CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Oppidum - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy","wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"d7f6354d-419c-4115-9615-b2bd58300140","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Oppidum","wgTitle":"Oppidum","wgCurRevisionId":1258349831,"wgRevisionId":1258349831,"wgArticleId":652429,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["CS1 errors: periodical ignored","CS1 German-language sources (de)","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Use dmy dates from August 2022","Articles containing Latin-language text","Articles containing Proto-Indo-European-language text","Articles containing Spanish-language text","Commons category link is on Wikidata","Oppida","Archaeological sites in Europe","Celtic archaeological sites","Former populated places","Iron Age Europe","La Tène culture"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Oppidum","wgRelevantArticleId":652429,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":40000,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q192601","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false}; RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.quicksurveys.init","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.21"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/KMM_-_Osttor_Oppidum_2.jpg/1200px-KMM_-_Osttor_Oppidum_2.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="803"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/KMM_-_Osttor_Oppidum_2.jpg/800px-KMM_-_Osttor_Oppidum_2.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="535"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/KMM_-_Osttor_Oppidum_2.jpg/640px-KMM_-_Osttor_Oppidum_2.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="428"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Oppidum - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppidum"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Oppidum&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppidum"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Oppidum rootpage-Oppidum skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" title="Main menu" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="n-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages"><span>Special pages</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Oppidum" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Oppidum" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Oppidum" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Oppidum" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Definition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Definition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Definition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Definition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Location_and_type" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Location_and_type"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Location and type</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Location_and_type-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Examples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Examples</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Examples-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Examples subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Examples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Belgium/Luxembourg/Netherlands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Belgium/Luxembourg/Netherlands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Belgium/Luxembourg/Netherlands</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Belgium/Luxembourg/Netherlands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Czech_Republic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Czech_Republic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Czech Republic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Czech_Republic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>France</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Germany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Germany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Germany</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Germany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Great_Britain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Great_Britain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Great Britain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Great_Britain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hungary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hungary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Hungary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hungary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Portugal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Portugal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7</span> <span>Portugal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Portugal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Serbia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Serbia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8</span> <span>Serbia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Serbia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slovakia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slovakia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.9</span> <span>Slovakia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slovakia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.10</span> <span>Spain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Switzerland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Switzerland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.11</span> <span>Switzerland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Switzerland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><i>Oppidum</i></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 49 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-49" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">49 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppidum" title="Oppidum – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Oppidum" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppidum" title="Oppidum – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Oppidum" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%85" title="أوبيدوم – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="أوبيدوم" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BF%D1%96%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%BC" title="Опідум – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Опідум" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BF%D1%96%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%BC" title="Опідум – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Опідум" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%BC" title="Опидум – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Опидум" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppidom" title="Oppidom – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Oppidom" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppidum" title="Oppidum – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Oppidum" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppidum" title="Oppidum – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Oppidum" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppidum" title="Oppidum – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Oppidum" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppidum" title="Oppidum – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Oppidum" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppidum" title="Oppidum – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Oppidum" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppidum" title="Oppidum – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Oppidum" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppidum" title="Oppidum – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Oppidum" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opidumo" title="Opidumo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Opidumo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppidum" title="Oppidum – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Oppidum" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%85" title="اوپیدوم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اوپیدوم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppidum" title="Oppidum – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Oppidum" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppidum" title="Oppidum – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Oppidum" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%98%A4%ED%94%BC%EB%91%A0" title="오피둠 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="오피둠" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppidum" title="Oppidum – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Oppidum" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppidum" title="Oppidum – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Oppidum" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppidum" title="Oppidum – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Oppidum" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%93%D7%95%D7%9D" title="אופידום – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אופידום" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opidumas" title="Opidumas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Opidumas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vl%C3%B6chb%C3%B6rch" title="Vlöchbörch – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Vlöchbörch" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppidum" title="Oppidum – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Oppidum" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%BC" title="Опидум – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Опидум" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppidum" title="Oppidum – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Oppidum" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppidum" title="Oppidum – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Oppidum" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AA%E3%83%83%E3%83%94%E3%83%89%E3%82%A5%E3%83%A0" title="オッピドゥム – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="オッピドゥム" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppidum" title="Oppidum – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Oppidum" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppidum" title="Oppidum – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Oppidum" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppidum" title="Oppidum – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Oppidum" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%93pido" title="Ópido – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Ópido" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppidum" title="Oppidum – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Oppidum" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BF%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%B4" title="Оппид – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Оппид" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppidum" title="Oppidum – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Oppidum" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppidum_(%C5%BEelezn%C3%A1_doba)" title="Oppidum (železná doba) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Oppidum (železná doba)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppidum" title="Oppidum – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Oppidum" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%BC" title="Опидум – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Опидум" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opidum" title="Opidum – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Opidum" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppidum" title="Oppidum – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Oppidum" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppidum" title="Oppidum – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Oppidum" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B9%87%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%87" title="อ็อปปิดูง – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="อ็อปปิดูง" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BF%D1%96%D0%B4" title="Опід – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Опід" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%BE%DB%8C%DA%88%D9%85" title="اوپیڈم – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="اوپیڈم" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppidum" title="Oppidum – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Oppidum" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A5%A5%E7%9A%AE%E6%9D%9C%E5%A7%86" title="奥皮杜姆 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="奥皮杜姆" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q192601#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Oppidum" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Oppidum" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Oppidum"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oppidum&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oppidum&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Oppidum"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oppidum&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oppidum&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Oppidum" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Oppidum" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oppidum&oldid=1258349831" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oppidum&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Oppidum&id=1258349831&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FOppidum"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FOppidum"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Oppidum&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oppidum&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Oppida" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q192601" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Iron Age type of settlement</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Oppido_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Oppido (disambiguation)">Oppido</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><caption class="infobox-title fn org"><i>Oppidum</i></caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:KMM_-_Osttor_Oppidum_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/KMM_-_Osttor_Oppidum_2.jpg/220px-KMM_-_Osttor_Oppidum_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/KMM_-_Osttor_Oppidum_2.jpg/330px-KMM_-_Osttor_Oppidum_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/KMM_-_Osttor_Oppidum_2.jpg/440px-KMM_-_Osttor_Oppidum_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1712" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data label"><a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Britain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Czech_Republic" title="Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slovakia" title="Slovakia">Slovakia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Serbia" title="Serbia">Serbia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #eee;">History</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Cultures</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celts</a>, <a href="/wiki/La_T%C3%A8ne_culture" title="La Tène culture">La Tène culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oppida_map_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Oppida_map_2.jpg/260px-Oppida_map_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Oppida_map_2.jpg/390px-Oppida_map_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Oppida_map_2.jpg/520px-Oppida_map_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1093" data-file-height="739" /></a><figcaption>Distribution of fortified <i>oppida</i>, <a href="/wiki/La_T%C3%A8ne_culture" title="La Tène culture">La Tène</a> period</figcaption></figure> <p>An <i><b>oppidum</b></i> (<abbr title="plural">pl.</abbr>: <i><b>oppida</b></i>) is a large fortified <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Europe" title="Iron Age Europe">Iron Age</a> settlement or town. <i>Oppida</i> are primarily associated with the <a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celtic</a> late <a href="/wiki/La_T%C3%A8ne_culture" title="La Tène culture">La Tène culture</a>, emerging during the 2nd and 1st centuries BC, spread across Europe, stretching from <a href="/wiki/British_Iron_Age" title="British Iron Age">Britain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iberia" class="mw-redirect" title="Iberia">Iberia</a> in the west to the edge of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Hungarian_Plain" title="Great Hungarian Plain">Hungarian Plain</a> in the east.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These settlements continued to be used until the Romans conquered Southern and Western Europe. Many subsequently became Roman-era towns and cities, whilst others were abandoned.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In regions north of the rivers <a href="/wiki/Danube" title="Danube">Danube</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Rhine</a>, such as most of <a href="/wiki/Germania" title="Germania">Germania</a>, where the populations remained independent from Rome, <i>oppida</i> continued to be used into the 1st century AD. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oppidum&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Murus_gallicus_1a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Murus_gallicus_1a.jpg/330px-Murus_gallicus_1a.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Murus_gallicus_1a.jpg/500px-Murus_gallicus_1a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Murus_gallicus_1a.jpg/960px-Murus_gallicus_1a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1261" data-file-height="751" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Murus_Gallicus" class="mw-redirect" title="Murus Gallicus">Murus Gallicus</a>, illustration</figcaption></figure> <p><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Oppidum</i></span> is a <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> word meaning 'defended (fortified) administrative centre or town', originally used in reference to non-Roman towns as well as provincial towns under Roman control.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The word is derived from the earlier Latin <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">ob-pedum</i></span>, 'enclosed space', possibly from the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European</a> <span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text">*<i lang="ine">pedóm-</i></span>, 'occupied space' or 'footprint'. In modern archaeological usage <i>oppidum</i> is a conventional term for large fortified settlements associated with the Celtic <a href="/wiki/La_T%C3%A8ne_culture" title="La Tène culture">La Tène culture</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In his <i><a href="/wiki/Commentarii_de_Bello_Gallico" title="Commentarii de Bello Gallico">Commentarii de Bello Gallico</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> described the larger <a href="/wiki/Celt" class="mw-redirect" title="Celt">Celtic</a> <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a> settlements he encountered in <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Gallic_Wars" title="Gallic Wars">Gallic Wars</a> in 58 to 52 BC as <i>oppida</i>. Although he did not explicitly define what features qualified a settlement to be called an <i>oppidum</i>, the main requirements emerge.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were important economic sites, places where goods were produced, stored and traded, and sometimes Roman merchants had settled and the <a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">Roman legions</a> could obtain supplies. They were also political centres, the seat of authorities who made decisions that affected large numbers of people, such as the appointment of <a href="/wiki/Vercingetorix" title="Vercingetorix">Vercingetorix</a> as head of the Gallic revolt in 52 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-Oppida_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oppida-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 12–13">: 12–13 </span></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Manching_model_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Manching_model_1.jpg/330px-Manching_model_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Manching_model_1.jpg/500px-Manching_model_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Manching_model_1.jpg/960px-Manching_model_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1565" data-file-height="1162" /></a><figcaption>Part of the Celtic <i>oppidum</i> of <a href="/wiki/Oppidum_of_Manching" title="Oppidum of Manching">Manching</a>, Germany</figcaption></figure> <p>Caesar named 28 <i>oppida</i>. By 2011, only 21 of these had been positively identified by historians and archaeologists: either there was a traceable similarity between the Latin and the modern name of the locality (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Cenabum" title="Cenabum">Civitas Aurelianorum</a>-<a href="/wiki/Orl%C3%A9ans" title="Orléans">Orléans</a>), or excavations had provided the necessary evidence (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Alesia_(city)" title="Alesia (city)">Alesia</a>). Most of the places that Caesar called oppida were city-sized fortified settlements. However, <a href="/wiki/Geneva" title="Geneva">Geneva</a>, for example, was referred to as an <i>oppidum</i>, but no fortifications dating to this period have yet been discovered there. Caesar also refers to 20 <i>oppida</i> of the <a href="/wiki/Bituriges_Cubi" title="Bituriges Cubi">Bituriges</a> and 12 of the <a href="/wiki/Helvetii" title="Helvetii">Helvetii</a>, twice the number of fortified settlements of these groups known today. That implies that Caesar likely counted some unfortified settlements as <i>oppida</i>. A similar ambiguity is in evidence in writing by the Roman historian <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a>, who also used the word for both fortified and unfortified settlements.<sup id="cite_ref-Oppida_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oppida-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 13">: 13 </span></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Manching_model_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Manching_model_2.jpg/260px-Manching_model_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Manching_model_2.jpg/390px-Manching_model_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Manching_model_2.jpg/520px-Manching_model_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1354" data-file-height="1187" /></a><figcaption>Part of the <i>oppidum</i> of Manching</figcaption></figure> <p>In his work <i>Geographia</i>, <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a> listed the coordinates of many Celtic settlements. However, research has shown many of the localisations of Ptolemy to be erroneous, making the identification of any modern location with the names he listed highly uncertain and speculative. An exception to that is the <i>oppidum</i> of <i>Brenodurum</i> at <a href="/wiki/Bern" title="Bern">Bern</a>, which was confirmed by an archaeological discovery.<sup id="cite_ref-Oppida_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oppida-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 13">: 13 </span></sup> </p><p>In archaeology and prehistory, the term <i>oppida</i> now refers to a category of settlement; it was first used in that sense by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Reinecke" title="Paul Reinecke">Paul Reinecke</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_D%C3%A9chelette" title="Joseph Déchelette">Joseph Déchelette</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wolfgang_Dehn&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wolfgang Dehn (page does not exist)">Wolfgang Dehn</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfgang_Dehn" class="extiw" title="de:Wolfgang Dehn">de</a>]</span> in reference to <a href="/wiki/Bibracte" title="Bibracte">Bibracte</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oppidum_of_Manching" title="Oppidum of Manching">Manching</a>, and <a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppidum_Z%C3%A1vist" class="extiw" title="cs:Oppidum Závist">Závist</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In particular, Dehn suggested defining an oppidum by four criteria: </p> <ol><li>Size: The settlement has to have a minimum size, defined by Dehn as 30 hectares (74 acres).</li> <li>Topography: Most <i>oppida</i> are situated on heights, but some are located on flat areas of land.</li> <li>Fortification: The settlement is surrounded by a (ideally uninterrupted) wall, usually consisting of three elements: a facade of stone, a wooden construction and an earthen rampart at the back. Gates are usually <a href="/wiki/Pincer_gate" title="Pincer gate">pincer gates</a>.</li> <li>Chronology: The settlement dates from the late <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a>: the last two centuries BC.<sup id="cite_ref-Oppida_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oppida-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 12">: 12 </span></sup></li></ol> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Celtic_Oppidum_1st_century_B.C..jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Celtic_Oppidum_1st_century_B.C..jpg/330px-Celtic_Oppidum_1st_century_B.C..jpg" decoding="async" width="259" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Celtic_Oppidum_1st_century_B.C..jpg/389px-Celtic_Oppidum_1st_century_B.C..jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/Celtic_Oppidum_1st_century_B.C..jpg 2x" data-file-width="424" data-file-height="264" /></a><figcaption>Modern-day rendering of a Celtic <i>oppidum</i>. 1st century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>In current usage, most definitions of <i>oppida</i> emphasise the presence of fortifications, so they are different from undefended farms or settlements, and urban characteristics, marking them as separate from <a href="/wiki/Hill_fort" class="mw-redirect" title="Hill fort">hill forts</a>. They are often described as 'the first cities north of the Alps', though earlier examples of urbanism in temperate Europe are also known.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 2nd and 1st centuries BC places them in the period known as <a href="/wiki/La_T%C3%A8ne_culture" title="La Tène culture">La Tène</a>. A notional minimum size of 15 to 25 hectares (37 to 62 acres) has often been suggested, but that is flexible and fortified sites as small as 2 hectares (4.9 acres) have been described as <i>oppida</i>. However, the term is not always rigorously used, and it has been used to refer to any hill fort or <a href="/wiki/Circular_rampart" title="Circular rampart">circular rampart</a> dating from the La Tène period. One of the effects of the inconsistency in definitions is that it is uncertain how many <i>oppida</i> were built.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In European archaeology, the term <i>oppida</i> is also used more widely to characterize any fortified prehistoric settlement. For example, significantly older hill-top structures like the one at <a href="/wiki/Glauberg" title="Glauberg">Glauberg</a> (6th or 5th century BC) have been called <i>oppida</i>. </p><p>Such wider use of the term is, for example, common in the Iberian archaeology; in the descriptions of the <a href="/wiki/Castro_culture" title="Castro culture">Castro culture</a> it is commonly used to refer to the settlements going back to the 9th century BC. The Spanish word <span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es">castro</i></span>, also used in English, means 'a walled settlement' or 'hill fort', and this word is often used interchangeably with <i>oppidum</i> by archaeologists.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Location_and_type">Location and type</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oppidum&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Location and type"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:La_Porte_du_Rebout,_principal_acc%C3%A8s_%C3%A0_l%E2%80%99oppidum_de_Bibracte_au_Ier_s._av._notre_%C3%A8re._Porte_et_murs_ont_%C3%A9t%C3%A9_reconstruits_apr%C3%A8s_la_fouille_selon_la_technique_du_murus_gallicus._Ni%C3%A8vre,_Morvan,_Bourgogne,_France.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/La_Porte_du_Rebout%2C_principal_acc%C3%A8s_%C3%A0_l%E2%80%99oppidum_de_Bibracte_au_Ier_s._av._notre_%C3%A8re._Porte_et_murs_ont_%C3%A9t%C3%A9_reconstruits_apr%C3%A8s_la_fouille_selon_la_technique_du_murus_gallicus._Ni%C3%A8vre%2C_Morvan%2C_Bourgogne%2C_France.jpg/500px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="340" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/La_Porte_du_Rebout%2C_principal_acc%C3%A8s_%C3%A0_l%E2%80%99oppidum_de_Bibracte_au_Ier_s._av._notre_%C3%A8re._Porte_et_murs_ont_%C3%A9t%C3%A9_reconstruits_apr%C3%A8s_la_fouille_selon_la_technique_du_murus_gallicus._Ni%C3%A8vre%2C_Morvan%2C_Bourgogne%2C_France.jpg/960px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="734" /></a><figcaption>Reconstructed walls of the Celtic <i>oppidum</i> or defensive site of <a href="/wiki/Bibracte" title="Bibracte">Bibracte</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Burgundy" title="Burgundy">Burgundy</a>, France</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>What was swept away in Northern Europe by the Roman Conquest was itself a dynamic indigenous culture extending across the transalpine landmass, usually known today as that of the Celts. The proto-urban Oppida – a Latin word used by Julius Caesar himself – remain one of the most striking manifestations of this pre-Roman northern European civilization.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>According to pre-historian <a href="/wiki/John_Collis" title="John Collis">John Collis</a>, oppida extend as far east as the <a href="/wiki/Great_Hungarian_Plain" title="Great Hungarian Plain">Hungarian plain</a> where other settlement types take over.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Around 200 <i>oppida</i> are known today.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Central Spain has sites similar to oppida, but while they share features such as size and defensive ramparts the interior was arranged differently.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Oppida</i> feature a wide variety of internal structures, from continuous rows of dwellings (<a href="/wiki/Bibracte" title="Bibracte">Bibracte</a>) to more widely spaced individual estates (<a href="/wiki/Oppidum_of_Manching" title="Oppidum of Manching">Manching</a>). Some <i>oppida</i> had internal layouts resembling the <i><a href="/wiki/Insula_(Roman_city)" title="Insula (Roman city)">insulae</a></i> of Roman cities (Variscourt). Little is known, however, about the purpose of any public buildings.<sup id="cite_ref-Oppida_14-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oppida-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 28">: 28 </span></sup> </p><p>The main features of the oppida are the walls and gates, the spacious layout, and usually a commanding view of the surrounding area. The major difference with earlier structures was their much larger size. Earlier hill forts were mostly just a few hectares in area, whilst <i>oppida</i> could encompass several dozen or even hundreds of hectares. They also played a role in displaying the power and wealth of the local inhabitants and as a line of demarcation between the town and the countryside.<sup id="cite_ref-Oppida_14-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oppida-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 25">: 25 </span></sup> According to Jane McIntosh, the "impressive ramparts with elaborate gateways ... were probably as much for show and for controlling the movement of people and goods as for defense".<sup id="cite_ref-McIntosh156_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McIntosh156-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of the <i>oppida</i> fortifications were built on an immense scale. Construction of the 7km-long <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">murus gallicus</i></span></i> at <a href="/wiki/Oppidum_of_Manching" title="Oppidum of Manching">Manching</a> required an estimated 6,900 m<sup>3</sup> of stones for the façade alone, up to 7.5 tons of iron nails, 90,000 m<sup>3</sup> of earth and stones for the fill between the posts and 100,000 m<sup>3</sup> of earth for the ramp. In terms of labour, some 2,000 people would have been needed for 250 days.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 5.5km-long <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">murus gallicus</i></span> of <a href="/wiki/Bibracte" title="Bibracte">Bibracte</a> may have required 40 to 60 <a href="/wiki/Hectare" title="Hectare">hectares</a> of mature oak woodland to be clear-felled for its construction.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bibracte,_1st_century_B.C.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Bibracte%2C_1st_century_B.C.jpg/260px-Bibracte%2C_1st_century_B.C.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Bibracte%2C_1st_century_B.C.jpg/390px-Bibracte%2C_1st_century_B.C.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/Bibracte%2C_1st_century_B.C.jpg 2x" data-file-width="508" data-file-height="344" /></a><figcaption>Bibracte <i>oppidum</i>, France, seen from above, 1st century BC</figcaption></figure> <p>However, size and construction of <i>oppida</i> varied considerably. Typically <i>oppida</i> in <a href="/wiki/Bohemia" title="Bohemia">Bohemia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bavaria" title="Bavaria">Bavaria</a> were much larger than those found in the north and west of France. Typically <i>oppida</i> in Britain are small, but there is a group of large oppida in the south east; though oppida are uncommon in northern Britain, <a href="/wiki/Stanwick_Iron_Age_Fortifications" title="Stanwick Iron Age Fortifications">Stanwick</a> stands out as an unusual example as it covers 350 hectares (860 acres). <a href="/wiki/Dry_stone" title="Dry stone">Dry stone</a> walls supported by a bank of earth, called <a href="/wiki/Kelheim" title="Kelheim">Kelheim</a> ramparts, were characteristic of oppida in central Europe. To the east, timbers were often used to support the earth and stone ramparts, called <i><a href="/wiki/Pfostenschlitzmauer" title="Pfostenschlitzmauer">Pfostenschlitzmauer</a></i> (post slot wall) or "<a href="/wiki/Preist" title="Preist">Preist</a>-type wall".<sup id="cite_ref-Oppida_14-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oppida-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 25">: 25 </span></sup> In western Europe, especially Gaul, the <i><a href="/wiki/Murus_gallicus" title="Murus gallicus">murus gallicus</a></i> (a timber frame nailed together, with a stone facade and earth/stone fill), was the dominant form of rampart construction. Dump ramparts, that is earth unsupported by timber, were common in Britain and were later adopted in France.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They have been found in particular in the north-west and central regions of France and were combined with wide moats ("Type Fécamp").<sup id="cite_ref-Oppida_14-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oppida-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 25">: 25 </span></sup> Oppida can be divided into two broad groups, those around the Mediterranean coast and those further inland. The latter group were larger, more varied, and spaced further apart.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Britain the <i>oppidum</i> of <i><a href="/wiki/Camulodunon" class="mw-redirect" title="Camulodunon">Camulodunon</a></i> (modern <a href="/wiki/Colchester" title="Colchester">Colchester</a>, built between the 1st century BC and the 1st century AD), tribal capital of the <a href="/wiki/Trinovantes" title="Trinovantes">Trinovantes</a> and at times the <a href="/wiki/Catuvellauni" title="Catuvellauni">Catuvellauni</a>, made use of natural defences enhanced with earthworks to protect itself.<sup id="cite_ref-Crummy,_Philip_1997_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crummy,_Philip_1997-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The site was protected by two rivers on three of its sides, with the <a href="/wiki/River_Colne,_Essex" title="River Colne, Essex">River Colne</a> bounding the site to the north and east, and the Roman River forming the southern boundary; the extensive bank and ditch earthworks topped with palisades were constructed to close off the open western gap between these two river valleys.<sup id="cite_ref-Crummy,_Philip_1997_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crummy,_Philip_1997-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Denney,_Patrick_2004_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Denney,_Patrick_2004-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These earthworks are considered the most extensive of their kind in Britain,<sup id="cite_ref-Crummy,_Philip_1997_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crummy,_Philip_1997-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and together with the two rivers enclosed the high status farmsteads, burial grounds, religious sites, industrial areas, river port and coin mint of the Trinovantes.<sup id="cite_ref-Crummy,_Philip_1997_31-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crummy,_Philip_1997-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-roman-britain.org_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-roman-britain.org-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oppidum&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Staffelberg_Franken.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Staffelberg_Franken.jpg/320px-Staffelberg_Franken.jpg" decoding="async" width="320" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Staffelberg_Franken.jpg/480px-Staffelberg_Franken.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Staffelberg_Franken.jpg/640px-Staffelberg_Franken.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2465" data-file-height="1569" /></a><figcaption>Site of the <a href="/wiki/Menosgada" title="Menosgada">Staffelberg/Menosgada</a> <i>oppidum</i>, Germany<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Prehistoric Europe saw a growing population. According to Jane McIntosh, in about 5,000 BC during the Neolithic between 2 million and 5 million people lived in Europe;<sup id="cite_ref-McIntosh_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McIntosh-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in the late (pre-Roman) Iron Age (2nd and 1st centuries BC) it had an estimated population of around 15 to 30 million.<sup id="cite_ref-McIntosh_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McIntosh-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Outside Greece and Italy, which were more densely populated, the vast majority of settlements in the Iron Age were small, with perhaps no more than 50 inhabitants. While hill forts could accommodate up to 1,000 people, <i>oppida</i> in the late Iron Age could reach as large as 10,000 inhabitants.<sup id="cite_ref-McIntosh_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McIntosh-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Corent_oppidum_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Corent_oppidum_1.jpg/330px-Corent_oppidum_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="320" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Corent_oppidum_1.jpg/500px-Corent_oppidum_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Corent_oppidum_1.jpg/960px-Corent_oppidum_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1103" data-file-height="770" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Corent" title="Corent">Corent</a> <i>oppidum</i>, France<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><i>Oppida</i> originated in the 2nd and 1st centuries BC. Most were built on fresh sites, usually on an elevated position. Such a location would have allowed the settlement to dominate nearby trade routes and may also have been important as a symbol of control of the area.<sup id="cite_ref-McIntosh156_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McIntosh156-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance at the <i>oppidum</i> of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ulaca&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ulaca (page does not exist)">Ulaca</a> in Spain the height of the ramparts is not uniform: those overlooking the valley are considerably higher than those facing towards the mountains in the area. The traditional explanation is that the smaller ramparts were unfinished because the region was invaded by the Romans; however, archaeologist <a href="/wiki/John_Collis" title="John Collis">John Collis</a> dismisses this explanation because the inhabitants managed to build a second rampart extending the site by 20 hectares (49 acres) to cover an area of 80 hectares (200 acres). Instead he believes the role of the ramparts as a status symbol may have been more important than their defensive qualities.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While some <i>oppida</i> grew from hill forts, by no means all of them had significant defensive functions. The development of <i>oppida</i> was a milestone in the <a href="/wiki/Urbanisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Urbanisation">urbanisation</a> of the continent as they were among the first large settlements north of the Alps that could genuinely be described as towns or cities (earlier sites include the 'Princely Seats' of the <a href="/wiki/Hallstatt_culture" title="Hallstatt culture">Hallstatt period</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Oppida_14-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oppida-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 29">: 29 </span></sup> Caesar pointed out that each <a href="/wiki/List_of_peoples_of_Gaul" class="mw-redirect" title="List of peoples of Gaul">tribe of Gaul</a> would have several <i>oppida</i> but that they were not all of equal importance, implying a form of <a href="/wiki/Settlement_hierarchy" title="Settlement hierarchy">settlement hierarchy</a>, with some <i>oppida</i> serving as regional capitals. This is also reflected in the archaeological evidence. According to Fichtl (2018), in the first century BC Gaul was divided into around sixty <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">civitates</i></span> (the term used by Caesar) or 'autonomous city-states', which were mostly organized around one or more <i>oppida</i>. In some cases, "one of these can be regarded effectively as a capital."<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>Oppida</i> continued in use until the Romans began conquering Iron Age Europe. Even in the lands north of the <a href="/wiki/River_Danube" class="mw-redirect" title="River Danube">River Danube</a> that remained unconquered by the Romans, <i>oppida</i> were abandoned by the late 1st century AD.<sup id="cite_ref-McIntosh156_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McIntosh156-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In conquered lands, the Romans used the infrastructure of the <i>oppida</i> to administer the empire, and many became full Roman towns. This often involved a change of location from the hilltop into the plain. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oppidum&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By modern country. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Belgium/Luxembourg/Netherlands"><span id="Belgium.2FLuxembourg.2FNetherlands"></span>Belgium/Luxembourg/Netherlands</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oppidum&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Belgium/Luxembourg/Netherlands"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atuatuca" title="Atuatuca">Oppidum Aduaticorum/Atuatucorum</a>, location undetermined, Belgium</li> <li>Canteleux, Huissignies, <a href="/wiki/Chi%C3%A8vres" title="Chièvres">Chièvres</a>, Wallonia, Belgium</li> <li>Cheslé, Bérisménil, Samrée <a href="/wiki/La_Roche-en-Ardenne" title="La Roche-en-Ardenne">La Roche-en-Ardenne</a>, Wallonia, Belgium</li> <li>Chession, <a href="/wiki/Han-sur-Lesse" title="Han-sur-Lesse">Han-sur-Lesse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rochefort,_Belgium" title="Rochefort, Belgium">Rochefort</a>, Wallonia, Belgium</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flobecq" title="Flobecq">Flobecq</a>, Wallonia, Belgium</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilly" title="Gilly">Gilly</a>-Ransart, <a href="/wiki/Charleroi" title="Charleroi">Charleroi</a>, Wallonia, Belgium</li> <li>Gougnies, <a href="/wiki/Gerpinnes" title="Gerpinnes">Gerpinnes</a>, Wallonia, Belgium</li> <li>Orchimont, <a href="/wiki/Vresse-sur-Semois" title="Vresse-sur-Semois">Vresse-sur-Semois</a>, Wallonia, Belgium</li> <li>Sinsin, <a href="/wiki/Somme-Leuze" title="Somme-Leuze">Somme-Leuze</a>, Wallonia, Belgium</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titelberg" title="Titelberg">Titelberg</a>, Luxembourg</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caestert" class="mw-redirect" title="Caestert">Caestert</a>, possibly <a href="/wiki/Atuatuca" title="Atuatuca">Atuatuca</a> Tungrorum, on the Walloon/Flemish/Dutch border, Belgium/Netherlands</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Czech_Republic">Czech Republic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oppidum&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Czech Republic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oppidum_Z%C3%A1vist&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Oppidum Závist (page does not exist)">Oppidum Závist</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppidum_Z%C3%A1vist" class="extiw" title="cs:Oppidum Závist">cs</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Host%C3%BDn" title="Hostýn">Hostýn</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hrazany_(oppidum)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hrazany (oppidum) (page does not exist)">Hrazany (oppidum)</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hrazany" class="extiw" title="cz:Hrazany">cz</a>]</span>, <a href="/wiki/Rad%C3%AD%C4%8D" title="Radíč">Radíč</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%8Cesk%C3%A9_Lhotice" title="České Lhotice">České Lhotice</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Star%C3%A9_Hradisko&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Staré Hradisko (page does not exist)">Staré Hradisko</a> Population estimate 5,000.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppidum_Stradonice" class="extiw" title="cs:Oppidum Stradonice">Stradonice</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oppidum_T%C5%99%C3%ADsov&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Oppidum Třísov (page does not exist)">Třísov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nev%C4%9Bzice" title="Nevězice">Nevězice</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oppidum_Z%C3%A1vist&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Oppidum Závist (page does not exist)">Oppidum Závist</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppidum_Z%C3%A1vist" class="extiw" title="cz:Oppidum Závist">cz</a>]</span>, 170 ha. Population estimate 3,400.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> See reconstructed model of the acropolis in 450 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="France">France</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oppidum&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: France"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alesia_(city)" title="Alesia (city)">Alesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambrussum" title="Ambrussum">Ambrussum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppidum_d%E2%80%99Altimurium" class="mw-redirect" title="Oppidum d’Altimurium">Oppidum d’Altimurium</a> near <a href="/wiki/Murviel-l%C3%A8s-Montpellier" title="Murviel-lès-Montpellier">Murviel-lès-Montpellier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibracte" title="Bibracte">Bibracte</a> (Mont Beuvray), 135 ha</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bracquemont" title="Bracquemont">Bracquemont</a>, Haute-Normandie</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cenabum" title="Cenabum">Cenabum</a>, Orléans</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samara_Arboretum" title="Samara Arboretum">La Chaussée-Tirancourt</a>, Picardie</li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Cheppe" title="La Cheppe">La Cheppe</a>, Champagne-Ardenne</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corent" title="Corent">Corent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metz" title="Metz">Divodurum</a>, ancestor of present-day <a href="/wiki/Metz" title="Metz">Metz</a>, oppidum of the <a href="/wiki/Mediomatrici" title="Mediomatrici">Mediomatrici</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oppidum_des_Encourdoules&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Oppidum des Encourdoules (page does not exist)">Oppidum des Encourdoules</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppidum_des_Encourdoules" class="extiw" title="fr:Oppidum des Encourdoules">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppidum_d%27Ens%C3%A9rune" title="Oppidum d'Ensérune">Oppidum d'Ensérune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppidum_d%27Entremont" class="mw-redirect" title="Oppidum d'Entremont">Oppidum d'Entremont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppidum_of_Moulay" title="Oppidum of Moulay">Oppidum of Moulay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppidum_de_Nages" title="Oppidum de Nages">Oppidum de Nages</a></li> <li><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppidum_de_Marduel" class="extiw" title="fr:Oppidum de Marduel">Oppidum de Marduel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gergovia" title="Gergovia">Gergovia</a>, 75 ha</li> <li><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppidum_de_Gondole" class="extiw" title="fr:Oppidum de Gondole">Oppidum de Gondole</a><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Jœuvres, <a href="/wiki/Saint-Jean-Saint-Maurice-sur-Loire" title="Saint-Jean-Saint-Maurice-sur-Loire">Saint-Jean-Saint-Maurice-sur-Loire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langres" title="Langres">Langres</a>, Champagne-Ardenne</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Montlaur%C3%A8s&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Montlaurès (page does not exist)">Montlaurès</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Murcens&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Murcens (page does not exist)">Murcens</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppidum_de_Murcens" class="extiw" title="fr:Oppidum de Murcens">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pech_Maho" title="Pech Maho">Pech Maho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salon-de-Provence" title="Salon-de-Provence">Salon-de-Provence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toulouse" title="Toulouse">Toulouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uxellodunum" title="Uxellodunum">Uxellodunum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vesontio" class="mw-redirect" title="Vesontio">Vesontio</a>, Besançon</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Germany">Germany</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oppidum&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Germany"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcimoennis" title="Alcimoennis">Alcimoennis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kelheim" title="Kelheim">Kelheim</a>, 600 ha</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altenburg-Rheinau&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Altenburg-Rheinau (page does not exist)">Altenburg-Rheinau</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schanze_und_Oppidum_auf_Schwaben_(Jestetten-Altenburg)" class="extiw" title="de:Schanze und Oppidum auf Schwaben (Jestetten-Altenburg)">de</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donnersberg" title="Donnersberg">Donnersberg</a>, 240 ha</li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%BCnsberg" title="Dünsberg">Dünsberg</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oppidum_Finsterlohr&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Oppidum Finsterlohr (page does not exist)">Oppidum Finsterlohr</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppidum_Finsterlohr" class="extiw" title="de:Oppidum Finsterlohr">de</a>]</span>, Creglingen</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heidengraben" title="Heidengraben">Heidengraben</a>, 1,700 ha</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hohenasperg" title="Hohenasperg">Hohenasperg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glauberg" title="Glauberg">Glauberg</a> (controversial, not dating to the 1st/2nd century BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppidum_of_Manching" title="Oppidum of Manching">Manching</a>, 380 ha</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Martberg&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Martberg (page does not exist)">Martberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milseburg" title="Milseburg">Milseburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staffelberg" title="Staffelberg">Staffelberg</a>, known as <a href="/wiki/Menosgada" title="Menosgada">Menosgada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppidum_Steinsburg" title="Oppidum Steinsburg">Oppidum Steinsburg</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Great_Britain">Great Britain</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oppidum&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Great Britain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calleva_Atrebatum" title="Calleva Atrebatum">Calleva Atrebatum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Silchester" title="Silchester">Silchester</a>), England</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camulodunum" title="Camulodunum">Camulodunum</a>, (<a href="/wiki/Colchester" title="Colchester">Colchester</a>) England</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oram%27s_Arbour" title="Oram's Arbour">Oram's Arbour</a> (<a href="/wiki/Winchester" title="Winchester">Winchester</a>), England</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratae_Corieltauvorum" title="Ratae Corieltauvorum">Ratae Corieltauvorum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Leicester" title="Leicester">Leicester</a>), England</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traprain_Law" title="Traprain Law">Traprain Law</a>, Scotland</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verlamion" title="Verlamion">Verlamion</a>, England</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noviomagus_Reginorum" title="Noviomagus Reginorum">Noviomagus Reginorum</a>, (<a href="/wiki/Chichester" title="Chichester">Chichester</a>), England</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hungary">Hungary</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oppidum&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Hungary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Budapest-<a href="/wiki/Gell%C3%A9rt_Hill" title="Gellért Hill">Gellért Hill</a></li> <li>Velem-Szentvid, <a href="/wiki/Velem" title="Velem">Velem</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Portugal">Portugal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oppidum&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Portugal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cit%C3%A2nia_de_Briteiros" title="Citânia de Briteiros">Citânia de Briteiros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%93bidos,_Portugal" title="Óbidos, Portugal">Óbidos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castro_culture" title="Castro culture">Castro Culture of Portugal</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Serbia">Serbia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oppidum&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Serbia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Čarnok, near <a href="/wiki/Vrbas,_Serbia" title="Vrbas, Serbia">Vrbas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%BDidovar" title="Židovar">Židovar</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slovakia">Slovakia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oppidum&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Slovakia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bratislava_Castle" title="Bratislava Castle">Bratislava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dev%C3%ADn" title="Devín">Devín</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spain">Spain</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oppidum&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Spain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Muros_de_San_Cibrao_de_Las.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Muros_de_San_Cibrao_de_Las.jpg/250px-Muros_de_San_Cibrao_de_Las.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Muros_de_San_Cibrao_de_Las.jpg/330px-Muros_de_San_Cibrao_de_Las.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Muros_de_San_Cibrao_de_Las.jpg/500px-Muros_de_San_Cibrao_de_Las.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3283" data-file-height="2462" /></a><figcaption>Monumental gate, walls, and paved streets, in the <i>oppidum</i> of <i>San Cibrao de Lás</i></figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_castros_in_Asturias&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of castros in Asturias (page does not exist)">List of castros in Asturias</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_castros_in_the_Basque_Country&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of castros in the Basque Country (page does not exist)">List of castros in the Basque Country</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_castros_in_Cantabria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of castros in Cantabria (page does not exist)">List of castros in Cantabria</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_castros_in_Castile_and_Le%C3%B3n&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of castros in Castile and León (page does not exist)">List of castros in Castile and León</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_castros_in_Galicia" title="List of castros in Galicia">List of castros in Galicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castro_culture" title="Castro culture">Castro culture</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Switzerland">Switzerland</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oppidum&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Switzerland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basel-M%C3%BCnsterh%C3%BCgel" title="Basel-Münsterhügel">Basel-Münsterhügel</a></li> <li>Bern <a href="/w/index.php?title=Engehalbinsel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Engehalbinsel (page does not exist)">Engehalbinsel</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engehalbinsel" class="extiw" title="de:Engehalbinsel">de</a>]</span> (Brenodurum)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mont_Vully" title="Mont Vully">Mont Vully</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bas-Vully" title="Bas-Vully">Bas-Vully</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z%C3%BCrich-Lindenhof" class="mw-redirect" title="Zürich-Lindenhof">Zürich-Lindenhof</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oppidum&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gord_(archaeology)" title="Gord (archaeology)">Gord (archaeology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppidum_du_Foss%C3%A9_des_Pandours" title="Oppidum du Fossé des Pandours">Oppidum du Fossé des Pandours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teliers_oppidum" title="Châteliers oppidum">Châteliers oppidum</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oppidum&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Notes</b> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oppida.org/index-en.html#">"Oppida"</a>. <i>oppida.org</i>. 2000. <q><i>Oppidum</i> (plural oppida) was the name used by Caesar to describe the Celtic towns that he discovered during his conquest of Gaul. In archaeology, the term is now used to describe all fortified Celtic sites covering a minimum area of 15ha and dating back to the second half of the 2nd and 1st centuries BC (the late La Tène period). These towns were both economic and political centres.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=oppida.org&rft.atitle=Oppida&rft.date=2000&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oppida.org%2Findex-en.html%23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOppidum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100251943">"Oppidum"</a>. <i>The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology</i>. <q>Oppidum: The term used by Julius Caesar to describe fortified tribal centres encountered by him in Gaul in 58–51 bc which did not merit categorization as cities (<i>urbes</i>). In archaeological usage it is applied more generally to fortified sites and large permanent settlements of the late pre‐Roman Iron Age in Europe. These served as centres for administration, trade, craft production, and religion.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Concise+Oxford+Dictionary+of+Archaeology&rft.atitle=Oppidum&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Foi%2Fauthority.20110803100251943&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOppidum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFShawJameson1999" class="citation book cs1">Shaw, Ian; Jameson, Robert, eds. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8HKDtlPuM2oC"><i>A Dictionary of Archaeology</i></a>. Blackwell Publishing. p. 448. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0631174230" title="Special:BookSources/0631174230"><bdi>0631174230</bdi></a>. <q>Oppidum (pl. oppida; <i>Latin</i>: 'defended administrative centre or town'): During the later La Tene period in Gaul, from the 2nd century BC, there developed a series of large regional centres, some of which Julius Caesar in his reports of campaigns in the region, referred to as 'oppida' – a label that has stuck. Many of these <i>oppida</i> were defended, but unlike earlier hillforts of the 2nd and early 1st millennium BC, most seem to have been permanently and densely occupied. The more complex examples seem to have acted as tribal capitals, trade and distribution centres, and are often located near significant trade routes.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Archaeology&rft.pages=448&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0631174230&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8HKDtlPuM2oC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOppidum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBahn1993" class="citation book cs1">Bahn, Paul, ed. (1993). <i>Collins Dictionary of Archaeology</i>. ABC-CLIO. p. 369. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0874367441" title="Special:BookSources/0874367441"><bdi>0874367441</bdi></a>. <q>Oppidum: A term used by Caesar to denote the fortified native towns he encountered in his campaigns in Gaul in 58-51 BC, now by extension used for all fortified Celtic towns; they are distinguished from hillforts by their combination of residential, industrial, market and administrative functions.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Collins+Dictionary+of+Archaeology&rft.pages=369&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0874367441&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOppidum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCollis1995" class="citation book cs1">Collis, John (1995). "The first towns". In Green, Miranda (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vkV8bcgLbiAC"><i>The Celtic World</i></a>. Routledge. pp. <span class="nowrap">159–</span>173. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781135632434" title="Special:BookSources/9781135632434"><bdi>9781135632434</bdi></a>. <q>By the time Caesar reached Gaul, the predecessors of Roman and modern towns were already in existence as administrative and trading centres ... Over a broad zone, Portugal, central Spain, southern Britain, France, southern and central Germany, the Alpine zone, Hungary and Czechoslovakia major settlements, often labelled by ancient authors and modern archaeologists alike as 'oppida', had come into existence.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+first+towns&rft.btitle=The+Celtic+World&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E159-%3C%2Fspan%3E173&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=9781135632434&rft.aulast=Collis&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvkV8bcgLbiAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOppidum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFichtl2018" class="citation book cs1">Fichtl, Stephan (March 2018). "Urbanization and Oppida". In Haslegrove, Colin; Rebay-Salisbury, Katharina; Wells, Peter (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/34750/chapter-abstract/296604683?redirectedFrom=fulltext"><i>The Oxford Handbook of the European Iron Age</i></a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">717–</span>740. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199696826.013.13">10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199696826.013.13</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-969682-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-969682-6"><bdi>978-0-19-969682-6</bdi></a>. <q>The first examples of urbanization in Celtic Europe were the princely residences of the early Iron Age (<a href="/wiki/Hallstatt_culture" title="Hallstatt culture">Hallstatt culture</a>), but it was not until the late third century BC that urban centres began to flourish across Europe. The first were open settlements, followed by fortified oppida. Characterized by very large surface areas (up to hundreds of hectares) and defended by ramparts with strong symbolic and ostentatious connotations, oppida are widely considered the first cities north of the Alps. ... These fortified sites appeared more or less simultaneously in Europe, from the Atlantic to central Europe. By the last third of the second century BC, this wide area was covered with large-scale fortified sites.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Urbanization+and+Oppida&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+the+European+Iron+Age&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E717-%3C%2Fspan%3E740&rft.date=2018-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199696826.013.13&rft.isbn=978-0-19-969682-6&rft.aulast=Fichtl&rft.aufirst=Stephan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fedited-volume%2F34750%2Fchapter-abstract%2F296604683%3FredirectedFrom%3Dfulltext&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOppidum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCollis1995" class="citation book cs1">Collis, John (1995). "The first towns". In Green, Miranda (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vkV8bcgLbiAC&q=the+celtic+world"><i>The Celtic World</i></a>. Routledge. pp. <span class="nowrap">159–</span>173. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781135632434" title="Special:BookSources/9781135632434"><bdi>9781135632434</bdi></a>. <q>By the time Caesar reached Gaul, the predecessors of Roman and modern towns were already in existence as administrative and trading centres – Vesontio (Besancon), Durocororum (Reims), Lutetia (Paris), Avaricum (Bourges) and others. ... many major settlements were already well established by the time of the Roman conquest.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+first+towns&rft.btitle=The+Celtic+World&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E159-%3C%2Fspan%3E173&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=9781135632434&rft.aulast=Collis&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvkV8bcgLbiAC%26q%3Dthe%2Bceltic%2Bworld&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOppidum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFernández-Götz2019" class="citation book cs1">Fernández-Götz, Manuel (December 2019). "A World of 200 Oppida: Pre-Roman Urbanism in Temperate Europe Oppida". In de Ligt, Luuk; Bintliff, John (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/view/book/edcoll/9789004414365/BP000002.xml"><i>Regional Urban Systems in the Roman World, 150 BCE – 250 CE</i></a>. Brill. pp. <span class="nowrap">35–</span>66. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-41436-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-41436-5"><bdi>978-90-04-41436-5</bdi></a>. <q>Oppida, particularly in Gaul, continued to exist during the Roman period and sometimes even in medieval and later times (e.g. Vesontio→Besançon, Avaricum→Bourges, Durocortorum →Reims).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+World+of+200+Oppida%3A+Pre-Roman+Urbanism+in+Temperate+Europe+Oppida&rft.btitle=Regional+Urban+Systems+in+the+Roman+World%2C+150+BCE+%E2%80%93+250+CE&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E35-%3C%2Fspan%3E66&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2019-12&rft.isbn=978-90-04-41436-5&rft.aulast=Fern%C3%A1ndez-G%C3%B6tz&rft.aufirst=Manuel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrill.com%2Fview%2Fbook%2Fedcoll%2F9789004414365%2FBP000002.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOppidum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCollis2004" class="citation book cs1">Collis, John (2004). "Oppida". In Bogucki, Peter; Crabtree, Pam (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=T6HgjwEACAAJ"><i>Ancient Europe, 8000 B.C.-A.D. 1000</i></a>. Gale. p. 157. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-684-80668-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-684-80668-1"><bdi>0-684-80668-1</bdi></a>. <q>The oppida of Britain date to the late first century B.C. and early first century A.D. ... Several developed into major Roman towns.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Oppida&rft.btitle=Ancient+Europe%2C+8000+B.C.-A.D.+1000&rft.pages=157&rft.pub=Gale&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-684-80668-1&rft.aulast=Collis&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DT6HgjwEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOppidum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFShawJameson1999" class="citation book cs1">Shaw, Ian; Jameson, Robert, eds. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8HKDtlPuM2oC"><i>A Dictionary of Archaeology</i></a>. Blackwell Publishing. p. 448. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0631174230" title="Special:BookSources/0631174230"><bdi>0631174230</bdi></a>. <q>Oppidum (pl. oppida; <i>Latin</i>: 'defended administrative centre or town'.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Archaeology&rft.pages=448&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0631174230&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8HKDtlPuM2oC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOppidum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPurcell2016" class="citation book cs1">Purcell, Nicholas (7 March 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oxfordre.com/classics/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-4571">"Oppidum"</a>. <i>Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Classics</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199381135.013.4571">10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.4571</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-938113-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-938113-5"><bdi>978-0-19-938113-5</bdi></a>. <q>Oppidum, 'town', principally a descriptive word for an urban nucleus</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Oppidum&rft.btitle=Oxford+Research+Encyclopedia+of+Classics&rft.date=2016-03-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199381135.013.4571&rft.isbn=978-0-19-938113-5&rft.aulast=Purcell&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foxfordre.com%2Fclassics%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199381135.001.0001%2Facrefore-9780199381135-e-4571&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOppidum" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|website=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPurcell2016" class="citation book cs1">Purcell, Nicholas (7 March 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oxfordre.com/classics/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-4571">"Oppidum"</a>. <i>Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Classics</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199381135.013.4571">10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.4571</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-938113-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-938113-5"><bdi>978-0-19-938113-5</bdi></a>. <q>In modern archaeological usage, oppidum has become a conventional label for the pre-Roman defensive enceintes of the iron age peoples of north-west Europe, especially the La Tène cultures (see celts).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Oppidum&rft.btitle=Oxford+Research+Encyclopedia+of+Classics&rft.date=2016-03-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199381135.013.4571&rft.isbn=978-0-19-938113-5&rft.aulast=Purcell&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foxfordre.com%2Fclassics%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199381135.001.0001%2Facrefore-9780199381135-e-4571&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOppidum" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|website=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160109082658/http://lukashevichus.info/knigi/ancient_europe_encycl_bogucki_crabtree_1.pdf">"Ancient Europe 800 B.C-A.D 100"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lukashevichus.info/knigi/ancient_europe_encycl_bogucki_crabtree_1.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 9 January 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 November</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ancient+Europe+800+B.C-A.D+100&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flukashevichus.info%2Fknigi%2Fancient_europe_encycl_bogucki_crabtree_1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOppidum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oppida-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Oppida_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oppida_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oppida_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oppida_14-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oppida_14-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oppida_14-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oppida_14-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oppida_14-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oppida_14-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRieckhoffFichtl2011" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Rieckhoff, Sabine; Fichtl, Stephan (2011). <i>Keltenstädte aus der Luft/AID Sonderheft Plus</i> (in German). WBG. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-8062-2242-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-8062-2242-5"><bdi>978-3-8062-2242-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Keltenst%C3%A4dte+aus+der+Luft%2FAID+Sonderheft+Plus&rft.pub=WBG&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-3-8062-2242-5&rft.aulast=Rieckhoff&rft.aufirst=Sabine&rft.au=Fichtl%2C+Stephan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOppidum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Woolf (1993), pp. 223–24</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jones (2001), p. 46</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h1vdB9keTmQ">"Digital reconstruction of the oppidum of Gondole, France"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/YouTube" title="YouTube">YouTube</a></i>. 20 April 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=YouTube&rft.atitle=Digital+reconstruction+of+the+oppidum+of+Gondole%2C+France&rft.date=2017-04-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3Dh1vdB9keTmQ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOppidum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFichtl2018" class="citation book cs1">Fichtl, Stephan (March 2018). "Urbanization and Oppida". In Haslegrove, Colin; Rebay-Salisbury, Katharina; Wells, Peter (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/34750/chapter-abstract/296604683?redirectedFrom=fulltext"><i>The Oxford Handbook of the European Iron Age</i></a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">717–</span>740. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199696826.013.13">10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199696826.013.13</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-969682-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-969682-6"><bdi>978-0-19-969682-6</bdi></a>. <q>The first examples of urbanization in Celtic Europe were the princely residences of the early Iron Age (<a href="/wiki/Hallstatt_culture" title="Hallstatt culture">Hallstatt culture</a>), but it was not until the late third century BC that urban centres began to flourish across Europe. The first were open settlements, followed by fortified oppida. Characterized by very large surface areas (up to hundreds of hectares) and defended by ramparts with strong symbolic and ostentatious connotations, oppida are widely considered the first cities north of the Alps. ... These fortified sites appeared more or less simultaneously in Europe, from the Atlantic to central Europe. By the last third of the second century BC, this wide area was covered with large-scale fortified sites.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Urbanization+and+Oppida&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+the+European+Iron+Age&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E717-%3C%2Fspan%3E740&rft.date=2018-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199696826.013.13&rft.isbn=978-0-19-969682-6&rft.aulast=Fichtl&rft.aufirst=Stephan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fedited-volume%2F34750%2Fchapter-abstract%2F296604683%3FredirectedFrom%3Dfulltext&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOppidum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFernández-Götz2018" class="citation journal cs1">Fernández-Götz, Manuel (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10814-017-9107-1">"Urbanization in Iron Age Europe: Trajectories, Patterns, and Social Dynamics"</a>. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i>. <b>26</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">117–</span>162. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10814-017-9107-1">10.1007/s10814-017-9107-1</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11820%2F74e98a7e-45fb-40d5-91c4-727229ba8cc7">20.500.11820/74e98a7e-45fb-40d5-91c4-727229ba8cc7</a></span>. <q>New research demonstrates that the earliest cities developed north of the Alps between the sixth and fifth centuries BC as a consequence of processes of demographic growth, hierarchization, and centralization that have their roots in the immediately preceding period.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Archaeological+Research&rft.atitle=Urbanization+in+Iron+Age+Europe%3A+Trajectories%2C+Patterns%2C+and+Social+Dynamics&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E117-%3C%2Fspan%3E162&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F20.500.11820%2F74e98a7e-45fb-40d5-91c4-727229ba8cc7&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10814-017-9107-1&rft.aulast=Fern%C3%A1ndez-G%C3%B6tz&rft.aufirst=Manuel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252Fs10814-017-9107-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOppidum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Woolf (1993), pp. 224–225</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Some examples can be seen here: M ALMAGRO-GORBEA (1995), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britac.ac.uk/pubs/proc/files/86p175.pdf">From Hillforts to Oppida in 'Celtic' Iberia</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oppida.org/project-programme_en_04.html">"Oppida: A European Civilization"</a>. <i>oppida.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=oppida.org&rft.atitle=Oppida%3A+A+European+Civilization&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oppida.org%2Fproject-programme_en_04.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOppidum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Woolf (1993), p. 225</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFernández-Götz2019" class="citation book cs1">Fernández-Götz, Manuel (December 2019). "A World of 200 Oppida: Pre-Roman Urbanism in Temperate Europe Oppida". In de Ligt, Luuk; Bintliff, John (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/view/book/edcoll/9789004414365/BP000002.xml"><i>Regional Urban Systems in the Roman World, 150 BCE – 250 CE</i></a>. Brill. pp. <span class="nowrap">35–</span>66. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-41436-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-41436-5"><bdi>978-90-04-41436-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+World+of+200+Oppida%3A+Pre-Roman+Urbanism+in+Temperate+Europe+Oppida&rft.btitle=Regional+Urban+Systems+in+the+Roman+World%2C+150+BCE+%E2%80%93+250+CE&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E35-%3C%2Fspan%3E66&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2019-12&rft.isbn=978-90-04-41436-5&rft.aulast=Fern%C3%A1ndez-G%C3%B6tz&rft.aufirst=Manuel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrill.com%2Fview%2Fbook%2Fedcoll%2F9789004414365%2FBP000002.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOppidum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Collis (2000), pp. 229–230</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McIntosh156-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McIntosh156_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McIntosh156_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McIntosh156_26-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">McIntosh (2009), p. 156</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFernández-Götz2019" class="citation book cs1">Fernández-Götz, Manuel (December 2019). "A World of 200 Oppida: Pre-Roman Urbanism in Temperate Europe Oppida". In de Ligt, Luuk; Bintliff, John (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/view/book/edcoll/9789004414365/BP000002.xml"><i>Regional Urban Systems in the Roman World, 150 BCE – 250 CE</i></a>. Brill. pp. <span class="nowrap">35–</span>66. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-41436-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-41436-5"><bdi>978-90-04-41436-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+World+of+200+Oppida%3A+Pre-Roman+Urbanism+in+Temperate+Europe+Oppida&rft.btitle=Regional+Urban+Systems+in+the+Roman+World%2C+150+BCE+%E2%80%93+250+CE&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E35-%3C%2Fspan%3E66&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2019-12&rft.isbn=978-90-04-41436-5&rft.aulast=Fern%C3%A1ndez-G%C3%B6tz&rft.aufirst=Manuel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrill.com%2Fview%2Fbook%2Fedcoll%2F9789004414365%2FBP000002.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOppidum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRalston1995" class="citation book cs1">Ralston, Ian (1995). "Fortifications and defence". In Green, Miranda (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vkV8bcgLbiAC&q=the+celtic+world"><i>The Celtic World</i></a>. Routledge. p. 75. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781135632434" title="Special:BookSources/9781135632434"><bdi>9781135632434</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Fortifications+and+defence&rft.btitle=The+Celtic+World&rft.pages=75&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=9781135632434&rft.aulast=Ralston&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvkV8bcgLbiAC%26q%3Dthe%2Bceltic%2Bworld&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOppidum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Woolf (1993), pp. 225–226</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Collis (2000), p. 238</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Crummy,_Philip_1997-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Crummy,_Philip_1997_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Crummy,_Philip_1997_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Crummy,_Philip_1997_31-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Crummy,_Philip_1997_31-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Crummy, Philip (1997) City of Victory; the story of Colchester – Britain's first Roman town. Published by Colchester Archaeological Trust (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1%2B897719%2B04%2B3" title="Special:BookSources/1+897719+04+3">1 897719 04 3</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Denney,_Patrick_2004-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Denney,_Patrick_2004_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Denney, Patrick (2004) Colchester. Published by Tempus Publishing (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-3214-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-3214-4">978-0-7524-3214-4</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk/?p=967">"Britain's biggest Iron Age dyke system gets even bigger"</a>. <i>www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk</i>. March 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 July</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk&rft.atitle=Britain%27s+biggest+Iron+Age+dyke+system+gets+even+bigger&rft.date=2011-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk%2F%3Fp%3D967&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOppidum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-roman-britain.org-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-roman-britain.org_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.roman-britain.org/places/camulodunum.htm">"Roman Britain"</a>. <i>www.roman-britain.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 July</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.roman-britain.org&rft.atitle=Roman+Britain&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.roman-britain.org%2Fplaces%2Fcamulodunum.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOppidum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHistoric_England384037" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Historic_England" title="Historic England">Historic England</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.heritagegateway.org.uk/Gateway/Results_Single.aspx?uid=384037&resourceID=19191">"Monument No. 384037"</a>. <i>Research records (formerly PastScape)</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 July</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Research+records+%28formerly+PastScape%29&rft.atitle=Monument+No.+384037&rft.au=Historic+England&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.heritagegateway.org.uk%2FGateway%2FResults_Single.aspx%3Fuid%3D384037%26resourceID%3D19191&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOppidum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arkeonews.net/3d-virtual-reconstruction-of-the-celtic-city-gate/">"Digital reconstruction of the Staffelberg oppidum"</a>. 2 May 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Digital+reconstruction+of+the+Staffelberg+oppidum&rft.date=2022-05-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farkeonews.net%2F3d-virtual-reconstruction-of-the-celtic-city-gate%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOppidum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McIntosh-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McIntosh_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McIntosh_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McIntosh_37-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">McIntosh (2009), p. 349</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation audio-visual cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kxRGJZydZwc"><i>Digital reconstruction of the Corent oppidum, France</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Digital+reconstruction+of+the+Corent+oppidum%2C+France&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DkxRGJZydZwc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOppidum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.man.es/man/actividades/congresos-y-reuniones/congresos-anteriores/2018/20180531-europa-celtica.html">"Ciudades y estados en la Europa céltica"</a>. <i>MAN - Museo Arqueológico Nacional</i>. 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=MAN+-+Museo+Arqueol%C3%B3gico+Nacional&rft.atitle=Ciudades+y+estados+en+la+Europa+c%C3%A9ltica&rft.date=2018&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.man.es%2Fman%2Factividades%2Fcongresos-y-reuniones%2Fcongresos-anteriores%2F2018%2F20180531-europa-celtica.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOppidum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Collis (2010), p. 31</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFichtl2018" class="citation book cs1">Fichtl, Stephan (March 2018). "Urbanization and Oppida". In Haslegrove, Colin; Rebay-Salisbury, Katharina; Wells, Peter (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/34750/chapter-abstract/296604683?redirectedFrom=fulltext"><i>The Oxford Handbook of the European Iron Age</i></a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">717–</span>740. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199696826.013.13">10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199696826.013.13</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-969682-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-969682-6"><bdi>978-0-19-969682-6</bdi></a>. <q>The structuring of Gaulish <i>civitas</i> territories implies that some oppida were true capitals. ... In the first century BC, Gaul was divided into around sixty <i>civitates</i>. These autonomous city-states were mostly organized around one or more <i>oppida</i> (Fichtl 2004). In some cases, it seems that one of these can be regarded effectively as a capital. This is apparent not only from archaeological data, but also from textual records.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Urbanization+and+Oppida&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+the+European+Iron+Age&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E717-%3C%2Fspan%3E740&rft.date=2018-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199696826.013.13&rft.isbn=978-0-19-969682-6&rft.aulast=Fichtl&rft.aufirst=Stephan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fedited-volume%2F34750%2Fchapter-abstract%2F296604683%3FredirectedFrom%3Dfulltext&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOppidum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCollis1995" class="citation book cs1">Collis, John (1995). "The first towns". In Green, Miranda (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vkV8bcgLbiAC&q=the+celtic+world"><i>The Celtic World</i></a>. Routledge. pp. <span class="nowrap">159–</span>173. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781135632434" title="Special:BookSources/9781135632434"><bdi>9781135632434</bdi></a>. <q>By the time Caesar reached Gaul, the predecessors of Roman and modern towns were already in existence as administrative and trading centres – Vesontio (Besancon), Durocororum (Reims), Lutetia (Paris), Avaricum (Bourges) and others. In the Celtic-speaking parts of Spain sites such as Numantia formed the major centres of resistance, while Camulodunum (Colchester) was considered the capital of Britain, sufficiently important for the Emperor Claudius himself to take part in its capture.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+first+towns&rft.btitle=The+Celtic+World&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E159-%3C%2Fspan%3E173&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=9781135632434&rft.aulast=Collis&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvkV8bcgLbiAC%26q%3Dthe%2Bceltic%2Bworld&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOppidum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated1-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://leute.server.de/wittur/Duens/oppidum.pdf">"Reconstruction of the Duensberg"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Reconstruction+of+the+Duensberg&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fleute.server.de%2Fwittur%2FDuens%2Foppidum.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOppidum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKrivanek" class="citation web cs1">Krivanek, Jaroslav. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cgg.mff.cuni.cz/~jaroslav/projects/celts/project.htm">"CGG Project: Virtual reconstruction of Celtic sites on the territory of the Czech Republic"</a>. <i>cgg.mff.cuni.cz</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=cgg.mff.cuni.cz&rft.atitle=CGG+Project%3A+Virtual+reconstruction+of+Celtic+sites+on+the+territory+of+the+Czech+Republic&rft.aulast=Krivanek&rft.aufirst=Jaroslav&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcgg.mff.cuni.cz%2F~jaroslav%2Fprojects%2Fcelts%2Fproject.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOppidum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h1vdB9keTmQ">"Digital reconstruction of the oppidum of Gondole"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/YouTube" title="YouTube">YouTube</a></i>. 20 April 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=YouTube&rft.atitle=Digital+reconstruction+of+the+oppidum+of+Gondole&rft.date=2017-04-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3Dh1vdB9keTmQ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOppidum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <p><b>Bibliography</b> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Collis" title="John Collis">Collis, John</a> (2000), "'Celtic' Oppida", in Hansen, Mogens Herman, <i>A Comparative Study of Thirty City-state Cultures</i>, <a href="/wiki/Det_Kongelige_Danske_Videnskabernes_Selskab" class="mw-redirect" title="Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab">Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab</a>, pp. 229–240, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/87-7876-177-8" title="Special:BookSources/87-7876-177-8">87-7876-177-8</a></li> <li>Collis, John (2010), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hillfortsstudygroup.org.uk/2010%20Celticus%20Bibracte19.pdf">"Why do we still dig Iron Age ramparts?"</a> (PDF), <i>Collection Bibracte</i> <b>19</b>: 27–36, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-909668-64-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-909668-64-2">978-2-909668-64-2</a></li> <li>Jones, Stephen (2001) <i>Deconstructing the Celts: a skeptic's guide to the archaeology of the Auvergne</i>. British Archaeological Reports. Oxford: Archaeopress. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84171-252-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84171-252-9">978-1-84171-252-9</a></li> <li>McIntosh, Jane (2009) <i>Handbook of Life in Prehistoric Europe</i> (paperback ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-538476-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-538476-5">978-0-19-538476-5</a></li> <li>Woolf, Greg (July 1993), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1468-0092.1993.tb00293.x/abstract">"Rethinking the Oppida"</a>, <i>Oxford Journal of Archaeology</i> <b>12</b>: 223–234</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oppidum&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316" /><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>Collis, John (1984), <i>Oppida, earliest towns north of the Alps</i>, Department of Prehistory and Archaeology, University of Sheffield, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780906090237" title="Special:BookSources/9780906090237">9780906090237</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barry_Cunliffe" title="Barry Cunliffe">Cunliffe, Barry</a> & Rowley, Trevor (eds.) (1976) <i>Oppida, the Beginnings of Urbanisation in Barbarian Europe: Papers Presented to a Conference at Oxford, October 1975</i>. British Archaeological Reports. Oxford: Archaeopress.</li> <li>Garcia, Dominique (2004) <i>La Celtique Méditeranée: habitats et sociétés en Languedoc et en Provence, VIII<sup>e</sup>–II<sup>e</sup> siècles av. J.–C.</i> chapter 4 <i>La « civilisation des oppida » : dynamique et chronologie</i>. Paris, Editions Errance. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-87772-286-4" title="Special:BookSources/2-87772-286-4">2-87772-286-4</a></li> <li>Sabatino Moscati, Otto Hermann Frey, Venceslas Kruta, Barry Raftery, Miklos Szabo (eds.) (1998) <i>The Celts</i>, Rizzoli</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oppidum&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/60px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Oppida" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Oppida">Oppida</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oppida.org/index.php">Multi-lingual site on European oppida</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Fortifications332" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Fortifications" title="Template:Fortifications"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Fortifications" title="Template talk:Fortifications"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Fortifications" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Fortifications"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Fortifications332" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Fortification" title="Fortification">Fortifications</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abatis" title="Abatis">Abatis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acropolis" title="Acropolis">Acropolis</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Agger_(ancient_Rome)" title="Agger (ancient Rome)">Agger</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Scots-language text"><i lang="sco"><a href="/wiki/Broch" title="Broch">Broch</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Burgus" title="Burgus">Burgus</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caltrop" title="Caltrop">Caltrop</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Castellum" title="Castellum">Castellum</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Castra" title="Castra">Castra</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es"><a href="/wiki/Castro_culture" title="Castro culture">Castros</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_city_wall" title="Chinese city wall">Chengqiang</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circular_rampart" title="Circular rampart">Circular rampart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_gate" title="City gate">City gate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crannog" title="Crannog">Crannog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ditch_(fortification)" title="Ditch (fortification)">Ditch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defensive_wall" title="Defensive wall">Defensive wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dun_(fortification)" title="Dun (fortification)">Dun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faussebraye" title="Faussebraye">Faussebraye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gatehouse" title="Gatehouse">Gatehouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gord_(archaeology)" title="Gord (archaeology)">Gord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hillfort" title="Hillfort">Hillfort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landwehr_(border)" title="Landwehr (border)">Landwehr</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Limes_(Roman_Empire)" title="Limes (Roman Empire)">Limes</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuraghe" title="Nuraghe">Nuraghe</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Oppidum</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palisade" title="Palisade">Palisade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pincer_gate" title="Pincer gate">Pincer gate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promontory_fort" title="Promontory fort">Promontory fort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rampart_(fortification)" title="Rampart (fortification)">Rampart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ringfort" title="Ringfort">Ringfort</a> (Rath)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refuge_castle" title="Refuge castle">Refuge castle</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Schwedenschanze" title="Schwedenschanze">Schwedenschanze</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stockade" title="Stockade">Stockade</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Sudis_(stake)" title="Sudis (stake)">Sudis</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Trou_de_loup" title="Trou de loup">Trou de loup</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Vallum" title="Vallum">Vallum</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wagon_fort" title="Wagon fort">Wagon fort</a> (<span title="Afrikaans-language text"><i lang="af">Laager</i></span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitrified_fort" title="Vitrified fort">Vitrified fort</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_fortification" title="Medieval fortification">Post-classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_work" title="Advanced work">Advanced work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albarrana_tower" title="Albarrana tower">Albarrana tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcazaba" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcazaba">Alcazaba</a></li> <li><span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es"><a href="/wiki/Alc%C3%A1zar" title="Alcázar">Alcázar</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amba_(landform)" title="Amba (landform)">Amba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrowslit" title="Arrowslit">Arrowslit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbican" title="Barbican">Barbican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bartizan" title="Bartizan">Bartizan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bastion" title="Bastion">Bastion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battery_tower" title="Battery tower">Battery tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battlement" title="Battlement">Battlement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bawn" title="Bawn">Bawn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bent_entrance" title="Bent entrance">Bent entrance</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Bergfried" title="Bergfried">Bergfried</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Berm" title="Berm">Berm</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boom_(navigational_barrier)" title="Boom (navigational barrier)">Boom</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Bret%C3%A8che" title="Bretèche">Bretèche</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bridge_castle" title="Bridge castle">Bridge castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bridge_tower" title="Bridge tower">Bridge tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burh" title="Burh">Burh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butter-churn_tower" title="Butter-churn tower">Butter-churn tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caer" title="Caer">Caer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castle" title="Castle">Castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamber_gate" title="Chamber gate">Chamber gate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chartaque" title="Chartaque">Chartaque</a></li> <li><span title="Japanese-language text"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Chashi" title="Chashi">Chashi</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Chemin_de_ronde" title="Chemin de ronde">Chemin de ronde</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Chemise_(wall)" title="Chemise (wall)">Chemise</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Cheval_de_frise" title="Cheval de frise">Cheval de frise</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citadel" title="Citadel">Citadel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coercion_castle" title="Coercion castle">Coercion castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentric_castle" title="Concentric castle">Concentric castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corner_tower" title="Corner tower">Corner tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-castle" title="Counter-castle">Counter-castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curtain_wall_(fortification)" title="Curtain wall (fortification)">Curtain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drawbridge" title="Drawbridge">Drawbridge</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Enceinte" title="Enceinte">Enceinte</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Embrasure" title="Embrasure">Embrasure</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flanking_tower" title="Flanking tower">Flanking tower</a></li> <li>Fortified buildings (<a href="/wiki/Fortified_church" title="Fortified church">church</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fortified_house" title="Fortified house">house</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dzong_architecture" title="Dzong architecture">Dzong</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fujian_tulou" title="Fujian tulou">Fujian tulou</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ganerbenburg" title="Ganerbenburg">Ganerbenburg</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gate_tower" title="Gate tower">Gate tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabion" title="Gabion">Gabion</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Glacis" title="Glacis">Glacis</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guard_tower" class="mw-redirect" title="Guard tower">Guard tower</a></li> <li><span title="Russian-language text"><i lang="ru-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Gulyay-gorod" title="Gulyay-gorod">Gulyay-gorod</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Japanese-language text"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Gusuku" title="Gusuku">Gusuku</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Half_tower" title="Half tower">Half tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoarding_(castle)" title="Hoarding (castle)">Hoarding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inner_bailey" title="Inner bailey">Inner bailey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kasbah" title="Kasbah">Kasbah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keep" title="Keep">Keep</a></li> <li><span title="Russian-language text"><i lang="ru-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Kremlin_(fortification)" title="Kremlin (fortification)">Kremlin</a></i></span> <small>(<span title="Russian-language text"><i lang="ru-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Detinets" title="Detinets">Detinets</a></i></span>)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ksar" title="Ksar">Ksar</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Landesburg" title="Landesburg">Landesburg</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loophole" title="Loophole">Loophole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L-plan_castle" title="L-plan castle">L-plan castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machicolation" title="Machicolation">Machicolation</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Merlon" title="Merlon">Merlon</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moat" title="Moat">Moat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motte-and-bailey_castle" title="Motte-and-bailey castle">Motte-and-bailey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_hole" title="Murder hole">Murder hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neck_ditch" title="Neck ditch">Neck ditch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outer_bailey" title="Outer bailey">Outer bailey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outwork" title="Outwork">Outwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parapet" title="Parapet">Parapet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peel_tower" title="Peel tower">Peel tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portcullis" title="Portcullis">Portcullis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postern" title="Postern">Postern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Powder_tower" title="Powder tower">Powder tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qalat_(fortress)" title="Qalat (fortress)">Qalat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reduit" title="Reduit">Reduit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ribat" title="Ribat">Ribat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ricetto" title="Ricetto">Ricetto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ringwork" title="Ringwork">Ringwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roundel_(fortification)" title="Roundel (fortification)">Roundel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrangular_castle" title="Quadrangular castle">Quadrangular castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shell_keep" title="Shell keep">Shell keep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shield_wall_(castle)" title="Shield wall (castle)">Shield wall</a></li> <li><span title="Japanese-language text"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Japanese_castle" title="Japanese castle">Shiro</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toll_castle" title="Toll castle">Toll castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tower_castle" title="Tower castle">Tower castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tower_house" title="Tower house">Tower house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turret_(architecture)" title="Turret (architecture)">Turret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_ring_fortress" title="Viking ring fortress">Viking ring fortress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortified_tower" title="Fortified tower">Wall tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bailey_(castle)" title="Bailey (castle)">Bailey (or ward)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watchtower" title="Watchtower">Watchtower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_tower" title="Witch tower">Witch tower</a></li> <li><span title="Japanese-language text"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Yagura_(tower)" title="Yagura (tower)">Yagura</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yett" title="Yett">Yett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zwinger" title="Zwinger">Zwinger</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:3em">Early modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Abwurfdach" class="mw-redirect" title="Abwurfdach">Abwurfdach</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arsenal" title="Arsenal">Arsenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barricade" title="Barricade">Barricade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bastion" title="Bastion">Bastion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockhouse" title="Blockhouse">Blockhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breastwork_(fortification)" title="Breastwork (fortification)">Breastwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canal" title="Canal">Canal</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Caponier" title="Caponier">Caponier</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casemate" title="Casemate">Casemate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavalier_(fortification)" title="Cavalier (fortification)">Cavalier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterguard" title="Counterguard">Counterguard</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Couvreface" title="Couvreface">Couvreface</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Coupure" title="Coupure">Coupure</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Covertway" title="Covertway">Covertway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crownwork" title="Crownwork">Crownwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Device_Forts" title="Device Forts">Device Forts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entrenchment_(fortification)" title="Entrenchment (fortification)">Entrenchment</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Fl%C3%A8che_(fortification)" title="Flèche (fortification)">Flèche</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorge_(fortification)" title="Gorge (fortification)">Gorge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunpowder_magazine" title="Gunpowder magazine">Gunpowder magazine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hornwork" title="Hornwork">Hornwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kotta_mara" title="Kotta mara">Kotta mara</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Lunette_(fortification)" title="Lunette (fortification)">Lunette</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magazine_(artillery)" title="Magazine (artillery)">Magazine</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Orillon" title="Orillon">Orillon</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Russian-language text"><i lang="ru-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Ostrog_(fortress)" title="Ostrog (fortress)">Ostrog</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palanka_(fortification)" title="Palanka (fortification)">Palanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Place-of-arms" title="Place-of-arms">Place-of-arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polygonal_fort" title="Polygonal fort">Polygonal fort</a></li> <li><span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es"><a href="/wiki/Presidio" title="Presidio">Presidio</a></i></span> (Spanish America)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punji_stick" title="Punji stick">Punji sticks</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Ravelin" title="Ravelin">Ravelin</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Redan" title="Redan">Redan</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redoubt" title="Redoubt">Redoubt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrenchment_(military)" title="Retrenchment (military)">Retrenchment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sally_port" title="Sally port">Sally port</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandbag" title="Sandbag">Sandbag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterscarp" title="Counterscarp">Scarp and Counterscarp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sconce_(fortification)" title="Sconce (fortification)">Sconce</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Schanze" title="Schanze">Schanze</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_fort" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea fort">Sea fort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Station_(frontier_defensive_structure)" title="Station (frontier defensive structure)">Station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Star_fort" class="mw-redirect" title="Star fort">Star fort</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Tenaille" title="Tenaille">Tenaille</a></i></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:3em">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barbed_wire" title="Barbed wire">Barbed wire</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Barbette" title="Barbette">Barbette</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Border_outpost" title="Border outpost">Border outpost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bunker" title="Bunker">Bunker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_artillery" title="Coastal artillery">Coastal artillery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disappearing_gun" title="Disappearing gun">Disappearing gun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_control_tower" title="Fire control tower">Fire control tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_turret" title="Gun turret">Gun turret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_mine" title="Land mine">Land mine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martello_tower" title="Martello tower">Martello tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outpost_(military)" title="Outpost (military)">Outpost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polygonal_fort" title="Polygonal fort">Polygonal fort</a></li> <li><span title="Persian-language text"><i lang="fa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Sangar_(fortification)" title="Sangar (fortification)">Sangar</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wire_obstacle" title="Wire obstacle">Wire obstacles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:3em">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Admiralty_scaffolding" title="Admiralty scaffolding">Admiralty scaffolding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_raid_shelter" title="Air raid shelter">Air raid shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-tank_trench" title="Anti-tank trench">Anti-tank trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbed_tape" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbed tape">Barbed tape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cointet-element" title="Cointet-element">Belgian gate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blast_shelter" title="Blast shelter">Blast shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blast_wall" title="Blast wall">Blast wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Border_security" class="mw-redirect" title="Border security">Border security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bomb_shelter" title="Bomb shelter">Bomb shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buoy_anti-tank_obstacle" title="Buoy anti-tank obstacle">Buoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bremer_wall" title="Bremer wall">Bremer wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concertina_wire" title="Concertina wire">Concertina wire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defensive_fighting_position" title="Defensive fighting position">Defensive fighting position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_anti-invasion_preparations_of_the_Second_World_War#Lines_and_islands" title="British anti-invasion preparations of the Second World War">British "hedgehog" road block</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_hedgehog" title="Czech hedgehog">Czech hedgehog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dragon%27s_teeth_(fortification)" title="Dragon's teeth (fortification)">Dragon's teeth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forward_operating_base" title="Forward operating base">Entry control point (ECP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_fence" title="Electric fence">Electric fence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallout_shelter" title="Fallout shelter">Fallout shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_support_base" title="Fire support base">Fire support base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flak_tower" title="Flak tower">Flak tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardened_aircraft_shelter" title="Hardened aircraft shelter">Hardened aircraft shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hesco_bastion" title="Hesco bastion">Hesco bastion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabal_(earthworks)" title="Kabal (earthworks)">Kabal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loophole_(firearm)" title="Loophole (firearm)">Loophole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Main_line_of_resistance" title="Main line of resistance">Main line of resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missile_launch_facility" title="Missile launch facility">Missile launch facility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pillbox_(military)" title="Pillbox (military)">Pillbox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revetment_(aircraft)" title="Revetment (aircraft)">Revetment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentry_gun" title="Sentry gun">Sentry gun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spider_hole" title="Spider hole">Spider hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_pen" title="Submarine pen">Submarine pen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_hangar" title="Underground hangar">Underground hangar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weapon_storage_area" title="Weapon storage area">Weapon storage area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weapons_Storage_and_Security_System" title="Weapons Storage and Security System">Weapons Storage and Security System</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By topography</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cave_castle" title="Cave castle">Cave castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hill_castle" title="Hill castle">Hill castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hillfort" title="Hillfort">Hillfort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hillside_castle" title="Hillside castle">Hillside castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilltop_castle" title="Hilltop castle">Hilltop castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Island_castle" title="Island castle">Island castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lowland_castle" title="Lowland castle">Lowland castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsh_castle" title="Marsh castle">Marsh castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_castle" title="Water castle">Moated castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promontory_fort" title="Promontory fort">Promontory fort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ridge_castle" title="Ridge castle">Ridge castle</a></li> <li><span title="Italian-language text"><i lang="it"><a href="/wiki/Rocca_(fortification)" title="Rocca (fortification)">Rocca</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_castle" title="Rock castle">Rock castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spur_castle" title="Spur castle">Spur castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_castle" title="Water castle">Water castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kotta_mara" title="Kotta mara">Floating water castle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By role</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Border_barrier" title="Border barrier">Border barrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_defence_and_fortification" title="Coastal defence and fortification">Coastal defence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coercion_castle" title="Coercion castle">Coercion castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-castle" title="Counter-castle">Counter-castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fence" title="Fence">Fence</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ganerbenburg" title="Ganerbenburg">Ganerbenburg</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jagdschloss" title="Jagdschloss">Hunting lodge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_castle" title="Imperial castle">Imperial castle</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Kaiserpfalz" title="Kaiserpfalz">Kaiserpfalz</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Landesburg" title="Landesburg">Landesburg</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Lustschloss" title="Lustschloss">Lustschloss</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_base" title="Military base">Military base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstacle" title="Obstacle">Obstacle</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Ordensburg" title="Ordensburg">Ordensburg</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refuge_castle" title="Refuge castle">Refuge castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toll_castle" title="Toll castle">Toll castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_castle" title="Urban castle">Urban castle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By design</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bastion_fort" title="Bastion fort">Bastion fort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bridge_castle" title="Bridge castle">Bridge castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circular_rampart" title="Circular rampart">Circular rampart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentric_castle" title="Concentric castle">Concentric castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L-plan_castle" title="L-plan castle">L-plan castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motte-and-bailey_castle" title="Motte-and-bailey castle">Motte-and-bailey castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrangular_castle" title="Quadrangular castle">Quadrangular castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ringfort" title="Ringfort">Ringfort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ringwork" title="Ringwork">Ringwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tower_castle" title="Tower castle">Tower castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z-plan_castle" title="Z-plan castle">Z-plan castle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_bastion_forts" title="List of bastion forts">Bastion forts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_castles" title="List of castles">Castles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_with_defensive_walls" title="List of cities with defensive walls">Cities with defensive walls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_line" title="Defense line">Defense line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortified_estate" class="mw-redirect" title="Fortified estate">Fortified estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fortifications" title="List of fortifications">Fortifications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_forts" title="List of forts">Forts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_military_installations" title="Lists of military installations">Military installations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_walls" title="List of walls">Walls</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related word</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castle_town" title="Castle town">Castle town</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau" title="Château">Château</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungeon" title="Dungeon">Dungeon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festung" title="Festung">Festung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortified_gateway" title="Fortified gateway">Fortified gateway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gatekeeper" title="Gatekeeper">Gatekeeper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loophole_(firearm)" title="Loophole (firearm)">Loophole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_redoubt" title="National redoubt">National redoubt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palas" title="Palas">Palas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picket_(military)" title="Picket (military)">Picket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schloss" title="Schloss">Schloss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trench" title="Trench">Trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedette_(sentry)" title="Vedette (sentry)">Vedette</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_defense" title="Civil defense">Civil defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuity_of_government" title="Continuity of government">Continuity of government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_urbanism" title="Military urbanism">Military urbanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_warfare" title="Subterranean warfare">Subterranean warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege" title="Siege">Siege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_engine" title="Siege engine">Siege engine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_siege_engines" title="List of siege engines">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel_warfare" title="Tunnel warfare">Tunnel warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trench_warfare" title="Trench warfare">Trench warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_warfare" title="Urban warfare">Urban warfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_guerrilla_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban guerrilla warfare">Guerrilla</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nobold">See also</span>: <b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Fortification" title="Category:Fortification">Category</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox419" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192601#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/007866">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oppidum&oldid=1258349831">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oppidum&oldid=1258349831</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Oppida" title="Category:Oppida">Oppida</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Archaeological_sites_in_Europe" title="Category:Archaeological sites in Europe">Archaeological sites in Europe</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Celtic_archaeological_sites" title="Category:Celtic archaeological sites">Celtic archaeological sites</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Former_populated_places" title="Category:Former populated places">Former populated places</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Iron_Age_Europe" title="Category:Iron Age Europe">Iron Age Europe</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:La_T%C3%A8ne_culture" title="Category:La Tène culture">La Tène culture</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_errors:_periodical_ignored" title="Category:CS1 errors: periodical ignored">CS1 errors: periodical ignored</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_German-language_sources_(de)" title="Category:CS1 German-language sources (de)">CS1 German-language sources (de)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_August_2022" title="Category:Use dmy dates from August 2022">Use dmy dates from August 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Latin-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Latin-language text">Articles containing Latin-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Proto-Indo-European-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Proto-Indo-European-language text">Articles containing Proto-Indo-European-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Spanish-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Spanish-language text">Articles containing Spanish-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_is_on_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons category link is on Wikidata">Commons category link is on Wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 19 November 2024, at 05:35<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oppidum&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://www.wikimedia.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia.svg" width="25" height="25" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" lang="en" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" width="88" height="31"><img src="/w/resources/assets/mediawiki_compact.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" lang="en" width="25" height="25" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-header-container vector-sticky-header-container"> <div id="vector-sticky-header" class="vector-sticky-header"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-start"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-start vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" aria-hidden="true"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-sticky-header-search-toggle" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.vector-sticky-search-form.icon"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </button> </div> <div role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box"> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="vector-sticky-search-form" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia"> <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-sticky-header-toc vector-sticky-header-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-sticky-header-toc-label" for="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar-primary" aria-hidden="true" ><i>Oppidum</i></div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-end" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icons"> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-talk-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="talk-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbles mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbles"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-subject-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="subject-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-article mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-article"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-history-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="history-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-history mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-history"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only mw-watchlink" id="ca-watchstar-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="watch-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-star mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-star"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="wikitext-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikiText mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-wikiText"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-ve-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-edit mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-edit"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-viewsource-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-protected-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-editLock mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-editLock"></span> <span></span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-buttons"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet mw-interlanguage-selector" id="p-lang-btn-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-language"></span> <span>49 languages</span> </button> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbleAdd-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbleAdd-progressive"></span> <span>Add topic</span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="mw-portlet mw-portlet-dock-bottom emptyPortlet" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul> </ul> </div> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.eqiad.main-d6f4c4464-qmn5c","wgBackendResponseTime":206,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.179","walltime":"1.456","ppvisitednodes":{"value":8966,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":153461,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":4022,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":16,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":11,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":162317,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1208.176 1 -total"," 27.07% 327.003 1 Template:Reflist"," 17.73% 214.225 2 Template:Navbox"," 16.60% 200.568 60 Template:Lang"," 16.51% 199.492 1 Template:Fortifications"," 12.81% 154.814 13 Template:Cite_web"," 7.55% 91.228 17 Template:Cite_book"," 6.96% 84.045 1 Template:Short_description"," 6.67% 80.577 9 Template:Rp"," 5.95% 71.916 9 Template:R/superscript"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.669","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":22983527,"limit":52428800}},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.eqiad.main-65bf7dbd64-8cqkg","timestamp":"20250325193410","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Oppidum","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oppidum","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q192601","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q192601","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2004-05-13T19:56:41Z","dateModified":"2024-11-19T05:35:50Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/8\/81\/KMM_-_Osttor_Oppidum_2.jpg","headline":"large hilltop and fortified Iron Age settlement in Western Europe"}</script> </body> </html>