-phase hydroelectric power plant. </p><p>Patent lawsuits were still hampering both companies and bleeding off cash, so in 1896, J. P. Morgan engineered a patent sharing agreement between the two companies that remained in force for 11 years.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESkrabec2007190_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkrabec2007190-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1897 Edison sold his remaining stock in Edison Electric Illuminating of New York to finance his iron ore refining prototype plant.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1908, Edison said to George Stanley, son of AC transformer inventor <a href="/wiki/William_Stanley,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="William Stanley, Jr.">William Stanley, Jr.</a>, "Tell your father I was wrong", likely an admission that he had underestimated the developmental potential of alternating current.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHigonnetLandesRosovsky1991113_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHigonnetLandesRosovsky1991113-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Remnant_and_existent_DC_systems">Remnant and existent DC systems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=War_of_the_currents&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Remnant and existent DC systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some cities continued to use DC well into the 20th century. For example, central <a href="/wiki/Helsinki" title="Helsinki">Helsinki</a> had a DC network until the late 1940s, and Stockholm lost its dwindling DC network as late as the 1970s. A <a href="/wiki/Mercury-arc_valve" title="Mercury-arc valve">mercury-arc valve</a> rectifier station could convert AC to DC where networks were still used. Parts of Boston, Massachusetts, along Beacon Street and Commonwealth Avenue still used 110 volts DC in the 1960s, causing the destruction of many small appliances (typically hair dryers and phonographs) used by <a href="/wiki/Boston_University" title="Boston University">Boston University</a> students, who ignored warnings about the electricity supply. </p><p>New York City's electric utility company, <a href="/wiki/Consolidated_Edison" title="Consolidated Edison">Consolidated Edison</a>, continued to supply direct current to customers who had adopted it early in the twentieth century, mainly for elevators. The <a href="/wiki/New_Yorker_Hotel" class="mw-redirect" title="New Yorker Hotel">New Yorker Hotel</a>, constructed in 1929, had a large direct-current power plant and did not convert fully to alternating-current service until well into the 1960s.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was the building in which AC pioneer <a href="/wiki/Nikola_Tesla" title="Nikola Tesla">Nikola Tesla</a> spent his last years, and where he died in 1943. New York City's Broadway theaters continued to use DC services until 1975, requiring the use of outmoded manual resistance dimmer boards operated by several stagehands.<sup id="cite_ref-Foster_Piano_Boards_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Foster_Piano_Boards-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This practice ended when the musical <i><a href="/wiki/A_Chorus_Line" title="A Chorus Line">A Chorus Line</a></i> introduced computerized lighting control and thyristor <a href="/wiki/Silicon_controlled_rectifier" title="Silicon controlled rectifier">(SCR)</a> dimmers to Broadway, and New York theaters were finally converted to AC.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In January 1998, Consolidated Edison started to eliminate DC service. At that time there were 4,600 DC customers. By 2006, there were only 60 customers using DC service, and on November 14, 2007, the last direct-current distribution by Con Edison was shut down. Customers still using DC were provided with on-site AC to DC <a href="/wiki/Rectifier" title="Rectifier">rectifiers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2012, <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Gas_and_Electric_Company" title="Pacific Gas and Electric Company">Pacific Gas and Electric Company</a> still provided DC power to some locations in <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco" title="San Francisco">San Francisco</a>, primarily for elevators, supplied by close to 200 rectifiers each providing power for 7–10 customers.<sup id="cite_ref-ieee_spectrum_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ieee_spectrum-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Central_Electricity_Generating_Board" title="Central Electricity Generating Board">Central Electricity Generating Board</a> in the UK maintained a 200–volt DC generating station at <a href="/wiki/Bankside_Power_Station" title="Bankside Power Station">Bankside Power Station</a> in London until 1981. It exclusively powered DC printing machinery in <a href="/wiki/Fleet_Street" title="Fleet Street">Fleet Street</a>, then the heart of the UK's newspaper industry. It was decommissioned later in 1981 when the newspaper industry moved into the developing docklands area further down the river (using modern AC-powered equipment). </p><p><a href="/wiki/High-voltage_direct_current" title="High-voltage direct current">High-voltage direct current</a> (HVDC) systems are used for bulk transmission of energy from distant generating stations, for underwater lines, and for interconnection of separate alternating-current systems. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=War_of_the_currents&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg/29px-Crystal_energy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="29" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg/44px-Crystal_energy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg/59px-Crystal_energy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="124" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Energy" title="Portal:Energy">Energy portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Format_war" title="Format war">Format war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_electric_power_transmission" title="History of electric power transmission">History of electric power transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_electronic_engineering" title="History of electronic engineering">History of electronic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronic_engineering" title="Timeline of electrical and electronic engineering">Timeline of electrical and electronic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topsy_(elephant)" title="Topsy (elephant)">Topsy (elephant)</a> – in popular culture associated with the war of currents</li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=War_of_the_currents&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dt>Citations</dt></dl> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESkrabec201286-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESkrabec201286_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESkrabec201286_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSkrabec2012">Skrabec (2012)</a>, p. 86.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEssig2009268-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEssig2009268_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEssig2009268_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEssig2009268_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEssig2009268_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEssig2009">Essig (2009)</a>, p. 268.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley201128–29-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley201128–29_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley201128–29_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley201128–29_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley201128–29_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley201128–29_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBradley2011">Bradley (2011)</a>, pp. 28–29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.nytimes.com/cityroom.blogs.nytimes.com/2007/11/14/off-goes-the-power-current-started-by-thomas-edison/">"Off Goes the Power Current Started by Thomas Edison"</a>. 14 November 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Off+Goes+the+Power+Current+Started+by+Thomas+Edison&rft.date=2007-11-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.nytimes.com%2Fcityroom.blogs.nytimes.com%2F2007%2F11%2F14%2Foff-goes-the-power-current-started-by-thomas-edison%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWar+of+the+currents" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180916092935/http://www.lafavre.us/brush/brushbio.htm">"Charles Francis Brush"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lafavre.us/brush/brushbio.htm">the original</a> on September 16, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 5,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Charles+Francis+Brush&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lafavre.us%2Fbrush%2Fbrushbio.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWar+of+the+currents" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonnes200347-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonnes200347_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJonnes2003">Jonnes (2003)</a>, p. 47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-huji-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-huji_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090224192642/http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/brush.html">"Charles Francis Brush"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_University_of_Jerusalem" title="Hebrew University of Jerusalem">Hebrew University of Jerusalem</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/brush.html">the original</a> on February 24, 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 4,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Hebrew+University+of+Jerusalem&rft.atitle=Charles+Francis+Brush&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fchem.ch.huji.ac.il%2Fhistory%2Fbrush.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWar+of+the+currents" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://electricmuseum.com/?p=434">"Brush Arc Lamps"</a>. <i>Electric Museum.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Electric+Museum.com&rft.atitle=Brush+Arc+Lamps&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Felectricmuseum.com%2F%3Fp%3D434&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWar+of+the+currents" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Center-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Center_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.edisontechcenter.org/ArcLamps.html">"Arc Lamps – How They Work & History"</a>. <i>Edison Tech Center</i>. 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Edison+Tech+Center&rft.atitle=Arc+Lamps+%E2%80%93+How+They+Work+%26+History&rft.date=2015&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.edisontechcenter.org%2FArcLamps.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWar+of+the+currents" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley2011-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley2011_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley2011_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBradley2011">Bradley (2011)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERockman2004131-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERockman2004131_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRockman2004">Rockman (2004)</a>, p. 131.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcNichol200680-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcNichol200680_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcNichol2006">McNichol (2006)</a>, p. 80.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoran200742-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoran200742_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoran2007">Moran (2007)</a>, p. 42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcNichol200681-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcNichol200681_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcNichol2006">McNichol (2006)</a>, p. 81.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lww4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA143">"Notes on the Jablochkoff System of Electric Lighting"</a>. <i>Journal of the Society of Telegraph Engineers</i>. <b>IX</b> (32). <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Telegraph_Engineers" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Telegraph Engineers">Society of Telegraph Engineers</a>: 143. 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New York: Macmillan. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/1929americabefor00sloa/page/316">316</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02611-800-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02611-800-2"><bdi>978-0-02611-800-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=1929%3A+America+Before+the+Crash&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=316&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-02611-800-2&rft.aulast=Sloat&rft.aufirst=Warren&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2F1929americabefor00sloa%2Fpage%2F316&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWar+of+the+currents" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHughes1993120–121-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHughes1993120–121_96-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHughes1993120–121_96-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHughes1993120–121_96-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHughes1993">Hughes (1993)</a>, pp. 120–121.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Garud2009,249-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Garud2009,249_97-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Garud2009,249_97-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarudKumaraswamyLanglois2009" class="citation book cs1">Garud, Raghu; Kumaraswamy, Arun; Langlois, Richard (2009). <i>Managing in the Modular Age: Architectures, Networks, and Organizations</i>. 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New York: Bloomsbury Publishing USA. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-80271-928-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-80271-928-7"><bdi>978-0-80271-928-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Edison+and+the+Electric+Chair%3A+A+Story+of+Light+and+Death&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing+USA&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-80271-928-7&rft.aulast=Essig&rft.aufirst=Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWar+of+the+currents" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHigonnetLandesRosovsky1991" class="citation book cs1">Higonnet, Patrice L. R.; Landes, David S.; Rosovsky, Henry (1991). <i>Favorites of Fortune: Technology, Growth, and Economic Development Since the Industrial Revolution</i>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-67429-520-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-67429-520-9"><bdi>978-0-67429-520-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Favorites+of+Fortune%3A+Technology%2C+Growth%2C+and+Economic+Development+Since+the+Industrial+Revolution&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-67429-520-9&rft.aulast=Higonnet&rft.aufirst=Patrice+L.+R.&rft.au=Landes%2C+David+S.&rft.au=Rosovsky%2C+Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWar+of+the+currents" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHughes1993" class="citation book cs1">Hughes, Thomas Parke (1993). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/networksofpowere0000hugh"><i>Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society, 1880–1930</i></a></span>. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-80182-873-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-80182-873-7"><bdi>978-0-80182-873-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Networks+of+Power%3A+Electrification+in+Western+Society%2C+1880%E2%80%931930&rft.place=Baltimore%2C+Maryland&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-80182-873-7&rft.aulast=Hughes&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Parke&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnetworksofpowere0000hugh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWar+of+the+currents" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJonnes2003" class="citation book cs1">Jonnes, Jill (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2_58p3Z69bIC"><i>Empires of Light: Edison, Tesla, Westinghouse, and the Race to Electrify the World</i></a>. New York: Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-37550-739-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-37550-739-7"><bdi>978-0-37550-739-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empires+of+Light%3A+Edison%2C+Tesla%2C+Westinghouse%2C+and+the+Race+to+Electrify+the+World&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-37550-739-7&rft.aulast=Jonnes&rft.aufirst=Jill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2_58p3Z69bIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWar+of+the+currents" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlein2010" class="citation book cs1">Klein, Maury (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=w0o5Ld53wAEC"><i>The Power Makers: Steam, Electricity, and the Men Who Invented Modern America</i></a>. New York: Bloomsbury Publishing USA. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59691-834-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59691-834-4"><bdi>978-1-59691-834-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Power+Makers%3A+Steam%2C+Electricity%2C+and+the+Men+Who+Invented+Modern+America&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing+USA&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-59691-834-4&rft.aulast=Klein&rft.aufirst=Maury&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dw0o5Ld53wAEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWar+of+the+currents" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcNichol2006" class="citation book cs1">McNichol, Tom (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YHbxzUwR0UgC"><i>AC/DC: The Savage Tale of the First Standards War</i></a>. New York: John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7879-8267-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7879-8267-6"><bdi>978-0-7879-8267-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=AC%2FDC%3A+The+Savage+Tale+of+the+First+Standards+War&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-7879-8267-6&rft.aulast=McNichol&rft.aufirst=Tom&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYHbxzUwR0UgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWar+of+the+currents" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoran2007" class="citation book cs1">Moran, Richard (2007). <i>Executioner's Current: Thomas Edison, George Westinghouse, and the Invention of the Electric Chair</i>. New York: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-37572-446-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-37572-446-6"><bdi>978-0-37572-446-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Executioner%27s+Current%3A+Thomas+Edison%2C+George+Westinghouse%2C+and+the+Invention+of+the+Electric+Chair&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Knopf+Doubleday+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-37572-446-6&rft.aulast=Moran&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWar+of+the+currents" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRockman2004" class="citation book cs1">Rockman, Howard B. (2004). <i>Intellectual Property Law for Engineers and Scientists</i>. Wiley-IEEE Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-44998-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-44998-0"><bdi>978-0-471-44998-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Intellectual+Property+Law+for+Engineers+and+Scientists&rft.pub=Wiley-IEEE+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-471-44998-0&rft.aulast=Rockman&rft.aufirst=Howard+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWar+of+the+currents" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkrabec2007" class="citation book cs1">Skrabec, Quentin R. (2007). <i>George Westinghouse: Gentle Genius</i>. New York: Algora Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87586-404-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87586-404-4"><bdi>978-0-87586-404-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=George+Westinghouse%3A+Gentle+Genius&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Algora+Publishing&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-87586-404-4&rft.aulast=Skrabec&rft.aufirst=Quentin+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWar+of+the+currents" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkrabec2012" class="citation book cs1">Skrabec, Quentin R. (2012). <i>The 100 Most Significant Events in American Business: An Encyclopedia</i>. Santa Barbara, California: <a href="/wiki/ABC-CLIO" class="mw-redirect" title="ABC-CLIO">ABC-CLIO</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-31339-863-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-31339-863-6"><bdi>978-0-31339-863-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+100+Most+Significant+Events+in+American+Business%3A+An+Encyclopedia&rft.place=Santa+Barbara%2C+California&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-31339-863-6&rft.aulast=Skrabec&rft.aufirst=Quentin+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWar+of+the+currents" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStross2007" class="citation book cs1">Stross, Randall E. (2007). <i>The Wizard of Menlo Park: How Thomas Alva Edison Invented the Modern World</i>. New York: Crown Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-40004-762-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-40004-762-8"><bdi>978-1-40004-762-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Wizard+of+Menlo+Park%3A+How+Thomas+Alva+Edison+Invented+the+Modern+World&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Crown+Publishers&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-40004-762-8&rft.aulast=Stross&rft.aufirst=Randall+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWar+of+the+currents" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=War_of_the_currents&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerton1997" class="citation book cs1">Berton, Pierre (1997). <i>Niagara: A History of the Falls</i>. New York: Kodansha International. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56836-154-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56836-154-3"><bdi>978-1-56836-154-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Niagara%3A+A+History+of+the+Falls&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Kodansha+International&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-1-56836-154-3&rft.aulast=Berton&rft.aufirst=Pierre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWar+of+the+currents" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBordeau1982" class="citation book cs1">Bordeau, Sanford P. (1982). <i>Volts to Hertz—the rise of electricity: from the compass to the radio through the works of sixteen great men of science whose names are used in measuring electricity and magnetism</i>. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Burgess Pub. Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-80874-908-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-80874-908-0"><bdi>978-0-80874-908-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Volts+to+Hertz%E2%80%94the+rise+of+electricity%3A+from+the+compass+to+the+radio+through+the+works+of+sixteen+great+men+of+science+whose+names+are+used+in+measuring+electricity+and+magnetism&rft.place=Minneapolis%2C+Minnesota&rft.pub=Burgess+Pub.+Co.&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-80874-908-0&rft.aulast=Bordeau&rft.aufirst=Sanford+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWar+of+the+currents" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdquistHommenTsipouri2000" class="citation book cs1">Edquist, Charles; Hommen, Leif; Tsipouri, Lena J. (2000). <i>Public technology procurement and innovation</i>. Economics of science, technology, and innovation. Vol. 16. Boston: <a href="/wiki/Kluwer_Academic" class="mw-redirect" title="Kluwer Academic">Kluwer Academic</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-79238-685-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-79238-685-8"><bdi>978-0-79238-685-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Public+technology+procurement+and+innovation&rft.place=Boston&rft.series=Economics+of+science%2C+technology%2C+and+innovation&rft.pub=Kluwer+Academic&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-79238-685-8&rft.aulast=Edquist&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft.au=Hommen%2C+Leif&rft.au=Tsipouri%2C+Lena+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWar+of+the+currents" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/electricalengin06unkngoog">"A new system of alternating current motors and transformers"</a>. <i>The Electrical Engineer</i>. London, UK: Biggs & Co.: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/electricalengin06unkngoog/page/n560">568</a>–572 May 18, 1888.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Electrical+Engineer&rft.atitle=A+new+system+of+alternating+current+motors+and+transformers&rft.pages=568-572&rft.date=1888-05-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Felectricalengin06unkngoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWar+of+the+currents" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/electricalengin04unkngoog">"Practical electrical problems at Chicago"</a>. <i>The Electrical Engineer</i>. London, UK: Biggs & Co.: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/electricalengin04unkngoog/page/n474">458</a>–459, 484–485 & 489–490 May 12, 1893.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Electrical+Engineer&rft.atitle=Practical+electrical+problems+at+Chicago&rft.pages=458-459%2C+484-485+%26+489-490&rft.date=1893-05-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Felectricalengin04unkngoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWar+of+the+currents" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoster1979" class="citation book cs1">Foster, Abram John (1979). <i>The Coming of the Electrical Age to the United States</i>. New York: Arno Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-40511-983-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-40511-983-5"><bdi>978-0-40511-983-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Coming+of+the+Electrical+Age+to+the+United+States&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Arno+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-40511-983-5&rft.aulast=Foster&rft.aufirst=Abram+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWar+of+the+currents" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=War_of_the_currents&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pinkyshow.org/projectarchives/videos/thomas-edison-hates-cats/">"Thomas Edison Hates Cats"</a>. <i>Pinky Show</i>. January 17, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Pinky+Show&rft.atitle=Thomas+Edison+Hates+Cats&rft.date=2007-01-17&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pinkyshow.org%2Fprojectarchives%2Fvideos%2Fthomas-edison-hates-cats%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWar+of+the+currents" class="Z3988"></span> (AC vs DC an online video mini-history).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/tesla/ll/ll_warcur.html">"War of the Currents"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/PBS" title="PBS">PBS</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=PBS&rft.atitle=War+of+the+Currents&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Ftesla%2Fll%2Fll_warcur.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWar+of+the+currents" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChang" class="citation web cs1">Chang, Maria. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110726133651/http://www.nuc.berkeley.edu/dept/Courses/E-24/E-24Projects/MariaChang/The_War_of_Currents/The_War_of_Currents.htm">"War of the Currents"</a>. <i>University of California at Berkeley</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nuc.berkeley.edu/dept/Courses/E-24/E-24Projects/MariaChang/The_War_of_Currents/The_War_of_Currents.htm">the original</a> on July 26, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+of+California+at+Berkeley&rft.atitle=War+of+the+Currents&rft.aulast=Chang&rft.aufirst=Maria&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nuc.berkeley.edu%2Fdept%2FCourses%2FE-24%2FE-24Projects%2FMariaChang%2FThe_War_of_Currents%2FThe_War_of_Currents.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWar+of+the+currents" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Template:Thomas_Edison" title="Template:Thomas Edison"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Thomas_Edison" title="Template talk:Thomas Edison"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Thomas_Edison" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Thomas Edison"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Thomas_Edison120" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Edison" title="Thomas Edison">Thomas Edison</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Discoveries<br />and inventions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Edison_patents" title="List of Edison patents">List of Edison patents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_microphone" title="Carbon microphone">Carbon microphone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edison%27s_Phonograph_Doll" title="Edison's Phonograph Doll">Edison's Phonograph Doll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edison_screw" title="Edison screw">Edison screw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etheric_force" title="Etheric force">Etheric force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinetoscope" title="Kinetoscope">Kinetoscope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonograph" title="Phonograph">Phonograph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonomotor" title="Phonomotor">Phonomotor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadruplex_telegraph" title="Quadruplex telegraph">Quadruplex telegraph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tasimeter" title="Tasimeter">Tasimeter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Advancements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consolidated_Edison" title="Consolidated Edison">Consolidated Edison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edison%E2%80%93Lalande_cell" title="Edison–Lalande cell">Edison–Lalande cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluoroscopy" title="Fluoroscopy">Fluoroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incandescent_light_bulb" title="Incandescent light bulb">Incandescent light bulb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movie_camera" title="Movie camera">Movie camera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93iron_battery" title="Nickel–iron battery">Nickel–iron battery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermionic_emission" title="Thermionic emission">Thermionic emission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ticker_tape" title="Ticker tape">Ticker tape</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ventures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_A._Edison,_Inc." title="Thomas A. Edison, Inc.">Thomas A. Edison, Inc.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edison_and_Swan_Electric_Light_Company" title="Edison and Swan Electric Light Company">Edison and Swan Electric Light Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edison_Gower-Bell_Telephone_Company_of_Europe" title="Edison Gower-Bell Telephone Company of Europe">Edison Gower-Bell Telephone Company of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edison_Illuminating_Company" title="Edison Illuminating Company">Edison Illuminating Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edison_Machine_Works" title="Edison Machine Works">Edison Machine Works</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edison_Manufacturing_Company" title="Edison Manufacturing Company">Edison Manufacturing Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edison_Ore-Milling_Company" title="Edison Ore-Milling Company">Edison Ore-Milling Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edison_Portland_Cement_Company" title="Edison Portland Cement Company">Edison Portland Cement Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edison_Records" title="Edison Records">Edison Records</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edison_Storage_Battery_Company" title="Edison Storage Battery Company">Edison Storage Battery Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edison_Studios" title="Edison Studios">Edison Studios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Electric" title="General Electric">General Electric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motion_Picture_Patents_Company" title="Motion Picture Patents Company">Motion Picture Patents Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MSA_Safety" title="MSA Safety">Mine Safety Appliances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriental_Telephone_Company" title="Oriental Telephone Company">Oriental Telephone Company</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Monuments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Alva_Edison_Birthplace" title="Thomas Alva Edison Birthplace">Birthplace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edison%27s_Black_Maria" title="Edison's Black Maria">Black Maria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Edison_Depot_Museum" title="Thomas Edison Depot Museum">Depot Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Alva_Edison_Memorial_Tower_and_Museum" title="Thomas Alva Edison Memorial Tower and Museum">Memorial Tower and Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Edison_National_Historical_Park" title="Thomas Edison National Historical Park">National Historical Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edison_State_Park" title="Edison State Park">State Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edison_Storage_Battery_Company_Building" title="Edison Storage Battery Company Building">Storage Battery Company Building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Electric_Research_Laboratory" title="General Electric Research Laboratory">General Electric Research Laboratory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edison_and_Ford_Winter_Estates" title="Edison and Ford Winter Estates">Winter Estates</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Edison" title="Charles Edison">Charles Edison</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Miller_Edison" title="Theodore Miller Edison">Theodore Miller Edison</a> (son)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Films</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Young_Tom_Edison" title="Young Tom Edison">Young Tom Edison</a></i> (1940)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Edison,_the_Man" title="Edison, the Man">Edison, the Man</a></i> (1940)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Wizard_of_Evergreen_Terrace" title="The Wizard of Evergreen Terrace">The Wizard of Evergreen Terrace</a>" (1998)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Current_War" title="The Current War">The Current War</a></i> (2017)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tesla_(2020_film)" title="Tesla (2020 film)">Tesla</a></i> (2020)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Literature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Future_Eve" title="The Future Eve">The Future Eve</a></i> (1886)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Edison%27s_Conquest_of_Mars" title="Edison's Conquest of Mars">Edison's Conquest of Mars</a></i> (1898)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tales_from_the_Bully_Pulpit" title="Tales from the Bully Pulpit">Tales from the Bully Pulpit</a></i> (2004)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Productions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Execution_of_Mary_Stuart" title="The Execution of Mary Stuart">The Execution of Mary Stuart</a></i> (1895)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Kiss_(1896_film)" title="The Kiss (1896 film)">The Kiss</a></i> (1896)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Frankenstein_(1910_film)" title="Frankenstein (1910 film)">Frankenstein</a></i> (1910)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Night_of_Terror_(1911_film)" title="A Night of Terror (1911 film)">A Night of Terror</a></i> (1911)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kidnapped_(1917_film)" title="Kidnapped (1917 film)">Kidnapped</a></i> (1917)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edisonade" title="Edisonade">Edisonade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edisonian_approach" title="Edisonian approach">Edisonian approach</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Edison_in_popular_culture" title="Thomas Edison in popular culture">Thomas Edison in popular culture</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">War of the currents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pearl_Street_Station" title="Pearl Street Station">Pearl Street Station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edison_Museum" title="Edison Museum">Edison Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Edison_House" title="Thomas Edison House">Thomas Edison House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edison_Hotel_(Sunbury,_Pennsylvania)" title="Edison Hotel (Sunbury, Pennsylvania)">Edison Hotel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telephonoscope" title="Telephonoscope">Telephonoscope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Thomas_Edison" title="Statue of Thomas Edison">Statue of Thomas Edison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Alva_Edison_silver_dollar" title="Thomas Alva Edison silver dollar">Thomas Alva Edison silver dollar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Animal_rights398" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Animal_rights" title="Template:Animal rights"><abbr title="View this 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_rights_movement" title="Animal rights movement">Animal rights movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_rights_by_country_or_territory" title="Animal rights by country or territory">Animal rights by country or territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_and_animal_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarchism and animal rights">Anarchism and animal rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_rights_and_punk_subculture" title="Animal rights and punk subculture">Animal rights and punk subculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_cruelty_and_the_Holocaust_analogy" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal cruelty and the Holocaust analogy">Animal cruelty–Holocaust analogies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_rights_in_Indian_religions" title="Animal rights in Indian religions">Animal rights in Indian religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_animal_rights" title="Christianity and animal rights">Christianity and animal rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_animal_rights" title="History of animal rights">History of animal rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_international_animal_welfare_conventions" title="List of international animal welfare conventions">List of international animal welfare conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_status_of_animals_in_the_ancient_world" title="Moral status of animals in the ancient world">Moral status of animals in the ancient world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_animal_welfare_and_rights" title="Timeline of animal welfare and rights">Timeline of animal welfare and rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_liberation" title="Total liberation">Total liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_on_Animal_Welfare" title="Universal Declaration on Animal Welfare">Universal Declaration on Animal Welfare</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_(animal_rights)" title="Abolitionism (animal rights)">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_cognition" title="Animal cognition">Animal cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_consciousness" title="Animal consciousness">Animal consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_ethics" title="Animal ethics">Animal ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal%E2%80%93industrial_complex" title="Animal–industrial complex">Animal–industrial complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_law" title="Animal law">Animal law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_protectionism" title="Animal protectionism">Animal protectionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_welfare" title="Animal welfare">Animal welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal-free_agriculture" title="Animal-free agriculture">Animal-free agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthrozoology" title="Anthrozoology">Anthrozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_marginal_cases" title="Argument from marginal cases">Argument from marginal cases</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Declaration_on_Consciousness" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge Declaration on Consciousness">Cambridge Declaration on Consciousness</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnism" title="Carnism">Carnism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_consideration_of_interests" title="Equal consideration of interests">Equal consideration of interests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotion_in_animals" title="Emotion in animals">Emotion in animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_eating_meat" title="Ethics of eating meat">Ethics of eating meat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_uncertain_sentience" title="Ethics of uncertain sentience">Ethics of uncertain sentience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">Ethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insects_in_ethics" title="Insects in ethics">Insects in ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_value_in_animal_ethics" title="Intrinsic value in animal ethics">Intrinsic value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meat_paradox" class="mw-redirect" title="Meat paradox">Meat paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_circle_expansion" title="Moral circle expansion">Moral circle expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">Nonviolence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_rescue" title="Open rescue">Open rescue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_hunting" title="Opposition to hunting">Opposition to hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personism" title="Personism">Personism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Replaceability_argument" title="Replaceability argument">Replaceability argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentientism" title="Sentientism">Sentientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Speciesism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veganism" title="Veganism">Veganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegaphobia" title="Vegaphobia">Vegaphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetarianism" title="Vegetarianism">Vegetarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Animal_agriculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal agriculture">Animal agriculture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_product" title="Animal product">Animal product</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battery_cage" title="Battery cage">Battery cage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bile_bear" title="Bile bear">Bile bear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chick_culling" title="Chick culling">Chick culling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crocodile_farm" title="Crocodile farm">Crocodile farm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentrated_animal_feeding_operation" title="Concentrated animal feeding operation">Concentrated animal feeding operation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_farming" title="Fish farming">Fish farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fur_farming" title="Fur farming">Fur farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fur_trade" title="Fur trade">Fur trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insect_farming" title="Insect farming">Insect farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intensive_animal_farming" title="Intensive animal farming">Intensive animal farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intensive_pig_farming" title="Intensive pig farming">Intensive pig farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livestock" title="Livestock">Livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poultry_farming" title="Poultry farming">Poultry farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slaughterhouse" title="Slaughterhouse">Slaughterhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_farming" title="Wildlife farming">Wildlife farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_animal" title="Working animal">Working animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feedback_(pork_industry)" title="Feedback (pork industry)">Feedback (pork industry)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foam_depopulation" title="Foam depopulation">Foam depopulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ventilation_shutdown" title="Ventilation shutdown">Ventilation shutdown</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Animal_testing" title="Animal testing">Animal testing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternatives_to_animal_testing" title="Alternatives to animal testing">Alternatives to animal testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_testing_on_non-human_primates" title="Animal testing on non-human primates">Animal testing on non-human primates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_testing_regulations" title="Animal testing regulations">Animal testing regulations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_ape_research_ban" class="mw-redirect" title="Great ape research ban">Great ape research ban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Scare" title="Green Scare">Green Scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huntingdon_Life_Sciences" title="Huntingdon Life Sciences">Huntingdon Life Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model_organism" title="Model organism">Model organism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nafovanny" title="Nafovanny">Nafovanny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Backfire_(FBI)" title="Operation Backfire (FBI)">Operation Backfire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vivisection" title="Vivisection">Vivisection</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Animal_welfare" title="Animal welfare">Animal welfare</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_euthanasia" title="Animal euthanasia">Animal euthanasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cruelty_to_animals" title="Cruelty to animals">Cruelty to animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_animals" title="Pain in animals">Pain in animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_amphibians" title="Pain in amphibians">Pain in amphibians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_cephalopods" title="Pain in cephalopods">Pain in cephalopods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_crustaceans" title="Pain in crustaceans">Pain in crustaceans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_fish" title="Pain in fish">Pain in fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_invertebrates" title="Pain in invertebrates">Pain in invertebrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_and_suffering_in_laboratory_animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Pain and suffering in laboratory animals">Pain and suffering in laboratory animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_of_farmed_insects" title="Welfare of farmed insects">Welfare of farmed insects</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fishing" title="Fishing">Fishing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_fishing" title="Commercial fishing">Commercial fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_bait" title="Fishing bait">Fishing bait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recreational_fishing" title="Recreational fishing">Recreational fishing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wild_animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Wild animals">Wild animals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Culling_wildlife" class="mw-redirect" title="Culling wildlife">Culling wildlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hare_coursing" title="Hare coursing">Hare coursing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting" title="Hunting">Hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_primate_trade" title="International primate trade">International primate trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivory_trade" title="Ivory trade">Ivory trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predation_problem" title="Predation problem">Predation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seal_hunting" title="Seal hunting">Seal hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wild_animal_suffering" title="Wild animal suffering">Wild animal suffering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_management" title="Wildlife management">Wildlife management</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abandoned_pets" title="Abandoned pets">Abandoned pets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_sacrifice" title="Animal sacrifice">Animal sacrifice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_slaughter" title="Animal slaughter">Animal slaughter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_trial" title="Animal trial">Animal trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animals_in_sport" title="Animals in sport">Animals in sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Live_food" title="Live food">Live food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Live_export" title="Live export">Live export</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brown_Dog_affair" title="Brown Dog affair">Brown Dog affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_primates" title="Cambridge University primates">Cambridge University primates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McLibel_case" title="McLibel case">McLibel case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monkey_selfie_copyright_dispute" title="Monkey selfie copyright dispute">Monkey selfie copyright dispute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pit_of_despair" title="Pit of despair">Pit of despair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stop_Huntingdon_Animal_Cruelty" title="Stop Huntingdon Animal Cruelty">SHAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silver_Spring_monkeys" title="Silver Spring monkeys">Silver Spring monkeys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Riverside_1985_laboratory_raid" title="University of California, Riverside 1985 laboratory raid">University of California, Riverside 1985 laboratory raid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unnecessary_Fuss" title="Unnecessary Fuss">Unnecessary Fuss</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">War of the currents</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Methodologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Direct_Action_Everywhere" title="Direct Action Everywhere">Direct Action Everywhere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunt_sabotage" title="Hunt sabotage">Hunt sabotage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Observances</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_Animal_Day" title="World Animal Day">World Animal Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Day_for_the_End_of_Speciesism" title="World Day for the End of Speciesism">World Day for the End of Speciesism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Day_for_Laboratory_Animals" title="World Day for Laboratory Animals">World Day for Laboratory Animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Day_for_the_End_of_Fishing" title="World Day for the End of Fishing">World Day for the End of Fishing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Advocates_(academics,_writers,_activists)398" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_animal_rights_advocates" title="List of animal rights advocates">Advocates</a> (academics, writers, activists)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics<br />and writers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carol_J._Adams" title="Carol J. Adams">Carol J. Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aysha_Akhtar" title="Aysha Akhtar">Aysha Akhtar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kristin_Andrews" title="Kristin Andrews">Kristin Andrews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Bekoff" title="Marc Bekoff">Marc Bekoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_Best" title="Steven Best">Steven Best</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paola_Cavalieri" title="Paola Cavalieri">Paola Cavalieri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_R._L._Clark" title="Stephen R. L. Clark">Stephen R. L. Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_Cochrane" title="Alasdair Cochrane">Alasdair Cochrane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._M._Coetzee" title="J. M. Coetzee">J. M. Coetzee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alice_Crary" title="Alice Crary">Alice Crary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_DeGrazia" title="David DeGrazia">David DeGrazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dombrowski" title="Daniel Dombrowski">Daniel Dombrowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sue_Donaldson" title="Sue Donaldson">Sue Donaldson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephine_Donovan" title="Josephine Donovan">Josephine Donovan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joan_Dunayer" title="Joan Dunayer">Joan Dunayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mylan_Engel" title="Mylan Engel">Mylan Engel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catia_Faria" title="Catia Faria">Catia Faria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Finsen" title="Lawrence Finsen">Lawrence Finsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gary_L._Francione" title="Gary L. Francione">Gary L. Francione</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Garner" title="Robert Garner">Robert Garner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Val%C3%A9ry_Giroux" title="Valéry Giroux">Valéry Giroux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lori_Gruen" title="Lori Gruen">Lori Gruen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hadley_(philosopher)" title="John Hadley (philosopher)">John Hadley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oscar_Horta" title="Oscar Horta">Oscar Horta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dale_Jamieson" title="Dale Jamieson">Dale Jamieson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyle_Johannsen" title="Kyle Johannsen">Kyle Johannsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanie_Joy" title="Melanie Joy">Melanie Joy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilda_Kean" title="Hilda Kean">Hilda Kean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_Kymlicka" title="Will Kymlicka">Will Kymlicka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renan_Larue" title="Renan Larue">Renan Larue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Lepeltier" title="Thomas Lepeltier">Thomas Lepeltier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Linzey" title="Andrew Linzey">Andrew Linzey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clair_Linzey" title="Clair Linzey">Clair Linzey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dan_Lyons" title="Dan Lyons">Dan Lyons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Nibert" title="David Nibert">David Nibert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Martha Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clare_Palmer" title="Clare Palmer">Clare Palmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Patterson_(author)" title="Charles Patterson (author)">Charles Patterson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Pearce_(philosopher)" title="David Pearce (philosopher)">David Pearce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jessica_Pierce" title="Jessica Pierce">Jessica Pierce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evelyn_Pluhar" title="Evelyn Pluhar">Evelyn Pluhar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Rowlands" title="Mark Rowlands">Mark Rowlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_D._Ryder" title="Richard D. Ryder">Richard D. Ryder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_F._Sapontzis" title="Steve F. Sapontzis">Steve F. Sapontzis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeff_Sebo" title="Jeff Sebo">Jeff Sebo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_Segal" title="Jérôme Segal">Jérôme Segal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Peter Singer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gary_Steiner" title="Gary Steiner">Gary Steiner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cass_Sunstein" title="Cass Sunstein">Cass Sunstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Sztybel" title="David Sztybel">David Sztybel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Tye_(philosopher)" title="Michael Tye (philosopher)">Michael Tye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatjana_Vi%C5%A1ak" title="Tatjana Višak">Tatjana Višak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Waldau" title="Paul Waldau">Paul Waldau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corey_Lee_Wrenn" title="Corey Lee Wrenn">Corey Lee Wrenn</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Beauchamp" title="Tom Beauchamp">Tom Beauchamp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Renaud_Boullier" title="David Renaud Boullier">David Renaud Boullier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_St._C._Bostock" title="Stephen St. C. Bostock">Stephen St. C. Bostock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brigid_Brophy" title="Brigid Brophy">Brigid Brophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Buchan" title="Peter Buchan">Peter Buchan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mona_Caird" title="Mona Caird">Mona Caird</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscilla_Cohn" title="Priscilla Cohn">Priscilla Cohn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Crowe_(vicar)" title="Henry Crowe (vicar)">Henry Crowe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herman_Daggett" title="Herman Daggett">Herman Daggett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Dean_(curate)" title="Richard Dean (curate)">Richard Dean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Dietler" title="Wilhelm Dietler">Wilhelm Dietler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Hamilton_Drummond" title="William Hamilton Drummond">William Hamilton Drummond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Payson_Evans" title="Edward Payson Evans">Edward Payson Evans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._Forster" class="mw-redirect" title="T. Forster">T. Forster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Galsworthy" title="John Galsworthy">John Galsworthy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_G._Gentry" title="Thomas G. Gentry">Thomas G. Gentry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Helps" title="Arthur Helps">Arthur Helps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hildrop" title="John Hildrop">John Hildrop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Zephaniah_Holwell" title="John Zephaniah Holwell">John Zephaniah Holwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soame_Jenyns" title="Soame Jenyns">Soame Jenyns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Christian_Friedrich_Krause" title="Karl Christian Friedrich Krause">Karl Christian Friedrich Krause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lawrence_(writer)" title="John Lawrence (writer)">John Lawrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_R._Magel" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles R. Magel">Charles R. Magel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Meslier" title="Jean Meslier">Jean Meslier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Midgley" title="Mary Midgley">Mary Midgley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Howard_Moore" title="J. Howard Moore">J. Howard Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ferrater_Mora" title="José Ferrater Mora">José Ferrater Mora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Nelson" title="Leonard Nelson">Leonard Nelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Nicholson_(librarian)" title="Edward Nicholson (librarian)">Edward Nicholson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siobhan_O%27Sullivan" title="Siobhan O'Sullivan">Siobhan O'Sullivan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rod_Preece" title="Rod Preece">Rod Preece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humphrey_Primatt" title="Humphrey Primatt">Humphrey Primatt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Rachels" title="James Rachels">James Rachels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Regan" title="Tom Regan">Tom Regan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Peabody_Rogers" title="Nathaniel Peabody Rogers">Nathaniel Peabody Rogers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Rollin" title="Bernard Rollin">Bernard Rollin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Stephens_Salt" title="Henry Stephens Salt">Henry Stephens Salt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laurids_Smith" title="Laurids Smith">Laurids Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Styles" title="John Styles">John Styles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Tryon" title="Thomas Tryon">Thomas Tryon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gary_Varner" title="Gary Varner">Gary Varner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Friedrich_Ludwig_Volckmann" title="Johann Friedrich Ludwig Volckmann">Johann Friedrich Ludwig Volckmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Anne_Warren" title="Mary Anne Warren">Mary Anne Warren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Gottlieb_Weigen" title="Adam Gottlieb Weigen">Adam Gottlieb Weigen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Winckler" title="Johann Heinrich Winckler">Johann Heinrich Winckler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_M._Wise" title="Steven M. Wise">Steven M. Wise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jon_Wynne-Tyson" title="Jon Wynne-Tyson">Jon Wynne-Tyson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Young_(animal_welfare_writer)" title="Thomas Young (animal welfare writer)">Thomas Young</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Activists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Aspey" title="James Aspey">James Aspey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greg_Avery" title="Greg Avery">Greg Avery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matt_Ball" title="Matt Ball">Matt Ball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Balluch" title="Martin Balluch">Martin Balluch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carole_Baskin" title="Carole Baskin">Carole Baskin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbi_Twins" title="Barbi Twins">Barbi Twins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brigitte_Bardot" title="Brigitte Bardot">Brigitte Bardot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_Baur" title="Gene Baur">Gene Baur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yves_Bonnardel" title="Yves Bonnardel">Yves Bonnardel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joey_Carbstrong" title="Joey Carbstrong">Joey Carbstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aymeric_Caron" title="Aymeric Caron">Aymeric Caron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jake_Conroy" title="Jake Conroy">Jake Conroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rod_Coronado" title="Rod Coronado">Rod Coronado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karen_Dawn" title="Karen Dawn">Karen Dawn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chris_DeRose" title="Chris DeRose">Chris DeRose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Feldmann" title="John Feldmann">John Feldmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Friedrich" title="Bruce Friedrich">Bruce Friedrich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juliet_Gellatley" title="Juliet Gellatley">Juliet Gellatley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tal_Gilboa" title="Tal Gilboa">Tal Gilboa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Goetschel" title="Antoine Goetschel">Antoine Goetschel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Gold_(activist)" title="Mark Gold (activist)">Mark Gold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brigitte_Gothi%C3%A8re" title="Brigitte Gothière">Brigitte Gothière</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wayne_Hsiung" title="Wayne Hsiung">Wayne Hsiung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Laws" title="Charlotte Laws">Charlotte Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronnie_Lee" title="Ronnie Lee">Ronnie Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Lyman" title="Howard Lyman">Howard Lyman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evanna_Lynch" title="Evanna Lynch">Evanna Lynch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Maher" title="Bill Maher">Bill Maher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keith_Mann" title="Keith Mann">Keith Mann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Mason_(activist)" title="Jim Mason (activist)">Jim Mason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dan_Mathews" title="Dan Mathews">Dan Mathews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jo-Anne_McArthur" title="Jo-Anne McArthur">Jo-Anne McArthur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lu%C3%ADsa_Mell" class="mw-redirect" title="Luísa Mell">Luísa Mell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_McKenna" title="Virginia McKenna">Virginia McKenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morrissey" title="Morrissey">Morrissey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingrid_Newkirk" title="Ingrid Newkirk">Ingrid Newkirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heather_Nicholson" title="Heather Nicholson">Heather Nicholson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Norris_(activist)" title="Jack Norris (activist)">Jack Norris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ric_O%27Barry" title="Ric O'Barry">Ric O'Barry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Olivier" title="David Olivier">David Olivier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alex_Pacheco_(activist)" title="Alex Pacheco (activist)">Alex Pacheco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craig_Rosebraugh" title="Craig Rosebraugh">Craig Rosebraugh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jasmin_Singer" title="Jasmin Singer">Jasmin Singer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kim_Stallwood" title="Kim Stallwood">Kim Stallwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynda_Stoner" title="Lynda Stoner">Lynda Stoner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marianne_Thieme" title="Marianne Thieme">Marianne Thieme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darren_Thurston" title="Darren Thurston">Darren Thurston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christine_Townend" title="Christine Townend">Christine Townend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wendy_Turner-Webster" title="Wendy Turner-Webster">Wendy Turner-Webster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Vlasak" title="Jerry Vlasak">Jerry Vlasak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louise_Wallis" title="Louise Wallis">Louise Wallis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ed_Winters" title="Ed Winters">Ed Winters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gary_Yourofsky" title="Gary Yourofsky">Gary Yourofsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/That_Vegan_Teacher" title="That Vegan Teacher">That Vegan Teacher</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Amory" title="Cleveland Amory">Cleveland Amory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_B._Amos" title="Henry B. Amos">Henry B. Amos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Barker" title="Bob Barker">Bob Barker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Bell_(animal_rights_activist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ernest Bell (animal rights activist)">Ernest Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Brown_(veterinarian)" title="William Brown (veterinarian)">William Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edith_Carrington" title="Edith Carrington">Edith Carrington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frances_Power_Cobbe" title="Frances Power Cobbe">Frances Power Cobbe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joan_Court" title="Joan Court">Joan Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karen_Davis_(activist)" title="Karen Davis (activist)">Karen Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Dixon" title="Royal Dixon">Royal Dixon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muriel_Dowding,_Baroness_Dowding" title="Muriel Dowding, Baroness Dowding">Muriel Dowding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Farians" title="Elizabeth Farians">Elizabeth Farians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emarel_Freshel" title="Emarel Freshel">Emarel Freshel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_G%C3%A9raud" title="André Géraud">André Géraud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Gompertz" title="Lewis Gompertz">Lewis Gompertz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Granger" title="James Granger">James Granger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barry_Horne_(activist)" title="Barry Horne (activist)">Barry Horne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Huot" title="Marie Huot">Marie Huot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lizzy_Lind_af_Hageby" title="Lizzy Lind af Hageby">Lizzy Lind af Hageby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jessie_Mackay" title="Jessie Mackay">Jessie Mackay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Mansfield_Mitchell" title="Alfred Mansfield Mitchell">Alfred Mansfield Mitchell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Isaac_Pengelly" title="J. Isaac Pengelly">J. Isaac Pengelly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norm_Phelps" title="Norm Phelps">Norm Phelps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Jill_Phipps" title="Death of Jill Phipps">Jill Phipps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maud_Ingersoll_Probasco" title="Maud Ingersoll Probasco">Maud Ingersoll Probasco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Ruesch" title="Hans Ruesch">Hans Ruesch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nell_Shipman" title="Nell Shipman">Nell Shipman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Spira" title="Henry Spira">Henry Spira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stratton_(clergyman)" title="Joseph Stratton (clergyman)">Joseph Stratton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Tyler" title="Andrew Tyler">Andrew Tyler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gretchen_Wyler" title="Gretchen Wyler">Gretchen Wyler</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Movement_(groups,_parties)398" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Animal_rights_movement" title="Animal rights movement">Movement</a> (groups, parties)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Anti-Vivisection_Society" title="American Anti-Vivisection Society">American Anti-Vivisection Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Aid" title="Animal Aid">Animal Aid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Ethics_(organization)" title="Animal Ethics (organization)">Animal Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Justice_(organization)" title="Animal Justice (organization)">Animal Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Justice_Project" title="Animal Justice Project">Animal Justice Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Legal_Defense_Fund" title="Animal Legal Defense Fund">Animal Legal Defense Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Liberation_(organisation)" title="Animal Liberation (organisation)">Animal Liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Liberation_Front" title="Animal Liberation Front">Animal Liberation Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Rising" title="Animal Rising">Animal Rising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AnimaNaturalis" title="AnimaNaturalis">AnimaNaturalis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Vivisection_Coalition" title="Anti-Vivisection Coalition">Anti-Vivisection Coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anonymous_for_the_Voiceless" title="Anonymous for the Voiceless">Anonymous for the Voiceless</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beauty_Without_Cruelty" title="Beauty Without Cruelty">Beauty Without Cruelty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Born_Free_Foundation" title="Born Free Foundation">Born Free Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centre_for_Animals_and_Social_Justice" title="Centre for Animals and Social Justice">Centre for Animals and Social Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Animal_Protection_Network" title="Chinese Animal Protection Network">Chinese Animal Protection Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cruelty_Free_International" title="Cruelty Free International">Cruelty Free International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_Action_Everywhere" title="Direct Action Everywhere">Direct Action Everywhere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctors_Against_Animal_Experiments" title="Doctors Against Animal Experiments">Doctors Against Animal Experiments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equanimal" title="Equanimal">Equanimal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Every_Animal" title="Every Animal">Every Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farm_Animal_Rights_Movement" title="Farm Animal Rights Movement">Farm Animal Rights Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faunalytics" title="Faunalytics">Faunalytics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Ape_Project" title="Great Ape Project">Great Ape Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunt_Saboteurs_Association" title="Hunt Saboteurs Association">Hunt Saboteurs Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_Defense_of_Animals" title="In Defense of Animals">In Defense of Animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korea_Animal_Rights_Advocates" title="Korea Animal Rights Advocates">Korea Animal Rights Advocates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L214" title="L214">L214</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Last_Chance_for_Animals" title="Last Chance for Animals">Last Chance for Animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Animal_Rights_Coalition" title="Massachusetts Animal Rights Coalition">Massachusetts Animal Rights Coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercy_for_Animals" title="Mercy for Animals">Mercy for Animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxford_Centre_for_Animal_Ethics" title="Oxford Centre for Animal Ethics">Oxford Centre for Animal Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_for_the_Ethical_Treatment_of_Animals" title="People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals">People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_for_Animals" title="Rise for Animals">Rise for Animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentience_Politics" title="Sentience Politics">Sentience Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncaged_Campaigns" title="Uncaged Campaigns">Uncaged Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Activists_for_Animal_Rights" title="United Activists for Animal Rights">United Activists for Animal Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Poultry_Concerns" title="United Poultry Concerns">United Poultry Concerns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UPF-Centre_for_Animal_Ethics" title="UPF-Centre for Animal Ethics">UPF-Centre for Animal Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viva!_(organisation)" title="Viva! (organisation)">Viva!</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voice_for_Animals_Humane_Society" title="Voice for Animals Humane Society">Voice for Animals Humane Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_(animal_rights_group)" title="Voiceless (animal rights group)">Voiceless</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Anti-Vivisection_Society" title="Canadian Anti-Vivisection Society">Canadian Anti-Vivisection Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanitarian_League" title="Humanitarian League">Humanitarian League</a> (1891–1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millennium_Guild" class="mw-redirect" title="Millennium Guild">Millennium Guild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_of_the_Golden_Age" title="Order of the Golden Age">Order of the Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxford_Group_(animal_rights)" title="Oxford Group (animal rights)">Oxford Group</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Parties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Justice_Party" title="Animal Justice Party">Animal Justice Party</a> (Australia)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Politics_EU" title="Animal Politics EU">Animal Politics EU</a> (Europe)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Protection_Party_of_Canada" title="Animal Protection Party of Canada">Animal Protection Party of Canada</a> (Canada)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Justice_Party_of_Finland" title="Animal Justice Party of Finland">Animal Justice Party of Finland</a> (Finland)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animals%27_Party" title="Animals' Party">Animals' Party</a> (Sweden)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animalist_Movement" title="Animalist Movement">Animalist Movement</a> (Italy)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animalist_Party_with_the_Environment" title="Animalist Party with the Environment">Animalist Party with the Environment</a> (Spain)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/DierAnimal" title="DierAnimal">DierAnimal</a> (Belgium)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Environment_Animal_Protection_Party" title="Human Environment Animal Protection Party">Human Environment Animal Protection Party</a> (Germany)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Animalist_Party" title="Italian Animalist Party">Italian Animalist Party</a> (Italy)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Party_for_the_Animals" title="Party for the Animals">Party for the Animals</a> (Netherlands)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_Animals_Nature" title="People Animals Nature">People Animals Nature</a> (Portugal)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/V-Partei3" title="V-Partei3">V-Partei³</a> (Germany)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Activism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Rights_National_Conference" title="Animal Rights National Conference">Animal Rights National Conference</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Media_(books,_films,_periodicals,_albums)398" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Media (books, films, periodicals, albums)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Books</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/On_Abstinence_from_Eating_Animals" title="On Abstinence from Eating Animals">On Abstinence from Eating Animals</a></i> (3rd century)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/An_Essay_on_Humanity_to_Animals" title="An Essay on Humanity to Animals">An Essay on Humanity to Animals</a></i> (1798)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Moral_Inquiries_on_the_Situation_of_Man_and_of_Brutes" title="Moral Inquiries on the Situation of Man and of Brutes">Moral Inquiries on the Situation of Man and of Brutes</a></i> (1824)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Rights_of_Animals" class="mw-redirect" title="The Rights of Animals">The Rights of Animals</a></i> (1838)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Ethics_of_Diet" title="The Ethics of Diet">The Ethics of Diet</a></i> (1883)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Animals%27_Rights" title="Animals' Rights">Animals' Rights</a></i> (1892)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Evolutional_Ethics_and_Animal_Psychology" title="Evolutional Ethics and Animal Psychology">Evolutional Ethics and Animal Psychology</a></i> (1897)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Better-World_Philosophy" title="Better-World Philosophy">Better-World Philosophy</a></i> (1899)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Universal_Kinship" title="The Universal Kinship">The Universal Kinship</a></i> (1906)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_New_Ethics" title="The New Ethics">The New Ethics</a></i> (1907)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Animals,_Men_and_Morals" title="Animals, Men and Morals">Animals, Men and Morals</a></i> (1971)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Animal_Liberation_(book)" title="Animal Liberation (book)">Animal Liberation</a></i> (1975)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Case_for_Animal_Rights" title="The Case for Animal Rights">The Case for Animal Rights</a></i> (1983)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Morals,_Reason,_and_Animals" title="Morals, Reason, and Animals">Morals, Reason, and Animals</a></i> (1987)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zoos_and_Animal_Rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoos and Animal Rights">Zoos and Animal Rights</a></i> (1993)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Animals,_Property,_and_the_Law" title="Animals, Property, and the Law">Animals, Property, and the Law</a></i> (1995)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Lives_of_Animals" title="The Lives of Animals">The Lives of Animals</a></i> (1999)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eternal_Treblinka" title="Eternal Treblinka">Eternal Treblinka</a></i> (2001)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Do_Animals_Have_Rights%3F_(book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Do Animals Have Rights? (book)">Do Animals Have Rights?</a></i> (2005)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Striking_at_the_Roots" title="Striking at the Roots">Striking at the Roots</a></i> (2008)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/An_American_Trilogy_(book)" title="An American Trilogy (book)">An American Trilogy</a></i> (2009)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/An_Introduction_to_Animals_and_Political_Theory" title="An Introduction to Animals and Political Theory">An Introduction to Animals and Political Theory</a></i> (2010)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Animal_Rights_Without_Liberation" title="Animal Rights Without Liberation">Animal Rights Without Liberation</a></i> (2012)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Political_Animals_and_Animal_Politics" title="Political Animals and Animal Politics">Political Animals and Animal Politics</a></i> (2014)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Animal_(De)liberation" title="Animal (De)liberation">Animal (De)liberation</a></i> (2016)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sentientist_Politics" title="Sentientist Politics">Sentientist Politics</a></i> (2018)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wild_Animal_Ethics" title="Wild Animal Ethics">Wild Animal Ethics</a></i> (2020)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Animal_Ethics_in_the_Wild" title="Animal Ethics in the Wild">Animal Ethics in the Wild</a></i> (2022)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Making_a_Stand_for_Animals" title="Making a Stand for Animals">Making a Stand for Animals</a></i> (2022)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Animal_Rights_Law" title="Animal Rights Law">Animal Rights Law</a></i> (2023)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Moral_Circle" title="The Moral Circle">The Moral Circle</a></i> (2025)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Films</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Animals_Film" title="The Animals Film">The Animals Film</a></i> (1981)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Cow_at_My_Table" title="A Cow at My Table">A Cow at My Table</a></i> (1998)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shores_of_Silence" title="Shores of Silence">Shores of Silence</a></i> (2000)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Witness_(2000_film)" title="The Witness (2000 film)">The Witness</a></i> (2000)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Meet_Your_Meat" title="Meet Your Meat">Meet Your Meat</a></i> (2002)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Legally_Blonde_2:_Red,_White_%26_Blonde" title="Legally Blonde 2: Red, White & Blonde">Legally Blonde 2</a></i> (2003)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Meatrix" title="The Meatrix">The Meatrix</a></i> (2003)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Peaceable_Kingdom_(film)" title="Peaceable Kingdom (film)">Peaceable Kingdom</a></i> (2004)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Earthlings_(film)" title="Earthlings (film)">Earthlings</a></i> (2005)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Behind_the_Mask_(2006_film)" title="Behind the Mask (2006 film)">Behind the Mask</a></i> (2006)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Your_Mommy_Kills_Animals" title="Your Mommy Kills Animals">Your Mommy Kills Animals</a></i> (2007)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Food,_Inc." title="Food, Inc.">Food, Inc.</a></i> (2009)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Cove_(film)" title="The Cove (film)">The Cove</a></i> (2009)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Peaceable_Kingdom:_The_Journey_Home" title="Peaceable Kingdom: The Journey Home">Peaceable Kingdom: The Journey Home</a></i> (2009)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Forks_Over_Knives" title="Forks Over Knives">Forks Over Knives</a></i> (2011)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vegucated" title="Vegucated">Vegucated</a></i> (2011)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/An_Apology_to_Elephants" title="An Apology to Elephants">An Apology to Elephants</a></i> (2013)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Speciesism:_The_Movie" title="Speciesism: The Movie">Speciesism: The Movie</a></i> (2013)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Ghosts_in_Our_Machine" title="The Ghosts in Our Machine">The Ghosts in Our Machine</a></i> (2013)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Unlocking_the_Cage" title="Unlocking the Cage">Unlocking the Cage</a></i> (2016)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Land_of_Hope_and_Glory_(film,_2017)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Land of Hope and Glory (film, 2017) (page does not exist)">Land of Hope and Glory</a></i> (2017)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Carnage_(2017_film)" title="Carnage (2017 film)">Carnage</a></i> (2017)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Okja" title="Okja">Okja</a></i> (2017)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dominion_(2018_film)" title="Dominion (2018 film)">Dominion</a></i> (2018)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Seaspiracy" title="Seaspiracy">Seaspiracy</a></i> (2021)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Periodicals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Journals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Animal_Sentience_(journal)" title="Animal Sentience (journal)">Animal Sentience</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Between_the_Species" title="Between the Species">Between the Species</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cahiers_antisp%C3%A9cistes" title="Cahiers antispécistes">Cahiers antispécistes</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Etica_%26_Animali" title="Etica & Animali">Etica & Animali</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Animal_Ethics" title="Journal of Animal Ethics">Journal of Animal Ethics</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Relations._Beyond_Anthropocentrism" title="Relations. Beyond Anthropocentrism">Relations. Beyond Anthropocentrism</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Animals%27_Defender" class="mw-redirect" title="The Animals' Defender">The Animals' Defender</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Magazines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Arkangel_(magazine)" title="Arkangel (magazine)">Arkangel</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bite_Back" title="Bite Back">Bite Back</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Muutoksen_kev%C3%A4t" title="Muutoksen kevät">Muutoksen kevät</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/No_Compromise_(magazine)" title="No Compromise (magazine)">No Compromise</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Satya_(magazine)" title="Satya (magazine)">Satya</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_songs_about_animal_rights" title="List of songs about animal rights">Albums</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Animal_Liberation_(album)" title="Animal Liberation (album)">Animal Liberation</a></i> (1987)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tame_Yourself" title="Tame Yourself">Tame Yourself</a></i> (1991)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Manifesto_(Deadlock_album)" title="Manifesto (Deadlock album)">Manifesto</a></i> (2008)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Salvation_of_Innocents" title="Salvation of Innocents">Salvation of Innocents</a></i> (2014)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Onward_to_Freedom" title="Onward to Freedom">Onward to Freedom</a></i> (2014)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fairs and exhibitions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_on_your_Plate" title="Holocaust on your Plate">Holocaust on your Plate</a></i> (2003)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Animal_rights" title="Category:Animal rights">Category</a> <small style="">( 139 )</small></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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