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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Asia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>India</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tibet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tibet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Tibet</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tibet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Japan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.3</span> <span>Japan</span> 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vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hawaii"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Hawaii</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hawaii-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_Zealand" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_Zealand"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2</span> <span>New Zealand</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_Zealand-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-North_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>North America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Great_Plains" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Great_Plains"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 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and Ireland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Great_Britain_and_Ireland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Italy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Italy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.2</span> <span>Italy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Italy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_examples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_examples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.3</span> <span>Other examples</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_examples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul 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href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excarnaci%C3%B3" title="Excarnació – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Excarnació" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dekarnation" title="Dekarnation – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Dekarnation" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excarnaci%C3%B3n" title="Excarnación – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Excarnación" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%8C_%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="پاکسازی مردار – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پاکسازی مردار" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excarnation" title="Excarnation – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Excarnation" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekskarnasi" title="Ekskarnasi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Ekskarnasi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Annual_report_of_the_Bureau_of_ethnology_to_the_secretary_of_the_Smithsonian_Institution_%281881%29_%2814782082584%29.jpg/250px-Annual_report_of_the_Bureau_of_ethnology_to_the_secretary_of_the_Smithsonian_Institution_%281881%29_%2814782082584%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="344" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Annual_report_of_the_Bureau_of_ethnology_to_the_secretary_of_the_Smithsonian_Institution_%281881%29_%2814782082584%29.jpg/330px-Annual_report_of_the_Bureau_of_ethnology_to_the_secretary_of_the_Smithsonian_Institution_%281881%29_%2814782082584%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Annual_report_of_the_Bureau_of_ethnology_to_the_secretary_of_the_Smithsonian_Institution_%281881%29_%2814782082584%29.jpg/500px-Annual_report_of_the_Bureau_of_ethnology_to_the_secretary_of_the_Smithsonian_Institution_%281881%29_%2814782082584%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1612" data-file-height="2520" /></a><figcaption>Zoroastrian <a href="/wiki/Towers_Of_Silence" class="mw-redirect" title="Towers Of Silence">Towers Of Silence</a> are examples of excarnation.</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a>, the term <b>excarnation</b> (also known as <b>defleshing</b>) refers to the practice of removing the flesh and organs of <a href="/wiki/Cadaver" title="Cadaver">the dead</a> before <a href="/wiki/Disposal_of_the_dead" class="mw-redirect" title="Disposal of the dead">burial</a>. Excarnation may be achieved through natural means, such as leaving a dead body exposed to the elements or for animals to <a href="/wiki/Scavenger" title="Scavenger">scavenge</a>; or by butchering the corpse by hand. Following excarnation, some societies retrieved the excarnated bones for burial.<sup id="cite_ref-curation_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-curation-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Excarnation has been practiced throughout the world for hundreds of thousands of years. The earliest archaeological evidence of excarnation is from the Awash River Valley in Ethiopia, 160,000 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Examples of excarnation include "<a href="/wiki/Sky_burial" title="Sky burial">sky burials</a>" in parts of Asia, the <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrian</a> "<a href="/wiki/Tower_of_Silence" title="Tower of Silence">Tower of Silence</a>", and Native American "<a href="/wiki/Burial_tree" title="Burial tree">tree burials</a>". Excarnation is practiced for a variety of spiritual and practical reasons, including the Tibetian spiritual belief that excarnation is the most generous form of burial<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Comanche" title="Comanche">Comanche</a> practical concern that in the winter the ground is too hard for an underground burial.<sup id="cite_ref-:0a_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0a-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Excarnation sites are identifiable in the archaeological record by a concentration of smaller bones (like fingers or toes), which would be the bones that would be the easiest to fall off the body, and that would not be noticed by practitioners of excarnation.<sup id="cite_ref-:0a_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0a-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methodology">Methodology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Excarnation&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Methodology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Identification_of_excarnation">Identification of excarnation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Excarnation&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Identification of excarnation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From the pattern of marks on some human bones at prehistoric sites, researchers have inferred that members of the community removed the flesh from the bones as part of its burial practices.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-curation_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-curation-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since <a href="/wiki/Metatarsals" class="mw-redirect" title="Metatarsals">metatarsals</a>, finger bones and toe bones are very small, they would easily fall through gaps in a woven structure or roll off the side during this removal. Thus a site where only small bones are found is suggestive of ritual excarnation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Distinguishing_excarnation_from_cannibalism">Distinguishing excarnation from cannibalism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Excarnation&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Distinguishing excarnation from cannibalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Archaeologists seeking to study the practice of ritual excarnation in the archeological record must differentiate between the removal of flesh as a burial practice, and as a precursor to <a href="/wiki/Human_cannibalism" title="Human cannibalism">cannibalism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0b_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0b-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When human bones exhibiting signs of flesh removal are discovered in the fossil record, a variety of criteria can be used to distinguish between the two. One common approach is to compare the tool marks and other cuts on the bones with butchered animal bones from the same site, with the assumption that cannibalized humans would have been prepared like any other meat, whereas excarnated bodies would be prepared differently. Cannibalized bones, in contrast to excarnated bones, may also exhibit telltale signs such as human tooth marks, broken long bones (to facilitate marrow extraction), and signs of cooking, such as "pot polishing".<sup id="cite_ref-:0b_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0b-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pot polishing refers to the smoothing and beveling that is observed in bones that have come into contact with the abrasive inner surface of a cooking vessel.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="By_region">By region</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Excarnation&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: By region"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Africa">Africa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Excarnation&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Excarnation&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Ethiopia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>160,000 years ago, <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_sapiens_idaltu" class="mw-redirect" title="Homo sapiens idaltu">Homo sapiens idaltu</a></i> in the <a href="/wiki/Awash_River" title="Awash River">Awash River</a> Valley (near present-day <a href="/wiki/Bouri_Formation#Herto" title="Bouri Formation">Herto village</a>, Ethiopia) practiced excarnation.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Asia">Asia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Excarnation&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="India">India</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Excarnation&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: India"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Parsis in Mumbai maintain a hilltop reserve, the Doongerwadi forest, in <a href="/wiki/Malabar_Hill" title="Malabar Hill">Malabar Hill</a> with several <a href="/wiki/Tower_of_Silence" title="Tower of Silence">Towers of Silence</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to a decline in <a href="/wiki/Vulture" title="Vulture">vultures</a> in India (due to changes in animal husbandry practices) the traditional excarnation practice has faced pressure to evolve while still serving the same purpose, so the trustees of the reserve introduced solar concentrators at the towers.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-grave_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-grave-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other scavenger birds play a part but are not as efficient as vultures.<sup id="cite_ref-grave_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-grave-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tibet">Tibet</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Excarnation&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Tibet"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Skeletonskyburial.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Skeletonskyburial.jpg/250px-Skeletonskyburial.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Skeletonskyburial.jpg/330px-Skeletonskyburial.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Skeletonskyburial.jpg/500px-Skeletonskyburial.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="750" /></a><figcaption>A Tibetan <a href="/wiki/Sky_burial" title="Sky burial">sky burial</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Practices making use of natural processes for excarnation include Tibetan <a href="/wiki/Sky_burial" title="Sky burial">sky burials</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Archaeologists believe that in this practice, people typically left the body exposed on a woven litter or altar. Following excarnation, the litter with its remains would be removed from the site. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Japan">Japan</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Excarnation&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Japan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In modern Japan, where <a href="/wiki/Cremation" title="Cremation">cremation</a> is predominant, it is common for close relatives of the deceased to transfer, using special chopsticks, the remaining bones from the ashes to a special jar in which they will be interred. However, in <a href="/wiki/Yamato_period" title="Yamato period">ancient Japanese society</a>, prior to the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> and the funerary practice of cremation, the corpse was exposed in a manner very similar to the <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_sky_burial" class="mw-redirect" title="Tibetan sky burial">Tibetan sky burial</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pakistan">Pakistan</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Excarnation&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Pakistan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Kalash_people" title="Kalash people">Kalash</a> people of Pakistan until recently (mid 1980s) practiced above ground burial in large wooden coffins called Bahg'a where the dead were laid with all their best belongings in cemeteries called Madokjal or place of many coffins. This tradition had been dying off with the last being the burial of a shaman in 1985, until the burial in 2016 of Batakeen of Anish village <a href="/wiki/Bumburet" title="Bumburet">Bumburet</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Indonesia">Indonesia</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Excarnation&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Indonesia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Bali_Aga" title="Bali Aga">Bali Aga</a> people of <a href="/wiki/Trunyan" title="Trunyan">Trunyan</a> village on <a href="/wiki/Lake_Batur" title="Lake Batur">Lake Batur</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bali" title="Bali">Bali</a> practice customs found nowhere else on the island. These are the mountain Balinese, and they practice Animistic traditions that predate the arrival of Hinduism in Bali. The burial custom here is for the bodies to be laid on the ground and left to decompose, with a cloth cover or a bamboo cage. Once the decomposition is complete, the bones are placed on a stair shaped altar 500 feet to the north. A large banyan tree known as <i>taru menyan</i> (literally translated as "nice smelling tree") is thought to take away bad smells. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pacific">Pacific</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Excarnation&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Pacific"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hawaii">Hawaii</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Excarnation&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Hawaii"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Pre-contact Hawaiians ritually defleshed the bones of high-ranking nobles (<i>ali'i</i>) so that they could be interred in reliquaries for later veneration. The remains of <a href="/wiki/James_Cook" title="James Cook">Captain Cook</a>, who the Hawaiians had believed to be the god <a href="/wiki/Lono" title="Lono">Lono</a>, were treated this way after his death. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="New_Zealand">New Zealand</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Excarnation&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: New Zealand"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Moriori_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Moriori people">Moriori people</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Chatham_Islands" title="Chatham Islands">Chatham Islands</a> placed their dead in a sitting position in the sand dunes looking out to sea; others were strapped to young trees in the forest. In time, the tree grew into and through the bones, making them one. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="North_America">North America</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Excarnation&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: North America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Great_Plains">Great Plains</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Excarnation&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Great Plains"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Funeral_scaffold_of_a_Sioux_chief_0044v.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Funeral_scaffold_of_a_Sioux_chief_0044v.jpg/250px-Funeral_scaffold_of_a_Sioux_chief_0044v.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Funeral_scaffold_of_a_Sioux_chief_0044v.jpg/330px-Funeral_scaffold_of_a_Sioux_chief_0044v.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Funeral_scaffold_of_a_Sioux_chief_0044v.jpg/500px-Funeral_scaffold_of_a_Sioux_chief_0044v.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3986" data-file-height="3344" /></a><figcaption>Tree burial of a Sioux chief</figcaption></figure> <p>Air burials (also known as tree burials) are a form of secondary burial, where a body is placed above ground either in a tree or on scaffolding. After an extended period of time (months to years) the remains are excarnated and buried underground. Air burials were practiced throughout the Great Plains by many different societies, including the <a href="/wiki/Comanche" title="Comanche">Comanche</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-:0a_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0a-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Blackfeet_Nation" title="Blackfeet Nation">Blackfeet</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Sioux" title="Sioux">Sioux</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Dakota_people" title="Dakota people">Dakota</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-:1_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Cheyenne" title="Cheyenne">Cheyenne</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Mandan" title="Mandan">Mandans</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Crow_people" title="Crow people">Crow</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Air burials were practiced for both spiritual and practical reasons. Some tribes, like the Sioux and the Lakota, believed that elevating remains would better facilitate a spirit's journey outside of their body.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, elevating remains protected the bodies from being eaten by wolves and allowed a way to manage disease when burial was not possible, like in the winter when the ground was too hard.<sup id="cite_ref-:0a_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0a-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lastly, some nomadic groups had specific burial grounds that they only visited once a year.<sup id="cite_ref-:0a_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0a-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These groups used air burial to care for the dead while waiting to return to their burial grounds. </p><p>Due to the temporary nature of air burials and because scaffoldings were made out of perishable materials, like wood, air burials leave behind little archaeological evidence. Thus much of the evidence of air burials come from ethnographic sources. However, some archaeological sites have been discovered where archaeologists believe excarnation occurred as remains were transfer from the primary air burial to their final resting place or to a secondary air burials site. These sites are identifiable by a concentration of smaller bones (like fingers or toes), which would be the bones that would be the easiest to fall off the body, and that would not be noticed by practitioners of excarnation.<sup id="cite_ref-:0a_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0a-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After colonization, the U.S. government made air burial illegal, as it conflicted with the nation's Christian ideals.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, in recent years, air burial has been allowed on reservation, leading to a small number of people returning to the practice of air burial.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pacific_Northwest">Pacific Northwest</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Excarnation&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Pacific Northwest"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Canoe burials were a primary form of burial among the Chinookan-speaking tribes of the Columbia River. Bodies would be wrapped in blankets and placed inside a canoe with personal items. Wealthier families would sometimes top the burial canoe with a second, larger canoe to keep out the rain. The canoe(s) would then be placed in a tree.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1830, <a href="/wiki/Comcomly" title="Comcomly">Chinook chief Comcomly</a> died and was buried via canoe burial at a family burial ground.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Europe">Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Excarnation&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Great_Britain_and_Ireland">Great Britain and Ireland</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Excarnation&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Great Britain and Ireland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There is evidence of excarnation in Great Britain and Ireland during the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Europe" title="Neolithic Europe">Neolithic</a>, whereby bodies would be left to decompose in an open-air <a href="/wiki/Mortuary_enclosure" title="Mortuary enclosure">mortuary enclosure</a>, on an excarnation platform, or in a sealed cave, before the bones were deposited elsewhere.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Italy">Italy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Excarnation&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Italy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Neolithic farmers living in <a href="/wiki/Tavoliere_delle_Puglie" title="Tavoliere delle Puglie">Tavoliere, Italy</a>, over 7000 years ago, practiced ritual defleshing of the dead. Light cut marks suggest that the bones were defleshed up to a year after death. The bones were deposited in <a href="/wiki/Scaloria_Cave" title="Scaloria Cave">Scaloria Cave</a> and, when excavated, were mixed with animal bones, broken pottery and stone tools.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_examples">Other examples</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Excarnation&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Other examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Europe during the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> and <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Europe" title="Early modern Europe">early modern period</a>, defleshing was a mortuary procedure used mainly to prepare human remains for transport over long distances. The practice was used almost exclusively for nobility. The practice was known as <i><a href="/wiki/Mos_Teutonicus" title="Mos Teutonicus">mos teutonicus</a></i>, or active excarnation. The bodies were broken down differently than solely defleshing, as they were cut up and boiled in either wine, water, or vinegar.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The practice involved the removal of skin, muscles, and organs from a body, leaving only the bones. In this procedure, the head, arms, and legs were detached from the body. The process often left telltale cuts on the bones. Pope <a href="/wiki/Boniface_VIII" class="mw-redirect" title="Boniface VIII">Boniface VIII</a> banned in the practice in a papal bull in 1299. </p><p>One notable example of a person who underwent excarnation following death was <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The American Revolutionary War general, <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Wayne" title="Anthony Wayne">Anthony Wayne</a>, also underwent a form of excarnation.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>King <a href="/wiki/Louis_IX_of_France" title="Louis IX of France">Louis IX of France</a> is said to have been defleshed by boiling his corpse until the flesh separated from the bones. This was intended to preserve his bones, to avoid decay of the remains during their return to France from the <a href="/wiki/Eighth_Crusade" title="Eighth Crusade">Eighth Crusade</a>, and to provide relics.<sup id="cite_ref-Westerhof_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Westerhof-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Excarnation&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_burial" title="Natural burial">Natural burial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ossuary" title="Ossuary">Ossuary</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Excarnation&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-curation-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-curation_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-curation_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBoothBruck2020" class="citation journal cs1">Booth, Thomas; Bruck, Joanna (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://research-information.bris.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/portal/220648872/Curation_Manuscript_Revised_Final.pdf">"Radiocarbon and histo-taphonomic evidence for curation and excarnation of human remains in Bronze Age Britain"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Antiquity</i>. <b>94</b> (377): <span class="nowrap">1186–</span>1203. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.15184%2Faqy.2020.152">10.15184/aqy.2020.152</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1983%2Fb0e52b84-8d38-4419-92a0-1be5ff8cd1fc">1983/b0e52b84-8d38-4419-92a0-1be5ff8cd1fc</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:224969196">224969196</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Antiquity&rft.atitle=Radiocarbon+and+histo-taphonomic+evidence+for+curation+and+excarnation+of+human+remains+in+Bronze+Age+Britain.&rft.volume=94&rft.issue=377&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1186-%3C%2Fspan%3E1203&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1983%2Fb0e52b84-8d38-4419-92a0-1be5ff8cd1fc&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A224969196%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.15184%2Faqy.2020.152&rft.aulast=Booth&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft.au=Bruck%2C+Joanna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fresearch-information.bris.ac.uk%2Fws%2Fportalfiles%2Fportal%2F220648872%2FCuration_Manuscript_Revised_Final.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExcarnation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFClarkBeyeneWoldeGabrielHart2003" class="citation journal cs1">Clark, J. 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"Stratigraphic, chronological and behavioural contexts of Pleistocene Homo sapiens from Middle Awash, Ethiopia". <i>Nature</i>. <b>423</b> (6941): <span class="nowrap">747–</span>752. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003Natur.423..747C">2003Natur.423..747C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature01670">10.1038/nature01670</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12802333">12802333</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4312418">4312418</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Stratigraphic%2C+chronological+and+behavioural+contexts+of+Pleistocene+Homo+sapiens+from+Middle+Awash%2C+Ethiopia&rft.volume=423&rft.issue=6941&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E747-%3C%2Fspan%3E752&rft.date=2003-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature01670&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4312418%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12802333&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003Natur.423..747C&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=J.+Desmond&rft.au=Beyene%2C+Yonas&rft.au=WoldeGabriel%2C+Giday&rft.au=Hart%2C+William+K.&rft.au=Renne%2C+Paul+R.&rft.au=Gilbert%2C+Henry&rft.au=Defleur%2C+Alban&rft.au=Suwa%2C+Gen&rft.au=Katoh%2C+Shigehiro&rft.au=Ludwig%2C+Kenneth+R.&rft.au=Boisserie%2C+Jean-Renaud&rft.au=Asfaw%2C+Berhane&rft.au=White%2C+Tim+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExcarnation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://people.howstuffworks.com/culture-traditions/cultural-traditions/sky-burial.htm">"How Sky Burial Works"</a>. 25 July 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+Sky+Burial+Works&rft.date=2011-07-25&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpeople.howstuffworks.com%2Fculture-traditions%2Fcultural-traditions%2Fsky-burial.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExcarnation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0a-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0a_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0a_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0a_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0a_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0a_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0a_4-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMillar1981" class="citation journal cs1">Millar, J. 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New York: Yale University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">171–</span>172. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-04859-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-04859-9"><bdi>0-300-04859-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vampires%2C+Burial+and+Death%3A+Folklore+and+Reality&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E171-%3C%2Fspan%3E172&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=0-300-04859-9&rft.aulast=Barber&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExcarnation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0b-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0b_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0b_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFScottMcMurry2014" class="citation book cs1">Scott, G. Richard; McMurry, Sean (2014). "The Delicate Question: Cannibalism in Prehistoric and Historic Times". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7wnjBAAAQBAJ&q=%22An+Archaeology+of+Desperation"><i>An Archaeology of Desperation: Exploring the Donner Party's Alder Creek Camp</i></a>. University of Oklahoma Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-8552-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-8552-1"><bdi>978-0-8061-8552-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Delicate+Question%3A+Cannibalism+in+Prehistoric+and+Historic+Times&rft.btitle=An+Archaeology+of+Desperation%3A+Exploring+the+Donner+Party%27s+Alder+Creek+Camp&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-8061-8552-1&rft.aulast=Scott&rft.aufirst=G.+Richard&rft.au=McMurry%2C+Sean&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7wnjBAAAQBAJ%26q%3D%2522An%2BArchaeology%2Bof%2BDesperation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExcarnation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.archaeology.org/blog/criteria-for-cannibalism/">"Beyond Stone and Bone » Criteria for Cannibalism"</a>. <i>archive.archaeology.org</i>. Archaeology Magazine<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-06-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=archive.archaeology.org&rft.atitle=Beyond+Stone+and+Bone+%C2%BB+Criteria+for+Cannibalism&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.archaeology.org%2Fblog%2Fcriteria-for-cannibalism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExcarnation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plaza.ufl.edu/ash1ey/anasazi.html">"Cannibalism: living things that eat the flesh of their own kind"</a>. University of Florida<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-09-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Cannibalism%3A+living+things+that+eat+the+flesh+of+their+own+kind&rft.pub=University+of+Florida&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplaza.ufl.edu%2Fash1ey%2Fanasazi.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExcarnation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.asianage.com/metros/mumbai/231217/parsis-take-to-cremation-solar-desiccation-of-bodies.html">"Parsis take to cremation, solar desiccation of bodies"</a>. <i>The Asian Age</i>. 23 Dec 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 February</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Asian+Age&rft.atitle=Parsis+take+to+cremation%2C+solar+desiccation+of+bodies&rft.date=2017-12-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.asianage.com%2Fmetros%2Fmumbai%2F231217%2Fparsis-take-to-cremation-solar-desiccation-of-bodies.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExcarnation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMarkandyaTaylorLongoMurty2008" class="citation journal cs1">Markandya, Anil; Taylor, Tim; Longo, Alberto; Murty, M.N.; Murty, S.; Dhavala, K. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ore.exeter.ac.uk/repository/bitstream/10036/4350/7/Vultures.pdf">"Counting the cost of vulture decline – An appraisal of the human health and other benefits of vultures in India"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Ecological Economics</i>. <b>67</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">194–</span>204. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ecolecon.2008.04.020">10.1016/j.ecolecon.2008.04.020</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10036%2F4350">10036/4350</a></span>. <q>Vultures do not play a role spiritually per se, but are recognised for their practical utility in aiding the disposal of corpses. ... the solar concentrations will produce heat of 120 degrees Celsius, which is sufficient to turn a body into a skeleton in 3 days.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecological+Economics&rft.atitle=Counting+the+cost+of+vulture+decline+%26ndash%3B%26%2332%3BAn+appraisal+of+the+human+health+and+other+benefits+of+vultures+in+India&rft.volume=67&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E194-%3C%2Fspan%3E204&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10036%2F4350&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ecolecon.2008.04.020&rft.aulast=Markandya&rft.aufirst=Anil&rft.au=Taylor%2C+Tim&rft.au=Longo%2C+Alberto&rft.au=Murty%2C+M.N.&rft.au=Murty%2C+S.&rft.au=Dhavala%2C+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fore.exeter.ac.uk%2Frepository%2Fbitstream%2F10036%2F4350%2F7%2FVultures.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExcarnation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-grave-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-grave_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-grave_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHannon2012" class="citation web cs1">Hannon, Elliot (5 September 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wbur.org/npr/160401322/vanishing-vultures-a-grave-matter-for-indias-parsis">"Vanishing Vultures A Grave Matter For India's Parsis"</a>. <i>WBUR</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 February</span> 2020</span>. <q><span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'To dehydrate the body faster, the trustees introduced solar concentrators to focus heat. But during the monsoon season, the solar concentrators don't work because of the clouds.' The solution isn't perfect—the solar concentrators can only work on several bodies at a time—but it has helped keep the tradition alive.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=WBUR&rft.atitle=Vanishing+Vultures+A+Grave+Matter+For+India%27s+Parsis&rft.date=2012-09-05&rft.aulast=Hannon&rft.aufirst=Elliot&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wbur.org%2Fnpr%2F160401322%2Fvanishing-vultures-a-grave-matter-for-indias-parsis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExcarnation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKapstein2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Kapstein" title="Matthew Kapstein">Kapstein, Matthew T.</a> (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sTZLAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA99">"Funeral customs"</a>. <i>Tibetan Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">99–</span>100. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-973512-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-973512-9"><bdi>978-0-19-973512-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2013006676">2013006676</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Funeral+customs&rft.btitle=Tibetan+Buddhism%3A+A+Very+Short+Introduction&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E99-%3C%2Fspan%3E100&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2013006676&rft.isbn=978-0-19-973512-9&rft.aulast=Kapstein&rft.aufirst=Matthew+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsTZLAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA99&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExcarnation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_14-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dailykos.com/stories/2020/7/23/1962663/-Indians-101-Sky-burials">"101 Indians: Sky burials"</a>. <i>Daily Kos</i>. 23 July 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Daily+Kos&rft.atitle=101+Indians%3A+Sky+burials&rft.date=2020-07-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dailykos.com%2Fstories%2F2020%2F7%2F23%2F1962663%2F-Indians-101-Sky-burials&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExcarnation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://coronertalk.com/native-american-burial-rituals-ep205">"Native American Burial Rituals ep205"</a>. <i>Coroner Talk</i>. 2019-02-04<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-03-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Coroner+Talk&rft.atitle=Native+American+Burial+Rituals+ep205&rft.date=2019-02-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcoronertalk.com%2Fnative-american-burial-rituals-ep205&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExcarnation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lewis-clark.org/article/1013">"Concomly's Tomb | Discovering Lewis & Clark"</a>. <i>www.lewis-clark.org</i>. 18 August 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-03-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.lewis-clark.org&rft.atitle=Concomly%27s+Tomb+%7C+Discovering+Lewis+%26+Clark&rft.date=2021-08-18&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lewis-clark.org%2Farticle%2F1013&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExcarnation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fowler, C. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267841002_Pattern_and_diversity_in_the_Early_Neolithic_mortuary_practices_of_Britain_and_Ireland_Contextualising_the_treatment_of_the_dead">Pattern and diversity in the Early Neolithic mortuary practices of Britain and Ireland: contextualising the treatment of the dead</a>. <i>Documenta Praehistorica</i>, 37. pp. 1–22</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFShaw2015" class="citation web cs1">Shaw, Garry (27 March 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/content/article/stone-age-italians-defleshed-their-dead">"Stone-age Italians defleshed their dead"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/American_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Science" title="American Association for the Advancement of Science">AAAS</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 March</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Stone-age+Italians+defleshed+their+dead&rft.date=2015-03-27&rft.aulast=Shaw&rft.aufirst=Garry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.science.org%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2Fstone-age-italians-defleshed-their-dead&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExcarnation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Interacting with the dead : perspectives on mortuary archaeology for the new millennium</i>. Rakita, Gordon F.M. Gainesville: University Press of Florida. 2005. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8130-2856-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8130-2856-6"><bdi>0-8130-2856-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/60742129">60742129</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Interacting+with+the+dead+%3A+perspectives+on+mortuary+archaeology+for+the+new+millennium&rft.place=Gainesville&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Florida&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F60742129&rft.isbn=0-8130-2856-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExcarnation" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: others (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_others" title="Category:CS1 maint: others">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hugh T. Harrington and Lisa A. Ennis. "'Mad' Anthony Wayne: His Body Did Not Rest in Peace". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.americanrevolution.org/wayne.html"><i>History of Erie County, Pennsylvania</i></a>, vol. 1. pp. 211–212. Warner, Beers & Co., Chicago. 1884.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Westerhof-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Westerhof_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWesterhof2008" class="citation book cs1">Westerhof, Danielle (2008). <i>Death and the Noble Body in Medieval England</i>. Boydell Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84383-416-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84383-416-8"><bdi>978-1-84383-416-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Death+and+the+Noble+Body+in+Medieval+England&rft.pub=Boydell+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-84383-416-8&rft.aulast=Westerhof&rft.aufirst=Danielle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExcarnation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://auth.wikimedia.org/loginwiki/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Excarnation&oldid=1272533595">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Excarnation&oldid=1272533595</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Archaeology_of_death" title="Category:Archaeology of death">Archaeology of death</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Death_customs" title="Category:Death customs">Death customs</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_others" title="Category:CS1 maint: others">CS1 maint: others</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_June_2013" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from June 2013">Articles with unsourced statements from June 2013</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 29 January 2025, at 03:26<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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