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class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" rel="" data-event-name="tabs.subject">Article</a> </li> <li class="minerva__tab "> <a class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/Talk:Qing_dynasty" rel="discussion" data-event-name="tabs.talk">Talk</a> </li> </ul> <nav class="page-actions-menu"> <ul id="p-views" class="page-actions-menu__list"> <li id="language-selector" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" href="#p-lang" data-mw="interface" data-event-name="menu.languages" title="Language" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet language-selector"> Language </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-watch" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" id="ca-watch" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Qing+dynasty" data-event-name="menu.watch" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet menu__item--page-actions-watch"> Watch </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-viewsource" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" id="ca-edit" href="/w/index.php?title=Qing_dynasty&action=edit" data-event-name="menu.viewsource" data-mw="interface" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet edit-page menu__item--page-actions-viewsource"> View source </a> </li> </ul> </nav>  <div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="content"> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><script>function mfTempOpenSection(id){var block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Qing" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Qing_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Qing (disambiguation)">Qing (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with the <a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin dynasty</a>, the first dynasty of imperial China.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1043282317">.mw-parser-output .ib-country{border-collapse:collapse;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country td,.mw-parser-output .ib-country th{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-header,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-below{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-full-data{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-full-data{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-header{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-names{padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-name-style{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-image{padding:0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-anthem{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding-top:0.5em;margin-top:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style>The Qing dynasty (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/tʃɪŋ/</a> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key">CHING</a>), officially the Great Qing,<a href="#cite_note-17">[b]</a> was a <a href="/wiki/Manchu" class="mw-redirect" title="Manchu">Manchu</a>-led <a href="/wiki/Dynasties_of_China" title="Dynasties of China">imperial dynasty of China</a> and the last imperial dynasty in <a href="/wiki/Chinese_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese history">Chinese history</a>. The dynasty, proclaimed in <a href="/wiki/Shenyang" title="Shenyang">Shenyang</a> in 1636, seized control of <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a> in 1644, often considered the start of the dynasty's rule.<a href="#cite_note-year-11">[a]</a> The dynasty lasted until the <a href="/wiki/Xinhai_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Xinhai Revolution">Xinhai Revolution</a> of October 1911 led to the abdication of the last emperor, February 12, 1912. In <a href="/wiki/Chinese_historiography" title="Chinese historiography">Chinese historiography</a>, the Qing dynasty was preceded by the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> and succeeded by the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a>. The multi-ethnic Qing dynasty <a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Legacy of the Qing dynasty">assembled the territorial base for modern China</a>. It was the largest imperial dynasty in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">history of China</a> and in 1790 <a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires#Empires_at_their_greatest_extent" title="List of largest empires">the fourth-largest empire in world history</a> in terms of territorial size. With over <a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_China" title="Population history of China">426 million citizens in 1907</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Broomhall1907-16">[15]</a> it was the <a href="/wiki/Estimates_of_historical_world_population" title="Estimates of historical world population">most populous country in the world</a> at the time. <table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Great Qing</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">1636/1644<a href="#cite_note-year-11">[a]</a>–1912</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="noresize" style="display:table; width:100%;"> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding: 0px 5px 3px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_China_(1889%E2%80%931912).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of Qing dynasty"><img alt="Flag of Qing dynasty" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/125px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/188px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/250px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341"></a></div> </div> <div><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Flag of the Qing dynasty">Flag</a> (1889–1912)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">Imperial seal: <a href="/wiki/File:Seal_of_Qing_dynasty.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Seal_of_Qing_dynasty.svg/85px-Seal_of_Qing_dynasty.svg.png" decoding="async" width="85" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Seal_of_Qing_dynasty.svg/128px-Seal_of_Qing_dynasty.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Seal_of_Qing_dynasty.svg/170px-Seal_of_Qing_dynasty.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500"></a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Qing_dynasty_in_1760.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Qing dynasty at its greatest extent in 1760, with modern borders shown for the rest of the world. Territory claimed but not controlled is shown in light green."><img alt="The Qing dynasty at its greatest extent in 1760, with modern borders shown for the rest of the world. Territory claimed but not controlled is shown in light green." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Qing_dynasty_in_1760.svg/250px-Qing_dynasty_in_1760.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Qing_dynasty_in_1760.svg/375px-Qing_dynasty_in_1760.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Qing_dynasty_in_1760.svg/500px-Qing_dynasty_in_1760.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600"></a><div class="ib-country-map-caption">The Qing dynasty at its greatest extent in 1760, with modern borders shown for the rest of the world. Territory claimed but not controlled is shown in light green.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital<div class="ib-country-largest">and largest city</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Official languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_language" title="Manchu language">Manchu</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTES%C3%B6derblom_Saarela2021-12">[11]</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Mandarin_(late_imperial_lingua_franca)" title="Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)">Mandarin Chinese</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988%5BhttpsbooksgooglecombooksidwOPArZVCk-wCqofficial20language_133%E2%80%93134%5D-13">[12]</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic group">Ethnic groups</a> <div class="ib-country-ethnic"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Hmong_people" title="Hmong people">Hmong</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Manchus" class="mw-redirect" title="Manchus">Manchus</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongols</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Tibetans" class="mw-redirect" title="Tibetans">Tibetans</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Uyghurs" title="Uyghurs">Uyghurs</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Chinese_history" title="Ethnic groups in Chinese history">others</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Chinese folk religion</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">Shamanism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_China#17th_to_18th_centuries" title="Christianity in China">Christianity</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_China" title="Islam in China">Islam</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China#Qing_dynasty" title="Religion in China">others</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Demonym" title="Demonym">Demonym(s)</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_people" title="Chinese people">Chinese</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Government</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">Absolute monarchy</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_emperors_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="List of emperors of the Qing dynasty">Emperor</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1636–1643 (proclaimed in Shenyang) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Chongde_Emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Chongde Emperor">Chongde Emperor</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1644–1661 (first in Beijing) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Shunzhi_Emperor" title="Shunzhi Emperor">Shunzhi Emperor</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1908–1912 (last) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Xuantong_Emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Xuantong Emperor">Xuantong Emperor</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Regent" title="Regent">Regent</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1643–1650 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Dorgon" title="Dorgon">Dorgon</a>, Prince Rui</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1908–1911 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Zaifeng" class="mw-redirect" title="Zaifeng">Zaifeng</a>, Prince Chun</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_Imperial_Cabinet" title="Prime Minister of the Imperial Cabinet">Prime Minister</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1911 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Yikuang" title="Yikuang">Yikuang</a>, Prince Qing</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1911–1912 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Yuan_Shikai" title="Yuan Shikai">Yuan Shikai</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Legislature</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;"><li><a href="/wiki/Deliberative_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Deliberative Council">Deliberative Council</a> (1636–1733)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Advisory_Council_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Advisory Council (Qing dynasty)">Advisory Council</a> (1910–1912)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Historical era</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Asia#Late_modern" title="History of Asia">Late modern</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Qing_dynasty#Hong_Taiji" title="History of the Qing dynasty">Proclaimed</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1636</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Transition_from_Ming_to_Qing" title="Transition from Ming to Qing">Transition from Ming to Qing</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1644–1662</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Dzungar%E2%80%93Qing_Wars" title="Dzungar–Qing Wars">Dzungar–Qing Wars</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1687–1758</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Ten_Great_Campaigns" title="Ten Great Campaigns">Ten Great Campaigns</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1747–1792</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/First_Opium_War" title="First Opium War">First Opium War</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1839–1842</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion" title="Taiping Rebellion">Taiping Rebellion</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1850–1864</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Second_Opium_War" title="Second Opium War">Second Opium War</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1856–1860</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Self-Strengthening_Movement" title="Self-Strengthening Movement">Self-Strengthening Movement</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1861–1895</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War" title="First Sino-Japanese War">First Sino-Japanese War</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1894–1895</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Days%27_Reform" title="Hundred Days' Reform">Hundred Days' Reform</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1898</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Rebellion</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1900–1901</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Late_Qing_reforms" title="Late Qing reforms">Late Qing reforms</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1901–1911</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Xinhai_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Xinhai Revolution">Xinhai Revolution</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1911–1912</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Edict_of_the_Abdication_of_the_Qing_Emperor" title="Imperial Edict of the Abdication of the Qing Emperor">End of monarchy</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">12 February 1912</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Area</th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">1700<a href="#cite_note-Taagepera1997-14">[13]</a></th><td class="infobox-data">8,800,000 km2 (3,400,000 sq mi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">1790<a href="#cite_note-Taagepera1997-14">[13]</a></th><td class="infobox-data">14,700,000 km2 (5,700,000 sq mi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">1860<a href="#cite_note-Taagepera1997-14">[13]</a></th><td class="infobox-data">13,400,000 km2 (5,200,000 sq mi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">1908<a href="#cite_note-15">[14]</a></th><td class="infobox-data">11,350,000 km2 (4,380,000 sq mi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Population</th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• 1907 estimate</div></th><td class="infobox-data">426,000,000<a href="#cite_note-Broomhall1907-16">[15]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Currency</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty_coinage" title="Qing dynasty coinage">Cash</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Tael" title="Tael">Tael</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Paper_money_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Paper money of the Qing dynasty">Paper money</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> Preceded by</td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;">Succeeded by </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Later_Jin_(1616%E2%80%931636)" title="Later Jin (1616–1636)">Later Jin</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Dzungar_Khanate" title="Dzungar Khanate">Dzungar Khanate</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Tungning" title="Kingdom of Tungning">Kingdom of Tungning</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="600"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Bogd_Khanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Bogd Khanate">Bogd Khanate</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Uryankhay_Republic" title="Uryankhay Republic">Uryankhay Republic</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Tibet_(1912%E2%80%931951)" title="Tibet (1912–1951)">Tibet</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Flag_of_Tibet.svg/20px-Flag_of_Tibet.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Flag_of_Tibet.svg/30px-Flag_of_Tibet.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Flag_of_Tibet.svg/40px-Flag_of_Tibet.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1152" data-file-height="720"> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1092331828">@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .contains-special-characters{width:22em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right contains-special-characters noprint selfref"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Manju_gisun.svg/9px-Manju_gisun.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Manju_gisun.svg/14px-Manju_gisun.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Manju_gisun.svg/19px-Manju_gisun.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="27" data-file-height="111"></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">This article contains <a href="/wiki/Manchu_language" title="Manchu language">Manchu</a> text. Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:Multilingual_support#Manchu" title="Help:Multilingual support">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Manchu_alphabet" title="Manchu alphabet">Manchu alphabet</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="color: #202122;background-color:#b0c4de">Qing dynasty</th></tr><tr style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Chinese name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data">清朝</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Qīng cháo</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a></th><td class="infobox-data">ㄑㄧㄥ ㄔㄠˊ</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Chʻing1 chʻao2</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tongyong_Pinyin" title="Tongyong Pinyin">Tongyong Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Cing cháo</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">[tɕʰíŋ ʈʂʰǎʊ]</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Wu_Chinese" title="Wu Chinese">Wu</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Suzhounese" class="mw-redirect" title="Suzhounese">Suzhounese</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Tshin záu</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Yue: Cantonese</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Yale_romanization_of_Cantonese" title="Yale romanization of Cantonese">Yale Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Chīng Chìuh</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jyutping" title="Jyutping">Jyutping</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Cing1 ciu4</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">[tsʰɪŋ˥ tsʰiw˩]</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Min" title="Southern Min">Southern Min</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a> <a href="/wiki/Pe%CC%8Dh-%C5%8De-j%C4%AB" title="Pe̍h-ōe-jī">POJ</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Chheng tiâu</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Romanization_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Taiwanese Romanization System">Tâi-lô</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Tshing tiâu</td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Dynastic name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data">大清</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Literal meaning</th><td class="infobox-data">Great Qing</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Dà Qīng</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a></th><td class="infobox-data">ㄉㄚˋ ㄑㄧㄥ</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Ta4 Chʻing1</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tongyong_Pinyin" title="Tongyong Pinyin">Tongyong Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Dà Cing</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">[tâ tɕʰíŋ]</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Yue: Cantonese</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Yale_romanization_of_Cantonese" title="Yale romanization of Cantonese">Yale Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Daaih Chīng</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jyutping" title="Jyutping">Jyutping</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Daai6 cing1</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">[taj˨ tsʰɪŋ˥]</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Min" title="Southern Min">Southern Min</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a> <a href="/wiki/Pe%CC%8Dh-%C5%8De-j%C4%AB" title="Pe̍h-ōe-jī">POJ</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Tāi-chheng</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Romanization_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Taiwanese Romanization System">Tâi-lô</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Tāi-tshing</td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Mongolian name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Cyrillic_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongolian Cyrillic script">Mongolian Cyrillic</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Дайчин Улс</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_script" title="Mongolian script">Mongolian script</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><div title="Mongolian-language text"><div lang="mn"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237794275">.mw-parser-output .font-mong{font-family:"Menk Hawang Tig","Menk Qagan Tig","Menk Garqag Tig","Menk Har_a Tig","Menk Scnin Tig","Oyun Gurban Ulus Tig","Oyun Qagan Tig","Oyun Garqag Tig","Oyun Har_a Tig","Oyun Scnin Tig","Oyun Agula Tig","Mongolian Baiti","Noto Sans Mongolian","Mongolian Universal White","Mongol Usug","Mongolian White","MongolianScript","Code2000","Menksoft Qagan"}.mw-parser-output .font-mong-mnc,.mw-parser-output .font-mong:lang(mnc-Mong),.mw-parser-output .font-mong:lang(dta-Mong),.mw-parser-output .font-mong:lang(sjo-Mong){font-family:"Abkai Xanyan","Abkai Xanyan LA","Abkai Xanyan VT","Abkai Xanyan XX","Abkai Xanyan SC","Abkai Buleku","Daicing White","Mongolian Baiti","Noto Sans Mongolian","Mongolian Universal White"}</style><span class="font-mong" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.2em; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>ᠳᠠᠢᠢᠴᠢᠩ</li><li>ᠤᠯᠤᠰ</li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/SASM/GNC_romanization#Mongolian" title="SASM/GNC romanization">SASM/GNC</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Daiqing ulus</td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Manchu name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Manchu_alphabet" title="Manchu alphabet">Manchu script</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span lang="mnc" class="font-mong-mnc" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.25em; font-family:'Mongolian Baiti', 'Mongol Universal White', 'Noto Sans Mongolian', 'Abkai Xanyan', 'Abkai Xanyan LA', 'Abkai Xanyan VT', 'Abkai Xanyan XX', 'Abkai Xanyan SC', 'Abkai Buleku', 'Daicing White', 'Oyun Gurban Ulus Tig', 'Oyun Qagan Tig', 'Oyun Garqag Tig', 'Oyun Har_a Tig', 'Oyun Scnin Tig', 'Mongolian BT'; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>ᡩᠠᡳ᠌ᠴᡳᠩ</li><li>ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Transliterations_of_Manchu" title="Transliterations of Manchu">Abkai</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Daiqing gurun</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Transliterations_of_Manchu" title="Transliterations of Manchu">Möllendorff</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Daicing gurun</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><style 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"> <a href="/wiki/Nurhaci" title="Nurhaci">Nurhaci</a>, leader of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Aisin-Gioro" title="House of Aisin-Gioro">House of Aisin-Gioro</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vassal" title="Vassal">vassal</a> of the Ming dynasty,<a href="#cite_note-Peterson-18">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowe200914%E2%80%9315-19">[17]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jurchen_unification" title="Jurchen unification">unified Jurchen clans</a> (known later as Manchus) and founded the <a href="/wiki/Later_Jin_(1616%E2%80%931636)" title="Later Jin (1616–1636)">Later Jin dynasty</a> in 1616, renouncing the Ming overlordship. His son <a href="/wiki/Hong_Taiji" title="Hong Taiji">Hong Taiji</a> was declared Emperor of the Great Qing in 1636. As Ming control disintegrated, <a href="/wiki/Late_Ming_peasant_rebellions" title="Late Ming peasant rebellions">peasant rebels</a> captured the Ming capital Beijing, but the Ming general <a href="/wiki/Wu_Sangui" title="Wu Sangui">Wu Sangui</a> opened the <a href="/wiki/Shanhai_Pass" title="Shanhai Pass">Shanhai Pass</a> to the Qing army, which <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shanhai_Pass" title="Battle of Shanhai Pass">defeated the rebels</a>, seized the capital, and took over the government in 1644 under the <a href="/wiki/Shunzhi_Emperor" title="Shunzhi Emperor">Shunzhi Emperor</a> and his <a href="/wiki/Prince_regent" title="Prince regent">prince regent</a>. Resistance from <a href="/wiki/Southern_Ming" title="Southern Ming">Ming rump regimes</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Three_Feudatories" title="Revolt of the Three Feudatories">Revolt of the Three Feudatories</a> delayed the <a href="/wiki/Transition_from_Ming_to_Qing" title="Transition from Ming to Qing">complete conquest</a> until 1683. As a Manchu emperor, the <a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Emperor" title="Kangxi Emperor">Kangxi Emperor</a> (1661–1722) consolidated control, relished the role of a <a href="/wiki/Confucian" class="mw-redirect" title="Confucian">Confucian</a> ruler, patronised <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a>), encouraged scholarship, population and economic growth. Han officials worked under or in parallel with Manchu officials. To maintain prominence over its neighbors, the Qing leveraged and adapted the <a href="/wiki/Tributary_system_of_China" title="Tributary system of China">tributary system</a> employed by previous dynasties, enabling their continued predominance in affairs with countries on its periphery like <a href="/wiki/Joseon_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseon Korea">Joseon Korea</a> and the <a href="/wiki/L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Lê dynasty">Lê dynasty</a> in Vietnam, while <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" title="Qing dynasty in Inner Asia">extending its control</a> over <a href="/wiki/Inner_Asia" title="Inner Asia">Inner Asia</a> including <a href="/wiki/Tibet_under_Qing_rule" title="Tibet under Qing rule">Tibet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mongolia_under_Qing_rule" title="Mongolia under Qing rule">Mongolia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_under_Qing_rule" title="Xinjiang under Qing rule">Xinjiang</a>. The <a href="/wiki/High_Qing_era" title="High Qing era">High Qing era</a> reached its apex during the reign of the <a href="/wiki/Qianlong_Emperor" title="Qianlong Emperor">Qianlong Emperor</a> (1735–1796), who led <a href="/wiki/Ten_Great_Campaigns" title="Ten Great Campaigns">Ten Great Campaigns</a> of conquest, and personally supervised <a href="/wiki/Qianlong_Emperor#Cultural_achievements" title="Qianlong Emperor">Confucian cultural projects</a>. After his death, the dynasty faced internal revolts, economic disruption, official corruption, foreign intrusion, and the reluctance of Confucian elites to change their mindset. With peace and prosperity, the population rose to 400 million, but taxes and government revenues were fixed at a low rate, soon leading to a fiscal crisis. Following China's defeat in the <a href="/wiki/Opium_Wars" title="Opium Wars">Opium Wars</a>, Western colonial powers forced the Qing government to sign <a href="/wiki/Unequal_treaties" title="Unequal treaties">unequal treaties</a>, granting them trading privileges, <a href="/wiki/Extraterritoriality" title="Extraterritoriality">extraterritoriality</a> and <a href="/wiki/Treaty_ports" title="Treaty ports">treaty ports</a> under their control. The <a href="/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion" title="Taiping Rebellion">Taiping Rebellion</a> (1850–1864) and the <a href="/wiki/Dungan_Revolt_(1862%E2%80%931877)" title="Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)">Dungan Revolt</a> (1862–1877) in western China led to the deaths of over 20 million people, from famine, disease, and war. The <a href="/wiki/Tongzhi_Restoration" title="Tongzhi Restoration">Tongzhi Restoration</a> in the 1860s brought vigorous reforms and the introduction of foreign military technology in the <a href="/wiki/Self-Strengthening_Movement" title="Self-Strengthening Movement">Self-Strengthening Movement</a>. Defeat in the <a href="/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War" title="First Sino-Japanese War">First Sino-Japanese War</a> in 1895 led to loss of <a href="/wiki/Suzerainty#Imperial_China" title="Suzerainty">suzerainty</a> over Korea and <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Shimonoseki" title="Treaty of Shimonoseki">cession of Taiwan</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a>. The ambitious <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Days%27_Reform" title="Hundred Days' Reform">Hundred Days' Reform</a> in 1898 proposed fundamental change, but was poorly executed and terminated by the <a href="/wiki/Empress_Dowager_Cixi" title="Empress Dowager Cixi">Empress Dowager Cixi</a> (1835–1908) in the <a href="/wiki/Wuxu_Coup" class="mw-redirect" title="Wuxu Coup">Wuxu Coup</a>. In 1900, anti-foreign <a href="/wiki/Boxers_(group)" class="mw-redirect" title="Boxers (group)">Boxers</a> killed many Chinese Christians and foreign missionaries; in retaliation, the <a href="/wiki/Eight-Nation_Alliance" title="Eight-Nation Alliance">Eight-Nation Alliance</a> invaded China and imposed a <a href="/wiki/Boxer_Indemnity" class="mw-redirect" title="Boxer Indemnity">punitive indemnity</a>. In response, the government initiated unprecedented <a href="/wiki/Late_Qing_reforms" title="Late Qing reforms">fiscal and administrative reforms</a>, including elections, a new legal code, and the abolition of the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_examination" title="Imperial examination">imperial examination</a> system. <a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun Yat-sen</a> and revolutionaries debated reform officials and constitutional monarchists such as <a href="/wiki/Kang_Youwei" title="Kang Youwei">Kang Youwei</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liang_Qichao" title="Liang Qichao">Liang Qichao</a> over how to transform the Manchu-ruled empire into a modernised Han state. After the deaths of the <a href="/wiki/Guangxu_Emperor" title="Guangxu Emperor">Guangxu Emperor</a> and Cixi in 1908, Manchu conservatives at court blocked reforms and alienated reformers and local elites alike. The <a href="/wiki/Wuchang_Uprising" title="Wuchang Uprising">Wuchang Uprising</a> on 10 October 1911 led to the Xinhai Revolution. The abdication of the <a href="/wiki/Xuantong_Emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Xuantong Emperor">Xuantong Emperor</a> on 12 February 1912 brought the dynasty to an end. <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Names">1 Names</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#History">2 History</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Formation">2.1 Formation</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-4"><a href="#Nurhaci">2.1.1 Nurhaci</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-5"><a href="#Hong_Taiji">2.1.2 Hong Taiji</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Claiming_the_Mandate_of_Heaven">2.2 Claiming the Mandate of Heaven</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Kangxi_Emperor's_reign_and_consolidation">2.3 Kangxi Emperor's reign and consolidation</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Reigns_of_the_Yongzheng_and_Qianlong_emperors">2.4 Reigns of the Yongzheng and Qianlong emperors</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Rebellion,_unrest,_and_external_pressure">2.5 Rebellion, unrest, and external pressure</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Self-strengthening_and_frustration_of_reforms">2.6 Self-strengthening and frustration of reforms</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Reform,_revolution,_collapse">2.7 Reform, revolution, collapse</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#Government">3 Government</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Central_government_agencies">3.1 Central government agencies</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Military">3.2 Military</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Administrative_divisions">3.3 Administrative divisions</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Territorial_administration">3.4 Territorial administration</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#Society">4 Society</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Population_growth_and_mobility">4.1 Population growth and mobility</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Social_status">4.2 Social status</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-20"><a href="#Qing_gentry">4.2.1 Qing gentry</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-21"><a href="#Qing_nobility">4.2.2 Qing nobility</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Family_and_kinship">4.3 Family and kinship</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><a href="#Religion">4.4 Religion</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-24"><a href="#Manchu_and_imperial_religion">4.4.1 Manchu and imperial religion</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-25"><a href="#Popular_religion">4.4.2 Popular religion</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-26"><a href="#Christianity,_Judaism,_and_Islam">4.4.3 Christianity, Judaism, and Islam</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-27"><a href="#Economy">5 Economy</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-28"><a href="#Silver">5.1 Silver</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-29"><a href="#Urbanization_and_the_proliferation_of_market-towns">5.2 Urbanization and the proliferation of market-towns</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-30"><a href="#Trade_with_the_West">5.3 Trade with the West</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-31"><a href="#Revenue">5.4 Revenue</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-32"><a href="#Science_and_technology">6 Science and technology</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-33"><a href="#Arts_and_culture">7 Arts and culture</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-34"><a href="#Fine_arts">7.1 Fine arts</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-35"><a href="#Traditional_learning_and_literature">7.2 Traditional learning and literature</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-36"><a href="#Cuisine">7.3 Cuisine</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-37"><a href="#Historiography">8 Historiography</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-38"><a href="#See_also">9 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-39"><a href="#Notes">10 Notes</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-40"><a href="#References">11 References</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-41"><a href="#Citations">11.1 Citations</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-42"><a href="#Sources">11.2 Sources</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-43"><a href="#External_links">12 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="Names">Names</h2></div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Names_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Names of the Qing dynasty">Names of the Qing dynasty</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Names_of_China" title="Names of China">Names of China</a></div> Hong Taiji proclaimed the Great Qing dynasty in 1636.<a href="#cite_note-20">[18]</a> There are competing explanations as to the meaning of the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_character" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese character">Chinese character</a> Qīng (清; 'clear', 'pure') in this context. One theory posits a purposeful contrast with the Ming: the character Míng (明; 'bright') is associated with fire within the <a href="/wiki/Wuxing_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)">Chinese zodiacal system</a>, while Qīng (清) is associated with water, illustrating the triumph of the Qing as the conquest of fire by water. The name possibly also possessed Buddhist implications of perspicacity and enlightenment, as well as connection with the bodhisattva <a href="/wiki/Manjusri" class="mw-redirect" title="Manjusri">Manjusri</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrossley1997212%E2%80%93213-21">[19]</a> Early European writers used the term "Tartar" indiscriminately for all the peoples of Northern Eurasia but in the 17th century Catholic missionary writings established "Tartar" to refer only to the Manchus and "<a href="/wiki/Tartary" title="Tartary">Tartary</a>" for the lands they ruled—i.e. <a href="/wiki/Manchuria" title="Manchuria">Manchuria</a> and the adjacent parts of <a href="/wiki/Inner_Asia" title="Inner Asia">Inner Asia</a>,<a href="#cite_note-22">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[21]</a> as ruled by the Qing before the <a href="/wiki/Ming%E2%80%93Qing_transition" class="mw-redirect" title="Ming–Qing transition">Ming–Qing transition</a>. After conquering <a href="/wiki/China_proper" title="China proper">China proper</a>, the Manchus identified their state as "China", equivalently as Zhōngguó (中國; 'middle kingdom') in Chinese and Dulimbai Gurun in Manchu.<a href="#cite_note-24">[c]</a> The emperors equated the lands of the Qing state (including, among other areas, present-day Northeast China, Xinjiang, Mongolia, and Tibet) as "China" in both the Chinese and Manchu languages, defining China as a multi-ethnic state, and rejecting the idea that only Han areas were properly part of "China". The government used "China" and "Qing" interchangeably to refer to their state in official documents,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhao20064,_7%E2%80%9310,_12%E2%80%9314_and_24_n._4-25">[22]</a> including the Chinese-language versions of treaties and maps of the world.<a href="#cite_note-26">[23]</a> The term 'Chinese people' (中國人; Zhōngguórén; Manchu: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span lang="mnc" class="font-mong-mnc" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.25em; font-family:'Mongolian Baiti', 'Mongol Universal White', 'Noto Sans Mongolian', 'Abkai Xanyan', 'Abkai Xanyan LA', 'Abkai Xanyan VT', 'Abkai Xanyan XX', 'Abkai Xanyan SC', 'Abkai Buleku', 'Daicing White', 'Oyun Gurban Ulus Tig', 'Oyun Qagan Tig', 'Oyun Garqag Tig', 'Oyun Har_a Tig', 'Oyun Scnin Tig', 'Mongolian BT'; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᡩᡠᠯᡳᠮᠪᠠᡳ ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ ‍ᡳ ᠨᡳᠶᠠᠯᠮᠠ Dulimbai gurun-i niyalma) referred to all the Han, Manchu, and Mongol subjects of the Qing Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhao20064,_7%E2%80%9310,_12%E2%80%9314-27">[24]</a> When the Qing <a href="/wiki/Ten_Great_Campaigns#The_Zunghars_and_pacification_of_Xinjiang_(1755%E2%80%931759)" title="Ten Great Campaigns">conquered Dzungaria in 1759</a>, it proclaimed within a Manchu-language memorial that the new land had been absorbed into "China".<a href="#cite_note-Dunnell2004-28">[25]</a>: 77 The Qing government expounded an ideology that it was bringing the "outer" non-Han peoples—such as various populations of Mongolians, as well as the Tibetans—together with the "inner" Han Chinese into "one family", united within the Qing state. Phraseology like Zhōngwài yījiā (中外一家) and nèiwài yījiā (內外一家)—both translatable as 'home and abroad as one family'—was employed to convey this idea of Qing-mediated trans-cultural unity.<a href="#cite_note-Dunnell2004-28">[25]</a>: 76–77 </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="History of the Qing dynasty">History of the Qing dynasty</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a chronological guide, see <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Timeline of the Qing dynasty">Timeline of the Qing dynasty</a>.</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Formation">Formation</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Manchuria_under_Ming_rule" title="Manchuria under Ming rule">Manchuria under Ming rule</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jurchen_unification" title="Jurchen unification">Jurchen unification</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Jurchens#17th_century" title="Timeline of the Jurchens">Timeline of the Jurchens § 17th century</a></div> The Qing dynasty was founded not by <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han Chinese</a>, who constituted a majority of the population, but by <a href="/wiki/Manchus" class="mw-redirect" title="Manchus">Manchus</a>, a sedentary farming people descended from the <a href="/wiki/Jurchens" class="mw-redirect" title="Jurchens">Jurchens</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Tungusic_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Tungusic people">Tungusic people</a> who lived in the region now comprising the Chinese provinces of <a href="/wiki/Jilin" title="Jilin">Jilin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heilongjiang" title="Heilongjiang">Heilongjiang</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey2010220-29">[26]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nurhaci">Nurhaci</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Minggunbattle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Minggunbattle.jpg/220px-Minggunbattle.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="184" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="501"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 184px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Minggunbattle.jpg/220px-Minggunbattle.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="184" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Minggunbattle.jpg/330px-Minggunbattle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Minggunbattle.jpg/440px-Minggunbattle.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Manchu cavalry charging Ming infantry at the 1619 <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sarh%C5%AB" title="Battle of Sarhū">Battle of Sarhū</a></figcaption></figure> The early form of the Manchu state was founded by <a href="/wiki/Nurhaci" title="Nurhaci">Nurhaci</a>, the chieftain of a minor Jurchen tribe – the Aisin-Gioro – in <a href="/wiki/Jianzhou_Jurchens" title="Jianzhou Jurchens">Jianzhou</a> in the early 17th century. Nurhaci may have spent time in a Han household in his youth, and became fluent in Chinese and Mongolian languages and read the Chinese novels <a href="/wiki/Romance_of_the_Three_Kingdoms" title="Romance of the Three Kingdoms">Romance of the Three Kingdoms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Water_Margin" title="Water Margin">Water Margin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-30">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[28]</a> As a vassal of the Ming emperors, he officially considered himself a guardian of the Ming border and a local representative of the Ming dynasty.<a href="#cite_note-Peterson-18">[16]</a> Nurhaci embarked on an intertribal feud in 1582 that escalated into a campaign to <a href="/wiki/Jurchen_unification" title="Jurchen unification">unify the nearby tribes</a>. By 1616, however, he had sufficiently consolidated Jianzhou so as to be able to proclaim himself <a href="/wiki/Khan_(title)" title="Khan (title)">Khan</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Later_Jin_(1616%E2%80%931636)" title="Later Jin (1616–1636)">Later Jin dynasty</a> in reference to the <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">previous Jurchen-ruled Jin dynasty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey2010220%E2%80%93224-32">[29]</a> Two years later, Nurhaci announced the "<a href="/wiki/Seven_Grievances" title="Seven Grievances">Seven Grievances</a>" and openly renounced the sovereignty of Ming overlordship in order to complete the unification of those Jurchen tribes still allied with the Ming emperor. After a series of successful battles, he relocated his capital from <a href="/wiki/Hetu_Ala" title="Hetu Ala">Hetu Ala</a> to successively bigger captured Ming cities in Liaodong: first <a href="/wiki/Liaoyang" title="Liaoyang">Liaoyang</a> in 1621, then <a href="/wiki/Mukden" class="mw-redirect" title="Mukden">Mukden</a> (Shenyang) in 1625.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey2010220%E2%80%93224-32">[29]</a> Furthermore, the Khorchin proved a useful ally in the war, lending the Jurchens their expertise as cavalry archers. To guarantee this new alliance, Nurhaci initiated a policy of inter-marriages between the Jurchen and Khorchin nobilities, while those who resisted were met with military action. This is a typical example of Nurhaci's initiatives that eventually became official Qing government policy. During most of the Qing period, the Mongols gave military assistance to the Manchus.<a href="#cite_note-33">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hong_Taiji">Hong Taiji</h4></div> Nurhaci died in 1626, and was succeeded by his eighth son, <a href="/wiki/Hong_Taiji" title="Hong Taiji">Hong Taiji</a>. Although Hong Taiji was an experienced leader and the commander of two Banners, the Jurchens suffered defeat in 1627, in part due to the Ming's newly acquired <a href="/wiki/Hongyipao" title="Hongyipao">Portuguese cannons</a>. To redress the technological and numerical disparity, Hong Taiji in 1634 created his own artillery corps, who cast their own cannons in the European design with the help of defector Chinese metallurgists. One of the defining events of Hong Taiji's reign was the official adoption of the name "Manchu" for the united Jurchen people in November 1635. In 1635, the Manchus' Mongol allies were fully incorporated into a separate Banner hierarchy under direct Manchu command. In April 1636, <a href="/wiki/Mongol_nobility" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol nobility">Mongol nobility</a> of Inner Mongolia, Manchu nobility and the Han <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_(bureaucrat)" title="Mandarin (bureaucrat)">mandarin</a> recommended that Hong as the khan of Later Jin should be the emperor of the Great Qing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawski1991%5BhttpsbooksgooglecombooksidgAIcwz3V_JsCpgPA177_177%5D-34">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[32]</a> When he was presented with the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Seal_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Seal of China">imperial seal</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a> after the defeat of the last <a href="/wiki/Khagan" title="Khagan">Khagan</a> of the Mongols, Hong Taiji renamed his state from "Great Jin" to "Great Qing" and elevated his position from Khan to <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">Emperor</a>, suggesting imperial ambitions beyond unifying the Manchu territories. Hong Taiji then proceeded to <a href="/wiki/Second_Manchu_invasion_of_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Manchu invasion of Korea">invade Korea</a> again in 1636. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sura_han_ni_chiha._Currency_of_the_farther_East._No.850.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Sura_han_ni_chiha._Currency_of_the_farther_East._No.850.jpg/180px-Sura_han_ni_chiha._Currency_of_the_farther_East._No.850.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="90" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="520" data-file-height="260"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 180px;height: 90px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Sura_han_ni_chiha._Currency_of_the_farther_East._No.850.jpg/180px-Sura_han_ni_chiha._Currency_of_the_farther_East._No.850.jpg" data-width="180" data-height="90" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Sura_han_ni_chiha._Currency_of_the_farther_East._No.850.jpg/270px-Sura_han_ni_chiha._Currency_of_the_farther_East._No.850.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Sura_han_ni_chiha._Currency_of_the_farther_East._No.850.jpg/360px-Sura_han_ni_chiha._Currency_of_the_farther_East._No.850.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Coins of Hong Taiji in Manchu script</figcaption></figure> Meanwhile, Hong Taiji set up a rudimentary bureaucratic system based on the Ming model. He established six boards or executive level ministries in 1631 to oversee finance, personnel, rites, military, punishments, and public works. However, these administrative organs had very little role initially, and it was not until the eve of completing the conquest ten years later that they fulfilled their government roles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi200260%E2%80%9362-36">[33]</a> Hong Taiji staffed his bureaucracy with many Han Chinese, including newly surrendered Ming officials, but ensured Manchu dominance by an ethnic quota for top appointments. Hong Taiji's reign also saw a fundamental change of policy towards his Han Chinese subjects. Nurhaci had treated Han in Liaodong according to how much grain they had. Due to a Han revolt in 1623, Nurhaci turned against them and enacted discriminatory policies and killings against them. He ordered that Han who assimilated to the Jurchen (in Jilin) before 1619 be treated equally with Jurchens, not like the conquered Han in Liaodong. Hong Taiji recognized the need to attract Han Chinese, explaining to reluctant Manchus why he needed to treat the defecting Ming general <a href="/wiki/Hong_Chengchou" title="Hong Chengchou">Hong Chengchou</a> leniently.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi200265-37">[34]</a> Hong Taiji incorporated Han into the Jurchen polity as citizens obligated to provide military service. By 1648, less than one-sixth of the bannermen were of Manchu ancestry.<a href="#cite_note-38">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Claiming_the_Mandate_of_Heaven">Claiming the Mandate of Heaven</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Transition_from_Ming_to_Qing" title="Transition from Ming to Qing">Transition from Ming to Qing</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dorgon,_the_Prince_Rui_(17th_century).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Dorgon%2C_the_Prince_Rui_%2817th_century%29.jpg/180px-Dorgon%2C_the_Prince_Rui_%2817th_century%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="246" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="958"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 180px;height: 246px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Dorgon%2C_the_Prince_Rui_%2817th_century%29.jpg/180px-Dorgon%2C_the_Prince_Rui_%2817th_century%29.jpg" data-width="180" data-height="246" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Dorgon%2C_the_Prince_Rui_%2817th_century%29.jpg/270px-Dorgon%2C_the_Prince_Rui_%2817th_century%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Dorgon%2C_the_Prince_Rui_%2817th_century%29.jpg/360px-Dorgon%2C_the_Prince_Rui_%2817th_century%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Dorgon (1612–1650)</figcaption></figure> Hong Taiji died suddenly in September 1643. As Jurchen leaders were chosen by a council of nobles, there was no clear successor. The leading contenders for power were Hong Taiji's oldest son <a href="/wiki/Hooge_(prince)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hooge (prince)">Hooge</a> and Hong Taiji's half brother <a href="/wiki/Dorgon" title="Dorgon">Dorgon</a>. A compromise installed Hong Taiji's five-year-old son, Fulin, as the <a href="/wiki/Shunzhi_Emperor" title="Shunzhi Emperor">Shunzhi Emperor</a>, with Dorgon as regent and de facto leader of the Manchu nation. Meanwhile, Ming government officials fought against fiscal collapse, against each other, and against a series of <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty#Rebellion,_invasion,_collapse" title="Ming dynasty">peasant rebellions</a>. They were unable to capitalise on the Manchu succession dispute and the resulting boy emperor. In April 1644, Beijing was sacked by a contentious rebel coalition led by <a href="/wiki/Li_Zicheng" title="Li Zicheng">Li Zicheng</a>, a former minor Ming official, who established a short-lived <a href="/wiki/Shun_dynasty" title="Shun dynasty">Shun dynasty</a>. The last Ming ruler, the <a href="/wiki/Chongzhen_Emperor" title="Chongzhen Emperor">Chongzhen Emperor</a>, committed suicide when the city fell to the rebels, marking the effective end of the dynasty. Li Zicheng then led rebel forces numbering some 200,000 to confront Ming general <a href="/wiki/Wu_Sangui" title="Wu Sangui">Wu Sangui</a>, stationed at <a href="/wiki/Shanhai_Pass" title="Shanhai Pass">Shanhai Pass</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Wall" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Wall">Great Wall</a> to defend the capital against the approaching Manchu-led armies. Wu, to survive, had to ally with one of his adversaries against the other; one was a Han Chinese peasant army twice his size, but he chose the other. Wu may have resented Li Zicheng's attack on officials and the social order; Li had taken Wu's father hostage and it was said that Li took <a href="/wiki/Chen_Yuanyuan" title="Chen Yuanyuan">Wu's concubine</a> for himself. On the other hand, the Manchus had adopted a Chinese-style form of government and promised stability. Wu and Dorgon allied to defeat Li Zicheng in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shanhai_Pass" title="Battle of Shanhai Pass">Battle of Shanhai Pass</a> on 27 May 1644.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence201232-39">[36]</a> The newly allied armies captured Beijing on 6 June. The <a href="/wiki/Shunzhi_Emperor" title="Shunzhi Emperor">Shunzhi Emperor</a> was invested as the "<a href="/wiki/Son_of_Heaven" title="Son of Heaven">Son of Heaven</a>" on 30 October 1644. The Manchus, who had positioned themselves as political heirs to the Ming, held a formal funeral for the Chongzhen Emperor. However, completing the conquest of <a href="/wiki/China_proper" title="China proper">China proper</a> took another seventeen years of battling Ming loyalists, pretenders and rebels. The last Ming pretender, <a href="/wiki/Zhu_Youlang,_Prince_of_Gui" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhu Youlang, Prince of Gui">Prince Gui</a>, sought refuge with <a href="/wiki/Pindale_Min" title="Pindale Min">Pindale Min</a>, the king of <a href="/wiki/Burma" class="mw-redirect" title="Burma">Burma</a>, but was turned over to a Qing expeditionary army commanded by Wu Sangui, who had him brought back to <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a> and executed in early 1662. The Qing had taken shrewd advantage of Ming civilian government discrimination against the military and encouraged the Ming military to defect by spreading the message that the Manchus valued their skills.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDi_Cosmo2007%5Bhttpsbooksgooglecombooksid8piRAgAAQBAJpgPA6_6%5D-40">[37]</a> Banners made up of Han Chinese who defected before 1644 were classed among the Eight Banners, giving them social and legal privileges. Han defectors swelled the ranks of the Eight Banners so greatly that ethnic Manchus became a minority – only 16% in 1648, with Han bannermen dominating at 75% and Mongol bannermen making up the rest.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaquinRawski1987141-41">[38]</a> Gunpowder weapons like muskets and artillery were wielded by the Chinese Banners.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDi_Cosmo2007%5Bhttpsbooksgooglecombooksid8piRAgAAQBAJpgPA23_23%5D-42">[39]</a> Normally, Han Chinese defector troops were deployed as the vanguard, while Manchu bannermen were used predominantly for quick strikes with maximum impact, so as to minimize ethnic Manchu losses.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDi_Cosmo2007%5Bhttpsbooksgooglecombooksid8piRAgAAQBAJpgPA9_9%5D-43">[40]</a> This multi-ethnic force conquered Ming China for the Qing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawski1991%5BhttpsbooksgooglecombooksidgAIcwz3V_JsCpgPA175_175%5D-44">[41]</a> The three Liaodong officers who played key roles in the conquest of southern China were Shang Kexi, Geng Zhongming, and Kong Youde, who governed southern China autonomously as viceroys for the Qing after the conquest.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDi_Cosmo2007%5Bhttpsbooksgooglecombooksid8piRAgAAQBAJpgPA7_7%5D-45">[42]</a> Han bannermen made up the majority of governors during the early Qing, stabilizing their rule.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence1990%5BhttpsbooksgooglecombooksidvI1RRslLNSwCpgPA41_41%5D-46">[43]</a> To promote ethnic harmony, a 1648 decree allowed Han Chinese civilian men to marry Manchu women from the Banners with the permission of the Board of Revenue if they were registered daughters of officials or commoners, or with the permission of their banner company captain if they were unregistered commoners. Later in the dynasty the policies allowing intermarriage were done away with.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWakeman1985%5Bhttpsarchiveorgdetailsbub_gb_8nXLwSG2O8ACpagen489_478%5D-47">[44]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mongolia_in_1636.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Mongolia_in_1636.svg/220px-Mongolia_in_1636.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="984" data-file-height="746"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 167px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Mongolia_in_1636.svg/220px-Mongolia_in_1636.svg.png" data-width="220" data-height="167" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Mongolia_in_1636.svg/330px-Mongolia_in_1636.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Mongolia_in_1636.svg/440px-Mongolia_in_1636.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Qing and Central Asia in 1636</figcaption></figure> The first seven years of the young Shunzhi Emperor's reign were dominated by Dorgon's regency. Because of his own political insecurity, Dorgon followed Hong Taiji's example by ruling in the name of the emperor at the expense of rival Manchu princes, many of whom he demoted or imprisoned. Dorgon's precedents and example cast a long shadow. First, the Manchus had entered "South of the Wall" because Dorgon had responded decisively to Wu Sangui's appeal, then, instead of sacking Beijing as the rebels had done, Dorgon insisted, over the protests of other Manchu princes, on making it the dynastic capital and reappointing most Ming officials. No major Chinese dynasty had directly taken over its immediate predecessor's capital, but keeping the Ming capital and bureaucracy intact helped quickly stabilize the regime and sped up the conquest of the rest of the country. Dorgon then drastically reduced the influence of the eunuchs and directed Manchu women not to <a href="/wiki/Foot_binding" title="Foot binding">bind their feet</a> in the Chinese style.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence201238-48">[45]</a> However, not all of Dorgon's policies were equally popular or as easy to implement. The controversial July 1645 <a href="/wiki/Queue_Order" class="mw-redirect" title="Queue Order">Queue Order</a> forced adult Han Chinese men to shave the front of their heads and comb the remaining hair into the <a href="/wiki/Queue_(hairstyle)" title="Queue (hairstyle)">queue</a> hairstyle which was worn by Manchu men, on pain of death.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWakeman1985646%E2%80%93650-49">[46]</a> The popular description of the order was: "To keep the hair, you lose the head; To keep your head, you cut the hair."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence201238-48">[45]</a> To the Manchus, this policy was a test of loyalty and an aid in distinguishing friend from foe. For the Han Chinese, however, it was a humiliating reminder of Qing authority that challenged traditional Confucian values.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWakeman1985648n._183-50">[47]</a> The order triggered strong resistance in <a href="/wiki/Jiangnan" title="Jiangnan">Jiangnan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWakeman1985651%E2%80%93680-51">[48]</a> In the ensuing unrest, some 100,000 Han were slaughtered.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaure2007164-52">[49]</a>&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2010)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_53-0' class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey1993%5B%5BCategory:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_October_2010%5D%5D<sup_class=%22noprint_Inline-Template_%22_style=%22white-space:nowrap;%22>&#91;%5B%5BWikipedia:Citing_sources%7C<span_title=%22This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(October_2010)%22>page&nbsp;needed%5D%5D&#93;-53">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWakeman197783-54">[51]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Qing_Dynasty_1760.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Qing_Dynasty_1760.jpg/220px-Qing_Dynasty_1760.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="195" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2702" data-file-height="2400"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 195px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Qing_Dynasty_1760.jpg/220px-Qing_Dynasty_1760.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="195" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Qing_Dynasty_1760.jpg/330px-Qing_Dynasty_1760.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Qing_Dynasty_1760.jpg/440px-Qing_Dynasty_1760.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Qing expansion and <a href="/wiki/Qing_conquest_of_the_Ming" class="mw-redirect" title="Qing conquest of the Ming">conquest of the Ming</a></figcaption></figure> On 31 December 1650, Dorgon died suddenly, marking the start of the Shunzhi Emperor's personal rule. Because the emperor was only 12 years old at that time, most decisions were made on his behalf by his mother, <a href="/wiki/Empress_Dowager_Xiaozhuang" class="mw-redirect" title="Empress Dowager Xiaozhuang">Empress Dowager Xiaozhuang</a>, who turned out to be a skilled political operator. Although his support had been essential to Shunzhi's ascent, Dorgon had centralised so much power in his hands as to become a direct threat to the throne. So much so that upon his death he was bestowed the extraordinary posthumous title of Emperor Yi (義皇帝), the only instance in Qing history in which a Manchu "prince of the blood" (親王) was so honored. Two months into Shunzhi's personal rule, however, Dorgon was not only stripped of his titles, but his corpse was disinterred and mutilated.<a href="#cite_note-55">[52]</a> Dorgon's fall from grace also led to the purge of his family and associates at court. Shunzhi's promising start was cut short by his early death in 1661 at the age of 24 from <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a>. He was succeeded by his third son Xuanye, who reigned as the <a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Emperor" title="Kangxi Emperor">Kangxi Emperor</a>. The Manchus sent Han bannermen to fight against Koxinga's Ming loyalists in Fujian.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHo2011135-56">[53]</a> They removed the population from coastal areas in order to deprive Koxinga's Ming loyalists of resources. This led to a misunderstanding that Manchus were afraid of water. Han bannermen carried out the fighting and killing, casting conquest of the Mingdoubt on the claim that fear of the water led to the coastal evacuation and ban on maritime activities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHo2011198-57">[54]</a> Even though a poem refers to the soldiers carrying out massacres in Fujian as "barbarians", both Han <a href="/wiki/Green_Standard_Army" title="Green Standard Army">Green Standard Army</a> and Han bannermen were involved and carried out the worst slaughter.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHo2011206-58">[55]</a> 400,000 Green Standard Army soldiers were used against the Three Feudatories in addition to the 200,000 bannermen.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHo2011307-59">[56]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kangxi_Emperor's_reign_and_consolidation">Kangxi Emperor's reign and consolidation</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Three_Feudatories" title="Revolt of the Three Feudatories">Revolt of the Three Feudatories</a> and <a href="/wiki/High_Qing_era" title="High Qing era">High Qing era</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_of_the_Kangxi_Emperor_in_Court_Dress.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Portrait_of_the_Kangxi_Emperor_in_Court_Dress.jpg/180px-Portrait_of_the_Kangxi_Emperor_in_Court_Dress.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="285" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1136" data-file-height="1798"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 180px;height: 285px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Portrait_of_the_Kangxi_Emperor_in_Court_Dress.jpg/180px-Portrait_of_the_Kangxi_Emperor_in_Court_Dress.jpg" data-width="180" data-height="285" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Portrait_of_the_Kangxi_Emperor_in_Court_Dress.jpg/270px-Portrait_of_the_Kangxi_Emperor_in_Court_Dress.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Portrait_of_the_Kangxi_Emperor_in_Court_Dress.jpg/360px-Portrait_of_the_Kangxi_Emperor_in_Court_Dress.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Emperor" title="Kangxi Emperor">Kangxi Emperor</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1661–1722)</figcaption></figure> The 61-year reign of the <a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Emperor" title="Kangxi Emperor">Kangxi Emperor</a> was the longest of any emperor in Chinese history, and marked the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/High_Qing_era" title="High Qing era">High Qing era</a>, the zenith of the dynasty's social, economic and military power. The early Manchu rulers established two foundations of legitimacy that help to explain the stability of their dynasty. The first was the bureaucratic institutions and the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucian" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Confucian">neo-Confucian</a> culture that they adopted from earlier dynasties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowe200932%E2%80%9333-60">[57]</a> Manchu rulers and Han Chinese <a href="/wiki/Scholar-official" title="Scholar-official">scholar-official</a> elites gradually came to terms with each other. The <a href="/wiki/Imperial_exams#Qing_dynasty_(1636%E2%80%931912)" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial exams">examination system</a> offered a path for ethnic Han to become officials. Imperial patronage of the <a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Dictionary" title="Kangxi Dictionary">Kangxi Dictionary</a> demonstrated respect for Confucian learning, while the <a href="/wiki/Sacred_Edict" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacred Edict">Sacred Edict</a> of 1670 effectively extolled Confucian family values. His attempts to discourage Chinese women from <a href="/wiki/Foot_binding" title="Foot binding">foot binding</a>, however, were unsuccessful. The second major source of stability was the <a href="/wiki/Inner_Asia" title="Inner Asia">Inner Asian</a> aspect of their Manchu identity, which allowed them to appeal to the Mongol, Tibetan and Muslim subjects.<a href="#cite_note-61">[58]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Qianlong_Emperor" title="Qianlong Emperor">Qianlong Emperor</a> propagated an image of himself as a <a href="/wiki/Chakravartin" class="mw-redirect" title="Chakravartin">Buddhist sage ruler</a>, a patron of <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[59]</a> to establish legitimacy as a ruler of the Mongols and Tibetans.<a href="#cite_note-63">[60]</a> Kangxi's reign began when the young emperor was seven. To prevent a repeat of Dorgon's monopolizing of power, on his deathbed his father hastily appointed four regents who were not closely related to the imperial family and had no claim to the throne. However, through chance and machination, <a href="/wiki/Oboi" title="Oboi">Oboi</a>, the most junior of the four, gradually achieved such dominance as to be a potential threat. In 1669, Kangxi disarmed and imprisoned Oboi through trickery – a significant victory for a fifteen-year-old emperor. The young emperor faced challenges in maintaining control of his kingdom, as well. Three Ming generals singled out for their contributions to the establishment of the dynasty had been granted governorships in southern China. They became increasingly autonomous, leading to the <a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Three_Feudatories" title="Revolt of the Three Feudatories">Revolt of the Three Feudatories</a>, which lasted for eight years. Kangxi was able to unify his forces for a counterattack led by a new generation of Manchu generals. By 1681, the Qing government had established control over a ravaged southern China, which took several decades to recover.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence201248%E2%80%9351-64">[61]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Emperor_at_the_Kherlen_river.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/The_Emperor_at_the_Kherlen_river.jpg/220px-The_Emperor_at_the_Kherlen_river.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="210" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1916" data-file-height="1832"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 210px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/The_Emperor_at_the_Kherlen_river.jpg/220px-The_Emperor_at_the_Kherlen_river.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="210" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/The_Emperor_at_the_Kherlen_river.jpg/330px-The_Emperor_at_the_Kherlen_river.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/The_Emperor_at_the_Kherlen_river.jpg/440px-The_Emperor_at_the_Kherlen_river.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The Qing army in <a href="/wiki/Khalkha" class="mw-redirect" title="Khalkha">Khalkha</a> (1688)</figcaption></figure> To extend and consolidate the dynasty's control in Central Asia, the Kangxi Emperor personally led a series of military campaigns against the <a href="/wiki/Dzungars" class="mw-redirect" title="Dzungars">Dzungars</a> in <a href="/wiki/Outer_Mongolia" title="Outer Mongolia">Outer Mongolia</a>. The Kangxi Emperor expelled <a href="/wiki/Galdan" class="mw-redirect" title="Galdan">Galdan</a>'s invading forces from these regions, which were then incorporated into the empire. In 1683, Qing forces received the surrender of <a href="/wiki/Formosa" class="mw-redirect" title="Formosa">Formosa</a> (Taiwan) from <a href="/wiki/Zheng_Keshuang" title="Zheng Keshuang">Zheng Keshuang</a>, grandson of <a href="/wiki/Koxinga" title="Koxinga">Koxinga</a>, who had conquered Taiwan from the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch Empire">Dutch</a> colonists as a base against the Qing. Winning Taiwan freed Kangxi's forces for a series of battles over <a href="/wiki/Albazin" class="mw-redirect" title="Albazin">Albazin</a>, the far eastern outpost of the <a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsardom of Russia</a>. The 1689 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nerchinsk" title="Treaty of Nerchinsk">Treaty of Nerchinsk</a> was China's first formal treaty with a European power and kept the border peaceful for the better part of two centuries. Galdan was ultimately killed in the <a href="/wiki/Dzungar%E2%80%93Qing_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Dzungar–Qing War">Dzungar–Qing War</a>;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPerdue2005-65">[62]</a> after his death, his Tibetan Buddhist followers attempted to control the choice of the next <a href="/wiki/Dalai_Lama" title="Dalai Lama">Dalai Lama</a>. Kangxi dispatched two armies to <a href="/wiki/Lhasa_(prefecture-level_city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lhasa (prefecture-level city)">Lhasa</a>, the capital of Tibet, and installed a Dalai Lama sympathetic to the Qing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence201262%E2%80%9366-66">[63]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reigns_of_the_Yongzheng_and_Qianlong_emperors">Reigns of the Yongzheng and Qianlong emperors</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Budala5.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Budala5.jpg/220px-Budala5.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 165px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Budala5.jpg/220px-Budala5.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="165" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Budala5.jpg/330px-Budala5.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Budala5.jpg/440px-Budala5.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Putuo_Zongcheng_Temple" title="Putuo Zongcheng Temple">Putuo Zongcheng Temple</a> in <a href="/wiki/Chengde" title="Chengde">Chengde</a>, built during the reign of the Qianlong Emperor on the model of the <a href="/wiki/Potala_Palace" title="Potala Palace">Potala Palace</a> in <a href="/wiki/Lhasa" title="Lhasa">Lhasa</a></figcaption></figure> The reigns of the <a href="/wiki/Yongzheng_Emperor" title="Yongzheng Emperor">Yongzheng Emperor</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1723–1735) and his son, the <a href="/wiki/Qianlong_Emperor" title="Qianlong Emperor">Qianlong Emperor</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1735–1796), marked the height of Qing power. However, the historian Jonathan Spence notes that the empire at the end of Qianlong's reign was "like the sun at midday". Despite "many glories", "signs of decay and even collapse were becoming apparent".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence201297,_101-67">[64]</a> After the death of the Kangxi Emperor in the winter of 1722, his fourth son, Prince Yong (雍親王), became the Yongzheng Emperor. He felt a sense of urgency about the problems that had accumulated in his father's later years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence201272-68">[65]</a> In the words of one recent historian, he was "severe, suspicious, and jealous, but extremely capable and resourceful",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHs%C3%BC199035-69">[66]</a> and in the words of another, he turned out to be an "early modern state-maker of the first order".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowe200968-70">[67]</a> First, he promoted Confucian orthodoxy and cracked down on unorthodox sects. In 1723, he outlawed Christianity and expelled most Christian missionaries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHs%C3%BC199035%E2%80%9337-71">[68]</a> He expanded his father's system of <a href="/wiki/Official_Communications_of_the_Chinese_Empire#Memorials" class="mw-redirect" title="Official Communications of the Chinese Empire">Palace Memorials</a>, which brought frank and detailed reports on local conditions directly to the throne without being intercepted by the bureaucracy, and he created a small <a href="/wiki/Grand_Council_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Grand Council (Qing dynasty)">Grand Council</a> of personal advisors, which eventually grew into the emperor's de facto cabinet for the rest of the dynasty. He shrewdly filled key positions with Manchu and Han Chinese officials who depended on his patronage. When he began to realize the extent of the financial crisis, Yongzheng rejected his father's lenient approach to local elites and enforced collection of the land tax. The increased revenues were to be used for "money to nourish honesty" among local officials and for local irrigation, schools, roads, and charity. Although these reforms were effective in the north, in the south and lower Yangtze valley there were long-established networks of officials and landowners. Yongzheng dispatched experienced Manchu commissioners to penetrate the thickets of falsified land registers and coded account books, but they were met with tricks, passivity, and even violence. The fiscal crisis persisted.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence201280%E2%80%9383-72">[69]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_of_Oroi-Jalatu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Battle_of_Oroi-Jalatu.jpg/220px-Battle_of_Oroi-Jalatu.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1217"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 134px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Battle_of_Oroi-Jalatu.jpg/220px-Battle_of_Oroi-Jalatu.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="134" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Battle_of_Oroi-Jalatu.jpg/330px-Battle_of_Oroi-Jalatu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Battle_of_Oroi-Jalatu.jpg/440px-Battle_of_Oroi-Jalatu.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Campaign against the <a href="/wiki/Dzungar_Khanate" title="Dzungar Khanate">Dzungar Khanate</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Dzungar%E2%80%93Qing_Wars" title="Dzungar–Qing Wars">Qing conquest of Xinjiang</a> (1755–1758)</figcaption></figure> Yongzheng also inherited diplomatic and strategic problems. A team made up entirely of Manchus drew up the 1727 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Kyakhta" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Kyakhta">Treaty of Kyakhta</a> to solidify the diplomatic understanding with Russia. In exchange for territory and trading rights, the Qing would have a free hand in dealing with the situation in Mongolia. Yongzheng then turned to that situation, where the Zunghars threatened to re-emerge, and to the southwest, where local <a href="/wiki/Miao_people" title="Miao people">Miao</a> chieftains resisted Qing expansion. These campaigns drained the treasury but established the emperor's control of the military and military finance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence201283,_86-73">[70]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LordMacartneyEmbassyToChina1793.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/LordMacartneyEmbassyToChina1793.jpg/220px-LordMacartneyEmbassyToChina1793.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2484" data-file-height="1624"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 144px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/LordMacartneyEmbassyToChina1793.jpg/220px-LordMacartneyEmbassyToChina1793.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="144" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/LordMacartneyEmbassyToChina1793.jpg/330px-LordMacartneyEmbassyToChina1793.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/LordMacartneyEmbassyToChina1793.jpg/440px-LordMacartneyEmbassyToChina1793.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/George_Macartney,_1st_Earl_Macartney" title="George Macartney, 1st Earl Macartney">Lord Macartney</a> saluting the Qianlong Emperor</figcaption></figure> When the Yongzheng Emperor died in 1735, his son Prince Bao (寶親王) became the Qianlong Emperor. Qianlong personally led the <a href="/wiki/Ten_Great_Campaigns" title="Ten Great Campaigns">Ten Great Campaigns</a> to expand military control into present-day <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a>, putting down revolts and uprisings in <a href="/wiki/Sichuan" title="Sichuan">Sichuan</a> and southern China while expanding control over Tibet. The Qianlong Emperor launched several ambitious cultural projects, including the compilation of the <a href="/wiki/Siku_Quanshu" title="Siku Quanshu">Siku Quanshu</a>, the largest collection of books in Chinese history. Nevertheless, Qianlong used the <a href="/wiki/Literary_inquisition" title="Literary inquisition">literary inquisition</a> to silence opposition.<a href="#cite_note-74">[71]</a> Beneath outward prosperity and imperial confidence, the later years of Qianlong's reign were marked by rampant corruption and neglect. <a href="/wiki/Heshen" title="Heshen">Heshen</a>, the emperor's handsome young favorite, took advantage of the emperor's indulgence to become one of the most corrupt officials in the history of the dynasty.<a href="#cite_note-75">[72]</a> Qianlong's son, the <a href="/wiki/Jiaqing_Emperor" title="Jiaqing Emperor">Jiaqing Emperor</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1796–1820), eventually forced Heshen to commit suicide. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Xu_Yang_-_Commerce_on_the_water.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Xu_Yang_-_Commerce_on_the_water.jpg/220px-Xu_Yang_-_Commerce_on_the_water.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3314" data-file-height="2458"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 163px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Xu_Yang_-_Commerce_on_the_water.jpg/220px-Xu_Yang_-_Commerce_on_the_water.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="163" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Xu_Yang_-_Commerce_on_the_water.jpg/330px-Xu_Yang_-_Commerce_on_the_water.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Xu_Yang_-_Commerce_on_the_water.jpg/440px-Xu_Yang_-_Commerce_on_the_water.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Prosperous_Suzhou" title="Prosperous Suzhou">Prosperous Suzhou</a> (1759) by <a href="/wiki/Xu_Yang_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Xu Yang (Qing dynasty)">Xu Yang</a></figcaption></figure> Population in the first half of the 17th century did not recover from civil wars and epidemics, but the following years of prosperity and stability led to steady growth. The Qianlong Emperor bemoaned the situation by remarking, "The population continues to grow, but the land does not." The introduction of new crops from the Americas such as the potato and peanut improved nutrition as well, so that the population during the 18th century ballooned from 100 million to 300 million people. Soon farmers were forced to work ever-smaller holdings more intensely. In 1796, the <a href="/wiki/White_Lotus_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="White Lotus Society">White Lotus Society</a> raised open rebellion, saying "the officials have forced the people to rebel". Others blamed officials in various parts of the country for corruption, failing to keep the famine relief granaries full, poor maintenance of roads and waterworks, and bureaucratic factionalism. There soon followed uprisings of "new sect" Muslims against local Muslim officials, and Miao tribesmen in southwest China. The <a href="/wiki/White_Lotus_Rebellion" title="White Lotus Rebellion">White Lotus Rebellion</a> continued until 1804, when badly run, corrupt, and brutal campaigns finally ended it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence1990112,_114,_116-76">[73]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rebellion,_unrest,_and_external_pressure">Rebellion, unrest, and external pressure</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Destroying_Chinese_war_junks,_by_E._Duncan_(1843).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Destroying_Chinese_war_junks%2C_by_E._Duncan_%281843%29.jpg/220px-Destroying_Chinese_war_junks%2C_by_E._Duncan_%281843%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1040" data-file-height="681"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 144px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Destroying_Chinese_war_junks%2C_by_E._Duncan_%281843%29.jpg/220px-Destroying_Chinese_war_junks%2C_by_E._Duncan_%281843%29.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="144" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Destroying_Chinese_war_junks%2C_by_E._Duncan_%281843%29.jpg/330px-Destroying_Chinese_war_junks%2C_by_E._Duncan_%281843%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Destroying_Chinese_war_junks%2C_by_E._Duncan_%281843%29.jpg/440px-Destroying_Chinese_war_junks%2C_by_E._Duncan_%281843%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>British Steamship destroying Chinese war <a href="/wiki/Junks" class="mw-redirect" title="Junks">junks</a> (E. Duncan; 1843)</figcaption></figure> During the early Qing, China continued to be the hegemonic imperial power in East Asia. Although there was no formal ministry of foreign relations, the <a href="/wiki/Lifan_Yuan" title="Lifan Yuan">Lifan Yuan</a> was responsible for relations with the Mongols and Tibetans in Inner Asia, while the <a href="/wiki/Tributary_system_of_China" title="Tributary system of China">tributary system</a>, a loose set of institutions and customs taken over from the Ming, in theory governed relations with East and Southeast Asian countries. The 1689 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nerchinsk" title="Treaty of Nerchinsk">Treaty of Nerchinsk</a> stabilized relations with the <a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsardom of Russia</a>. However, during the 18th century, European empires gradually expanded across the world and developed economies predicated on maritime trade, colonial extraction, and technological advances. The dynasty was confronted with <a href="/wiki/Westphalian_sovereignty" class="mw-redirect" title="Westphalian sovereignty">newly developing concepts of the international system</a> and state-to-state relations. European trading posts expanded into territorial control in what is now India and Indonesia. The Qing response was to establish the <a href="/wiki/Canton_System" title="Canton System">Canton System</a> in 1756, which restricted maritime trade to <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a> and gave monopoly trading rights to <a href="/wiki/Hong_(business)" title="Hong (business)">private Chinese merchants</a>. This was successful for a time, and the <a href="/wiki/British_East_India_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="British East India Company">British East India Company</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Dutch East India Company">Dutch East India Company</a> had long before been granted similar monopoly rights by their governments. In 1793, the British East India Company, with the support of the British government, sent a <a href="/wiki/Macartney_Mission" class="mw-redirect" title="Macartney Mission">diplomatic mission</a> to China led by <a href="/wiki/George_Macartney,_1st_Earl_Macartney" title="George Macartney, 1st Earl Macartney">Lord Macartney</a> in order to open trade and put relations on a basis of equality. The imperial court viewed trade as of secondary interest, whereas the British saw maritime trade as the key to their economy. The Qianlong Emperor told Macartney "the kings of the myriad nations come by land and sea with all sorts of precious things", and "consequently there is nothing we lack..."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTET%C3%AAngFairbank195419-77">[74]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Foreign_factory_site.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Foreign_factory_site.jpg/290px-Foreign_factory_site.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="124" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1868" data-file-height="800"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 290px;height: 124px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Foreign_factory_site.jpg/290px-Foreign_factory_site.jpg" data-width="290" data-height="124" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Foreign_factory_site.jpg/435px-Foreign_factory_site.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Foreign_factory_site.jpg/580px-Foreign_factory_site.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>View of the Canton River, showing the <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Factories" title="Thirteen Factories">Thirteen Factories</a> in the background (1850–1855)</figcaption></figure> Since China had little demand for European goods, Europe paid in silver for Chinese goods, an imbalance that worried the <a href="/wiki/Mercantilist" class="mw-redirect" title="Mercantilist">mercantilist</a> governments of Britain and France. The <a href="/wiki/History_of_opium_in_China" title="History of opium in China">growing Chinese demand for opium</a> provided the remedy. The British East India Company greatly expanded its production in Bengal. The <a href="/wiki/Daoguang_Emperor" title="Daoguang Emperor">Daoguang Emperor</a>, concerned both over the outflow of silver and the damage that opium smoking was causing to his subjects, ordered <a href="/wiki/Lin_Zexu" title="Lin Zexu">Lin Zexu</a> to end the opium trade. Lin confiscated the stocks of opium without compensation in 1839, leading Britain to send a military expedition the following year. The <a href="/wiki/First_Opium_War" title="First Opium War">First Opium War</a> revealed the outdated state of the Chinese military. The Qing navy, composed entirely of wooden sailing <a href="/wiki/Junks" class="mw-redirect" title="Junks">junks</a>, was severely outclassed by the modern tactics and firepower of the <a href="/wiki/British_Royal_Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="British Royal Navy">British Royal Navy</a>. British soldiers, using advanced muskets and artillery, easily outmaneuvered and outgunned Qing forces in ground battles. The Qing surrender in 1842 marked a decisive, humiliating blow. The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nanjing" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Nanjing">Treaty of Nanjing</a>, the first of the "<a href="/wiki/Unequal_treaties" title="Unequal treaties">unequal treaties</a>", demanded war reparations, forced China to open up the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_Ports" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty Ports">Treaty Ports</a> of <a href="/wiki/Shamian_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Shamian Island">Canton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amoy" class="mw-redirect" title="Amoy">Amoy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fuzhou" title="Fuzhou">Fuzhou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ningbo" title="Ningbo">Ningbo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a> to Western trade and missionaries, and to cede <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Island" title="Hong Kong Island">Hong Kong Island</a> to Britain. It revealed weaknesses in the Qing government and provoked rebellions against the regime. The <a href="/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion" title="Taiping Rebellion">Taiping Rebellion</a> (1849–1864) was the first major <a href="/wiki/Anti-Manchu_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Manchu sentiment">anti-Manchu movement</a>. Amid widespread social unrest and worsening famine, the rebellion not only posed the most serious threat to Qing rule, but during its 14-year course, between 20 and 30 million people died.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlatt2012xxii-78">[75]</a> The rebellion began under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Hong_Xiuquan" title="Hong Xiuquan">Hong Xiuquan</a> (1814–1864), a disappointed civil service examination candidate who, influenced by reading the <a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a> in translation, had a series of visions and announced himself to be the son of God, the younger brother of Jesus Christ, sent to reform China.<a href="#cite_note-79">[76]</a> In 1851, Hong launched an uprising in <a href="/wiki/Guizhou" title="Guizhou">Guizhou</a> and established the <a href="/wiki/Taiping_Heavenly_Kingdom" title="Taiping Heavenly Kingdom">Taiping Heavenly Kingdom</a> with himself as its king. Within this kingdom, slavery, concubinage, arranged marriage, opium smoking, footbinding, judicial torture, and the worship of idols were all banned. However, success led to internal feuds, defections and corruption. In addition, British and French troops, equipped with modern weapons, had come to the assistance of the Qing army. Nonetheless, it was not until 1864 that Qing forces under <a href="/wiki/Zeng_Guofan" title="Zeng Guofan">Zeng Guofan</a> succeeded in crushing the revolt. After the outbreak of this rebellion, there were also revolts by the <a href="/wiki/Hui_people" title="Hui people">Muslims</a> and <a href="/wiki/Miao_people" title="Miao people">Miao people</a> of China against the Qing, most notably in the <a href="/wiki/Miao_Rebellion_(1854%E2%80%931873)" title="Miao Rebellion (1854–1873)">Miao Rebellion</a> (1854–1873) in <a href="/wiki/Guizhou" title="Guizhou">Guizhou</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Panthay_Rebellion" title="Panthay Rebellion">Panthay Rebellion</a> (1856–1873) in <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Dungan_Revolt_(1862%E2%80%931877)" title="Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)">Dungan Revolt</a> (1862–1877) in the northwest. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Regaining_the_Provincial_Capital_of_Ruizhou.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Regaining_the_Provincial_Capital_of_Ruizhou.jpg/220px-Regaining_the_Provincial_Capital_of_Ruizhou.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="96" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="877"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 96px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Regaining_the_Provincial_Capital_of_Ruizhou.jpg/220px-Regaining_the_Provincial_Capital_of_Ruizhou.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="96" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Regaining_the_Provincial_Capital_of_Ruizhou.jpg/330px-Regaining_the_Provincial_Capital_of_Ruizhou.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Regaining_the_Provincial_Capital_of_Ruizhou.jpg/440px-Regaining_the_Provincial_Capital_of_Ruizhou.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Qing forces defeating Taiping armies</figcaption></figure> The Western powers, largely unsatisfied with the Treaty of Nanjing, gave grudging support to the Qing government during the Taiping and Nian rebellions. China's income fell sharply during the wars as vast areas of farmland were destroyed, millions of lives were lost, and countless armies were raised and equipped to fight the rebels. In 1854, Britain tried to re-negotiate the Treaty of Nanjing, inserting clauses allowing British commercial access to Chinese rivers and the creation of a permanent British embassy at Beijing. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Felice_Beato_(British,_born_Italy_-_Portrait_of_Prince_Kung,_Brother_of_the_Emperor_of_China,_Who_Signed_the_Treaty_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Felice_Beato_%28British%2C_born_Italy_-_Portrait_of_Prince_Kung%2C_Brother_of_the_Emperor_of_China%2C_Who_Signed_the_Treaty_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/180px-Felice_Beato_%28British%2C_born_Italy_-_Portrait_of_Prince_Kung%2C_Brother_of_the_Emperor_of_China%2C_Who_Signed_the_Treaty_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="235" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2937" data-file-height="3834"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 180px;height: 235px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Felice_Beato_%28British%2C_born_Italy_-_Portrait_of_Prince_Kung%2C_Brother_of_the_Emperor_of_China%2C_Who_Signed_the_Treaty_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/180px-Felice_Beato_%28British%2C_born_Italy_-_Portrait_of_Prince_Kung%2C_Brother_of_the_Emperor_of_China%2C_Who_Signed_the_Treaty_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" data-width="180" data-height="235" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Felice_Beato_%28British%2C_born_Italy_-_Portrait_of_Prince_Kung%2C_Brother_of_the_Emperor_of_China%2C_Who_Signed_the_Treaty_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/270px-Felice_Beato_%28British%2C_born_Italy_-_Portrait_of_Prince_Kung%2C_Brother_of_the_Emperor_of_China%2C_Who_Signed_the_Treaty_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Felice_Beato_%28British%2C_born_Italy_-_Portrait_of_Prince_Kung%2C_Brother_of_the_Emperor_of_China%2C_Who_Signed_the_Treaty_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/360px-Felice_Beato_%28British%2C_born_Italy_-_Portrait_of_Prince_Kung%2C_Brother_of_the_Emperor_of_China%2C_Who_Signed_the_Treaty_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Prince_Gong" title="Prince Gong">Yixin, Prince Gong</a></figcaption></figure> In 1856, Qing authorities, in searching for a pirate, boarded a ship, the Arrow, which the British claimed had been flying the British flag, an incident which led to the <a href="/wiki/Second_Opium_War" title="Second Opium War">Second Opium War</a>. In 1858, facing no other options, the <a href="/wiki/Xianfeng_Emperor" title="Xianfeng Emperor">Xianfeng Emperor</a> agreed to the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tientsin" title="Treaty of Tientsin">Treaty of Tientsin</a>, which contained clauses deeply insulting to the Chinese, such as a demand that all official Chinese documents be written in English and a proviso granting British warships unlimited access to all navigable Chinese rivers. Ratification of the treaty in the following year led to a resumption of hostilities. In 1860, with Anglo-French forces marching on Beijing, the emperor and his court fled the capital for the <a href="/wiki/Chengde_Mountain_Resort" title="Chengde Mountain Resort">imperial hunting lodge at Rehe</a>. Once in Beijing, the Anglo-French forces looted and burned the <a href="/wiki/Old_Summer_Palace" title="Old Summer Palace">Old Summer Palace</a> and, in an act of revenge for the arrest, torture, and execution of the English diplomatic mission.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHevia2003-80">[77]</a> <a href="/wiki/Prince_Gong" title="Prince Gong">Prince Gong</a>, a younger half-brother of the emperor, who had been left as his brother's proxy in the capital, was forced to sign the <a href="/wiki/Convention_of_Beijing" class="mw-redirect" title="Convention of Beijing">Convention of Beijing</a>. The humiliated emperor died the following year at Rehe. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Self-strengthening_and_frustration_of_reforms">Self-strengthening and frustration of reforms</h3></div> Following the death of the Xianfeng Emperor in 1861, and the accession of the 5-year-old <a href="/wiki/Tongzhi_Emperor" title="Tongzhi Emperor">Tongzhi Emperor</a>, the Qing rallied. In the <a href="/wiki/Tongzhi_Restoration" title="Tongzhi Restoration">Tongzhi Restoration</a>, Han Chinese officials such as <a href="/wiki/Zuo_Zongtang" title="Zuo Zongtang">Zuo Zongtang</a> stood behind the Manchus and organized provincial troops. <a href="/wiki/Zeng_Guofan" title="Zeng Guofan">Zeng Guofan</a>, in alliance with Prince Gong, sponsored the rise of younger officials such as <a href="/wiki/Li_Hongzhang" title="Li Hongzhang">Li Hongzhang</a>, who put the dynasty back on its feet financially and instituted the <a href="/wiki/Self-Strengthening_Movement" title="Self-Strengthening Movement">Self-Strengthening Movement</a>, which adopted Western military technology in order to preserve Confucian values.Their institutional reforms included China's first unified ministry of foreign affairs in the <a href="/wiki/Zongli_Yamen" title="Zongli Yamen">Zongli Yamen</a>, allowing foreign diplomats to reside in the capital, the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Maritime_Customs_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Maritime Customs Service">Imperial Maritime Customs Service</a>, the institution of modern navy and army forces including the <a href="/wiki/Beiyang_Army" title="Beiyang Army">Beiyang Army</a>, and the purchase of armament factories from the Europeans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright1957196%E2%80%93221-81">[78]</a> The dynasty gradually lost control of its peripheral territories. In return for promises of support against the British and the French, the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> took large chunks of territory in the Northeast in 1860. The period of cooperation between the reformers and the European powers ended with the 1870 <a href="/wiki/Tianjin_Massacre" title="Tianjin Massacre">Tianjin Massacre</a>, which was incited by the murder of French nuns set off by the belligerence of local French diplomats. Starting with the <a href="/wiki/Cochinchina_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Cochinchina Campaign">Cochinchina Campaign</a> in 1858, France expanded control of Indochina. By 1883, France was in full control of the region and had reached the Chinese border. The <a href="/wiki/Sino-French_War" title="Sino-French War">Sino-French War</a> began with a surprise attack by the French on the Chinese southern fleet at Fuzhou. After that the Chinese declared war on the French. A <a href="/wiki/Keelung_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Keelung Campaign">French invasion of Taiwan was halted</a> and the French were defeated on land in Tonkin at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bang_Bo" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Bang Bo">Battle of Bang Bo</a>. However Japan threatened to enter the war against China due to the Gapsin Coup and China chose to end the war with negotiations. The war ended in 1885 with the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tientsin_(1885)" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Tientsin (1885)">Treaty of Tientsin</a> and the Chinese recognition of the French protectorate in Vietnam.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHs%C3%BC1990328%E2%80%93330-82">[79]</a> Some Russian and Chinese <a href="/wiki/Gold_mining" title="Gold mining">gold miners</a> also established a short-lived <a href="/wiki/Proto-state" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-state">proto-state</a> known as the <a href="/wiki/Zheltuga_Republic" title="Zheltuga Republic">Zheltuga Republic</a> (1883–1886) in the <a href="/wiki/Amur_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Amur River">Amur River</a> basin, which was however soon crushed by the Qing forces.<a href="#cite_note-83">[80]</a> In 1884, Qing China obtained concessions in <a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_concession_of_Incheon" title="Chinese concession of Incheon">Chinese concession of Incheon</a>,<a href="#cite_note-84">[81]</a> but the pro-Japanese Koreans in <a href="/wiki/Seoul" title="Seoul">Seoul</a> led the <a href="/wiki/Gapsin_Coup" title="Gapsin Coup">Gapsin Coup</a>. Tensions between China and Japan rose after China intervened to suppress the uprising. The Japanese prime minister <a href="/wiki/It%C5%8D_Hirobumi" title="Itō Hirobumi">Itō Hirobumi</a> and Li Hongzhang signed the <a href="/wiki/Convention_of_Tientsin" title="Convention of Tientsin">Convention of Tientsin</a>, an agreement to withdraw troops simultaneously, but the <a href="/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War" title="First Sino-Japanese War">First Sino-Japanese War</a> of 1895 was a military humiliation. The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Shimonoseki" title="Treaty of Shimonoseki">Treaty of Shimonoseki</a> recognized Korean independence and ceded Taiwan and the <a href="/wiki/Pescadores" class="mw-redirect" title="Pescadores">Pescadores</a> to Japan. The terms might have been harsher, but when a Japanese citizen attacked and wounded Li Hongzhang, an international outcry shamed the Japanese into revising them. The original agreement stipulated the cession of <a href="/wiki/Liaodong_Peninsula" title="Liaodong Peninsula">Liaodong Peninsula</a> to Japan, but Russia, with its own designs on the territory, along with Germany and France, in the <a href="/wiki/Triple_Intervention" title="Triple Intervention">Triple Intervention</a>, successfully put pressure on the Japanese to abandon the peninsula. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Empress-Dowager-Cixi1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Empress-Dowager-Cixi1.jpg/170px-Empress-Dowager-Cixi1.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="266" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1548" data-file-height="2421"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 266px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Empress-Dowager-Cixi1.jpg/170px-Empress-Dowager-Cixi1.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="266" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Empress-Dowager-Cixi1.jpg/255px-Empress-Dowager-Cixi1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Empress-Dowager-Cixi1.jpg/340px-Empress-Dowager-Cixi1.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Oil painting of Empress Dowager Cixi by <a href="/wiki/Hubert_Vos" title="Hubert Vos">Hubert Vos</a> (c. 1905)</figcaption></figure> These years saw the participation of <a href="/wiki/Empress_Dowager_Cixi" title="Empress Dowager Cixi">Empress Dowager Cixi</a> in state affairs. Cixi initially entered the imperial palace in the 1850s as a concubine of the Xianfeng Emperor, and became the mother of the future Tongzhi Emperor. Following the his accession at the age of five, Cixi, Xianfeng's widow <a href="/wiki/Empress_Dowager_Ci%27an" title="Empress Dowager Ci'an">Empress Dowager Ci'an</a>, and Prince Gong (a son of the Daoguang Emperor), staged <a href="/wiki/Xinyou_Coup" title="Xinyou Coup">a coup</a> that ousted several of the Tongzhi Emperor's regents. Between 1861 and 1873, Cixi and Ci'an served as regents together; following the emperor's death in 1875, Cixi's nephew, the <a href="/wiki/Guangxu_Emperor" title="Guangxu Emperor">Guangxu Emperor</a>, took the throne in violation of the custom that the new emperor be of the next generation, and another regency began. Ci'an suddenly died in the spring of 1881, leaving Cixi as sole regent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrossley2010117-85">[82]</a> From 1889, when Guangxu began to rule in his own right, until 1898, the Empress Dowager lived in semi-retirement, spending the majority of the year at the <a href="/wiki/Summer_Palace" title="Summer Palace">Summer Palace</a>. In 1897, two German Roman Catholic missionaries were murdered in southern <a href="/wiki/Shandong_province" class="mw-redirect" title="Shandong province">Shandong province</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Juye_Incident" title="Juye Incident">Juye Incident</a>). Germany used the murders as a pretext for a naval occupation of <a href="/wiki/Jiaozhou_Bay" title="Jiaozhou Bay">Jiaozhou Bay</a>. The occupation prompted a <a href="/wiki/Scramble_for_China" title="Scramble for China">Scramble for China</a> in 1898, which included the <a href="/wiki/Kiautschou_Bay_concession" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiautschou Bay concession">German lease of Jiaozhou Bay</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kwantung_Leased_Territory" title="Kwantung Leased Territory">Russian lease of Liaodong</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Convention_for_the_Extension_of_Hong_Kong_Territory" title="Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory">British lease of the New Territories of Hong Kong</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Leased_Territory_of_Guangzhouwan" title="Leased Territory of Guangzhouwan">French lease of Guangzhouwan</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:China_imperialism_cartoon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/China_imperialism_cartoon.jpg/180px-China_imperialism_cartoon.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="246" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3118" data-file-height="4267"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 180px;height: 246px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/China_imperialism_cartoon.jpg/180px-China_imperialism_cartoon.jpg" data-width="180" data-height="246" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/China_imperialism_cartoon.jpg/270px-China_imperialism_cartoon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/China_imperialism_cartoon.jpg/360px-China_imperialism_cartoon.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">Britain</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">Germany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russia</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">France</a>, and Japan dividing China</figcaption></figure> In the wake of these external defeats, the Guangxu Emperor initiated the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Days%27_Reform" title="Hundred Days' Reform">Hundred Days' Reform</a> in 1898. Newer, more radical advisers such as <a href="/wiki/Kang_Youwei" title="Kang Youwei">Kang Youwei</a> were given positions of influence. The emperor issued a series of edicts and plans were made to reorganize the bureaucracy, restructure the school system, and appoint new officials. Opposition from the bureaucracy was immediate and intense. Although she had been involved in the initial reforms, the Empress Dowager <a href="/wiki/Wuxu_Coup" class="mw-redirect" title="Wuxu Coup">stepped in to call them off</a>, arrested and executed several reformers, and took over day-to-day control of policy. Yet many of the plans stayed in place, and the goals of reform were implanted.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReynolds199335%E2%80%9336-86">[83]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Within_historic_grounds_of_the_Forbidden_City_in_Pekin,_China,_on_November_28_celebrated_the_victory_of_the_Allies.,_ca._-_NARA_-_532582.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Within_historic_grounds_of_the_Forbidden_City_in_Pekin%2C_China%2C_on_November_28_celebrated_the_victory_of_the_Allies.%2C_ca._-_NARA_-_532582.jpg/220px-Within_historic_grounds_of_the_Forbidden_City_in_Pekin%2C_China%2C_on_November_28_celebrated_the_victory_of_the_Allies.%2C_ca._-_NARA_-_532582.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2928" data-file-height="2100"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 158px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Within_historic_grounds_of_the_Forbidden_City_in_Pekin%2C_China%2C_on_November_28_celebrated_the_victory_of_the_Allies.%2C_ca._-_NARA_-_532582.jpg/220px-Within_historic_grounds_of_the_Forbidden_City_in_Pekin%2C_China%2C_on_November_28_celebrated_the_victory_of_the_Allies.%2C_ca._-_NARA_-_532582.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="158" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Within_historic_grounds_of_the_Forbidden_City_in_Pekin%2C_China%2C_on_November_28_celebrated_the_victory_of_the_Allies.%2C_ca._-_NARA_-_532582.jpg/330px-Within_historic_grounds_of_the_Forbidden_City_in_Pekin%2C_China%2C_on_November_28_celebrated_the_victory_of_the_Allies.%2C_ca._-_NARA_-_532582.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Within_historic_grounds_of_the_Forbidden_City_in_Pekin%2C_China%2C_on_November_28_celebrated_the_victory_of_the_Allies.%2C_ca._-_NARA_-_532582.jpg/440px-Within_historic_grounds_of_the_Forbidden_City_in_Pekin%2C_China%2C_on_November_28_celebrated_the_victory_of_the_Allies.%2C_ca._-_NARA_-_532582.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The foreign armies of the <a href="/wiki/Eight-Nation_Alliance" title="Eight-Nation Alliance">Eight-Nation Alliance</a> celebrating their victory in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Peking_(1900)" title="Battle of Peking (1900)">Battle of Peking</a>, within the walls of the <a href="/wiki/Forbidden_City" title="Forbidden City">Forbidden City</a> on 28 November 1900</figcaption></figure> Drought in North China, combined with the imperialist designs of European powers and the instability of the Qing government, created background conditions for the <a href="/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxers</a>. In 1900, local groups of Boxers proclaiming support for the Qing dynasty murdered foreign missionaries and large numbers of Chinese Christians, then converged on Beijing to besiege the Foreign Legation Quarter. A coalition of European, Japanese, and Russian armies (the <a href="/wiki/Eight-Nation_Alliance" title="Eight-Nation Alliance">Eight-Nation Alliance</a>) then entered China without diplomatic notice, much less permission. Cixi declared war on all of these nations, only to lose control of Beijing after a short, but hard-fought campaign. She fled to <a href="/wiki/Xi%27an" title="Xi'an">Xi'an</a>. The victorious allies then enforced their demands on the Qing government, including compensation for their expenses in invading China and execution of complicit officials, via the <a href="/wiki/Boxer_Protocol" title="Boxer Protocol">Boxer Protocol</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence2012223%E2%80%93225-87">[84]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reform,_revolution,_collapse">Reform, revolution, collapse</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:YuanShikaiPresidente1915.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/YuanShikaiPresidente1915.jpg/180px-YuanShikaiPresidente1915.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="239" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2480" data-file-height="3296"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 180px;height: 239px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/YuanShikaiPresidente1915.jpg/180px-YuanShikaiPresidente1915.jpg" data-width="180" data-height="239" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/YuanShikaiPresidente1915.jpg/270px-YuanShikaiPresidente1915.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/YuanShikaiPresidente1915.jpg/360px-YuanShikaiPresidente1915.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Yuan_Shikai" title="Yuan Shikai">Yuan Shikai</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:China_1911_en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/China_1911_en.svg/220px-China_1911_en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="964" data-file-height="732"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 167px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/China_1911_en.svg/220px-China_1911_en.svg.png" data-width="220" data-height="167" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/China_1911_en.svg/330px-China_1911_en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/China_1911_en.svg/440px-China_1911_en.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Qing territory in 1911</figcaption></figure> The defeat by Japan in 1895 created a sense of crisis which the failure of the 1898 reforms and the disasters of 1900 only exacerbated. Cixi in 1901 moved to mollify the foreign community, called for reform proposals, and initiated the <a href="/wiki/Late_Qing_reforms" title="Late Qing reforms">Late Qing reforms</a>. Over the next few years the reforms included the restructuring of the national education, judicial, and fiscal systems, the most dramatic of which was the abolition of the imperial examination system in 1905.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReynolds19935%E2%80%9311-88">[85]</a> The court directed <a href="/wiki/Preparative_Constitutionalism" title="Preparative Constitutionalism">a constitution to be drafted</a>, and <a href="/wiki/1909_Chinese_provincial_elections" title="1909 Chinese provincial elections">provincial elections</a> were held, the first in China's history.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHs%C3%BC1990412%E2%80%93416-89">[86]</a> Sun Yat-sen and revolutionaries debated reform officials and constitutional monarchists such as Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao over how to transform the Manchu-ruled empire into a modernised Han Chinese state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERhoads2000121_ff-90">[87]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2ndPrinceChun1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/2ndPrinceChun1.jpg/180px-2ndPrinceChun1.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="240" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="1134"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 180px;height: 240px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/2ndPrinceChun1.jpg/180px-2ndPrinceChun1.jpg" data-width="180" data-height="240" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/2ndPrinceChun1.jpg/270px-2ndPrinceChun1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/2ndPrinceChun1.jpg/360px-2ndPrinceChun1.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Zaifeng,_Prince_Chun" title="Zaifeng, Prince Chun">Zaifeng, Prince Chun</a></figcaption></figure> The Guangxu Emperor died on 14 November 1908, and Cixi died the following day. <a href="/wiki/Puyi" title="Puyi">Puyi</a>, the oldest son of <a href="/wiki/Zaifeng,_Prince_Chun" title="Zaifeng, Prince Chun">Zaifeng, Prince Chun</a>, and nephew to the childless Guangxu Emperor, was appointed successor at the age of two, leaving Zaifeng with the regency. Zaifeng forced Yuan Shikai to resign. The Qing dynasty became a <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional monarchy</a> on 8 May 1911, when Zaifeng created a "responsible cabinet" led by <a href="/wiki/Yikuang" title="Yikuang">Yikuang</a>, Prince Qing. However, it became known as the "<a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_Prince_Qing" title="Cabinet of Prince Qing">royal cabinet</a>", as five of its thirteen members, were part of or related to the royal family.<a href="#cite_note-91">[88]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Wuchang_Uprising" title="Wuchang Uprising">Wuchang Uprising</a> on 10 October 1911 set off a series of uprisings. By November, 14 of the 22 provinces had rejected Qing rule. This led to the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a> on 1 January 1912, with <a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun Yat-sen</a> as its provisional head. Seeing a desperate situation, the Qing court brought Yuan Shikai back to power. His <a href="/wiki/Beiyang_Army" title="Beiyang Army">Beiyang Army</a> crushed the revolutionaries in Wuhan at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Yangxia" title="Battle of Yangxia">Battle of Yangxia</a>. After taking the position of <a href="/wiki/Chancellor_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chancellor (China)">Prime Minister</a> he created <a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_Yuan_Shikai" title="Cabinet of Yuan Shikai">his own cabinet</a>, with the support of <a href="/wiki/Empress_Dowager_Longyu" title="Empress Dowager Longyu">Empress Dowager Longyu</a>. However, Yuan Shikai decided to cooperate with Sun Yat-sen's revolutionaries to overthrow the Qing dynasty. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pitched_battle_between_the_imperial_and_revolutionary_army_Wellcome_L0040013.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Pitched_battle_between_the_imperial_and_revolutionary_army_Wellcome_L0040013.jpg/220px-Pitched_battle_between_the_imperial_and_revolutionary_army_Wellcome_L0040013.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4480" data-file-height="3360"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 165px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Pitched_battle_between_the_imperial_and_revolutionary_army_Wellcome_L0040013.jpg/220px-Pitched_battle_between_the_imperial_and_revolutionary_army_Wellcome_L0040013.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="165" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Pitched_battle_between_the_imperial_and_revolutionary_army_Wellcome_L0040013.jpg/330px-Pitched_battle_between_the_imperial_and_revolutionary_army_Wellcome_L0040013.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Pitched_battle_between_the_imperial_and_revolutionary_army_Wellcome_L0040013.jpg/440px-Pitched_battle_between_the_imperial_and_revolutionary_army_Wellcome_L0040013.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A pitched battle between the imperial and revolutionary armies in 1911</figcaption></figure> On 12 February 1912, Longyu issued the <a href="/wiki/Puyi#Abdication" title="Puyi">abdication</a> of the child emperor Puyi leading to the fall of the Qing dynasty under the pressure of Yuan Shikai's Beiyang army despite objections from <a href="/wiki/Royalist_Party" title="Royalist Party">conservatives</a> and royalist reformers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBillingsley198856%E2%80%9359-92">[89]</a> This brought an end to over 2,000 years imperial governance in China, and began a period of instability. In July 1917, there was an <a href="/wiki/Manchu_Restoration" title="Manchu Restoration">abortive attempt</a> to restore the Qing led by <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Xun" title="Zhang Xun">Zhang Xun</a>. Puyi was allowed to live in the Forbidden City after his abdication until 1924, when he moved to the <a href="/wiki/Foreign_concessions_in_Tianjin#Japanese_concession_(1898%E2%80%931945)" title="Foreign concessions in Tianjin">Japanese concession in Tianjin</a>. The Empire of Japan <a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Japanese invasion of Manchuria">invaded Northeast China</a> and founded <a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a> there in 1932, with Puyi as its <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_Manchukuo" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor of Manchukuo">emperor</a>. After the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Soviet invasion of Manchuria">invasion of Northeast China</a> to fight Japan by the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, Manchukuo fell in 1945. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Government">Government</h2></div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Government of the Qing dynasty">Government of the Qing dynasty</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="List of diplomatic missions of the Qing dynasty">List of diplomatic missions of the Qing dynasty</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Qing_Dynasty_Mandarin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Qing_Dynasty_Mandarin.jpg/180px-Qing_Dynasty_Mandarin.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="262" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="399" data-file-height="580"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 180px;height: 262px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Qing_Dynasty_Mandarin.jpg/180px-Qing_Dynasty_Mandarin.jpg" data-width="180" data-height="262" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Qing_Dynasty_Mandarin.jpg/270px-Qing_Dynasty_Mandarin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Qing_Dynasty_Mandarin.jpg/360px-Qing_Dynasty_Mandarin.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A Qing dynasty mandarin</figcaption></figure> The early Qing emperors adopted the bureaucratic structures and institutions from the Ming, but split rule between Han and Manchus, with some positions also given to <a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongols</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence201239-93">[90]</a> Like previous dynasties, the Qing recruited officials via the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_examination_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial examination system">imperial examination system</a>, until the system was abolished in 1905. The Qing divided the positions into civil and military positions, each having nine grades or ranks, each subdivided into a and b categories. Civil appointments ranged from an attendant to the emperor or a Grand Secretary in the Forbidden City (highest) to being a prefectural tax collector, deputy jail warden, deputy police commissioner, or tax examiner. Military appointments ranged from being a field marshal or chamberlain of the imperial bodyguard to a third class sergeant, corporal or a first or second class private.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJacksonHugus1999134%E2%80%93135-94">[91]</a> While the Qing dynasty tried to maintain the traditional <a href="/wiki/Tributary_system_of_China" title="Tributary system of China">tributary system of China</a>, by the 19th century Qing China had become part of a European-style community of <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_state" title="Sovereign state">sovereign states</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowe2009211-95">[92]</a> and established official <a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Diplomatic relations">diplomatic relations</a> with <a href="/wiki/Dates_of_establishment_of_diplomatic_relations_with_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations with the Qing dynasty">more than twenty countries around the world</a> before its downfall, and since the 1870s it established <a href="/wiki/Legation" title="Legation">legations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Consulate" title="Consulate">consulates</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Central_government_agencies">Central government agencies</h3></div> The formal structure of the Qing government centered on the Emperor as the absolute ruler, who presided over six Boards (Ministries<a href="#cite_note-96">[d]</a>), each headed by two presidents<a href="#cite_note-97">[e]</a> and assisted by four vice presidents.<a href="#cite_note-98">[f]</a> In contrast to the Ming system, however, Qing ethnic policy dictated that appointments were split between Manchu noblemen and Han officials who had passed the highest levels of the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_examination" title="Imperial examination">state examinations</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Grand_Secretariat" title="Grand Secretariat">Grand Secretariat</a>,<a href="#cite_note-99">[g]</a> which had been an important policy-making body under the Ming, lost its importance during the Qing and evolved into an imperial <a href="/wiki/Chancery_(medieval_office)" title="Chancery (medieval office)">chancery</a>. The institutions which had been inherited from the Ming formed the core of the Qing "<a href="/w/index.php?title=Outer_Court&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Outer Court (page does not exist)">Outer Court</a>", which handled routine matters and was located in the southern part of the <a href="/wiki/Forbidden_City" title="Forbidden City">Forbidden City</a>.<a href="#cite_note-100">[93]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_emperor_of_China_from_%27The_Universal_Traveller%27.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/The_emperor_of_China_from_%27The_Universal_Traveller%27.jpg/170px-The_emperor_of_China_from_%27The_Universal_Traveller%27.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="1067"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 227px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/The_emperor_of_China_from_%27The_Universal_Traveller%27.jpg/170px-The_emperor_of_China_from_%27The_Universal_Traveller%27.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="227" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/The_emperor_of_China_from_%27The_Universal_Traveller%27.jpg/255px-The_emperor_of_China_from_%27The_Universal_Traveller%27.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/The_emperor_of_China_from_%27The_Universal_Traveller%27.jpg/340px-The_emperor_of_China_from_%27The_Universal_Traveller%27.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The emperor of China from The Universal Traveller</figcaption></figure> In order not to let the routine administration take over the running of the empire, the Qing emperors made sure that all important matters were decided in the "<a href="/w/index.php?title=Inner_Court&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Inner Court (page does not exist)">Inner Court</a>", which was dominated by the imperial family and Manchu nobility and which was located in the northern part of the Forbidden City. The core institution of the inner court was the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Council_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Grand Council (Qing dynasty)">Grand Council</a>.<a href="#cite_note-101">[h]</a> It emerged in the 1720s under the reign of the <a href="/wiki/Yongzheng_Emperor" title="Yongzheng Emperor">Yongzheng Emperor</a> as a body charged with handling Qing military campaigns against the Mongols, but soon took over other military and administrative duties, centralizing authority under the crown.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartlett1991-102">[94]</a> The Grand Councillors<a href="#cite_note-103">[i]</a> served as a sort of <a href="/wiki/Privy_council" title="Privy council">privy council</a> to the emperor. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Qing_Dynasty-2000_wen-1859.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Qing_Dynasty-2000_wen-1859.jpg/170px-Qing_Dynasty-2000_wen-1859.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="297" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="372" data-file-height="650"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 297px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Qing_Dynasty-2000_wen-1859.jpg/170px-Qing_Dynasty-2000_wen-1859.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="297" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Qing_Dynasty-2000_wen-1859.jpg/255px-Qing_Dynasty-2000_wen-1859.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Qing_Dynasty-2000_wen-1859.jpg/340px-Qing_Dynasty-2000_wen-1859.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>2000–<a href="/wiki/Chinese_cash_(currency)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese cash (currency)">cash</a> <a href="/wiki/Great_Qing_Treasure_Note" title="Great Qing Treasure Note">Great Qing Treasure Note</a> banknote from 1859</figcaption></figure> From the early Qing, the central government was characterized by a system of dual appointments by which each position in the central government had a Manchu and a Han Chinese assigned to it. The Han Chinese appointee was required to do the substantive work and the Manchu to ensure Han loyalty to Qing rule.<a href="#cite_note-104">[95]</a> While the Qing government was established as an <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">absolute monarchy</a> like previous dynasties in China, by the early 20th century however the Qing court began to move towards a <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional monarchy</a>,<a href="#cite_note-105">[96]</a> with government bodies like the <a href="/wiki/Advisory_Council_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Advisory Council (Qing dynasty)">Advisory Council</a> established and a <a href="/wiki/1909_Chinese_parliamentary_election" title="1909 Chinese parliamentary election">parliamentary election</a> to <a href="/wiki/Preparative_Constitutionalism" title="Preparative Constitutionalism">prepare for a constitutional government</a>.<a href="#cite_note-106">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-107">[98]</a> There was also another government institution called <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Household_Department" title="Imperial Household Department">Imperial Household Department</a> which was unique to the Qing dynasty. It was established before the fall of the Ming, but it became mature only after 1661, following the death of the <a href="/wiki/Shunzhi_Emperor" title="Shunzhi Emperor">Shunzhi Emperor</a> and the accession of his son, the <a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Emperor" title="Kangxi Emperor">Kangxi Emperor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawski1998179-108">[99]</a> The department's original purpose was to manage the internal affairs of the imperial family and the activities of the <a href="/wiki/Forbidden_City#Inner_Court_or_the_Northern_Section" title="Forbidden City">inner palace</a> (in which tasks it largely replaced <a href="/wiki/Chinese_eunuch" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese eunuch">eunuchs</a>), but it also played an important role in Qing relations with <a href="/wiki/History_of_Tibet#Khoshuts,_Zunghars,_and_Manchus" title="History of Tibet">Tibet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mongolia_during_Qing_rule" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongolia during Qing rule">Mongolia</a>, engaged in trading activities (jade, <a href="/wiki/Ginseng" title="Ginseng">ginseng</a>, salt, furs, etc.), managed textile factories in the <a href="/wiki/Jiangnan" title="Jiangnan">Jiangnan</a> region, and even published books.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawski1998179%E2%80%93180-109">[100]</a> <a href="/wiki/Salt_in_Chinese_History#Prosperity,_culture,_corruption,_reform_in_the_Qing_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Salt in Chinese History">Relations with the Salt Superintendents and salt merchants</a>, such as those at Yangzhou, were particularly lucrative, especially since they were direct, and did not go through absorptive layers of bureaucracy. The department was manned by <a href="/wiki/Booi_Aha" title="Booi Aha">booi</a>,<a href="#cite_note-110">[j]</a> or "bondservants", from the Upper Three <a href="/wiki/Eight_Banners" title="Eight Banners">Banners</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETorbert197727-111">[101]</a> By the 19th century, it managed the activities of at least 56 subagencies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawski1998179-108">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETorbert197728-112">[102]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military">Military</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Military of the Qing dynasty">Military of the Qing dynasty</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Great_Rear_Attack_by_Our_Second_Army_at_Weihaiwei.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Great_Rear_Attack_by_Our_Second_Army_at_Weihaiwei.jpg/280px-Great_Rear_Attack_by_Our_Second_Army_at_Weihaiwei.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="142" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1279" data-file-height="650"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 280px;height: 142px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Great_Rear_Attack_by_Our_Second_Army_at_Weihaiwei.jpg/280px-Great_Rear_Attack_by_Our_Second_Army_at_Weihaiwei.jpg" data-width="280" data-height="142" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Great_Rear_Attack_by_Our_Second_Army_at_Weihaiwei.jpg/420px-Great_Rear_Attack_by_Our_Second_Army_at_Weihaiwei.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Great_Rear_Attack_by_Our_Second_Army_at_Weihaiwei.jpg/560px-Great_Rear_Attack_by_Our_Second_Army_at_Weihaiwei.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Japanese troops defeat Qing forces in Korea 1895.</figcaption></figure> The Qing dynasty was established by conquest and maintained by armed force. The founding emperors personally organized and led the armies, and the continued cultural and political legitimacy of the dynasty depended on the ability to defend the country from invasion and expand its territory. Therefore, military institutions, leadership, and finance were fundamental to the dynasty's initial success and ultimate decay. The early military system centered on the <a href="/wiki/Eight_Banners" title="Eight Banners">Eight Banners</a>, a hybrid institution that also played social, economic, and political roles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott200140-113">[103]</a> The Banner system was developed on an informal basis as early as 1601, and formally established in 1615 by <a href="/wiki/Jurchen_people" title="Jurchen people">Jurchen</a> leader <a href="/wiki/Nurhaci" title="Nurhaci">Nurhaci</a> (1559–1626), the retrospectively recognized founder of the Qing. His son <a href="/wiki/Hong_Taiji" title="Hong Taiji">Hong Taiji</a> (1592–1643), who renamed the Jurchens "<a href="/wiki/Manchu_people" title="Manchu people">Manchus</a>," created eight Mongol banners to mirror the Manchu ones and eight "Han-martial" (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%3F%3F" class="extiw" title="wikt:??">??</a>; Hànjun) banners manned by Chinese who surrendered to the Qing before the full-fledged <a href="/wiki/Qing_conquest_of_Ming" class="mw-redirect" title="Qing conquest of Ming">conquest of China proper</a> began in 1644. After 1644, the Ming Chinese troops that surrendered to the Qing were integrated into the <a href="/wiki/Green_Standard_Army" title="Green Standard Army">Green Standard Army</a>, a corps that eventually outnumbered the Banners by three to one. The use of gunpowder during the <a href="/wiki/High_Qing" class="mw-redirect" title="High Qing">High Qing</a> can compete with the three <a href="/wiki/Gunpowder_empires" title="Gunpowder empires">gunpowder empires</a> in western Asia.<a href="#cite_note-114">[104]</a> Manchu imperial princes led the Banners in defeating the Ming armies, but after lasting peace was established starting in 1683, both the Banners and the Green Standard Armies started to lose their efficiency. Garrisoned in cities, soldiers had few occasions to drill. The Qing nonetheless used superior armament and logistics to expand deeply into Central Asia, defeat the <a href="/wiki/Dzungar_people" title="Dzungar people">Dzungar Mongols</a> in 1759, and complete their conquest of <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a>. Despite the dynasty's pride in the <a href="/wiki/Ten_Great_Campaigns" title="Ten Great Campaigns">Ten Great Campaigns</a> of the Qianlong Emperor (r. 1735–1796), the Qing armies became largely ineffective by the end of the 18th century. It took almost ten years and huge financial waste to defeat the badly equipped <a href="/wiki/White_Lotus_Rebellion" title="White Lotus Rebellion">White Lotus Rebellion</a> (1795–1804), partly by legitimizing militias led by local Han Chinese elites. The <a href="/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion" title="Taiping Rebellion">Taiping Rebellion</a> (1850–1864), a large-scale uprising that started in southern China, marched within miles of Beijing in 1853. The Qing court was forced to let its Han Chinese <a href="/wiki/Zongdu" class="mw-redirect" title="Zongdu">governors-general</a>, first led by <a href="/wiki/Zeng_Guofan" title="Zeng Guofan">Zeng Guofan</a>, raise regional armies. This new type of army and leadership defeated the rebels but signaled the end of Manchu dominance of the military establishment.<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Qing_new_army_1905.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Qing_new_army_1905.jpg/220px-Qing_new_army_1905.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="950" data-file-height="600"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 139px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Qing_new_army_1905.jpg/220px-Qing_new_army_1905.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="139" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Qing_new_army_1905.jpg/330px-Qing_new_army_1905.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Qing_new_army_1905.jpg/440px-Qing_new_army_1905.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/New_Army" title="New Army">New Army</a></figcaption></figure> The military technology of the European <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> made China's armament and military rapidly obsolete. In 1860 British and French forces in the <a href="/wiki/Second_Opium_War" title="Second Opium War">Second Opium War</a> captured Beijing and sacked the <a href="/wiki/Old_Summer_Palace" title="Old Summer Palace">Summer Palace</a>. The shaken court attempted to modernize its military and industrial institutions by buying European technology. This <a href="/wiki/Self-Strengthening_Movement" title="Self-Strengthening Movement">Self-Strengthening Movement</a> established <a href="/wiki/Shipyard" title="Shipyard">shipyards</a> (notably the <a href="/wiki/Jiangnan_Shipyard#Kiangnan_Arsenal" title="Jiangnan Shipyard">Jiangnan Arsenal</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Foochow_Arsenal" title="Foochow Arsenal">Foochow Arsenal</a>) and bought modern guns and battleships in Europe. The Qing navy became the largest in East Asia. But organization and logistics were inadequate, officer training was deficient, and corruption widespread. The <a href="/wiki/Beiyang_Fleet" title="Beiyang Fleet">Beiyang Fleet</a> was virtually destroyed and the modernized ground forces defeated in the 1895 <a href="/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War" title="First Sino-Japanese War">First Sino-Japanese War</a>. The Qing created a <a href="/wiki/New_Army" title="New Army">New Army</a>, but could not prevent the <a href="/wiki/Eight_Nation_Alliance" class="mw-redirect" title="Eight Nation Alliance">Eight Nation Alliance</a> from invading China to put down the <a href="/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Uprising</a> in 1900. The <a href="/wiki/Wuchang_Uprising" title="Wuchang Uprising">revolt</a> of a New Army corps in 1911 led to the <a href="/wiki/Xinhai_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Xinhai Revolution">fall of the dynasty</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Administrative_divisions">Administrative divisions</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:China_Proper_Map_William_Mackenzie_c1866.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/China_Proper_Map_William_Mackenzie_c1866.png/220px-China_Proper_Map_William_Mackenzie_c1866.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="277" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2449" data-file-height="3080"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 277px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/China_Proper_Map_William_Mackenzie_c1866.png/220px-China_Proper_Map_William_Mackenzie_c1866.png" data-width="220" data-height="277" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/China_Proper_Map_William_Mackenzie_c1866.png/330px-China_Proper_Map_William_Mackenzie_c1866.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/China_Proper_Map_William_Mackenzie_c1866.png/440px-China_Proper_Map_William_Mackenzie_c1866.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The Eighteen Provinces of <a href="/wiki/China_proper" title="China proper">China proper</a> in 1875</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Empire_Chinois,_Japon_(1832).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Empire_Chinois%2C_Japon_%281832%29.jpg/220px-Empire_Chinois%2C_Japon_%281832%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="9174" data-file-height="6811"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 163px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Empire_Chinois%2C_Japon_%281832%29.jpg/220px-Empire_Chinois%2C_Japon_%281832%29.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="163" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Empire_Chinois%2C_Japon_%281832%29.jpg/330px-Empire_Chinois%2C_Japon_%281832%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Empire_Chinois%2C_Japon_%281832%29.jpg/440px-Empire_Chinois%2C_Japon_%281832%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Qing China in 1832</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Administrative divisions of the Qing dynasty">Administrative divisions of the Qing dynasty</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Administration_of_territory_in_dynastic_China#Qing_dynasty_(1644%E2%80%931912)" title="Administration of territory in dynastic China">Administration of territory in dynastic China § Qing dynasty (1644–1912)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Qing_Dynasty_1820.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Qing_Dynasty_1820.png/290px-Qing_Dynasty_1820.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="215" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="910" data-file-height="675"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 290px;height: 215px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Qing_Dynasty_1820.png/290px-Qing_Dynasty_1820.png" data-width="290" data-height="215" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Qing_Dynasty_1820.png/435px-Qing_Dynasty_1820.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Qing_Dynasty_1820.png/580px-Qing_Dynasty_1820.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Qing territory <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1820, with provinces in yellow, military governorates and protectorates in light yellow, tributary states in orange</figcaption></figure> The Qing reached its largest extent during the 18th century, when it ruled China proper (eighteen provinces) as well as the areas of present-day <a href="/wiki/Northeast_China" title="Northeast China">Northeast China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inner_Mongolia" title="Inner Mongolia">Inner Mongolia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Outer_Mongolia" title="Outer Mongolia">Outer Mongolia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a>, at approximately 13,000,000 km2 (5,000,000 sq mi) in size. There were originally 18 provinces, all in China proper, but this number was later increased to 22, with Manchuria and Xinjiang being divided or turned into provinces. <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>, originally part of <a href="/wiki/Fujian" title="Fujian">Fujian</a>, became a province of its own in the 19th century,<a href="#cite_note-115">[105]</a> but was ceded to Japan following the <a href="/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War" title="First Sino-Japanese War">First Sino-Japanese War</a> in 1895.<a href="#cite_note-116">[106]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Territorial_administration">Territorial administration</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Qing_dynasty" title="Special:EditPage/Qing dynasty">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2022) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> The Qing organization of <a href="/wiki/Province_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Province (China)">provinces</a> was based on the fifteen administrative units set up by the Ming dynasty, later made into eighteen provinces by splitting for example, <a href="/wiki/Huguang" title="Huguang">Huguang</a> into Hubei and Hunan provinces. The provincial bureaucracy continued the Yuan and Ming practice of three parallel lines, civil, military, and <a href="/wiki/Censorate" title="Censorate">censorate</a>, or surveillance. Each province was administered by a <a href="/wiki/Provincial_governor_of_Imperial_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Provincial governor of Imperial China">governor</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Provincial_military_commander" title="Provincial military commander">provincial military commander</a>. Below the province were <a href="/wiki/Prefecture_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Prefecture (China)">prefectures</a> operating under a prefect, followed by <a href="/wiki/Zhou_(country_subdivision)" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhou (country subdivision)">subprefectures</a> under a subprefect. The lowest unit was the <a href="/wiki/Counties_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China#History" class="mw-redirect" title="Counties of the People's Republic of China">county</a>, overseen by a <a href="/wiki/County_magistrate" title="County magistrate">county magistrate</a>. The eighteen provinces are also known as "China proper". The position of <a href="/wiki/Viceroy_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Viceroy (China)">viceroy</a> was the highest rank in the provincial administration. There were eight regional viceroys in China proper, each usually took charge of two or three provinces. The <a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Zhili" title="Viceroy of Zhili">Viceroy of Zhili</a>, who was responsible for the area surrounding Beijing, is usually considered as the most honorable and powerful viceroy among the eight. By the mid-18th century, the Qing had successfully put outer regions under its control. <a href="/wiki/Amban" title="Amban">Imperial commissioners</a> and garrisons were sent to Mongolia and Tibet to oversee their affairs. These territories were also under supervision of a central government institution called <a href="/wiki/Lifan_Yuan" title="Lifan Yuan">Lifan Yuan</a>. <a href="/wiki/Qinghai" title="Qinghai">Qinghai</a> was also put under direct control of the Qing court. Xinjiang, also known as Chinese Turkestan, was subdivided into the regions north and south of the <a href="/wiki/Tian_Shan" title="Tian Shan">Tian Shan</a> mountains, also known today as <a href="/wiki/Dzungaria" title="Dzungaria">Dzungaria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tarim_Basin" title="Tarim Basin">Tarim Basin</a> respectively, but the post of Ili General was established in 1762 to exercise unified military and administrative jurisdiction over both regions. Dzungaria was fully opened to Han migration by the Qianlong Emperor from the beginning. Han migrants were at first forbidden from permanently settling in the Tarim Basin but were the ban was lifted after the invasion by <a href="/wiki/Jahangir_Khoja" title="Jahangir Khoja">Jahangir Khoja</a> in the 1820s. Likewise, <a href="/wiki/Manchuria" title="Manchuria">Manchuria</a> was also governed by military generals until its division into provinces, though some areas of Xinjiang and Northeast China were lost to the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> in the mid-19th century. Manchuria was originally separated from China proper by the Inner <a href="/wiki/Willow_Palisade" title="Willow Palisade">Willow Palisade</a>, a ditch and embankment planted with willows intended to restrict the movement of the Han Chinese, as the area was off-limits to civilian Han Chinese until the government started colonizing the area, especially since the 1860s. With respect to these outer regions, the Qing maintained imperial control, with the emperor acting as Mongol khan, patron of <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a> and protector of Muslims. However, Qing policy changed with the establishment of Xinjiang province in 1884. During the <a href="/wiki/Great_Game" title="Great Game">Great Game</a>, taking advantage of the <a href="/wiki/Dungan_Revolt_(1862%E2%80%931877)" title="Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)">Dungan revolt</a> in northwest China, <a href="/wiki/Yakub_Beg_of_Yettishar" title="Yakub Beg of Yettishar">Yakub Beg</a> invaded Xinjiang from Central Asia with support from the British Empire, and made himself the ruler of the kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Kashgar" title="Kashgar">Kashgaria</a>. The Qing court sent forces to defeat Yaqub Beg and Xinjiang was reconquered, and then the political system of China proper was formally applied onto Xinjiang. The <a href="/wiki/Kumul_Khanate" title="Kumul Khanate">Kumul Khanate</a>, which was incorporated into the Qing dynasty as a vassal after helping Qing defeat the Zunghars in 1757, maintained its status after Xinjiang turned into a province through the end of the dynasty in the <a href="/wiki/Xinhai_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Xinhai Revolution">Xinhai Revolution</a> up until 1930.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillward2007%5Bhttpsbooksgooglecombooksid8FVsWq31MtMCpgPA190_190%5D-117">[107]</a> In the early 20th century, Britain sent <a href="/wiki/British_Expedition_to_Tibet" class="mw-redirect" title="British Expedition to Tibet">an expedition force</a> to <a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a> and forced Tibetans to sign a treaty. The Qing court responded by asserting Chinese sovereignty over Tibet,<a href="#cite_note-118">[108]</a> resulting in the 1906 Anglo-Chinese Convention signed between Britain and China. The British agreed not to annex Tibetan territory or to interfere in the administration of Tibet, while China engaged not to permit any other foreign state to interfere with the territory or internal administration of Tibet.<a href="#cite_note-119">[109]</a> The Qing government also turned Manchuria into three provinces in the early 20th century, officially known as the "<a href="/wiki/Northeast_China" title="Northeast China">Three Northeast Provinces</a>", and established the post of <a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_the_Three_Northeast_Provinces" class="mw-redirect" title="Viceroy of the Three Northeast Provinces">Viceroy of the Three Northeast Provinces</a> to oversee these provinces. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Society">Society</h2></div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Population_growth_and_mobility">Population growth and mobility</h3></div> The population grew in numbers, density, and mobility. The population in 1700 was roughly 150 million, about what it had been a century before, then doubled over the next century, and reached a height of 450 million on the eve of the Taiping Rebellion in 1850.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowe200991-120">[110]</a> The spread of New World crops, such as maize, peanuts, sweet potatoes, and potatoes decreased the number of deaths from malnutrition. Diseases such as <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a> were brought under control by an increase in inoculations. In addition, infant deaths were decreased due to campaigns against <a href="/wiki/Infanticide" title="Infanticide">infanticide</a> and improvements in birthing techniques performed by doctors and midwives and an increase in medical books available to the public.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowe200991%E2%80%9392-121">[111]</a> European population growth in this period was greatest in the cities, but in China there was only slow growth in cities and the lower Yangzi. The greatest growth was in the borderlands and the highlands, where farmers moved to take advantage of large tracts of marshlands and forests.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowe200992-122">[112]</a> The population was remarkably mobile, perhaps more so than at any time in Chinese history. Millions of Han Chinese migrated to <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a> and Guizhou in the 18th century, and also to Taiwan. After the conquests of the 1750s and 1760s, the court organized agricultural colonies in Xinjiang. This mobility also included the privately organized movement of Qing subjects overseas, largely to Southeast Asia, to pursue trade and other economic opportunities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowe200992-122">[112]</a> Manchuria, however, was formally closed to Han settlement by the <a href="/wiki/Willow_Palisade" title="Willow Palisade">Willow Palisade</a>, with the exception of some bannermen.<a href="#cite_note-123">[113]</a> Nonetheless, by 1780, Han Chinese had become 80% of the population.<a href="#cite_note-124">[114]</a> The relatively sparse populatikon made the territory vulnerable to Russian annexation. In response, the Qing officials proposed in 1860 to open parts of Guandong to Chinese civilian farmer settlers.<a href="#cite_note-125">[115]</a> Late 19th century Manchuria was opened up to Han settlers, resulting in more extensive migration.<a href="#cite_note-126">[116]</a> By the dawn of the 20th century, largely in an attempt to counteract increasing Russian influence, the Qing had abolished the existing administrative system in Manchuria, reclassified all immigrants to the region as "Han" instead of "civilians", and replaced provincial generals with provincial governors. From 1902 to 1911, 70 civil administrations were created in Manchuria, owing to the region's growing population.<a href="#cite_note-127">[117]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_status">Social status</h3></div> According to statute, Qing society was divided into relatively closed estates, of which in most general terms there were five. Apart from the estates of the officials, the comparatively minuscule aristocracy, and the degree-holding scholar-officials, there also existed a major division among ordinary Chinese between commoners and people with inferior status.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowe2002485-128">[118]</a> They were divided into two categories: one of them, the good "commoner" people, the other "mean" people who were seen as debased and servile. The majority of the population belonged to the first category and were described as liangmin, a legal term meaning good people, as opposed to jianmin meaning the mean (or ignoble) people. Qing law explicitly stated that the traditional <a href="/wiki/Four_occupations" title="Four occupations">four occupations</a> (scholars, farmers, artisans and merchants) were "good", or having a status of commoners. On the other hand, slaves or bondservants, entertainers (including prostitutes and actors), tattooed criminals, and those low-level employees of government officials were the "mean people". Mean people were legally inferior to commoners and suffered unequal treatments, such as being forbidden to take the imperial examination.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaquinRawski1987117-129">[119]</a> Furthermore, such people were usually not allowed to marry with free commoners and were even often required to acknowledge their abasement in society through actions such as bowing. However, throughout the Qing dynasty, the emperor and his court, as well as the bureaucracy, worked towards reducing the distinctions between the debased and free but did not completely succeed even at the end of its era in merging the two classifications together.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(May_2020)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_130-0' class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowe2009%5B%5BCategory:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_May_2020%5D%5D<sup_class=%22noprint_Inline-Template_%22_style=%22white-space:nowrap;%22>&#91;%5B%5BWikipedia:Citing_sources%7C<span_title=%22This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(May_2020)%22>page&nbsp;needed%5D%5D&#93;-130">[120]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Qing_gentry">Qing gentry</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Qing_literati" title="Qing literati">Qing literati</a></div> Although there had been no powerful hereditary aristocracy since the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a>, the gentry, like their British counterparts, enjoyed imperial privileges and managed local affairs. The status of scholar-officials was defined by passing at least the first level of civil service examinations and holding a degree, which qualified him to hold imperial office, although he might not actually do so. The gentry member could legally wear gentry robes and could talk to officials as equals. Informally, the gentry then presided over local society and could use their connections to influence the magistrate, acquire land, and maintain large households. The gentry thus included not only males holding degrees but also their wives and some of their relatives.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowe2009109%E2%80%93110-131">[121]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Qing_era_brush_container.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Qing_era_brush_container.jpg/180px-Qing_era_brush_container.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="240" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1728" data-file-height="2304"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 180px;height: 240px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Qing_era_brush_container.jpg/180px-Qing_era_brush_container.jpg" data-width="180" data-height="240" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Qing_era_brush_container.jpg/270px-Qing_era_brush_container.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Qing_era_brush_container.jpg/360px-Qing_era_brush_container.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A brush container, a symbol of gentry culture during the Qing</figcaption></figure> The gentry class was divided into groups. Not all who held office were literati, as merchant families could purchase degrees, and not all who passed the exams found employment as officials, since the number of degree-holders was greater than the number of openings. The gentry class also differed in the source and amount of their income. Literati families drew income from landholding, as well as from lending money. Officials drew a salary, which, as the years went by, were less and less adequate, leading to widespread reliance on "squeeze", irregular payments. Those who prepared for but failed the exams, like those who passed but were not appointed to office, could become tutors or teachers, private secretaries to sitting officials, administrators of guilds or temples, or other positions that required literacy. Others turned to fields such as engineering, medicine, or law, which by the nineteenth century demanded specialized learning. By the nineteenth century, it was no longer shameful to become an author or publisher of fiction.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowe2009112%E2%80%93113-132">[122]</a> The Qing gentry were marked as much by their aspiration to a cultured lifestyle as by their legal status. They lived more refined and comfortable lives than the commoners and used sedan-chairs to travel any significant distance. They often showed off their learning by collecting objects such as <a href="/wiki/Gongshi" title="Gongshi">scholars' stones</a>, porcelain or pieces of art for their beauty, which set them off from less cultivated commoners.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowe2009111-133">[123]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Qing_nobility">Qing nobility</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Royal_and_noble_ranks_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty">Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Family_and_kinship">Family and kinship</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chan_Clan_Ancestral_Hall_1930s.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Chan_Clan_Ancestral_Hall_1930s.jpg/220px-Chan_Clan_Ancestral_Hall_1930s.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1947" data-file-height="1318"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 149px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Chan_Clan_Ancestral_Hall_1930s.jpg/220px-Chan_Clan_Ancestral_Hall_1930s.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="149" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Chan_Clan_Ancestral_Hall_1930s.jpg/330px-Chan_Clan_Ancestral_Hall_1930s.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Chan_Clan_Ancestral_Hall_1930s.jpg/440px-Chan_Clan_Ancestral_Hall_1930s.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Chen_Clan_Ancestral_Hall" title="Chen Clan Ancestral Hall">Chen Clan Ancestral Hall</a>, built in 1894</figcaption></figure> During the Qing, the building block of society was <a href="/wiki/Patrilineal_kinship" class="mw-redirect" title="Patrilineal kinship">patrilineal kinship</a>. A shift in marital practices, identity and loyalty had begun during the Song, when the civil service examination began to replace nobility and inheritance as a means for gaining status. Instead of intermarrying within aristocratic elites of the same social status, they tended to form marital alliances with nearby families of the same or higher wealth, and established the local people's interests as first and foremost which helped to form intermarried townships.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowe2009114%E2%80%93116-134">[124]</a> The neo-Confucian ideology, especially the Cheng-Zhu thinking favored by Qing social thought, emphasised patrilineal families and genealogy in society.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESneath2007%5BhttpsbooksgooglecombooksidkWMaAwAAQBAJpgPT115_101%5D-135">[125]</a> The emperors and local officials exhorted families to compile genealogies in order to stabilize local society.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXu2005335-136">[126]</a> The genealogy was placed in the ancestral hall, which served as the lineage's headquarters and a place for annual ancestral sacrifice. A specific <a href="/wiki/Chinese_character" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese character">Chinese character</a> appeared in the given name of each male of each generation, often well into the future. These lineages claimed to be based on biological descent but when a member of a lineage gained office or became wealthy, he might use considerable creativity in selecting a prestigious figure to be "founding ancestor".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowe2009116%E2%80%93117-137">[127]</a> Such worship was intended to ensure that the ancestors remain content and benevolent spirits (<a href="/wiki/Shen_(Chinese_religion)" title="Shen (Chinese religion)">shen</a>) who would keep watch over and protect the family. Later observers felt that the ancestral cult focused on the family and lineage, rather than on more public matters such as community and nation.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(May_2020)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_138-0' class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorter2016%5B%5BCategory:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_May_2020%5D%5D<sup_class=%22noprint_Inline-Template_%22_style=%22white-space:nowrap;%22>&#91;%5B%5BWikipedia:Citing_sources%7C<span_title=%22This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(May_2020)%22>page&nbsp;needed%5D%5D&#93;-138">[128]</a> Inner Mongols and Khalkha Mongols in the Qing rarely knew their ancestors beyond four generations and Mongol tribal society was not organized among patrilineal clans, contrary to what was commonly thought, but included unrelated people at the base unit of organization.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESneath2007%5BhttpsbooksgooglecombooksidkWMaAwAAQBAJpgPT112_98%5D-139">[129]</a> The Qing tried but failed to promote the Chinese Neo-Confucian ideology of organizing society along patrimonial clans among the Mongols.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESneath2007%5BhttpsbooksgooglecombooksidkWMaAwAAQBAJpgPT119_105%E2%80%93106%5D-140">[130]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China#Qing_dynasty" title="Religion in China">Religion in China § Qing dynasty</a></div> Manchu rulers presided over a multi-ethnic empire and the emperor, who was held responsible for "<a href="/wiki/All_under_heaven" class="mw-redirect" title="All under heaven">all under heaven</a>", patronized and took responsibility for all religions and belief systems. The empire's "spiritual center of gravity" was the "religio-political state".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoossaertPalmer20113-141">[131]</a> Since the empire was part of the order of the cosmos, which conferred the <a href="/wiki/Mandate_of_Heaven" title="Mandate of Heaven">Mandate of Heaven</a>, the emperor as "Son of Heaven" was both the head of the political system and the head priest of the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_cult#Imperial_China" title="Imperial cult">State Cult</a>. The emperor and his officials, who were his personal representatives, took responsibility over all aspects of the empire, especially spiritual life and religious institutions and practices.<a href="#cite_note-142">[132]</a> The <a href="/wiki/County_magistrate" title="County magistrate">county magistrate</a>, as the emperor's political and spiritual representative, made offerings at officially recognized temples. The magistrate lectured on the Emperor's <a href="/wiki/Sacred_Edict" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacred Edict">Sacred Edict</a> to promote civic morality; he kept close watch over religious organizations whose actions might threaten the sovereignty and religious prerogative of the state.<a href="#cite_note-143">[133]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Manchu_and_imperial_religion">Manchu and imperial religion</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Shamanism_during_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Shamanism during the Qing dynasty">Shamanism during the Qing dynasty</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yonghe_Gong_sign.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Yonghe_Gong_sign.jpg/220px-Yonghe_Gong_sign.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 165px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Yonghe_Gong_sign.jpg/220px-Yonghe_Gong_sign.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="165" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Yonghe_Gong_sign.jpg/330px-Yonghe_Gong_sign.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Yonghe_Gong_sign.jpg/440px-Yonghe_Gong_sign.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Placard (right to left) in Manchu, Chinese, Tibetan, Mongolian <a href="/wiki/Yonghe_Temple" title="Yonghe Temple">Yonghe Lamasery</a>, Beijing</figcaption></figure> The Manchu imperial family were especially attracted by Yellow Sect or <a href="/wiki/Gelug" title="Gelug">Gelug</a> Buddhism that had spread from Tibet into Mongolia. The <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Dalai_Lama" class="mw-redirect" title="Fifth Dalai Lama">Fifth Dalai Lama</a>, who had gained power in 1642, just before the Manchus took Beijing, looked to the Qing court for support. The Kangxi and Qianlong emperors practiced this form of Tibetan Buddhism as one of their household religions and built temples that made Beijing one of its centers, and constructed a replica Lhasa's <a href="/wiki/Potala_Palace" title="Potala Palace">Potala Palace</a> at their summer retreat in <a href="/wiki/Rehe" class="mw-redirect" title="Rehe">Rehe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-144">[134]</a> <a href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">Shamanism</a>, the most common religion among Manchus, was a spiritual inheritance from their <a href="/wiki/Tungusic_peoples" title="Tungusic peoples">Tungusic</a> ancestors that set them off from Han Chinese.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott2001235,_241-145">[135]</a> <a href="/wiki/Shamanism_during_the_Qing_dynasty#State_shamanism_after_1644" title="Shamanism during the Qing dynasty">State shamanism</a> was important to the imperial family both to maintain their Manchu cultural identity and to promote their imperial legitimacy among tribes in the northeast.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawski1998231%E2%80%93236,_242%E2%80%93243-146">[136]</a> Imperial obligations included rituals on the first day of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_New_Year" title="Chinese New Year">Chinese New Year</a> at a shamanic shrine (tangse).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawski1998236-147">[137]</a> <a href="/wiki/Shamanism_during_the_Qing_dynasty#Shamanism_and_Manchu_identity" title="Shamanism during the Qing dynasty">Practices in Manchu families</a> included sacrifices to the ancestors, and the use of shamans, often women, who went into a trance to seek healing or exorcism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott2001237%E2%80%93238-148">[138]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Popular_religion">Popular religion</h4></div> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Chinese folk religion</a> was centered around the patriarchal family and <a href="/wiki/Shen_(Chinese_religion)" title="Shen (Chinese religion)">shen</a>, or spirits. Common practices included <a href="/wiki/Ancestor_veneration_in_China" title="Ancestor veneration in China">ancestor veneration</a>, <a href="/wiki/Filial_piety" title="Filial piety">filial piety</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_communal_deity_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese communal deity religion">local gods and spirits</a>. Rites included <a href="/wiki/Ancestral_veneration_in_China#Practices" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancestral veneration in China">mourning, funeral, burial, practices</a>.<a href="#cite_note-149">[139]</a> Since they did not require exclusive allegiance, forms and branches of <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Daoism" class="mw-redirect" title="Daoism">Daoism</a> were intertwined, for instance in the syncretic <a href="/wiki/Three_teachings" title="Three teachings">Three teachings</a>.<a href="#cite_note-150">[140]</a> Chinese folk religion combined elements of the three, with local variations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELagerwey20106%E2%80%937-151">[141]</a> County magistrates, who were graded and promoted on their ability to maintain local order, tolerated local sects and even patronized local temples as long as they were orderly, but were suspicious of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_salvationist_religions" title="Chinese salvationist religions">heterodox sects</a> that defied state authority and rejected imperial doctrines. Some of these sects indeed had long histories of rebellion, such as the <a href="/wiki/Way_of_Former_Heaven" class="mw-redirect" title="Way of Former Heaven">Way of Former Heaven</a>, which drew on Daoism, and the White Lotus Society, which drew on millennial Buddhism. The White Lotus Rebellion (1796–1804) confirmed official suspicions as did the Taiping Rebellion, which drew on millennial Christianity. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Christianity,_Judaism,_and_Islam">Christianity, Judaism, and Islam</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Jesuit_China_missions" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesuit China missions">Jesuit China missions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Rites_controversy" title="Chinese Rites controversy">Chinese Rites controversy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_China" title="Christianity in China">Christianity in China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protestant_missions_in_China" title="Protestant missions in China">Protestant missions in China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_China" title="Islam in China">Islam in China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judaism_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Judaism in China">Judaism in China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_China#Qing_dynasty_(1644%E2%80%931912)" title="Catholic Church in China">Catholic Church in China § Qing dynasty (1644–1912)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Medical_missions_in_China" title="Medical missions in China">Medical missions in China</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic religions</a> had arrived from Western Asia as early as the Tang dynasty but their insistence that they should be practised to the exclusion of other religions made them less adaptable than Buddhism, which had quickly been accepted as native. <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> predominated in Central Asian areas of the empire, while <a href="/wiki/Judaism_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Judaism in China">Judaism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_China" title="Christianity in China">Christianity</a> were practiced in well-established but self-contained communities.<a href="#cite_note-152">[142]</a> Several hundred Catholic missionaries arrived between the late Ming period and the proscription of Christianity in 1724. The <a href="/wiki/Jesuits" title="Jesuits">Jesuits</a> adapted to Chinese expectations, evangelized among the educated, adopted the robes and lifestyles of literati, became proficient in the Confucian classics, and did not challenge Chinese moral values. They proved their value to the early Manchu emperors with their work in gunnery, cartography, and astronomy, but fell out of favor for a time until the Kangxi Emperor's 1692 edict of toleration.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBays201221%E2%80%9323-153">[143]</a> In the countryside, the newly arrived <a href="/wiki/Dominican_Order" title="Dominican Order">Dominican</a> and <a href="/wiki/Franciscan" class="mw-redirect" title="Franciscan">Franciscan</a> clerics established rural communities that adapted to local folk religious practices by emphasizing healing, festivals, and holy days rather than sacraments and doctrine.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBays201225%E2%80%9326-154">[144]</a> In 1724, the Yongzheng Emperor proscribed Christianity as a "heterodox teaching". <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReilly200443-155">[145]</a> Since the European Catholic missionaries had kept control in their own hands and had not allowed the creation of a native clergy, however, the number of Catholics would grow more rapidly after 1724 because local communities could now set their own rules and standards. In 1811, Christian religious activities were further criminalized by the Jiaqing Emperor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReilly200444-156">[146]</a> The imperial ban was lifted by Treaty in 1846.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott2001241-157">[147]</a> The first Protestant missionary to China, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Morrison_(missionary)" title="Robert Morrison (missionary)">Robert Morrison</a> (1782–1834) of the <a href="/wiki/London_Missionary_Society" title="London Missionary Society">London Missionary Society</a> (LMS), arrived at Canton on September 6, 1807. <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaily20131-158">[148]</a> He completed a translation of the entire Bible in 1819.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaily2013145-159">[149]</a> <a href="/wiki/Liang_Afa" class="mw-redirect" title="Liang Afa">Liang Afa</a> (1789–1855), a Morrison-trained Chinese convert, extended evangelization into inner China.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaily2013188%E2%80%93189-160">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReilly200461,_64-161">[151]</a> The two Opium Wars (1839–1860) marked the watershed of Protestant Christian missions. The series of treaties signed between the 1842 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nanjing" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Nanjing">Treaty of Nanjing</a> and the 1858 Treaty of Tianjin distinguished Christianity from local religions and granted it protected status.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReilly200443-50-162">[152]</a> In the late 1840s <a href="/wiki/Hong_Xiuquan" title="Hong Xiuquan">Hong Xiuquan</a> read Morrison's Chinese Bible, as well as Liang Afa's evangelistic pamphlet, and announced to his followers that Christianity in fact had been the religion of ancient China before Confucius and his followers drove it out.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReilly200457,_62-163">[153]</a> He formed the <a href="/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion" title="Taiping Rebellion">Taiping Movement</a>, which emerged in South China as a "collusion of the Chinese tradition of millenarian rebellion and Christian messianism", "apocalyptic revolution, Christianity, and 'communist utopianism'".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoossaertPalmer201138%E2%80%9339-164">[154]</a> After 1860, enforcement of the treaties allowed missionaries to spread their evangelization efforts outside Treaty Ports. Their presence created cultural and political opposition. Historian <a href="/wiki/John_K._Fairbank" class="mw-redirect" title="John K. Fairbank">John K. Fairbank</a> observed that "[t]o the scholar-gentry, Christian missionaries were foreign subversives, whose immoral conduct and teaching were backed by gunboats".<a href="#cite_note-165">[155]</a> In the next decades, there were some 800 conflicts between village Christians and non-Christians mostly about non-religious issues, such as land rights or local taxes, but religious conflict often lay behind such cases.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoossaertPalmer201138%E2%80%9340-166">[156]</a> In the summer of 1900, as foreign powers contemplated the division of China, village youths, known as Boxers, who practiced Chinese martial arts and spiritual practices, attacked and murdered Chinese Christians and foreign missionaries in the <a href="/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Uprising</a>. The imperialist powers once again invaded and imposed a substantial <a href="/wiki/Boxer_Indemnity" class="mw-redirect" title="Boxer Indemnity">indemnity</a>. This defeat convinced many among the educated elites that popular religion was an obstacle to China's development as a modern nation, and some turned to Christianity as a spiritual tool to build one.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoossaertPalmer201140%E2%80%9341-167">[157]</a> By 1900, there were about 1,400 Catholic priests and nuns in China serving nearly 1 million Catholics. Over 3,000 Protestant missionaries were active among the 250,000 Protestant Christians in China.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEM%C3%BChlhahn2019170-168">[158]</a> Western medical missionaries established clinics and hospitals, and led medical training in China.<a href="#cite_note-169">[159]</a> Missionaries began establishing nurse training schools in the late 1880s, but nursing of sick men by women was rejected by local tradition, so the number of students was small until the 1930s.<a href="#cite_note-170">[160]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="Economy">Economy</h2></div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Economy of the Qing dynasty">Economy of the Qing dynasty</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Xi%C3%A1n_F%C4%93ng_T%C5%8Dng_B%C7%8Eo_(%E5%92%B8%E8%B1%90%E9%80%9A%E5%AF%B6)_1850%E2%80%931861_Qing_Dynasty_cash_coin.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Xi%C3%A1n_F%C4%93ng_T%C5%8Dng_B%C7%8Eo_%28%E5%92%B8%E8%B1%90%E9%80%9A%E5%AF%B6%29_1850%E2%80%931861_Qing_Dynasty_cash_coin.png/180px-Xi%C3%A1n_F%C4%93ng_T%C5%8Dng_B%C7%8Eo_%28%E5%92%B8%E8%B1%90%E9%80%9A%E5%AF%B6%29_1850%E2%80%931861_Qing_Dynasty_cash_coin.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="180" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1200"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 180px;height: 180px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Xi%C3%A1n_F%C4%93ng_T%C5%8Dng_B%C7%8Eo_%28%E5%92%B8%E8%B1%90%E9%80%9A%E5%AF%B6%29_1850%E2%80%931861_Qing_Dynasty_cash_coin.png/180px-Xi%C3%A1n_F%C4%93ng_T%C5%8Dng_B%C7%8Eo_%28%E5%92%B8%E8%B1%90%E9%80%9A%E5%AF%B6%29_1850%E2%80%931861_Qing_Dynasty_cash_coin.png" data-width="180" data-height="180" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Xi%C3%A1n_F%C4%93ng_T%C5%8Dng_B%C7%8Eo_%28%E5%92%B8%E8%B1%90%E9%80%9A%E5%AF%B6%29_1850%E2%80%931861_Qing_Dynasty_cash_coin.png/270px-Xi%C3%A1n_F%C4%93ng_T%C5%8Dng_B%C7%8Eo_%28%E5%92%B8%E8%B1%90%E9%80%9A%E5%AF%B6%29_1850%E2%80%931861_Qing_Dynasty_cash_coin.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Xi%C3%A1n_F%C4%93ng_T%C5%8Dng_B%C7%8Eo_%28%E5%92%B8%E8%B1%90%E9%80%9A%E5%AF%B6%29_1850%E2%80%931861_Qing_Dynasty_cash_coin.png/360px-Xi%C3%A1n_F%C4%93ng_T%C5%8Dng_B%C7%8Eo_%28%E5%92%B8%E8%B1%90%E9%80%9A%E5%AF%B6%29_1850%E2%80%931861_Qing_Dynasty_cash_coin.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A Qing-era copper cash coin</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yantai_(Chefoo),_Qing_Dynasty_postage_stamp.gif" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Yantai_%28Chefoo%29%2C_Qing_Dynasty_postage_stamp.gif/180px-Yantai_%28Chefoo%29%2C_Qing_Dynasty_postage_stamp.gif" decoding="async" width="180" height="198" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="185" data-file-height="203"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 180px;height: 198px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Yantai_%28Chefoo%29%2C_Qing_Dynasty_postage_stamp.gif/180px-Yantai_%28Chefoo%29%2C_Qing_Dynasty_postage_stamp.gif" data-width="180" data-height="198" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/Yantai_%28Chefoo%29%2C_Qing_Dynasty_postage_stamp.gif 1.5x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A Qing postage stamp from <a href="/wiki/Yantai" title="Yantai">Yantai</a></figcaption></figure> By the end of the 17th century, the Chinese economy had recovered from the devastation caused by the wars in which the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> were overthrown.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMyersWang2002564,_566-171">[161]</a> In the following century, markets continued to expand, but with more trade between regions, a greater dependence on overseas markets and a greatly increased population.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMyersWang2002564-172">[162]</a> By the end of the 18th century the population had risen to 300 million from approximately 150 million during the late Ming dynasty. The dramatic rise in population was due to several reasons, including the long period of peace and stability in the 18th century and the import of new crops China received from the Americas, including peanuts, sweet potatoes and maize. New species of rice from Southeast Asia led to a huge increase in production. Merchant guilds proliferated in all of the growing Chinese cities and often acquired great social and even political influence. Rich merchants with official connections built up huge fortunes and patronized literature, theater and the arts. Textile and handicraft production boomed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurphey2007151-173">[163]</a> The government broadened land ownership by returning land that had been sold to large landowners in the late Ming period by families unable to pay the land tax.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMyersWang2002593-174">[164]</a> To give people more incentives to participate in the market, they reduced the tax burden in comparison with the late Ming, and replaced the <a href="/wiki/Corv%C3%A9e" title="Corvée">corvée</a> system with a head tax used to hire laborers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMyersWang2002593,_595-175">[165]</a> The administration of the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Canal_(China)" title="Grand Canal (China)">Grand Canal</a> was made more efficient, and transport opened to private merchants.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMyersWang2002598-176">[166]</a> A system of monitoring grain prices eliminated severe shortages, and enabled the price of rice to rise slowly and smoothly through the 18th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMyersWang2002572%E2%80%93573,_599%E2%80%93600-177">[167]</a> Wary of the power of wealthy merchants, Qing rulers limited their trading licenses and usually refused them permission to open new mines, except in poor areas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMyersWang2002606,_609-178">[168]</a> These restrictions on domestic resource exploration, as well as on foreign trade, are <a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Qing_dynasty%27s_economic_performance" title="Criticism of Qing dynasty's economic performance">critiqued by some scholars</a> as a cause of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a>, by which the West overtook China economically.<a href="#cite_note-179">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-180">[170]</a> During the Ming–Qing period (1368–1911) the biggest development in the Chinese economy was its transition from a command to a market economy, the latter becoming increasingly more pervasive throughout the Qing's rule.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(May_2020)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_138-1' class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorter2016%5B%5BCategory:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_May_2020%5D%5D<sup_class=%22noprint_Inline-Template_%22_style=%22white-space:nowrap;%22>&#91;%5B%5BWikipedia:Citing_sources%7C<span_title=%22This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(May_2020)%22>page&nbsp;needed%5D%5D&#93;-138">[128]</a> Between roughly 1550 and 1800, China proper experienced a second commercial revolution, developing naturally from the first commercial revolution during the Song, which saw the emergence of long-distance inter-regional trade of luxury goods. During the second commercial revolution, for the first time, a large percentage of farming households began producing crops for sale in the local and national markets rather than for their own consumption or barter in the traditional economy. Surplus crops were placed onto the national market for sale, integrating farmers into the commercial economy from the ground up. This naturally led to regions specializing in certain cash-crops for export as China's economy became increasingly reliant on inter-regional trade of bulk staple goods such as cotton, grain, beans, vegetable oils, forest products, animal products, and fertilizer.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(May_2020)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_130-1' class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowe2009%5B%5BCategory:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_May_2020%5D%5D<sup_class=%22noprint_Inline-Template_%22_style=%22white-space:nowrap;%22>&#91;%5B%5BWikipedia:Citing_sources%7C<span_title=%22This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(May_2020)%22>page&nbsp;needed%5D%5D&#93;-130">[120]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Silver">Silver</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1_dragon_dollar_Qing_dynasty_-_1911.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/1_dragon_dollar_Qing_dynasty_-_1911.png/260px-1_dragon_dollar_Qing_dynasty_-_1911.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="133" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2994" data-file-height="1526"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 260px;height: 133px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/1_dragon_dollar_Qing_dynasty_-_1911.png/260px-1_dragon_dollar_Qing_dynasty_-_1911.png" data-width="260" data-height="133" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/1_dragon_dollar_Qing_dynasty_-_1911.png/390px-1_dragon_dollar_Qing_dynasty_-_1911.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/1_dragon_dollar_Qing_dynasty_-_1911.png/520px-1_dragon_dollar_Qing_dynasty_-_1911.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Silver_coin" title="Silver coin">Silver coin</a>: 1 yuan/dollar <a href="/wiki/Xuantong" class="mw-redirect" title="Xuantong">Xuantong</a> 3rd year – 1911 <a href="/wiki/Chop_marks_on_coins" title="Chop marks on coins">Chopmark</a></figcaption></figure> Silver entered in large quantities from mines in the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a> after the Spanish conquered the Philippines in the 1570s. The re-opening of the southeast coast, which had been closed in the late 17th century, quickly revived trade, which expanded at 4% per annum throughout the latter part of the 18th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMyersWang2002587-181">[171]</a> China continued to export tea, silk and manufactures, creating a large, favorable <a href="/wiki/Trade_balance" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade balance">trade balance</a> with the West.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurphey2007151-173">[163]</a> The resulting expansion of the money supply supported competitive and stable markets.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMyersWang2002587,_590-182">[172]</a> During the mid-Ming China had gradually shifted to silver as the standard currency for large scale transactions and by the late Kangxi period, the assessment and collection of the land tax was done in silver. Landlords began only accepting rent payments in silver rather than in crops themselves, which in turn incentivized farmers to produce crops for sale in local and national markets rather than for their own personal consumption or barter.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(May_2020)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_130-2' class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowe2009%5B%5BCategory:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_May_2020%5D%5D<sup_class=%22noprint_Inline-Template_%22_style=%22white-space:nowrap;%22>&#91;%5B%5BWikipedia:Citing_sources%7C<span_title=%22This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(May_2020)%22>page&nbsp;needed%5D%5D&#93;-130">[120]</a> Unlike the copper coins, qian or cash, used mainly for smaller transactions, silver was not reliably minted into a coin but rather was traded in units of weight: the liang or tael, which equaled roughly 1.3 ounces of silver. A third-party had to be brought in to assess the weight and purity of the silver, resulting in an extra "meltage fee" added on to the price of transaction. Furthermore, since the "meltage fee" was unregulated it was the source of corruption. The Yongzheng emperor cracked down on the corrupt "meltage fees", legalizing and regulating them so that they could be collected as a tax. From this newly increased public coffer, the Yongzheng emperor increased the salaries of the officials who collected them, further legitimizing silver as the standard currency of the Qing economy.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(May_2020)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_138-2' class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorter2016%5B%5BCategory:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_May_2020%5D%5D<sup_class=%22noprint_Inline-Template_%22_style=%22white-space:nowrap;%22>&#91;%5B%5BWikipedia:Citing_sources%7C<span_title=%22This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(May_2020)%22>page&nbsp;needed%5D%5D&#93;-138">[128]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Urbanization_and_the_proliferation_of_market-towns">Urbanization and the proliferation of market-towns</h3></div> The second commercial revolution also had a profound effect on the dispersion of the Qing populace. Up until the late Ming there existed a stark contrast between the rural countryside and cities because extraction of surplus crops from the countryside was traditionally done by the state. However, as commercialization expanded in the late-Ming and early-Qing, mid-sized cities began popping up to direct the flow of domestic, commercial trade. Some towns of this nature had such a large volume of trade and merchants flowing through them that they developed into full-fledged market-towns. Some of these more active market-towns even developed into small cities and became home to the new rising merchant class.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(May_2020)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_130-3' class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowe2009%5B%5BCategory:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_May_2020%5D%5D<sup_class=%22noprint_Inline-Template_%22_style=%22white-space:nowrap;%22>&#91;%5B%5BWikipedia:Citing_sources%7C<span_title=%22This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(May_2020)%22>page&nbsp;needed%5D%5D&#93;-130">[120]</a> The proliferation of these mid-sized cities was only made possible by advancements in long-distance transportation and communication. As more and more Chinese citizens were travelling the country conducting trade they increasingly found themselves in a far-away place needing a place to stay; in response the market saw the expansion of guild halls to house these merchants.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(May_2020)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_138-3' class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorter2016%5B%5BCategory:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_May_2020%5D%5D<sup_class=%22noprint_Inline-Template_%22_style=%22white-space:nowrap;%22>&#91;%5B%5BWikipedia:Citing_sources%7C<span_title=%22This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(May_2020)%22>page&nbsp;needed%5D%5D&#93;-138">[128]</a> Full-fledged trade guilds emerged, which, among other things, issued regulatory codes and price schedules, and provided a place for travelling merchants to stay and conduct their business. Along with the huiguan trade guilds, guild halls dedicated to more specific professions, gongsuo, began to appear and to control commercial craft or artisanal industries such as carpentry, weaving, banking, and medicine.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(May_2020)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_138-4' class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorter2016%5B%5BCategory:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_May_2020%5D%5D<sup_class=%22noprint_Inline-Template_%22_style=%22white-space:nowrap;%22>&#91;%5B%5BWikipedia:Citing_sources%7C<span_title=%22This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(May_2020)%22>page&nbsp;needed%5D%5D&#93;-138">[128]</a> By the nineteenth century guild halls worked to transform urban areas into cosmopolitan, multi-cultural hubs, staged theatre performances open to general public, developed real estate by pooling funds together in the style of a trust, and some even facilitated the development of social services such as maintaining streets, water supply, and sewage facilities.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(May_2020)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_130-4' class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowe2009%5B%5BCategory:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_May_2020%5D%5D<sup_class=%22noprint_Inline-Template_%22_style=%22white-space:nowrap;%22>&#91;%5B%5BWikipedia:Citing_sources%7C<span_title=%22This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(May_2020)%22>page&nbsp;needed%5D%5D&#93;-130">[120]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trade_with_the_West">Trade with the West</h3></div> <style 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href="/wiki/File:Map_Asia_physical_(continental).png" class="mw-file-description" title="Qing dynasty is located in Continental Asia"><noscript><img alt="Qing dynasty is located in Continental Asia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png/300px-Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="173" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3196" data-file-height="1840"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 173px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png/300px-Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png" data-alt="Qing dynasty is located in Continental Asia" data-width="300" data-height="173" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png/450px-Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png 1.5x, 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font-size:8; line-height:10px; text-align:center;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">QING DYNASTY</a></div><div id="annotation_135x110" style="position:absolute; left:135px; top:110px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">MUGHAL EMPIRE</a></div><div id="annotation_137x150" style="position:absolute; left:137px; top:150px; font-size:5px; font-weight:bold; font-size:5; line-height:7px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Madurai_Nayak_dynasty" title="Madurai Nayak dynasty">MADURAI NAYAKS</a></div><div id="annotation_228x148" style="position:absolute; left:228px; top:148px; font-size:5px; font-weight:bold; font-size:5; line-height:7px;"><a href="/wiki/Champa" title="Champa">CHAM- PA</a></div><div id="annotation_80x90" style="position:absolute; left:80px; top:90px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">SAFAVID EMPIRE</a></div><div id="annotation_20x80" style="position:absolute; left:20px; top:80px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">OTTOMAN EMPIRE</a></div><div id="annotation_75x65" style="position:absolute; left:75px; top:65px; font-size:5px; font-weight:bold; font-size:5; line-height:7px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Khanate_of_Khiva" title="Khanate of Khiva">KHIVA KHANATE</a></div><div id="annotation_103x68" style="position:absolute; left:103px; top:68px; font-size:5px; font-weight:bold; font-size:5; line-height:7px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Khanate_of_Bukhara" title="Khanate of Bukhara">BUKHARA KHANATE</a></div><div id="annotation_86x46" style="position:absolute; left:86px; top:46px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_Khanate" title="Kazakh Khanate">KAZAKH KHANATE</a></div><div id="annotation_40x19" style="position:absolute; left:40px; top:19px; font-size:8px; font-weight:bold; font-size:8; line-height:10px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">TSARDOM OF RUSSIA</a></div><div id="annotation_15x45" style="position:absolute; left:15px; top:45px; font-size:5px; font-weight:bold; font-size:5; line-height:7px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Khanate" title="Crimean Khanate">CRIMEAN KHANATE</a></div><div id="annotation_57x42" style="position:absolute; left:57px; top:42px; font-size:5px; font-weight:bold; font-size:5; line-height:7px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Kalmyk_Khanate" title="Kalmyk Khanate">KALMYK KHANATE</a></div><div id="annotation_280x74" style="position:absolute; left:280px; top:74px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Joseon" title="Joseon">JO- SEON</a></div><div id="annotation_205x145" style="position:absolute; left:205px; top:145px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Ayutthaya_Kingdom" title="Ayutthaya Kingdom">AYUT- THAYA</a></div><div id="annotation_220x130" style="position:absolute; left:220px; top:130px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">DAI VIET</a></div><div id="annotation_205x123" style="position:absolute; left:205px; top:123px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Lan_Na" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Lan Na">LAN NA</a></div><div id="annotation_210x50" style="position:absolute; left:210px; top:50px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Khalkha_Mongols" title="Khalkha Mongols">Khalkhas</a></div><div id="annotation_130x76" style="position:absolute; left:130px; top:76px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Altishahr" title="Altishahr">Altishahr</a></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_Asia_physical_(continental).png" title="File:Map Asia physical (continental).png">class=notpageimage| </a></div><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Main polities in continental Asia <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1710.<a href="#cite_note-183">[173]</a> </div></div></div></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Puankhequa_oil_painting_on_a_mirror.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Puankhequa_oil_painting_on_a_mirror.jpg/170px-Puankhequa_oil_painting_on_a_mirror.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="213" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1246" data-file-height="1562"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 213px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Puankhequa_oil_painting_on_a_mirror.jpg/170px-Puankhequa_oil_painting_on_a_mirror.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="213" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Puankhequa_oil_painting_on_a_mirror.jpg/255px-Puankhequa_oil_painting_on_a_mirror.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Puankhequa_oil_painting_on_a_mirror.jpg/340px-Puankhequa_oil_painting_on_a_mirror.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Puankhequa" title="Puankhequa">Puankhequa</a>, Chinese merchant and member of a <a href="/wiki/Cohong" title="Cohong">Cohong</a> family</figcaption></figure> In 1685, the Kangxi emperor legalized private maritime trade along the coast, establishing a series of customs stations in major port cities. The customs station at Guangzhou became by far the most active in foreign trade; by the late Kangxi reign, more than forty mercantile houses specializing in trade with the West had appeared. The Yongzheng emperor made a parent corporation comprising those forty individual houses in 1725 known as the <a href="/wiki/Cohong" title="Cohong">Cohong</a> system. Firmly established by 1757, the <a href="/wiki/Cohong" title="Cohong">Canton Cohong</a> was an association of thirteen business firms that had been awarded exclusive rights to conduct trade with Western merchants in Canton. Until its abolition after the Opium War in 1842, the Canton Cohong system was the only permitted avenue of Western trade into China, and thus became a booming hub of international trade.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(May_2020)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_138-5' class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorter2016%5B%5BCategory:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_May_2020%5D%5D<sup_class=%22noprint_Inline-Template_%22_style=%22white-space:nowrap;%22>&#91;%5B%5BWikipedia:Citing_sources%7C<span_title=%22This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(May_2020)%22>page&nbsp;needed%5D%5D&#93;-138">[128]</a> By the eighteenth century, the most significant export China had was tea. British demand for tea increased exponentially up until they figured out how to grow it for themselves in the hills of northern India in the 1880s. By the end of the eighteenth century, tea exports going through the Canton Cohong system amounted to one-tenth of the revenue from taxes collected from the British and nearly the entire revenue of the British East India Company; in fact, until the early nineteenth century tea comprised ninety percent of exports leaving Canton.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(May_2020)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_138-6' class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorter2016%5B%5BCategory:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_May_2020%5D%5D<sup_class=%22noprint_Inline-Template_%22_style=%22white-space:nowrap;%22>&#91;%5B%5BWikipedia:Citing_sources%7C<span_title=%22This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(May_2020)%22>page&nbsp;needed%5D%5D&#93;-138">[128]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Revenue">Revenue</h3></div> The recorded revenues of the central Qing government increased little over the course of the 18th and early 19th century from 36,106,483 taels in 1725 to 43,343,978 taels in 1812 before declining to 38,600,570 taels in 1841, the land tax was the principal source of revenue for the central government with the salt, customs and poll taxes being important secondary sources.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETwitchettFairbank197861-184">[174]</a> Following the Opium Wars and the opening of China to foreign trade and the mid-century rebellions, two further important sources of revenue were added: the foreign maritime customs revenue and the <a href="/wiki/Likin_(taxation)" title="Likin (taxation)">likin</a> revenue though only 20% of the likin revenue was actually given by the provinces to Hu Pu (<a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Revenue_(imperial_China)" title="Ministry of Revenue (imperial China)">board of revenue</a>) in Beijing the rest remaining in provincial hands, the Hu Pu also managed to raise some miscellaneous taxes and increased the rate of the salt tax these measures doubled revenue by the late 19th century, this however was insufficient for the central government which was facing numerous crises and wars during the period and 9 foreign loans amounting to 40mil taels were contracted by the Qing government prior to 1890.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETwitchettFairbank197861%E2%80%9362-185">[175]</a> It was estimated in the 1850s that wages around the capital of Beijing and the Yangtze delta region for a farmer was between 0.99 and 1.02 taels a month; assuming every day was worked, this would amount to roughly 12 taels a year with over 400,000,000 citizens in 1890 the level of taxation was extremely low.<a href="#cite_note-186">[176]</a> The Financial Reorganisation bureau of the Dynasty (established in 1909) estimated total revenue to be 292,000,000 taels. H.B. Morse estimated in the early 1900s a total of 284,150,000 taels of which 99,062,000 taels was spent by the Central government, 142,374,000 taels by the provincial governments and the remainder by the local government. In 1911 the Consultative assembly estimated total revenue to be 301,910,297 taels. Included in this figure was over 44,000,000 taels from the Likin of which only 13,000,000 was reported to Beijing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETwitchettFairbank197863%E2%80%9366-187">[177]</a> The Qing government during and following the First Sino-Japanese war increasingly took on loans to meet its expenditure requirements a total of 746,220,453 taels of which slightly over 330,000,000 taels was for Railway construction and the repayment to come from the revenues of the railways themselves thus these loans did not burden the central government finances. A relatively small sum of just over 25,500,000 taels was borrowed for industrial projects, over 5,000,000 taels for Telegraph lines with less than 1,000,000 taels for miscellaneous purposes. The remainder was primarily for the costs of the Sino-Japanese war and the indemnity in the Treaty of Shimonoseki amounting to over 382,000,000 taels.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETwitchettFairbank197863%E2%80%9366-187">[177]</a> Taizu noted that these figures for formal taxation only amounted to half of the total taxation and therefore revenue of the government with these surcharges being levied at a local level by local officials who found the level of taxation far too low to support even basic governance, despite the ability to levy surcharges belonging solely to the central government.<a href="#cite_note-188">[178]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="Science_and_technology">Science and technology</h2></div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_China" title="History of science and technology in China">History of science and technology in China</a></div> Chinese scholars, court academies, and local officials carried on late Ming dynasty strengths in <a href="/wiki/Chinese_astronomy#Astronomy_during_Ming_China" title="Chinese astronomy">astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_mathematics" title="Chinese mathematics">mathematics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_geography" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese geography">geography</a>, as well as technologies in <a href="/wiki/Chinese_ceramics" title="Chinese ceramics">ceramics</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_metallurgy_in_China" title="History of metallurgy in China">metallurgy</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_transport_in_China" title="History of transport in China">water transport</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_printing_in_East_Asia" title="History of printing in East Asia">printing</a>. Contrary to stereotypes in some Western writing, 16th and 17th century Qing dynasty officials and literati eagerly explored the technology and science introduced by <a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_China#Jesuit_activity_in_China" title="History of science and technology in China">Jesuit missionaries</a>. Manchu leaders employed Jesuits to use cannon and gunpowder to great effect in the conquest of China, and the court sponsored their research in astronomy. The aim of these efforts, however, was to reform and improve inherited science and technology, not to replace it. Scientific knowledge advanced during the Qing, but there was not a change in the way this knowledge was organized or the way scientific evidence was defined or its truth tested. Those who studied the physical universe shared their findings with each other and identified themselves as men of science, but they did not have a separate and independent professional role with its own training and advancement. They were still literati.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorter2016229%E2%80%93238-189">[179]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Opium_Wars" title="Opium Wars">Opium Wars</a>, however, demonstrated the power of steam engine and military technology that had only recently been put into practice in the West. During the <a href="/wiki/Self-Strengthening_Movement" title="Self-Strengthening Movement">Self-Strengthening Movement</a> of the 1860s and 1870s Confucian officials in several coastal provinces established an industrial base in military technology. The introduction of <a href="/wiki/History_of_rail_transport_in_China" title="History of rail transport in China">railroads into China</a> raised questions that were more political than technological. A British company built the 19 km (12 mi) Shanghai–Woosung line in 1876, obtaining the land under false pretenses, and it was soon torn up. Court officials feared local public opinion and that railways would help invaders, harm farmlands, and obstruct <a href="/wiki/Feng_shui" title="Feng shui">feng shui</a>.<a href="#cite_note-190">[180]</a> To keep development in Chinese hands, the Qing government borrowed 34 billion taels of silver from foreign lenders for railway construction between 1894 and 1911. As late as 1900, only 470 km (292 mi) were in operation. Finally, 8,400 km (5,200 mi) of railway was completed. The British and French after 1905 opened lines to Burma and Vietnam.<a href="#cite_note-191">[181]</a> Protestant missionaries by the 1830s translated and printed Western science and medical textbooks. The textbooks found homes in the rapidly enlarging network of missionary schools and universities. The textbooks opened learning open possibilities for the small number of Chinese students interested in science, and a very small number interested in technology. After 1900, Japan had a greater role in bringing modern science and technology to Chinese audiences but even then they reached chiefly the children of the rich landowning gentry.<a href="#cite_note-192">[182]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="Arts_and_culture">Arts and culture</h2></div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_art#Late_imperial_China_(1368%E2%80%931912)" title="Chinese art">Chinese art § Late imperial China (1368–1912)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_literature#Classical_fiction_and_drama" title="Chinese literature">Chinese literature § Classical fiction and drama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese_poetry#History_and_development" title="Classical Chinese poetry">Classical Chinese poetry § History and development</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Qing_poetry" title="Qing poetry">Qing poetry</a></div><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pine,_Plum_and_Cranes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Pine%2C_Plum_and_Cranes.jpg/150px-Pine%2C_Plum_and_Cranes.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="293" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="684" data-file-height="1336"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 150px;height: 293px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Pine%2C_Plum_and_Cranes.jpg/150px-Pine%2C_Plum_and_Cranes.jpg" data-width="150" data-height="293" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Pine%2C_Plum_and_Cranes.jpg/225px-Pine%2C_Plum_and_Cranes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Pine%2C_Plum_and_Cranes.jpg/300px-Pine%2C_Plum_and_Cranes.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Pine, Plum and Cranes, 1759, by Shen Quan</figcaption></figure> Under the Qing, inherited forms of art flourished and innovations occurred at many levels and in many types. High levels of literacy, a successful publishing industry, prosperous cities, and the Confucian emphasis on cultivation all fed a lively and creative set of cultural fields. By the end of the 19th century, national artistic and cultural worlds had begun to come to terms with the cosmopolitan culture of the West and Japan. The decision to stay within old forms or welcome Western models was now a conscious choice. Classically trained Confucian scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Liang_Qichao" title="Liang Qichao">Liang Qichao</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wang_Guowei" title="Wang Guowei">Wang Guowei</a> read widely and broke aesthetic and critical ground later cultivated in the <a href="/wiki/New_Culture_Movement" title="New Culture Movement">New Culture Movement</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fine_arts">Fine arts</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Imperial_Yellow_Peking_Glass_Vase.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Imperial_Yellow_Peking_Glass_Vase.jpg/180px-Imperial_Yellow_Peking_Glass_Vase.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="240" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1728" data-file-height="2304"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 180px;height: 240px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Imperial_Yellow_Peking_Glass_Vase.jpg/180px-Imperial_Yellow_Peking_Glass_Vase.jpg" data-width="180" data-height="240" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Imperial_Yellow_Peking_Glass_Vase.jpg/270px-Imperial_Yellow_Peking_Glass_Vase.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Imperial_Yellow_Peking_Glass_Vase.jpg/360px-Imperial_Yellow_Peking_Glass_Vase.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Daoguang_Emperor" title="Daoguang Emperor">Daoguang</a> period <a href="/wiki/Peking_glass" title="Peking glass">Peking glass</a> vase. Colored in "Imperial Yellow", due to its association with the Qing.</figcaption></figure> The Qing emperors were generally adept at poetry and often skilled in painting, and offered their patronage to Confucian culture. The Kangxi and Qianlong Emperors, for instance, embraced Chinese traditions both to control them and to proclaim their own legitimacy. The Kangxi Emperor sponsored the <a href="/wiki/Peiwen_Yunfu" title="Peiwen Yunfu">Peiwen Yunfu</a>, a rhyme dictionary published in 1711, and the <a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Dictionary" title="Kangxi Dictionary">Kangxi Dictionary</a> published in 1716, which remains to this day an authoritative reference. The Qianlong Emperor sponsored the largest collection of writings in Chinese history, the <a href="/wiki/Complete_Library_of_the_Four_Treasuries" class="mw-redirect" title="Complete Library of the Four Treasuries">Complete Library of the Four Treasuries</a>, completed in 1782. Court painters made new versions of the Song masterpiece, <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zeduan" title="Zhang Zeduan">Zhang Zeduan</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival" title="Along the River During the Qingming Festival">Along the River During the Qingming Festival</a>, whose depiction of a prosperous and happy realm demonstrated the beneficence of the emperor. The emperors undertook tours of the south and commissioned monumental scrolls to depict the grandeur of the occasion.<a href="#cite_note-193">[183]</a> Imperial patronage also encouraged the industrial production of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_ceramics" title="Chinese ceramics">ceramics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_export_porcelain" title="Chinese export porcelain">Chinese export porcelain</a>. <a href="/wiki/Peking_glass" title="Peking glass">Peking glassware</a> became popular after European glass making processes were introduced by Jesuits to Beijing.<a href="#cite_note-194">[184]</a><a href="#cite_note-195">[185]</a> During this period the European trend to imitate Chinese artistic traditions, known as <a href="/wiki/Chinoiserie" title="Chinoiserie">chinoiserie</a> also gained great popularity in Europe due to the rise in trade with China and the broader current of <a href="/wiki/Orientalism" title="Orientalism">Orientalism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-196">[186]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Landscape_by_Wang_Gai_1694.tiff" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Landscape_by_Wang_Gai_1694.tiff/lossless-page1-180px-Landscape_by_Wang_Gai_1694.tiff.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="270" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3200" data-file-height="4800"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 180px;height: 270px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Landscape_by_Wang_Gai_1694.tiff/lossless-page1-180px-Landscape_by_Wang_Gai_1694.tiff.png" data-width="180" data-height="270" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Landscape_by_Wang_Gai_1694.tiff/lossless-page1-270px-Landscape_by_Wang_Gai_1694.tiff.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Landscape_by_Wang_Gai_1694.tiff/lossless-page1-360px-Landscape_by_Wang_Gai_1694.tiff.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Landscape by Wang Gai, 1694</figcaption></figure> Yet the most impressive aesthetic works were done among the scholars and urban elite. <a href="/wiki/Chinese_calligraphy" title="Chinese calligraphy">Calligraphy</a> and painting<a href="#cite_note-197">[187]</a> remained a central interest to both court painters and scholar-officials who considered the <a href="/wiki/Four_arts" title="Four arts">four arts</a> part of their cultural identity and social standing.<a href="#cite_note-198">[188]</a> The painting of the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_art#Early_Qing_painting" title="Chinese art">early years of the dynasty</a> included such painters as the orthodox <a href="/wiki/Four_Wangs" title="Four Wangs">Four Wangs</a> and the individualists <a href="/wiki/Bada_Shanren" title="Bada Shanren">Bada Shanren</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shitao" title="Shitao">Shitao</a>. Court painting of the dynasty was also greatly influenced by some Western artists.<a href="#cite_note-199">[189]</a> The 19th century saw such innovations as the <a href="/wiki/Shanghai_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Shanghai School">Shanghai School</a> and the Lingnan School,<a href="#cite_note-200">[190]</a> which used the technical skills of tradition to set the stage for modern painting. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Traditional_learning_and_literature">Traditional learning and literature</h3></div> Traditional learning flourished, especially among Ming loyalists such as <a href="/wiki/Dai_Zhen" title="Dai Zhen">Dai Zhen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gu_Yanwu" title="Gu Yanwu">Gu Yanwu</a>, but scholars in the school of <a href="/wiki/Kaozheng" title="Kaozheng">evidential learning</a> made innovations in skeptical textual scholarship. Scholar-bureaucrats, including <a href="/wiki/Lin_Zexu" title="Lin Zexu">Lin Zexu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wei_Yuan" title="Wei Yuan">Wei Yuan</a>, developed a school of <a href="/wiki/He_Changling" title="He Changling">practical statecraft</a> which rooted bureaucratic reform and restructuring in classical philosophy. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jade_book-IMG_4433_4434_4435_4436-white.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Jade_book-IMG_4433_4434_4435_4436-white.jpg/220px-Jade_book-IMG_4433_4434_4435_4436-white.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="84" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="9100" data-file-height="3458"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 84px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Jade_book-IMG_4433_4434_4435_4436-white.jpg/220px-Jade_book-IMG_4433_4434_4435_4436-white.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="84" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Jade_book-IMG_4433_4434_4435_4436-white.jpg/330px-Jade_book-IMG_4433_4434_4435_4436-white.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Jade_book-IMG_4433_4434_4435_4436-white.jpg/440px-Jade_book-IMG_4433_4434_4435_4436-white.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Jade book of the <a href="/wiki/Qianlong_Emperor" title="Qianlong Emperor">Qianlong</a> period on display at the <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a></figcaption></figure> Philosophy<a href="#cite_note-201">[191]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_literature" title="Chinese literature">literature</a> grew to new heights in the Qing period. <a href="/wiki/Qing_poetry" title="Qing poetry">Poetry</a> continued as a mark of the cultivated gentleman, but women wrote in larger numbers and <a href="/wiki/Category:Qing_dynasty_poets" title="Category:Qing dynasty poets">poets</a> came from all walks of life. The poetry of the Qing dynasty is a lively field of research, being studied (along with the <a href="/wiki/Ming_poetry" title="Ming poetry">poetry of the Ming dynasty</a>) for its association with <a href="/wiki/Chinese_opera" title="Chinese opera">Chinese opera</a>, developmental trends of <a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese_poetry" title="Classical Chinese poetry">Classical Chinese poetry</a>, the transition to a greater role for <a href="/wiki/Written_vernacular_Chinese" title="Written vernacular Chinese">vernacular language</a>, and for poetry by <a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_and_imperial_China#Qing_dynasty" title="Women in ancient and imperial China">women</a>. The Qing dynasty was a period of literary editing and criticism, and many of the modern popular versions of Classical Chinese poems were transmitted through Qing dynasty anthologies, such as the <a href="/wiki/Complete_Tang_Poems" title="Complete Tang Poems">Complete Tang Poems</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Three_Hundred_Tang_Poems" title="Three Hundred Tang Poems">Three Hundred Tang Poems</a>. Although fiction did not have the prestige of poetry, novels flourished. <a href="/wiki/Pu_Songling" title="Pu Songling">Pu Songling</a> brought the short story to a new level in his <a href="/wiki/Strange_Tales_from_a_Chinese_Studio" title="Strange Tales from a Chinese Studio">Strange Tales from a Chinese Studio</a>, published in the mid-18th century, and <a href="/wiki/Shen_Fu" title="Shen Fu">Shen Fu</a> demonstrated the charm of the informal memoir in <a href="/wiki/Six_Chapters_of_a_Floating_Life" class="mw-redirect" title="Six Chapters of a Floating Life">Six Chapters of a Floating Life</a>, written in the early 19th century but published only in 1877. The art of the novel reached a pinnacle in <a href="/wiki/Cao_Xueqin" title="Cao Xueqin">Cao Xueqin</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Dream_of_the_Red_Chamber" title="Dream of the Red Chamber">Dream of the Red Chamber</a>, but its combination of social commentary and psychological insight were echoed in highly skilled novels such as <a href="/wiki/Wu_Jingzi" title="Wu Jingzi">Wu Jingzi</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Scholars_(novel)" title="The Scholars (novel)">The Scholars</a> (1750) and <a href="/wiki/Li_Ruzhen" title="Li Ruzhen">Li Ruzhen</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Flowers_in_the_Mirror" title="Flowers in the Mirror">Flowers in the Mirror</a> (1827).<a href="#cite_note-202">[192]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cuisine">Cuisine</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/History_of_Chinese_cuisine#History" title="History of Chinese cuisine">Cuisine</a> aroused cultural pride. The gentleman gourmet, such as <a href="/wiki/Yuan_Mei#Yuan_as_a_gastronome" title="Yuan Mei">Yuan Mei</a>, applied aesthetic standards to the art of cooking, eating, and appreciation of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_tea_culture" title="Chinese tea culture">tea</a> at a time when <a href="/wiki/Columbian_Exchange" class="mw-redirect" title="Columbian Exchange">New World crops and products</a> entered everyday life. Yuan's <a href="/wiki/Suiyuan_Shidan" class="mw-redirect" title="Suiyuan Shidan">Suiyuan Shidan</a> expounded culinary aesthetics and theory, along with a range of recipes. The <a href="/wiki/Manchu%E2%80%93Han_Imperial_Feast" title="Manchu–Han Imperial Feast">Manchu–Han Imperial Feast</a> originated at the court. Although this banquet was probably never common, it reflected an appreciation of Manchu culinary customs.<a href="#cite_note-203">[193]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="Historiography">Historiography</h2></div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Legacy of the Qing dynasty">Legacy of the Qing dynasty</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a> concept of the <a href="/wiki/Dynastic_cycle" title="Dynastic cycle">dynastic cycle</a> was used by traditional <a href="/wiki/Chinese_historiography" title="Chinese historiography">Chinese historiography</a> to organize China's past in terms of consecutive ruling houses that arose and collapsed. The Qing dynasty was the closing chapter of the 2000-year history of Imperial China. <a href="/wiki/John_King_Fairbank" title="John King Fairbank">John King Fairbank</a> of <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a>, a historian who is essentially credited with founding modern Chinese history in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, steadfastly maintained a perspective that split the history of China's past half millennium around 1842. All that fell before remained part of "traditional China", and with the <a href="/wiki/Western_imperialism_in_Asia" title="Western imperialism in Asia">Western "shock"</a> of the <a href="/wiki/First_Opium_War" title="First Opium War">First Opium War</a> and the resulting <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nanking" title="Treaty of Nanking">Treaty of Nanking</a>, "modern China" was born. The Qing dynasty was thus bifurcated in this manner. In contemporary China, there is also a similar view for such a division.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowe20092%E2%80%933-204">[194]</a> The <a href="/wiki/New_Qing_History" title="New Qing History">New Qing History</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Historical_revisionism" title="Historical revisionism">revisionist</a> historiographical school that emerged in the mid-1990s and emphasizes the particular Manchu character of the dynasty. Earlier historians had emphasized a pattern of Han <a href="/wiki/Sinicization" title="Sinicization">sinicization</a> of various conquerors. In the 1980s and early 1990s, American scholars began learning the <a href="/wiki/Manchu_language" title="Manchu language">Manchu language</a>, taking advantage of archival holdings in this and other non-Chinese languages that had long been held in <a href="/wiki/Taipei" title="Taipei">Taipei</a> and <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a> but had previously attracted little scholarly attention.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaley-Cohen2004194%E2%80%93197-205">[195]</a> This research concluded that the Manchu rulers 'manipulated' their subjects by fostering a sense of Manchu identity, often adopting <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asian</a> models of rule as much as <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a> ones.<a href="#cite_note-206">[196]</a> The most prominent feature of the studies has been characterized by a renewed interest in the Manchus and their relationship to China and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_culture" title="Chinese culture">Chinese culture</a>, as well as that of other non-Han groups ruled by Beijing.<a href="#cite_note-207">[197]</a> <a href="/wiki/William_T._Rowe" title="William T. Rowe">William T. Rowe</a> of <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University" title="Johns Hopkins University">Johns Hopkins University</a> wrote that the name "China" (中國; 中華) was generally understood to refer to the political realm of the <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han Chinese</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a>, and this understanding persisted among the Han Chinese into the early Qing dynasty, and the understanding was also shared by <a href="/wiki/Aisin_Gioro" class="mw-redirect" title="Aisin Gioro">Aisin Gioro</a> rulers before the <a href="/wiki/Ming-Qing_transition" class="mw-redirect" title="Ming-Qing transition">Ming-Qing transition</a>. The Qing dynasty, however, "came to refer to their more expansive empire not only as the Great Qing but also, nearly interchangeably, as China" within a few decades of this development. Instead of the earlier (Ming) idea of an ethnic Han Chinese state, this new Qing China was a "self-consciously multi-ethnic state". Han Chinese scholars had some time to adapt this, but by the 19th century, the notion of China as a <a href="/wiki/Multinational_state" title="Multinational state">multinational state</a> with new, significantly extended borders had become the standard terminology for Han Chinese writers. Rowe noted that "these were the origins of the China we know today".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowe2009210%E2%80%93211-208">[198]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 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data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="/wiki/Portal:China" title="Portal:China">China portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/31px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="28" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 31px;height: 28px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/31px-P_history.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="31" data-height="28" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/47px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/62px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History portal</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Qing_sentiment" title="Anti-Qing sentiment">Anti-Qing sentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandarin_square" title="Mandarin square">Mandarin square</a> – costumes of Qing officials</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_imperial_China#Early_Qing_dynasty" title="Foreign relations of imperial China">Foreign relations of the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Chinese_harem_system" title="Imperial Chinese harem system">Imperial Chinese harem system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)" title="International relations (1814–1919)">International relations (1814–1919)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_during_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Islam during the Qing dynasty">Islam during the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="List of diplomatic missions of the Qing dynasty">List of diplomatic missions of the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_emperors_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="List of emperors of the Qing dynasty">List of emperors of the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rebellions_in_China" title="List of rebellions in China">List of rebellions in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_recipients_of_tribute_from_China" title="List of recipients of tribute from China">List of recipients of tribute from China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs" title="List of Chinese monarchs">List of Chinese monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchuria_under_Qing_rule" title="Manchuria under Qing rule">Manchuria under Qing rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_China_before_1912" title="Military history of China before 1912">Military history of China before 1912</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolia_under_Qing_rule" title="Mongolia under Qing rule">Mongolia under Qing rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_emperors_family_tree_(late)#Qing_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese emperors family tree (late)">Qing emperors' family tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" title="Qing dynasty in Inner Asia">Qing dynasty in Inner Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_official_headwear" title="Qing official headwear">Qing official headwear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Rise_and_Fall_of_Qing_Dynasty" title="The Rise and Fall of Qing Dynasty">The Rise and Fall of Qing Dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_and_noble_ranks_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty">Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_under_Qing_rule" title="Taiwan under Qing rule">Taiwan under Qing rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibet_under_Qing_rule" title="Tibet under Qing rule">Tibet under Qing rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Chinese_history" title="Timeline of Chinese history">Timeline of Chinese history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_late_anti-Qing_rebellions" title="Timeline of late anti-Qing rebellions">Timeline of late anti-Qing rebellions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_under_Qing_rule" title="Xinjiang under Qing rule">Xinjiang under Qing rule</a></li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(10)"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div><section class="mf-section-10 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-10"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-lower-alpha" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-year-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-year_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-year_11-1">b</a> Sources consider the start year of the Qing dynasty differently, including 1644<a href="#cite_note-StartYear-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowe2009292-4">[4]</a>, 1636<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a>, and 1616<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> For other names, see <a href="/wiki/Names_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Names of the Qing dynasty">Names of the Qing dynasty</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> Dulimbai means 'central' or 'middle', gurun means 'nation' or 'state' </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> Chinese: 六部; pinyin: lìubù </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> 尚書; 尚书; shàngshū; <a href="/wiki/Manchu_language" title="Manchu language">Manchu</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span lang="mnc" class="font-mong-mnc" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.25em; font-family:'Mongolian Baiti', 'Mongol Universal White', 'Noto Sans Mongolian', 'Abkai Xanyan', 'Abkai Xanyan LA', 'Abkai Xanyan VT', 'Abkai Xanyan XX', 'Abkai Xanyan SC', 'Abkai Buleku', 'Daicing White', 'Oyun Gurban Ulus Tig', 'Oyun Qagan Tig', 'Oyun Garqag Tig', 'Oyun Har_a Tig', 'Oyun Scnin Tig', 'Mongolian BT'; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᠠᠯᡳᡥᠠ ᠠᠮᠪᠠᠨ, <a href="/wiki/Transliterations_of_Manchu" title="Transliterations of Manchu">Möllendorff</a>: aliha amban, <a href="/wiki/Transliterations_of_Manchu" title="Transliterations of Manchu">Abkai</a>: aliha amban </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> 侍郎; shìláng; <a href="/wiki/Manchu_language" title="Manchu language">Manchu</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span lang="mnc" class="font-mong-mnc" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.25em; font-family:'Mongolian Baiti', 'Mongol Universal White', 'Noto Sans Mongolian', 'Abkai Xanyan', 'Abkai Xanyan LA', 'Abkai Xanyan VT', 'Abkai Xanyan XX', 'Abkai Xanyan SC', 'Abkai Buleku', 'Daicing White', 'Oyun Gurban Ulus Tig', 'Oyun Qagan Tig', 'Oyun Garqag Tig', 'Oyun Har_a Tig', 'Oyun Scnin Tig', 'Mongolian BT'; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᠠᠰᡥᠠᠨ ᡳ ᠠᠮᠪᠠᠨ, <a href="/wiki/Transliterations_of_Manchu" title="Transliterations of Manchu">Möllendorff</a>: ashan i amban, <a href="/wiki/Transliterations_of_Manchu" title="Transliterations of Manchu">Abkai</a>: ashan-i amban </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> 內閣; 内阁; nèigé; <a href="/wiki/Manchu_language" title="Manchu language">Manchu</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span lang="mnc" class="font-mong-mnc" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.25em; font-family:'Mongolian Baiti', 'Mongol Universal White', 'Noto Sans Mongolian', 'Abkai Xanyan', 'Abkai Xanyan LA', 'Abkai Xanyan VT', 'Abkai Xanyan XX', 'Abkai Xanyan SC', 'Abkai Buleku', 'Daicing White', 'Oyun Gurban Ulus Tig', 'Oyun Qagan Tig', 'Oyun Garqag Tig', 'Oyun Har_a Tig', 'Oyun Scnin Tig', 'Mongolian BT'; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᡩᠣᡵᡤᡳ ᠶᠠᠮᡠᠨ, <a href="/wiki/Transliterations_of_Manchu" title="Transliterations of Manchu">Möllendorff</a>: dorgi yamun, <a href="/wiki/Transliterations_of_Manchu" title="Transliterations of Manchu">Abkai</a>: dorgi yamun </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> 軍機處; 军机处; jūnjī chù; <a href="/wiki/Manchu_language" title="Manchu language">Manchu</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span lang="mnc" class="font-mong-mnc" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.25em; font-family:'Mongolian Baiti', 'Mongol Universal White', 'Noto Sans Mongolian', 'Abkai Xanyan', 'Abkai Xanyan LA', 'Abkai Xanyan VT', 'Abkai Xanyan XX', 'Abkai Xanyan SC', 'Abkai Buleku', 'Daicing White', 'Oyun Gurban Ulus Tig', 'Oyun Qagan Tig', 'Oyun Garqag Tig', 'Oyun Har_a Tig', 'Oyun Scnin Tig', 'Mongolian BT'; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᠴᠣᡠ᠋ᡥᠠᡳ ᠨᠠᠰᡥᡡᠨ ᡳ ᠪᠠ, <a href="/wiki/Transliterations_of_Manchu" title="Transliterations of Manchu">Möllendorff</a>: coohai nashūn i ba, <a href="/wiki/Transliterations_of_Manchu" title="Transliterations of Manchu">Abkai</a>: qouhai nashvn-i ba </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> traditional Chinese: 軍機大臣; simplified Chinese: 军机大臣; pinyin: jūnjī dàchén </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> Chinese: 包衣; pinyin: bāoyī; <a href="/wiki/Manchu_language" title="Manchu language">Manchu</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span lang="mnc" class="font-mong-mnc" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.25em; font-family:'Mongolian Baiti', 'Mongol Universal White', 'Noto Sans Mongolian', 'Abkai Xanyan', 'Abkai Xanyan LA', 'Abkai Xanyan VT', 'Abkai Xanyan XX', 'Abkai Xanyan SC', 'Abkai Buleku', 'Daicing White', 'Oyun Gurban Ulus Tig', 'Oyun Qagan Tig', 'Oyun Garqag Tig', 'Oyun Har_a Tig', 'Oyun Scnin Tig', 'Mongolian BT'; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᠪᠣᡠ᠋ᡳ, <a href="/wiki/Transliterations_of_Manchu" title="Transliterations of Manchu">Möllendorff</a>: booi, <a href="/wiki/Transliterations_of_Manchu" title="Transliterations of Manchu">Abkai</a>: boui </li> </ol></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(11)"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div><section class="mf-section-11 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-11"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-StartYear-1"><a href="#cite_ref-StartYear_1-0">^</a> "Ritual Music in the Court and Rulership of the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911)" (p. 136): "[1636] was the start of the Qing dynasty, although historians usually date the Qing dynasty started in 1644 when the Manchus conquered Beijing and north China." </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output 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Wasserstrom (2022). The Oxford History of Modern China. OUP Oxford. p. ix. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780192648303" title="Special:BookSources/9780192648303"><bdi>9780192648303</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+History+of+Modern+China&rft.pages=ix&rft.pub=OUP+Oxford&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=9780192648303&rft.au=Jeffrey+N.+Wasserstrom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQing+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCharles_Desnoyers2017" class="citation book cs1">Charles Desnoyers (2017). Patterns of Modern Chinese History. 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Ningbo chubanshe. p. 8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787552632859" title="Special:BookSources/9787552632859"><bdi>9787552632859</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2%E8%88%87%E6%99%82%E4%BA%8B%E5%AD%B8%E6%B3%95%E6%8C%87%E5%B0%8E&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=Ningbo+chubanshe&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9787552632859&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Jianqiang&rft.au=Chen%2C+Jiahua&rft.au=Wang%2C+Yonhzhong&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQing+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Broomhall1907-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Broomhall1907_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Broomhall1907_16-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBroomhall1907" class="citation book cs1">Broomhall, Marshall (1907). The Chinese Empire: A General and Missionary Survey, Volumes 678–679. Morgan at Scott. pp. 2–3.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Chinese+Empire%3A+A+General+and+Missionary+Survey%2C+Volumes+678%E2%80%93679&rft.pages=2-3&rft.pub=Morgan+at+Scott&rft.date=1907&rft.aulast=Broomhall&rft.aufirst=Marshall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQing+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Peterson-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Peterson_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Peterson_18-1">b</a> The Cambridge History of China: Volume 9, The Ch'ing Empire to 1800, Part 1, by Willard J. Peterson, p. 29 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERowe200914–15-19"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERowe200914%E2%80%9315_19-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRowe2009">Rowe (2009)</a>, pp. 14–15. </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYamamuro2006" class="citation book cs1">Yamamuro, Shin'ichi (2006). Manchuria Under Japanese Domination. Translated by Fogel, J. A. 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In Weststeijn, Thijs (ed.). Foreign Devils and Philosophers Cultural Encounters between the Chinese, the Dutch, and Other Europeans, 1590–1800. Leiden: Brill. pp. 82–83. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004418929" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004418929"><bdi>978-9004418929</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210508232543/https://brill.com/view/book/edcoll/9789004418929/BP000004.xml">Archived</a> from the original on 8 May 2021. Retrieved 14 March 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Tartars+in+European+Missionary+Writings+of+the+Seventeenth+Century&rft.btitle=Foreign+Devils+and+Philosophers+Cultural+Encounters+between+the+Chinese%2C+the+Dutch%2C+and+Other+Europeans%2C+1590%E2%80%931800&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=82-83&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-9004418929&rft.aulast=Dong&rft.aufirst=Shaoxin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrill.com%2Fview%2Fbook%2Fedcoll%2F9789004418929%2FBP000004.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQing+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoolley2016" class="citation cs2">Woolley, Nathan (2016), Celestial Empire: Life in China 1644–1911, National Library of Australia, p. 107, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780642278760" title="Special:BookSources/9780642278760"><bdi>9780642278760</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Celestial+Empire%3A+Life+in+China+1644%E2%80%931911&rft.pages=107&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Australia&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9780642278760&rft.aulast=Woolley&rft.aufirst=Nathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQing+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhao20064,_7–10,_12–14_and_24_n._4-25"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhao20064,_7%E2%80%9310,_12%E2%80%9314_and_24_n._4_25-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFZhao2006">Zhao (2006)</a>, pp. 4, 7–10, 12–14 and 24 n. 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBilik2007" class="citation journal cs1">Bilik, Naran (2007). 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Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1134362226" title="Special:BookSources/978-1134362226"><bdi>978-1134362226</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Qing+Imperial+History%3A+The+Making+of+Inner+Asian+Empire+at+Qing+Chengde&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1134362226&rft.aulast=Dunnell&rft.aufirst=Ruth+W.&rft.au=Elliott%2C+Mark+C.&rft.au=Foret%2C+Philippe&rft.au=Millward%2C+James+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6qFH-53_VnEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQing+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbrey2010220-29"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbrey2010220_29-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEbrey2010">Ebrey (2010)</a>, p. 220. </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSwope2014" class="citation book cs1">Swope, Kenneth M. 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Routledge. p. 16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1134462094" title="Special:BookSources/978-1134462094"><bdi>978-1134462094</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Military+Collapse+of+China%27s+Ming+Dynasty%2C+1618%E2%80%9344&rft.pages=16&rft.edition=Illustrated&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1134462094&rft.aulast=Swope&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWRaoAgAAQBAJ%26q%3Dthree%2Bkingdoms%2Bnurhaci%2Bromance%26pg%3DPA16&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQing+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMairChenWood2013" class="citation book cs1">Mair, Victor H.; Chen, Sanping; Wood, Frances (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=agI7CwAAQBAJ&q=three+kingdoms+nurhaci+romance&pg=PT159">Chinese Lives: The People Who Made a Civilization</a> (Illustrated ed.). 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The problem of relations between China, Yuan and Qing"</a>. International Journal of Central Asian Studies. 19: 59–92. Retrieved 14 November 2017 – via Academia.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Central+Asian+Studies&rft.atitle=Conquest+dynasties+of+China+or+foreign+empires%3F+The+problem+of+relations+between+China%2C+Yuan+and+Qing&rft.volume=19&rft.pages=59-92&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Kuzmin&rft.aufirst=Sergius+L.&rft.au=Dmitriev%2C+Sergey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F25907401&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQing+dynasty" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarquhar1978" class="citation journal cs1">Farquhar, David (1978). "Emperor As Bodhisattva in the Governance of the Qing Empire". 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Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-6079-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-6079-7"><bdi>978-1-4051-6079-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Wobbling+Pivot%3A+China+since+1800&rft.place=Malden%2C+MA&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-6079-7&rft.aulast=Crossley&rft.aufirst=Pamela+Kyle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaily2013" class="citation book cs1">Daily, Christopher A. (2013). Robert Morrison and the Protestant Plan for China. Hong Kong University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9888208036" title="Special:BookSources/978-9888208036"><bdi>978-9888208036</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Robert+Morrison+and+the+Protestant+Plan+for+China&rft.pub=Hong+Kong+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-9888208036&rft.aulast=Daily&rft.aufirst=Christopher+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeng2015" class="citation book cs1">Deng, Kent (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eprints.lse.ac.uk/64492/1/WP219.pdf">China's Population Expansion and Its Causes during the Qing Period, 1644–1911</a> (PDF).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+Population+Expansion+and+Its+Causes+during+the+Qing+Period%2C+1644%E2%80%931911&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Deng&rft.aufirst=Kent&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feprints.lse.ac.uk%2F64492%2F1%2FWP219.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDi_Cosmo2007" class="citation book cs1">Di Cosmo, Nicola, ed. 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Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-78955-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-78955-8"><bdi>978-1-135-78955-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Diary+of+a+Manchu+Soldier+in+Seventeenth+Century+China%3A+%22My+Service+in+the+Army%2C%22+by+Dzengseo&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-135-78955-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8piRAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEbrey1993" class="citation book cs1">Ebrey, Patricia (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chinesecivilizat00patr">Chinese Civilization: A Sourcebook</a> (2nd ed.). 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Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-12433-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-12433-1"><bdi>978-0-521-12433-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Illustrated+History+of+China&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-521-12433-1&rft.aulast=Ebrey&rft.aufirst=Patricia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEbreyWalthall2013" class="citation book cs1">——; Walthall, Anne (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QfkWAAAAQBAJ">East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History</a> (3rd ed.). Cengage. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-285-52867-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-285-52867-0"><bdi>978-1-285-52867-0</bdi></a>. Retrieved 1 September 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=East+Asia%3A+A+Cultural%2C+Social%2C+and+Political+History&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Cengage&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-285-52867-0&rft.aulast=Ebrey&rft.aufirst=Patricia&rft.au=Walthall%2C+Anne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQfkWAAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElliott2001" class="citation book cs1">Elliott, Mark C. 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Stanford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-4684-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-4684-7"><bdi>978-0-8047-4684-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Manchu+Way%3A+The+Eight+Banners+and+Ethnic+Identity+in+Late+Imperial+China&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-4684-7&rft.aulast=Elliott&rft.aufirst=Mark+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_qtgoTIAiKUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaure2007" class="citation book cs1">Faure, David (2007). Emperor and Ancestor: State and Lineage in South China. 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Duke University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0822331889" title="Special:BookSources/978-0822331889"><bdi>978-0822331889</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=English+Lessons%3A+The+Pedagogy+of+Imperialism+in+Nineteenth-Century+China&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0822331889&rft.aulast=Hevia&rft.aufirst=James+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHo2011" class="citation thesis cs1">Ho, David Dahpon (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160629142208/http://escholarship.org/uc/item/3pk3t096">Sealords Live in Vain: Fujian and the Making of a Maritime Frontier in Seventeenth-Century China</a> (Thesis). 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Hong Kong University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9888028047" title="Special:BookSources/978-9888028047"><bdi>978-9888028047</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%3A+A+Religious+State&rft.pub=Hong+Kong+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-9888028047&rft.aulast=Lagerwey&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWAOOzQi0dCkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLi2002" class="citation book cs1">Li, Gertraude Roth (2002). "State building before 1644". In <a href="/wiki/Willard_J._Peterson" title="Willard J. 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Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 563–647. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24334-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24334-6"><bdi>978-0-521-24334-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Economic+developments%2C+1644%E2%80%931800&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+China%2C+Volume+9%3A+The+Ch%27ing+Empire+to+1800%2C+Part+One&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=563-647&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-521-24334-6&rft.aulast=Myers&rft.aufirst=H.+Ramon&rft.au=Wang%2C+Yeh-Chien&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSAjRWQbINSgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNaquinRawski1987" class="citation book cs1">Naquin, Susan; Rawski, Evelyn Sakakida (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0uimQgAACAAJ">Chinese Society in the Eighteenth Century</a>. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-04602-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-04602-1"><bdi>978-0-300-04602-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+Society+in+the+Eighteenth+Century&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-300-04602-1&rft.aulast=Naquin&rft.aufirst=Susan&rft.au=Rawski%2C+Evelyn+Sakakida&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0uimQgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorman1988" class="citation book cs1">Norman, Jerry (1988). Chinese. 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University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-06930-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-06930-5"><bdi>978-0-520-06930-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ch%27ing+Imperial+Marriage+and+Problems+of+Rulership&rft.btitle=Marriage+and+Inequality+in+Chinese+Society&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-520-06930-5&rft.aulast=Rawski&rft.aufirst=Evelyn+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRawski1998" class="citation book cs1">—— (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lastemperorssoc00raws">The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions</a>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-21289-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-21289-3"><bdi>978-0-520-21289-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Last+Emperors%3A+A+Social+History+of+Qing+Imperial+Institutions&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-520-21289-3&rft.aulast=Rawski&rft.aufirst=Evelyn+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flastemperorssoc00raws&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReilly2004" class="citation book cs1">Reilly, Thomas H. 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Seattle: University of Washington Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0295801926" title="Special:BookSources/978-0295801926"><bdi>978-0295801926</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Taiping+Heavenly+Kingdom%3A+Rebellion+and+the+Blasphemy+of+Empire&rft.place=Seattle&rft.pub=University+of+Washington+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0295801926&rft.aulast=Reilly&rft.aufirst=Thomas+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftaipingheavenlyk00reil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRhoads2000" class="citation book cs1">Rhoads, Edward J. M. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OXQkDwAAQBAJ">Manchus & Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928</a>. Seattle: University of Washington Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0295979380" title="Special:BookSources/0295979380"><bdi>0295979380</bdi></a>. 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Cambridge, MA: Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-11660-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-11660-3"><bdi>978-0-674-11660-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%2C+1898%E2%80%931912%3A+The+Xinzheng+Revolution+and+Japan&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Council+on+East+Asian+Studies%2C+Harvard+University&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-674-11660-3&rft.aulast=Reynolds&rft.aufirst=Douglas+Robertson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRowe2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_T._Rowe" title="William T. Rowe">Rowe, William T.</a> (2002). "Social stability and social change". 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Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 473–562. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24334-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24334-6"><bdi>978-0-521-24334-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Social+stability+and+social+change&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+China%2C+Volume+9%3A+The+Ch%27ing+Empire+to+1800%2C+Part+One&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=473-562&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-521-24334-6&rft.aulast=Rowe&rft.aufirst=William+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSAjRWQbINSgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRowe2009" class="citation book cs1">—— (2009). China's Last Empire: The Great Qing. History of Imperial China. 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Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-51167-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-51167-4"><bdi>978-0-231-51167-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Headless+State%3A+Aristocratic+Orders%2C+Kinship+Society%2C+and+Misrepresentations+of+Nomadic+Inner+Asia&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-231-51167-4&rft.aulast=Sneath&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkWMaAwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSöderblom_Saarela2021" class="citation journal cs1">Söderblom Saarela, Mårten (2021). "Manchu Language". 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Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-12025-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-12025-9"><bdi>978-0-674-12025-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+Response+to+the+West%3A+A+Documentary+Survey%2C+1839%E2%80%931923&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1954&rft.isbn=978-0-674-12025-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTorbert1977" class="citation book cs1">Torbert, Preston M. (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chingimperialhou0000torb">The Ch'ing Imperial Household Department: A Study of Its Organization and Principal Functions, 1662–1796</a>. Harvard University Asia Center. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-12761-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-12761-6"><bdi>978-0-674-12761-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ch%27ing+Imperial+Household+Department%3A+A+Study+of+Its+Organization+and+Principal+Functions%2C+1662%E2%80%931796&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Asia+Center&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0-674-12761-6&rft.aulast=Torbert&rft.aufirst=Preston+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchingimperialhou0000torb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTwitchettFairbank1978" class="citation book cs1">Twitchett, Denis Crispin; Fairbank, John King (1978). The Cambridge history of China. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24327-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24327-8"><bdi>978-0-521-24327-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+history+of+China&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-521-24327-8&rft.aulast=Twitchett&rft.aufirst=Denis+Crispin&rft.au=Fairbank%2C+John+King&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWakeman1977" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Frederic_Wakeman" title="Frederic Wakeman">Wakeman, Frederic Jr.</a> (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ORBmFSFcJKoC">The Fall of Imperial China</a>. Transformation of modern China series. New York: Free Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-933680-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-933680-9"><bdi>978-0-02-933680-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fall+of+Imperial+China&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Transformation+of+modern+China+series&rft.pub=Free+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0-02-933680-9&rft.aulast=Wakeman&rft.aufirst=Frederic+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DORBmFSFcJKoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWakeman1985" class="citation book cs1">——— (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_8nXLwSG2O8AC/page/n3/mode/2up">The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China</a>. Vol. I. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-04804-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-04804-1"><bdi>978-0-520-04804-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Enterprise%3A+The+Manchu+Reconstruction+of+Imperial+Order+in+Seventeenth-century+China&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-520-04804-1&rft.aulast=Wakeman&rft.aufirst=Frederic+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbub_gb_8nXLwSG2O8AC%2Fpage%2Fn3%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright1957" class="citation book cs1">Wright, Mary Clabaugh (1957). The Last Stand of Chinese Conservatism: The T'ung-Chih Restoration, 1862–1874. Stanford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-804-70475-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-804-70475-5"><bdi>978-0-804-70475-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Last+Stand+of+Chinese+Conservatism%3A+The+T%27ung-Chih+Restoration%2C+1862%E2%80%931874&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1957&rft.isbn=978-0-804-70475-5&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=Mary+Clabaugh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFXu2005" class="citation book cs1">Xu, Xiaoman (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bMckDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA335">""Preserving the Bonds of Kin": Genealogy Masters and Genealogy Production in the Jiangsu-Zhejiang Area in the Qing and Republican Periods"</a>. In Brokaw, Cynthia J.; Chow, Kai-wing (eds.). Printing and Book Culture in Late Imperial China. Translated by Huang, Yuanmei. Berkeley: University of California. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520231269" title="Special:BookSources/978-0520231269"><bdi>978-0520231269</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%22Preserving+the+Bonds+of+Kin%E2%80%9D%3A+Genealogy+Masters+and+Genealogy+Production+in+the+Jiangsu-Zhejiang+Area+in+the+Qing+and+Republican+Periods&rft.btitle=Printing+and+Book+Culture+in+Late+Imperial+China&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0520231269&rft.aulast=Xu&rft.aufirst=Xiaoman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbMckDQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA335&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhao2006" class="citation journal cs1">Zhao, Gang (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140325231543/https://webspace.utexas.edu/hl4958/perspectives/Zhao%20-%20reinventing%20china.pdf">"Reinventing China Imperial Qing Ideology and the Rise of Modern Chinese National Identity in the Early Twentieth Century"</a> (PDF). Modern China. 32 (1): 3–30. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0097700405282349">10.1177/0097700405282349</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20062627">20062627</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144587815">144587815</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://webspace.utexas.edu/hl4958/perspectives/Zhao%20-%20reinventing%20china.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 25 March 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modern+China&rft.atitle=Reinventing+China+Imperial+Qing+Ideology+and+the+Rise+of+Modern+Chinese+National+Identity+in+the+Early+Twentieth+Century&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=3-30&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144587815%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20062627%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0097700405282349&rft.aulast=Zhao&rft.aufirst=Gang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwebspace.utexas.edu%2Fhl4958%2Fperspectives%2FZhao%2520-%2520reinventing%2520china.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(12)"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div><section class="mf-section-12 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-12"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><noscript><img alt="" 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class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Qing Dynasty">category</a>)</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 40px;height: 40px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="40" data-height="40" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Qing" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Qing">Qing</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Ching" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Ching">Ching</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Ch%27ing" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Ch'ing">Ch'ing</a>, or <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Cing" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Cing">Cing</a> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li>Section on the Ming and Qing dynasties of "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1950_population.htm">China's Population: Readings and Maps</a>."</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://exchange.umma.umich.edu/resources/23945">Collection: "Manchu, Qing Dynasty"</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Museum_of_Art" title="University of Michigan Museum of Art">University of Michigan Museum of Art</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vmfa.museum/learn/resources/pre-visit-evans-dlp-qing-dynasty-export-porcelain/">Qing Dynasty resource</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201124123357/https://www.vmfa.museum/learn/resources/pre-visit-evans-dlp-qing-dynasty-export-porcelain/">Archived</a> 24 November 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Museum_of_Fine_Arts" title="Virginia Museum of Fine Arts">Virginia Museum of Fine Arts</a></li></ul> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Dynasties_in_Chinese_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynasties in Chinese history">Dynasties in Chinese history</a> 1644–1912 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Qing_dynasty&params=39.92_N_116.39_E_type:country">39°55′N 116°23′E / 39.92°N 116.39°E / 39.92; 116.39</a>    </section></div> <noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=mobile" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Qing_dynasty&oldid=1260485885">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Qing_dynasty&oldid=1260485885</a>"</div></div> </div> <div class="post-content" id="page-secondary-actions"> </div> </main> <footer class="mw-footer minerva-footer" role="contentinfo"> <a class="last-modified-bar" href="/w/index.php?title=Qing_dynasty&action=history"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> Last edited on 1 December 2024, at 01:02 </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing-dinastie" title="Qing-dinastie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Qing-dinastie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing-Dynastie" title="Qing-Dynastie – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Qing-Dynastie" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-alt mw-list-item"><a href="https://alt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%BB%D1%83_%D0%A7%D0%B8%D2%A5_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Улу Чиҥ каандык – Southern Altai" lang="alt" hreflang="alt" data-title="Улу Чиҥ каандык" data-language-autonym="Алтай тил" data-language-local-name="Southern Altai" class="interlanguage-link-target">Алтай тил</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%A8%E1%8C%AA%E1%8A%95%E1%8C%8D_%E1%88%A5%E1%88%AD%E1%8B%88_%E1%88%98%E1%8A%95%E1%8C%8D%E1%88%A5%E1%89%B5" title="የጪንግ ሥርወ መንግሥት – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="የጪንግ ሥርወ መንግሥት" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6" title="किंग वंश – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="किंग वंश" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A9_%D8%AA%D8%B4%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%BA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%83%D9%85%D8%A9" title="سلالة تشينغ الحاكمة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="سلالة تشينغ الحاكمة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinast%C3%ADa_Qing" title="Dinastía Qing – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Dinastía Qing" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinast%C3%ADa_Qing" title="Dinastía Qing – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Dinastía Qing" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_%C3%B1emo%C3%B1anga" title="Qing ñemoñanga – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Qing ñemoñanga" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tzin_s%C3%BClal%C9%99si" title="Tzin sülaləsi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Tzin sülaləsi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%82_%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="چینق سولاله‌سی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="چینق سولاله‌سی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9B%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%82_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF" title="ছিং সাম্রাজ্য – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ছিং সাম্রাজ্য" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chheng-kok" title="Chheng-kok – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Chheng-kok" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D2%BB%D1%8B" title="Цин империяһы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Цин империяһы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%A6%D1%8B%D0%BD" title="Імперыя Цын – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Імперыя Цын" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%A6%D1%8B%D0%BD" title="Дынастыя Цын – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Дынастыя Цын" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastiyang_Qing" title="Dinastiyang Qing – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Dinastiyang Qing" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B8%D0%BD_(17_%E2%80%93_20_%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA)" title="Цин (17 – 20 век) – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Цин (17 – 20 век)" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%86%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%84%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BE%92%E0%BE%B1%E0%BD%A3%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%96%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8D" title="ཆིང་རྒྱལ་རབས། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="ཆིང་རྒྱལ་རབས།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastija_Qing" title="Dinastija Qing – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Dinastija Qing" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tierniezh_Qing" title="Tierniezh Qing – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Tierniezh Qing" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B6%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D0%B3%D2%AF%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%BD" title="Манжын гүрэн – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Манжын гүрэн" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastia_Qing" title="Dinastia Qing – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Dinastia Qing" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9%C4%95" title="Цин империйĕ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Цин империйĕ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%98%C3%AD%C5%A1e_%C4%8Cching" title="Říše Čching – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Říše Čching" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brenhinllin_Qing" title="Brenhinllin Qing – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Brenhinllin Qing" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing-dynastiet" title="Qing-dynastiet – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Qing-dynastiet" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing-Dynastie" title="Qing-Dynastie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Qing-Dynastie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qingi_d%C3%BCnastia" title="Qingi dünastia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Qingi dünastia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CF%85%CE%BD%CE%B1%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B5%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CE%A4%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%B3%CE%BA" title="Δυναστεία Τσινγκ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Δυναστεία Τσινγκ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinast%C3%ADa_Qing" title="Dinastía Qing – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Dinastía Qing" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastio_Qing" title="Dinastio Qing – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Dinastio Qing" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_dinastia" title="Qing dinastia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Qing dinastia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86_%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%AF" title="دودمان چینگ – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دودمان چینگ" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_Dynasty" title="Qing Dynasty – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Qing Dynasty" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynastie_Qing" title="Dynastie Qing – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Dynastie Qing" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinast%C3%ADa_Qing" title="Dinastía Qing – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Dinastía Qing" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B8%85" title="清 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="清" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chh%C3%AEn-chh%C3%A8u" title="Chhîn-chhèu – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Chhîn-chhèu" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B2%AD%EB%82%98%EB%9D%BC" title="청나라 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="청나라" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%91%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%BD%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Ցին կայսրություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ցին կայսրություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6" title="चिंग राजवंश – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="चिंग राजवंश" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastija_Qing" title="Dinastija Qing – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Dinastija Qing" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastio_Qing" title="Dinastio Qing – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Dinastio Qing" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_a_Dinastia" title="Qing a Dinastia – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Qing a Dinastia" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinasti_Qing" title="Dinasti Qing – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Dinasti Qing" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tjingveldi%C3%B0" title="Tjingveldið – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Tjingveldið" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastia_Qing" title="Dinastia Qing – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Dinastia Qing" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%A9%D7%9C%D7%AA_%D7%A6%27%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%92" title="שושלת צ'ינג – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="שושלת צ'ינג" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wangsa_Qing" title="Wangsa Qing – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Wangsa Qing" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ki%C5%8B_Kewiya%C9%A3_K%C9%A9%C9%96%C9%9Bza%C9%A3" title="Kiŋ Kewiyaɣ Kɩɖɛzaɣ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Kiŋ Kewiyaɣ Kɩɖɛzaɣ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc mw-list-item"><a href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Цин династия – Karachay-Balkar" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" data-title="Цин династия" data-language-autonym="Къарачай-малкъар" data-language-local-name="Karachay-Balkar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Къарачай-малкъар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ცინგის დინასტია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ცინგის დინასტია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Цинь империясы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Цинь империясы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ternieth_Qing" title="Ternieth Qing – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Ternieth Qing" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasaba_ya_Qing" title="Nasaba ya Qing – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Nasaba ya Qing" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinasti_Qing" title="Dinasti Qing – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Dinasti Qing" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xanedana_Qing" title="Xanedana Qing – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Xanedana Qing" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Цин империясы – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Цин империясы" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastia_Qing" title="Dinastia Qing – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Dinastia Qing" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%A5%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%8A%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%A7%E0%BA%BB%E0%BA%87%E0%BA%8A%E0%BA%B4%E0%BA%87" title="ລາຊະວົງຊິງ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ລາຊະວົງຊິງ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Familia_Cim" title="Familia Cim – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Familia Cim" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cjinu_dinastija" title="Cjinu dinastija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Cjinu dinastija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Cing%C5%B3_dinastija" title="Čingų dinastija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Čingų dinastija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastia_Qing" title="Dinastia Qing – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Dinastia Qing" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastia_Qing" title="Dinastia Qing – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Dinastia Qing" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Csing-dinasztia" title="Csing-dinasztia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Csing-dinasztia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D1%98%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3_(%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0)" title="Чјинг (династија) – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Чјинг (династија)" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%9C%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%82" title="ചിങ് രാജവംശം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ചിങ് രാജവംശം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9B%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6" title="छिंग राजवंश – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="छिंग राजवंश" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8_%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ცინიშ დინასტია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ცინიშ დინასტია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%AF_%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%84%D9%87" title="چینگ سلسله – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="چینگ سلسله" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinasti_Qing" title="Dinasti Qing – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Dinasti Qing" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%80%EA%AF%A4%EA%AF%A1_%EA%AF%97%EA%AF%A5%EA%AF%8F%EA%AF%85%EA%AF%A5%EA%AF%81%EA%AF%AD%EA%AF%87%EA%AF%A4" title="ꯀꯤꯡ ꯗꯥꯏꯅꯥꯁ꯭ꯇꯤ – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯀꯤꯡ ꯗꯥꯏꯅꯥꯁ꯭ꯇꯤ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C4%ADng-di%C3%A8u" title="Chĭng-dièu – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Chĭng-dièu" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%81" title="Чин улс – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Чин улс" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9B%E1%80%BE%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%90%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%95%E1%80%BC%E1%80%8A%E1%80%BA" title="ရှင်းတိုင်းပြည် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ရှင်းတိုင်းပြည်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing-dynastie" title="Qing-dynastie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Qing-dynastie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%99_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6" title="चिङ वंश – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="चिङ वंश" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6" title="चिङ्ग राजवंश – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="चिङ्ग राजवंश" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B8%85" title="清 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="清" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Цийн импери – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Цийн импери" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing-D%C3%BCnastii" title="Qing-Dünastii – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Qing-Dünastii" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing-dynastiet" title="Qing-dynastiet – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Qing-dynastiet" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing" title="Qing – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Qing" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastia_Qing" title="Dinastia Qing – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Dinastia Qing" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sin_(sulola)" title="Sin (sulola) – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Sin (sulola)" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%9A%E0%A8%BF%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%97_%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%B5%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC" title="ਚਿੰਗ ਰਾਜਵੰਸ਼ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਚਿੰਗ ਰਾਜਵੰਸ਼" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%D9%86%DA%AF_%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA" title="چنگ سلطنت – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="چنگ سلطنت" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%AB_%DA%A9%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%86%DB%8D" title="د چینګ کورنۍ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د چینګ کورنۍ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%84%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%88%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%84" title="រាជវង្សឈីង – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="រាជវង្សឈីង" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing-Dynastie" title="Qing-Dynastie – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Qing-Dynastie" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynastia_Qing" title="Dynastia Qing – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Dynastia Qing" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastia_Qing" title="Dinastia Qing – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Dinastia Qing" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87i%C3%B1_s%C3%BCl%C3%A2lesi" title="Çiñ sülâlesi – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Çiñ sülâlesi" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastia_Qing" title="Dinastia Qing – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Dinastia Qing" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%A6%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Империя Цин – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Империя Цин" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Цин династия – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Цин династия" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastia_Qing" title="Dinastia Qing – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Dinastia Qing" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%A0%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%82_%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%A2%E0%B7%80%E0%B6%82%E0%B7%81%E0%B6%BA" title="චිං රාජවංශය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="චිං රාජවංශය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Qing dynasty" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Cching" title="Čching – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Čching" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastija_%C4%8Cing" title="Dinastija Čing – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Dinastija Čing" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynastyj%C5%8F_Qing" title="Dynastyjŏ Qing – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Dynastyjŏ Qing" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ślůnski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%86%D8%B1%DB%8C%DB%95%D8%AA%DB%8C%DB%8C_%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%AF" title="ئیمپراتۆریەتیی چینگ – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئیمپراتۆریەتیی چینگ" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%8B%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3" title="Династија Ћинг – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Династија Ћинг" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastija_Qing" title="Dinastija Qing – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Dinastija Qing" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing-dynastia" title="Qing-dynastia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Qing-dynastia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qingdynastin" title="Qingdynastin – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Qingdynastin" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastiyang_Qing" title="Dinastiyang Qing – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Dinastiyang Qing" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81" title="சிங் அரசமரபு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="சிங் அரசமரபு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B8%D2%A3_%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D0%B5" title="Чиң династиясе – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Чиң династиясе" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%A8%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%87" title="ราชวงศ์ชิง – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ราชวงศ์ชิง" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87ing_Hanedan%C4%B1" title="Çing Hanedanı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Çing Hanedanı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sin_nasil%C5%9Falygy" title="Sin nasilşalygy – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Sin nasilşalygy" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tyv mw-list-item"><a href="https://tyv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B" title="Цин империязы – Tuvinian" lang="tyv" hreflang="tyv" data-title="Цин империязы" data-language-autonym="Тыва дыл" data-language-local-name="Tuvinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тыва дыл</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%A6%D1%96%D0%BD" title="Династія Цін – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Династія Цін" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%D9%86%DA%AF_%D8%B4%D8%A7%DB%81%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%84%DB%81" title="چنگ شاہی سلسلہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="چنگ شاہی سلسلہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%D9%89%DA%AD_%D8%B3%DB%87%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%89%D8%B3%D9%89" title="چىڭ سۇلالىسى – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="چىڭ سۇلالىسى" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cingciuz" title="Cingciuz – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Cingciuz" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastia_Qing" title="Dinastia Qing – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Dinastia Qing" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nh%C3%A0_Thanh" title="Nhà Thanh – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Nhà Thanh" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qingi_d%C3%BCnastia" title="Qingi dünastia – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Qingi dünastia" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B8%85" title="清 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="清" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastiya_Qing" title="Dinastiya Qing – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Dinastiya Qing" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B8%85%E6%9C%9D" title="清朝 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="清朝" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%98%D7%A9%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%92_%D7%93%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%90%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%99%D7%A2" title="טשינג דינאסטיע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="טשינג דינאסטיע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E6%B8%85" title="大清 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="大清" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Cing_dinast%C4%97j%C4%97" title="Čing dinastėjė – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Čing dinastėjė" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B8%85%E6%9C%9D" title="清朝 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="清朝" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 1 December 2024, at 01:02 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Content is available under <a class="external" rel="nofollow" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">CC BY-SA 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places" class="footer-places hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a 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<script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-5c59558b9d-wvqp4","wgBackendResponseTime":3719,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"2.958","walltime":"3.441","ppvisitednodes":{"value":34062,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":752578,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":55856,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":19,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":57,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":612068,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 2793.515 1 -total"," 20.12% 562.047 134 Template:Sfnp"," 17.23% 481.305 2 Template:Reflist"," 16.64% 464.889 83 Template:Cite_book"," 12.61% 352.241 1 Template:Infobox_country"," 8.46% 236.250 1 Template:Infobox_Chinese"," 6.84% 191.092 2 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists"," 6.73% 188.052 1 Template:History_of_China"," 6.42% 179.415 13 Template:Page_needed"," 5.73% 160.137 14 Template:Fix"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.712","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":23948741,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAtwill2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBartlett1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBays2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeevers2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBilik2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBillingsley1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBroomhall1907\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCharles_Desnoyers2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChen1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChen2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChoa1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrossley1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrossley2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDaily2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeng2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDi_Cosmo2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDong2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDunnell2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDunnellElliottForetMillward2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEbrey1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEbrey2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEbreyWalthall2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdmonds1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElliott2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElman2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEric_Schluessel2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFairbank2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFarquhar1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFaure2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFuchs2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoossaertPalmer2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarrison2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarter2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHevia2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHo2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHsü1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJacksonHugus1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJeffrey_N._Wasserstrom2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohan_Elverskog2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKapstein2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKuzminDmitriev2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLagerwey2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLee1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLi\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiZheng2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLi_Xiangmin2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacabe_Keliher2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMairChenWood2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatsuzato2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMillward2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMote1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMurphey2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMyersWang\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMühlhahn2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNaquinRawski1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNg2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNilsson\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNorman1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeng2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPerdue2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPlatt2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPong1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPorter2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRawski1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRawski1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRawski1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReilly2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReynolds1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRhoads2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichards2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobin_Wang2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRowe\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRowe2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSneath2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpence1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpence1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpence1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpence2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSwope2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSöderblom_Saarela2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaagepera1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTeiser1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTorbert1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTwitchettFairbank1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTêngFairbank1954\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWakeman1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWakeman1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWang2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWangChenWang2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoolley2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWright1957\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFXu2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYamamuro2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhang2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhanghui_Yang2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhao2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhu2004\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 3,\n [\"'\\\"\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Bpmfsp\"] = 2,\n [\"Circa\"] = 2,\n [\"Citation\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite Cambridge History of China\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 79,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 11,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite thesis\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 9,\n [\"Cite wikisource\"] = 1,\n [\"Colbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Colend\"] = 1,\n [\"Commons and category\"] = 1,\n [\"Contains special characters\"] = 1,\n [\"Continental Asia in 1700 CE\"] = 1,\n [\"Coord\"] = 1,\n [\"Cvt\"] = 4,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 1,\n [\"Distinguish\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 11,\n [\"Empires\"] = 1,\n [\"For timeline\"] = 1,\n [\"Former Monarchies\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 5,\n [\"Google books\"] = 1,\n [\"History of China\"] = 1,\n [\"History of Manchuria\"] = 1,\n [\"Hlist\"] = 4,\n [\"IPAc-cmn\"] = 2,\n [\"IPAc-en\"] = 1,\n [\"IPAc-yue\"] = 2,\n [\"Infobox Chinese\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox country\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 5,\n [\"Lang-mnc\"] = 5,\n [\"Linktext\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 9,\n [\"ManchuSibeUnicode\"] = 6,\n [\"More citations needed section\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Nowrap\"] = 5,\n [\"Nwr\"] = 2,\n [\"OL\"] = 1,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 13,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-extended\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-move\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-semi-indef\"] = 1,\n [\"Qing dynasty topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Refn\"] = 1,\n [\"Reign\"] = 4,\n [\"Respell\"] = 1,\n [\"Rp\"] = 2,\n [\"S-aft\"] = 1,\n [\"S-bef\"] = 1,\n [\"S-end\"] = 1,\n [\"S-start\"] = 1,\n [\"S-ttl\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 5,\n [\"Seealso\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfnb\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfnp\"] = 134,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Snd\"] = 5,\n [\"Tlit\"] = 4,\n [\"Tonesup\"] = 2,\n [\"Ubli\"] = 1,\n [\"Unbulleted list\"] = 2,\n [\"Use British English\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 3,\n [\"Wiktionary\"] = 1,\n [\"Years in the Qing dynasty\"] = 1,\n [\"Zh\"] = 4,\n [\"Zhi\"] = 11,\n [\"Zwj\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\nno target: CITEREFWaley-Cohen2004\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","420","21.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","340","17.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","160","8.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","140","7.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","100","5.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","100","5.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","80","4.1"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","60","3.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::newTitle","60","3.1"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","60","3.1"],["[others]","420","21.6"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-5c59558b9d-wvqp4","timestamp":"20241202002832","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Qing dynasty","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Qing_dynasty","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q8733","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q8733","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-11-20T07:12:50Z","dateModified":"2024-12-01T01:02:39Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/b\/b6\/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg","headline":"Manchu-led dynasty of China (1644\u20131912)"}</script><script>(window.NORLQ=window.NORLQ||[]).push(function(){var ns,i,p,img;ns=document.getElementsByTagName('noscript');for(i=0;i<ns.length;i++){p=ns[i].nextSibling;if(p&&p.className&&p.className.indexOf('lazy-image-placeholder')>-1){img=document.createElement('img');img.setAttribute('src',p.getAttribute('data-src'));img.setAttribute('width',p.getAttribute('data-width'));img.setAttribute('height',p.getAttribute('data-height'));img.setAttribute('alt',p.getAttribute('data-alt'));p.parentNode.replaceChild(img,p);}}});</script> </body> </html>