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id="toc-Other_nervous_system_side_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chronology_of_boxed_warnings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chronology_of_boxed_warnings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Chronology of boxed warnings </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chronology_of_boxed_warnings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tendons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tendons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Tendons </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tendons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aortic_dissection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aortic_dissection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Aortic dissection </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aortic_dissection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colitis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colitis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Colitis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colitis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7 Other </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mechanism_of_toxicity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mechanism_of_toxicity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.8 Mechanism of toxicity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mechanism_of_toxicity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interactions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interactions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Interactions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interactions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contraindications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contraindications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Contraindications </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contraindications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Antibiotic_misuse_and_bacterial_resistances" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antibiotic_misuse_and_bacterial_resistances"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Antibiotic misuse and bacterial resistances </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Antibiotic_misuse_and_bacterial_resistances-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mechanism_of_action" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mechanism_of_action"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Mechanism of action </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Mechanism_of_action-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Mechanism of action subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Mechanism_of_action-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cellular_uptake" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cellular_uptake"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Cellular uptake </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cellular_uptake-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pharmacology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pharmacology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Pharmacology </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Pharmacology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Pharmacology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Pharmacology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pharmacokinetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pharmacokinetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Pharmacokinetics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pharmacokinetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Generations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Generations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Generations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Generations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-First_generation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_generation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1.1 First generation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_generation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_generation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_generation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1.2 Second generation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_generation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Third_generation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Third_generation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1.3 Third generation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Third_generation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fourth_generation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fourth_generation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1.4 Fourth generation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fourth_generation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Veterinary_use" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Veterinary_use"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Veterinary use </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Veterinary_use-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Quinolone antibiotic</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 27 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-27" aria-hidden="true" > 27 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%D9%86" title="كوينولون – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="كوينولون" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quinolona" title="Quinolona – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Quinolona" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinolon-Antibiotika" title="Chinolon-Antibiotika – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Chinolon-Antibiotika" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinoloonid" title="Kinoloonid – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kinoloonid" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%BF%CE%BB%CF%8C%CE%BD%CE%B5%CF%82" title="Κινολόνες – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κινολόνες" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quinolona" title="Quinolona – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Quinolona" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinolona" title="Kinolona – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Kinolona" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%88%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%D9%86" title="فلوروکینولون – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فلوروکینولون" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quinolon" title="Quinolon – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Quinolon" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quinolone" title="Quinolone – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Quinolone" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%80%B4%EB%86%80%EB%A1%A0%EA%B3%84_%ED%95%AD%EC%83%9D%EC%A0%9C" title="퀴놀론계 항생제 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="퀴놀론계 항생제" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuinolon" title="Kuinolon – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kuinolon" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinoloni" title="Chinoloni – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Chinoloni" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%9F" title="קינולון – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קינולון" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inhibitor_gyrasis_(antibioticum)" title="Inhibitor gyrasis (antibioticum) – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Inhibitor gyrasis (antibioticum)" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Хинолонски антибиотик – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Хинолонски антибиотик" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%8B%E3%83%A5%E3%83%BC%E3%82%AD%E3%83%8E%E3%83%AD%E3%83%B3" title="ニューキノロン – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ニューキノロン" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quinoloner" title="Quinoloner – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Quinoloner" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinolony" title="Chinolony – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Chinolony" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quinolona" title="Quinolona – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Quinolona" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinolon%C4%83" title="Chinolonă – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Chinolonă" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%8B" title="Фторхинолоны – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Фторхинолоны" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quinolone_antibiotic" title="Quinolone antibiotic – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Quinolone antibiotic" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorohinoloni" title="Fluorohinoloni – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Fluorohinoloni" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinolon" title="Hinolon – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Hinolon" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%85%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Фторхінолони – Ukrainian" 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free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Class of antibacterial drugs, subgroup of quinolones</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color: #ddbbee">Quinolone</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader"><a href="/wiki/Drug_class" title="Drug class">Drug class</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Ciprofloxacin.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Ciprofloxacin.svg/280px-Ciprofloxacin.svg.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Ciprofloxacin.svg/420px-Ciprofloxacin.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Ciprofloxacin.svg/560px-Ciprofloxacin.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="297" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">The second generation fluoroquinolone, ciprofloxacin. The two ringed nitrogen containing system with a ketone is called a <a href="/wiki/Quinolone" title="Quinolone">quinolone</a>.</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background: #e8e8e8;">Class identifiers</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Use</th><td class="infobox-data">Bacterial infection</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_Therapeutic_Chemical_Classification_System" title="Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System">ATC code</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/ATC_code_J01M" class="mw-redirect" title="ATC code J01M">J01M</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background: #e8e8e8;">Clinical data</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Drugs.com" title="Drugs.com">Drugs.com</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.drugs.com/drug-class/quinolones.html">Drug Classes</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background: #e8e8e8;">External links</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Medical_Subject_Headings" title="Medical Subject Headings">MeSH</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D015363">D015363</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background: #e8e8e8;">Legal status</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="background: #e8e8e8; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q13669486" class="extiw" title="d:Q13669486">In Wikidata</a></td></tr></tbody></table> Quinolone antibiotics constitute a large group of <a href="/wiki/Broad-spectrum_antibiotic" title="Broad-spectrum antibiotic">broad-spectrum</a> <a href="/wiki/Bacteriocidal" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacteriocidal">bacteriocidals</a> that share a <a href="/wiki/Bicyclic_molecule" title="Bicyclic molecule">bicyclic core structure</a> related to the substance <a href="/wiki/4-Quinolone" title="4-Quinolone">4-quinolone</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> They are used in human and veterinary medicine to treat bacterial <a href="/wiki/Infection" title="Infection">infections</a>, as well as in <a href="/wiki/Animal_husbandry" title="Animal husbandry">animal husbandry</a>, specifically <a href="/wiki/Poultry_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Poultry production">poultry production</a>.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> Quinolone antibiotics are classified into four generations based on their spectrum of activity and chemical modifications. <a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> The first-generation quinolones, such as nalidixic acid, primarily target Gram-negative bacteria and are mainly used for urinary tract infections. Second-generation quinolones introduced fluorine atoms into their structure, creating fluoroquinolones, which significantly expanded their antibacterial activity to include some Gram-positive bacteria. Third-generation fluoroquinolones further improved Gram-positive coverage, while fourth-generation fluoroquinolones offer broad-spectrum activity, including anaerobic bacteria. Only quinolone antibiotics in generation two and higher are considered fluoroquinolones, as they contain a <a href="/wiki/Fluorine" title="Fluorine">fluorine</a> atom in their chemical structure and are effective against both <a href="/wiki/Gram-negative" class="mw-redirect" title="Gram-negative">Gram-negative</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gram-positive" class="mw-redirect" title="Gram-positive">Gram-positive</a> bacteria. One example is <a href="/wiki/Ciprofloxacin" title="Ciprofloxacin">ciprofloxacin</a>, one of the most widely used antibiotics worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-SMS2011-5">[5]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Medical_uses">Medical uses</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Quinolone_antibiotic&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Medical uses">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Levofloxacin_skeletal.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Levofloxacin_skeletal.svg/250px-Levofloxacin_skeletal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Levofloxacin_skeletal.svg/330px-Levofloxacin_skeletal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Levofloxacin_skeletal.svg/500px-Levofloxacin_skeletal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="277" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Levofloxacin" title="Levofloxacin">Levofloxacin</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trovafloxacin.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Trovafloxacin.svg/250px-Trovafloxacin.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Trovafloxacin.svg/330px-Trovafloxacin.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Trovafloxacin.svg/500px-Trovafloxacin.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="356" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Trovafloxacin" title="Trovafloxacin">Trovafloxacin</a></figcaption></figure> Fluoroquinolones are often used for <a href="/wiki/Urinary_tract_infection" title="Urinary tract infection">genitourinary tract infections</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> and are widely used in the treatment of <a href="/wiki/Hospital-acquired_infections" class="mw-redirect" title="Hospital-acquired infections">hospital-acquired infections</a> associated with <a href="/wiki/Urinary_catheter" class="mw-redirect" title="Urinary catheter">urinary catheters</a>. In <a href="/w/index.php?title=Community-acquired_infections&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Community-acquired infections (page does not exist)">community-acquired infections</a>, they are recommended only when risk factors for <a href="/wiki/Multidrug_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Multidrug resistance">multidrug resistance</a> are present or after other antibiotic regimens have failed. However, for serious acute cases of <a href="/wiki/Pyelonephritis" title="Pyelonephritis">pyelonephritis</a> or bacterial <a href="/wiki/Prostatitis" title="Prostatitis">prostatitis</a> where the person may need to be hospitalised, fluoroquinolones are recommended as <a href="/wiki/First-line_therapy" class="mw-redirect" title="First-line therapy">first-line therapy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Liu-2005-7">[7]</a> Due to people with <a href="/wiki/Sickle-cell_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Sickle-cell disease">sickle-cell disease</a> being at increased risk for developing <a href="/wiki/Osteomyelitis" title="Osteomyelitis">osteomyelitis</a> from <a href="/wiki/Salmonella" title="Salmonella">Salmonella</a>, fluoroquinolones are the "drugs of choice" for this organism due to their ability to enter bone tissue without <a href="/wiki/Chelation" title="Chelation">chelating</a> it, as <a href="/wiki/Tetracyclines" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetracyclines">tetracyclines</a> are known to do.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In <a href="/wiki/Biofilm" title="Biofilm">biofilm</a>-associated infections, quinolones exhibit a good ability to penetrate the biofilm and target bacteria within it, especially during the early stages of biofilm formation. Their antibiofilm activity is generally higher than that of old <a href="/wiki/Beta-lactams" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta-lactams">beta-lactams</a> and <a href="/wiki/Glycopeptide_antibiotics" class="mw-redirect" title="Glycopeptide antibiotics">glycopeptides</a> but remains lower compared to antibiotics such as <a href="/wiki/Tetracycline" title="Tetracycline">tetracyclines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Daptomycin" title="Daptomycin">daptomycin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fosfomycin" title="Fosfomycin">fosfomycin</a>, which demonstrate greater efficacy against biofilms.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> Fluoroquinolones are featured prominently in guidelines for the treatment of hospital-acquired pneumonia.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Children">Children</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Quinolone_antibiotic&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Children">edit</a>]</div> In most countries, fluoroquinolones are approved for use in children only under narrowly defined circumstances, owing in part to the observation of high rates of musculoskeletal adverse events in fluoroquinolone-treated juvenile animals. In the UK, the prescribing indications for fluoroquinolones for children are severely restricted. Only inhalational <a href="/wiki/Anthrax" title="Anthrax">anthrax</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pseudomonal" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudomonal">pseudomonal</a> infections in <a href="/wiki/Cystic_fibrosis" title="Cystic fibrosis">cystic fibrosis</a> infections are licensed indications in the UK due to ongoing safety concerns. In a study comparing the safety and efficacy of levofloxacin to that of <a href="/wiki/Azithromycin" title="Azithromycin">azithromycin</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ceftriaxone" title="Ceftriaxone">ceftriaxone</a> in 712 children with community-acquired pneumonia, serious adverse events were experienced by 6% of those treated with levofloxacin and 4% of those treated with comparator antibiotics. Most of these were considered by the treating physician to be unrelated or doubtfully related to the study drug. Two deaths were observed in the levofloxacin group, neither of which was thought to be treatment-related. Spontaneous reports to the U.S. FDA Adverse Effects Reporting System at the time of the 20 September 2011 U.S. <a href="/w/index.php?title=FDA_Pediatric_Drugs_Advisory_Committee&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="FDA Pediatric Drugs Advisory Committee (page does not exist)">FDA Pediatric Drugs Advisory Committee</a> included musculoskeletal events (39, including five cases of <a href="/wiki/Tendon_rupture" title="Tendon rupture">tendon rupture</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a> events (19, including five cases of seizures) as the most common spontaneous reports between April 2005 and March 2008. An estimated 130,000 pediatric prescriptions for levofloxacin were filled on behalf of 112,000 pediatric patients during that period.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Meta-analyses conclude that fluoroquinolones pose little or no additional risk to children compared to other antibiotic classes.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> Fluoroquinolone use in children may be appropriate when the infection is caused by <a href="/wiki/Multidrug-resistant_bacteria" title="Multidrug-resistant bacteria">multidrug-resistant bacteria</a>, or when alternative treatment options require parenteral administration and oral therapy is preferred.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Adverse_effects">Adverse effects</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Quinolone_antibiotic&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Adverse effects">edit</a>]</div> While typical drug side effects reactions are mild to moderate, sometimes serious adverse effects, such as suicide, occur. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Suicide">Suicide</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Quinolone_antibiotic&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Suicide">edit</a>]</div> Fluoroquinolones can increase the risk of <a href="/wiki/Psychiatric_symptoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychiatric symptoms">psychiatric symptoms</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Depression_(mood)" title="Depression (mood)">depression</a> and <a href="/wiki/Psychosis" title="Psychosis">psychotic</a> reactions. These may potentially lead to thoughts of suicide or suicide attempts.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> For example, recent reports from senior coroners on two suicides show the risks of fluoroquinolones in everyday life. Neither victim had a history of depression or mental health problems. However, both men had been prescribed ciprofloxacin shortly before they killed themselves.<a href="#cite_note-judiciary.uk-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> In a “Report to Prevent Future Deaths,” mandated by UK law, one of the coroners noted that there is no compelling reason why patients should expect to risk becoming suicidal from an antibiotic unless this fact and potential symptoms were brought to their attention by the prescriber.<a href="#cite_note-judiciary.uk-16">[16]</a> A 2024 review from the UK’s <a href="/w/index.php?title=Medicines_%26_Healthcare_Products_Regulatory_Agency&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Medicines & Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency (page does not exist)">Medicines & Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency</a> examined the effectiveness of current measures to reduce these identified risks of fluoroquinolones. It concluded, “Systemic fluoroquinolones must now only be prescribed when other commonly recommended antibiotics are inappropriate.” <a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_nervous_system_side_effects">Other nervous system side effects</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Quinolone_antibiotic&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Other nervous system side effects">edit</a>]</div> Nervous-system effects include <a href="/wiki/Insomnia" title="Insomnia">insomnia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychomotor_agitation" title="Psychomotor agitation">restlessness</a>, and rarely, <a href="/wiki/Seizure" title="Seizure">seizure</a>,<a href="/wiki/Convulsion" title="Convulsion">convulsions</a>, and psychosis.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> Other rare and serious adverse events have been observed with varying degrees of evidence for causation.<a href="#cite_note-babar-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rouveix--21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid17911203-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chronology_of_boxed_warnings">Chronology of boxed warnings</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Quinolone_antibiotic&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Chronology of boxed warnings">edit</a>]</div> In 2008, the U.S. FDA added <a href="/wiki/Black_box_warning" class="mw-redirect" title="Black box warning">black box warnings</a> on all fluoroquinolones, advising of the increased risk of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tendon_damage&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tendon damage (page does not exist)">tendon damage</a>.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> In 2016, the FDA found that systemic use (by mouth or injection) of fluoroquinolones was associated with "disabling and potentially permanent serious side effects" involving the tendons, muscles, joints, nerves, and central nervous system, concluding that these side effects generally outweigh the benefits for people with acute <a href="/wiki/Sinusitis" title="Sinusitis">sinusitis</a>, acute <a href="/wiki/Bronchitis" title="Bronchitis">bronchitis</a>, and uncomplicated urinary tract infections when other treatment options are available.<a href="#cite_note-FDA2016-25">[25]</a> Concerns regarding <a href="/wiki/Low_blood_sugar" class="mw-redirect" title="Low blood sugar">low blood sugar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mental_health_problems" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental health problems">mental health problems</a> were added in 2018.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> In December 2018, the FDA issued a warning regarding an increased risk of <a href="/wiki/Aortic_aneurysm" title="Aortic aneurysm">aortic aneurysms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aortic_dissection" title="Aortic dissection">aortic dissections</a> associated with fluoroquinolone use. This warning specifically targeted older adults and patients with conditions such as <a href="/wiki/Hypertension" title="Hypertension">hypertension</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marfan_syndrome" title="Marfan syndrome">Marfan syndrome</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ehlers-Danlos_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Ehlers-Danlos syndrome">Ehlers-Danlos syndrome</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atherosclerosis" title="Atherosclerosis">atherosclerosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peripheral_vascular_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Peripheral vascular disease">peripheral vascular disease</a>, and a history of <a href="/wiki/Aneurysm" title="Aneurysm">aneurysms</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Rizk_et_al_2024-27">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tendons">Tendons</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Quinolone_antibiotic&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Tendons">edit</a>]</div> Quinolones are associated with a small risk of <a href="/wiki/Tendonitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Tendonitis">tendonitis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tendon_rupture" title="Tendon rupture">tendon rupture</a>; a 2013 review found the incidence of tendon injury among those taking fluoroquinolones to be between 0.08 and 0.20%.<a href="#cite_note-QuinTendon2013-28">[28]</a> The risk appears to be higher among people older than 60 and those also taking corticosteroids;<a href="#cite_note-QuinTendon2013-28">[28]</a> the risk also may be higher among people who are male, have a pre-existing joint or tendon issue, have kidney disease, or are highly active.<a href="#cite_note-QuinAthletes2014-29">[29]</a> Some experts have advised avoidance of fluoroquinolones in athletes.<a href="#cite_note-QuinAthletes2014-29">[29]</a> If tendonitis occurs, it generally appears within one month, and the most common tendon injured appears to be the <a href="/wiki/Achilles_tendon" title="Achilles tendon">Achilles tendon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-QuinTendon2013-28">[28]</a> The cause is not well understood.<a href="#cite_note-QuinTendon2013-28">[28]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aortic_dissection">Aortic dissection</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Quinolone_antibiotic&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Aortic dissection">edit</a>]</div> Fluoroquinolones can increase the rate of rare but serious tears in the aorta by 31% compared to other antibiotics.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> People at increased risk include those with aortic aneurysm, hypertension, certain genetic conditions such as <a href="/wiki/Marfan_syndrome" title="Marfan syndrome">Marfan syndrome</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ehlers-Danlos_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Ehlers-Danlos syndrome">Ehlers-Danlos syndrome</a>, and the elderly. For these people, fluoroquinolones should be used only when no other treatment options are available.<a href="#cite_note-FDA2018-31">[31]</a> One year after the warning announcement, prescribing behaviors were reported to have remained unchanged.<a href="#cite_note-Rizk_et_al_2024-27">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Colitis">Colitis</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Quinolone_antibiotic&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Colitis">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Clostridioides_difficile_infection" title="Clostridioides difficile infection">Clostridioides difficile colitis</a> may occur in connection with the use of any antibacterial drug, especially those with a broad spectrum of activity such as clindamycin, cephalosporins, and fluoroquinolones. Fluoroquinoline treatment is associated with risk that is similar to<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> or less than<a href="#cite_note-Levine-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> that associated with broad spectrum cephalosporins. Fluoroquinolone administration may be associated with the acquisition and outgrowth of a particularly virulent Clostridium strain.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other">Other</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Quinolone_antibiotic&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Other">edit</a>]</div> More generally, fluoroquinolones are tolerated, with typical drug side effects being mild to moderate.<a href="#cite_note-Owens_RC,_Ambrose_PG_2005_S144–57-36">[36]</a> Common side effects include gastrointestinal effects such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea, as well as headache and insomnia. Postmarketing surveillance has revealed a variety of relatively rare but serious adverse effects associated with all members of the fluoroquinolone antibacterial class. Among these, tendon problems and exacerbation of the symptoms of the neurological disorder <a href="/wiki/Myasthenia_gravis" title="Myasthenia gravis">myasthenia gravis</a> are the subject of <a href="/wiki/Boxed_warning" title="Boxed warning">"black box" warnings</a> in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid11172695-38">[38]</a> A 2018 EU-wide review of fluoroquinolones concluded that they are associated with serious side effects including tendonitis, tendon rupture, arthralgia, pain in extremities, gait disturbance, neuropathies associated with paraesthesia, depression, fatigue, memory impairment, sleep disorders, and impaired hearing, vision, taste and smell. Tendon damage (especially to Achilles tendon but also other tendons) can occur within 48 hours of starting fluoroquinolone treatment but the damage may be delayed several months after stopping treatment.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> The overall rate of adverse events in people treated with fluoroquinolones is roughly similar to that seen in people treated with other antibiotic classes.<a href="#cite_note-Levine-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> A U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention study found people treated with fluoroquinolones experienced adverse events severe enough to lead to an emergency department visit more frequently than those treated with <a href="/wiki/Cephalosporin" title="Cephalosporin">cephalosporins</a> or <a href="/wiki/Macrolide" title="Macrolide">macrolides</a>, but less frequently than those treated with <a href="/wiki/Penicillin" title="Penicillin">penicillins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clindamycin" title="Clindamycin">clindamycin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sulfonamide" title="Sulfonamide">sulfonamides</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Vancomycin" title="Vancomycin">vancomycin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> Fluoroquinolones prolong the heart's <a href="/wiki/QT_interval" title="QT interval">QT interval</a> by blocking voltage-gated potassium channels.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> Prolongation of the QT interval can lead to <a href="/wiki/Torsades_de_pointes" title="Torsades de pointes">torsades de pointes</a>, a life-threatening <a href="/wiki/Cardiac_dysrhythmia" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardiac dysrhythmia">arrhythmia</a>, but in practice, this appears relatively uncommon in part because the most widely prescribed fluoroquinolones (ciprofloxacin and levofloxacin) only minimally prolong the QT interval.<a href="#cite_note-Rubinstein-45">[45]</a> In 2019 study by <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_American_College_of_Cardiology" title="Journal of the American College of Cardiology">Journal of the American College of Cardiology</a> it was discovered that fluoroquinolones could increase the risk for heart valve diseases.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> Events that may occur in acute overdose are rare, and include <a href="/wiki/Kidney_failure" title="Kidney failure">kidney failure</a> and seizure.<a href="#cite_note-Gold2006-47">[47]</a> Susceptible groups of patients, such as children and the elderly, are at greater risk of adverse reactions during therapeutic use.<a href="#cite_note-Owens_RC,_Ambrose_PG_2005_S144–57-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid17559736-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mechanism_of_toxicity">Mechanism of toxicity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Quinolone_antibiotic&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Mechanism of toxicity">edit</a>]</div> The mechanisms of the toxicity of fluoroquinolones have been attributed to their interactions with different receptor complexes, such as blockade of the GABAA receptor complex within the central nervous system, leading to excitotoxic type effects<a href="#cite_note-pmid11172695-38">[38]</a> and oxidative stress.<a href="#cite_note-pmid11859676-50">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Interactions">Interactions</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Quinolone_antibiotic&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Interactions">edit</a>]</div> Products containing multivalent <a href="/wiki/Cation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cation">cations</a>, such as aluminium- or magnesium-containing <a href="/wiki/Antacids" class="mw-redirect" title="Antacids">antacids</a>, and products containing calcium, iron, or zinc invariably result in marked reduction of oral absorption of fluoroquinolones.<a href="#cite_note-medscapeAdverse-51">[51]</a> Other drugs that interact with fluoroquinolones include <a href="/wiki/Sucralfate" title="Sucralfate">sucralfate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Probenecid" title="Probenecid">probenecid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cimetidine" title="Cimetidine">cimetidine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theophylline" title="Theophylline">theophylline</a>, <a href="/wiki/Warfarin" title="Warfarin">warfarin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antiviral_agents" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiviral agents">antiviral agents</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phenytoin" title="Phenytoin">phenytoin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cyclosporine" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyclosporine">cyclosporine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rifampin" class="mw-redirect" title="Rifampin">rifampin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pyrazinamide" title="Pyrazinamide">pyrazinamide</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cycloserine" title="Cycloserine">cycloserine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-medscapeAdverse-51">[51]</a> Administration of quinolone antibiotics to a <a href="/wiki/Benzodiazepine_dependence" title="Benzodiazepine dependence">benzodiazepine-dependent</a> individual can precipitate acute <a href="/wiki/Benzodiazepine_withdrawal" class="mw-redirect" title="Benzodiazepine withdrawal">benzodiazepine withdrawal</a> symptoms due to quinolones displacing benzodiazepines from their binding sites.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> Fluoroquinolones have varying specificity for <a href="/wiki/Cytochrome_P450" title="Cytochrome P450">cytochrome P450</a>, so may have interactions with drugs cleared by those enzymes; the order from most P450-inhibitory to least, is enoxacin > ciprofloxacin > norfloxacin > ofloxacin, levofloxacin, trovafloxacin, gatifloxacin, moxifloxacin.<a href="#cite_note-medscapeAdverse-51">[51]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contraindications">Contraindications</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Quinolone_antibiotic&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Contraindications">edit</a>]</div> Quinolones are not recommended in people with <a href="/wiki/Epilepsy" title="Epilepsy">epilepsy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marfan%27s_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Marfan's syndrome">Marfan's syndrome</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ehlers-Danlos_Syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome">Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome</a>,<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> <a href="/wiki/QT_interval" title="QT interval">QT prolongation</a>, pre-existing CNS lesions, or CNS inflammation, or who have had a <a href="/wiki/Stroke" title="Stroke">stroke</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid11172695-38">[38]</a> They are best avoided in the athlete population.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> Safety concerns exist for fluoroquinolone use during pregnancy, so they are contraindicated unless no other safe alternative antibiotic exists.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> However, one meta-analysis looking at the outcome of pregnancies involving quinolone use in the first trimester found no increased risk of malformations.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> They are also contraindicated in children due to the risks of damage to the musculoskeletal system.<a href="#cite_note-Noel-2007-57">[57]</a> Their use in children is not absolutely contraindicated, however for certain severe infections where other antibiotics are not an option, their use can be justified.<a href="#cite_note-Leibovitz-2006-58">[58]</a> Quinolones should also not be given to people with a known <a href="/wiki/Hypersensitivity" title="Hypersensitivity">hypersensitivity</a> to the drug class.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> The basic <a href="/wiki/Pharmacophore" title="Pharmacophore">pharmacophore</a>, or active structure, of the fluoroquinolone class is based upon the <a href="/wiki/Quinoline" title="Quinoline">quinoline</a> ring system.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> The addition of the <a href="/wiki/Fluorine" title="Fluorine">fluorine</a> <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atom</a> at C6 distinguishes the successive-generation fluoroquinolones from the first-generation of quinolones. The addition of the C6 fluorine atom has since been demonstrated not to be required for the <a href="/wiki/Antibacterial" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibacterial">antibacterial</a> activity of this class (circa 1997).<a href="#cite_note-Hong_1997-62">[62]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Antibiotic_misuse_and_bacterial_resistances">Antibiotic misuse and bacterial resistances</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Quinolone_antibiotic&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Antibiotic misuse and bacterial resistances">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic_misuse" title="Antibiotic misuse">Antibiotic misuse</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotic resistance">Antibiotic resistance</a></div> Because the use of broad-spectrum antibiotics encourages the spread of multidrug-resistant strains and the development of <a href="/wiki/Clostridioides_difficile_(bacteria)" class="mw-redirect" title="Clostridioides difficile (bacteria)">Clostridioides difficile</a> infections, treatment guidelines often recommend minimizing the use of fluoroquinolones and other broad-spectrum antibiotics in less severe infections and in those in which risk factors for multidrug resistance are not present. It has been recommended that fluoroquinolones not be used as a first-line agent for community-acquired pneumonia,<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> instead recommending <a href="/wiki/Macrolide" title="Macrolide">macrolide</a> or doxycycline as first-line agents. The Drug-Resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae Working Group recommends fluoroquinolones be used for the ambulatory treatment of community-acquired pneumonia only after other antibiotic classes have been tried and failed, or in cases with demonstrated drug-resistant <a href="/wiki/Streptococcus_pneumoniae" title="Streptococcus pneumoniae">Streptococcus pneumoniae</a>.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotic resistance">Resistance</a> to quinolones can evolve rapidly, even during a course of treatment. Numerous <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogens</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli" title="Escherichia coli">Escherichia coli</a>, commonly exhibit resistance.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> Widespread veterinary usage of quinolones, in particular in Europe, has been implicated.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> Fluoroquinolones had become the class of antibiotics most commonly prescribed to adults in 2002. Nearly half (42%) of these prescriptions were for conditions not approved by the U.S. FDA, such as <a href="/wiki/Acute_bronchitis" title="Acute bronchitis">acute bronchitis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Otitis_media" title="Otitis media">otitis media</a>, and acute upper respiratory tract infection, according to a study supported in part by the <a href="/wiki/Agency_for_Healthcare_Research_and_Quality" title="Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality">Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lind-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> In addition, they are commonly prescribed for medical conditions, such as acute respiratory illness, that are usually caused by viral infections.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> Three mechanisms of resistance are known.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> Some types of <a href="/wiki/Efflux_(microbiology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Efflux (microbiology)">efflux</a> pumps can act to decrease intracellular quinolone concentration.<a href="#cite_note-pmid9661020-71">[71]</a> In gram-negative bacteria, plasmid-mediated resistance genes produce proteins that can bind to <a href="/wiki/DNA_gyrase" title="DNA gyrase">DNA gyrase</a>, protecting it from the action of quinolones. Finally, <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutations</a> at key sites in <a href="/wiki/DNA_gyrase" title="DNA gyrase">DNA gyrase</a> or <a href="/wiki/Topoisomerase_IV" title="Topoisomerase IV">topoisomerase IV</a> can decrease their binding affinity to quinolones, decreasing the drugs' effectiveness.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mechanism_of_action">Mechanism of action</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Quinolone_antibiotic&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Mechanism of action">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GyraseCiproTop.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/GyraseCiproTop.png/220px-GyraseCiproTop.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/GyraseCiproTop.png/330px-GyraseCiproTop.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/GyraseCiproTop.png/440px-GyraseCiproTop.png 2x" data-file-width="819" data-file-height="691" /></a><figcaption>Structure of bacterial DNA gyrase complexed with DNA and two ciprofloxacin molecules (green)</figcaption></figure> Quinolones are chemotherapeutic bactericidal drugs. They interfere with <a href="/wiki/DNA_replication" title="DNA replication">DNA replication</a> by preventing bacterial DNA from unwinding and duplicating.<a href="#cite_note-Hooper--72">[72]</a> Specifically, they inhibit the ligase activity of the <a href="/wiki/Type_II_topoisomerase" title="Type II topoisomerase">type II topoisomerases</a>, DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV, which cut DNA to introduce supercoiling, while leaving nuclease activity unaffected. With the ligase activity disrupted, these enzymes release DNA with single- and double-strand breaks that lead to cell death.<a href="#cite_note-Aldred--73">[73]</a> The majority of quinolones in clinical use are fluoroquinolones, which have a <a href="/wiki/Fluorine" title="Fluorine">fluorine</a> <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atom</a> attached to the central ring system, typically at the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_nomenclature" title="Chemical nomenclature">6-position or C-8 position</a>. Most of them are named with the <a href="/wiki/Drug_nomenclature#List_of_stems_and_affixes" title="Drug nomenclature">-oxacin</a> suffix. First and second generation quinolones are largely active against Gram-negative bacteria, whereas third and fourth generation quinolones have increased activity against Gram-positive and anaerobic bacteria.<a href="#cite_note-VT2005-74">[74]</a> Some quinolones containing aromatic substituents at their C-7 positions are highly active against eukaryotic type II topoisomerase.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> It has also been proposed that quinolone antibiotics cause oxidation of guanine nucleotides in the bacterial nucleotide pool, and that this process contributes to the cytotoxicity of these agents.<a href="#cite_note-Foti2012-76">[76]</a> The incorporation of oxidized guanine nucleotides into <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> could be bactericidal. Bacterial cytotoxicity could arise from incomplete repair of closely spaced <a href="/wiki/8-oxo-2%27-deoxyguanosine" class="mw-redirect" title="8-oxo-2'-deoxyguanosine">8-oxo-2'-deoxyguanosine</a> in the DNA resulting in double-strand breaks.<a href="#cite_note-Foti2012-76">[76]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cellular_uptake">Cellular uptake</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Quinolone_antibiotic&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Cellular uptake">edit</a>]</div> Fluoroquinolones can enter in cells easily via <a href="/wiki/Porin_(protein)" title="Porin (protein)">porins</a>, so are often used to treat <a href="/wiki/Intracellular" class="mw-redirect" title="Intracellular">intracellular</a> <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogens</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Legionella_pneumophila" title="Legionella pneumophila">Legionella pneumophila</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mycoplasma_pneumoniae" title="Mycoplasma pneumoniae">Mycoplasma pneumoniae</a>. For many Gram-negative bacteria, DNA gyrase is the target, whereas topoisomerase IV is the target for many Gram-positive bacteria.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Eukaryotic cells are not believed to contain DNA gyrase or topoisomerase IV. However, debate exists concerning whether the quinolones still have such an adverse effect on the DNA of healthy cells. Some compounds in this class have been shown to inhibit the synthesis of <a href="/wiki/Mitochondrial_DNA" title="Mitochondrial DNA">mitochondrial DNA</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pofq1988-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Quinolone_antibiotic&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Pharmacology">edit</a>]</div> The basic <a href="/wiki/Pharmacophore" title="Pharmacophore">pharmacophore</a>, or active structure, of the fluoroquinolone class is based upon the quinoline ring system.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> Various substitutions made to the quinoline ring resulted in the development of numerous fluoroquinolone drugs. The addition of the <a href="/wiki/Fluorine" title="Fluorine">fluorine</a> <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atom</a> at C-6 distinguishes the successive-generation fluoroquinolones from the first-generation quinolones, although examples are known that omit the atom while retaining antibacterial activity.<a href="#cite_note-Hong_1997-62">[62]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pharmacokinetics">Pharmacokinetics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Quinolone_antibiotic&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Pharmacokinetics">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Pharmacokinetics of newer fluoroquinolones following a single oral dose<a href="#cite_note-pmid17154673-82">[82]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Drug" title="Drug">Drug</a></th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Dose_(biochemistry)" title="Dose (biochemistry)">Dosage</a>a (mg)</th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Bioavailability" title="Bioavailability"><abbr title="Bioavailability">BA</abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip Bioavailability (%)</th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Cmax_(pharmacology)" title="Cmax (pharmacology)">Cmax</a> (μg/mL)</th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Tmax_(pharmacology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tmax (pharmacology)">tmax</a> (h)</th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Area_under_the_curve_(pharmacokinetics)" title="Area under the curve (pharmacokinetics)"><abbr title="Area under the curve (pharmacokinetics)">AUC</abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip Area under the curve (pharmacokinetics) (μg • h/mL)</th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Terminal_half-life" class="mw-redirect" title="Terminal half-life"><abbr title="Terminal half-life">t1/2</abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip Terminal half-life (h)</th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Volume_of_distribution" title="Volume of distribution"><abbr title="Volume of distribution">Vd/F</abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip Volume of distribution (L/kg)</th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Plasma_protein_binding" title="Plasma protein binding">Protein binding</a> (%)</th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Elimination_(pharmacology)" title="Elimination (pharmacology)">Excreted</a> unchanged (%)</th> <th colspan="2">Dose adjustment </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Renal_impairment" class="mw-redirect" title="Renal impairment"><abbr title="Renal impairment">Renal</abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip Renal impairment</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Hepatic_impairment" class="mw-redirect" title="Hepatic impairment"><abbr title="Hepatic impairment">Hepatic</abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip Hepatic impairment </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ciprofloxacin" title="Ciprofloxacin">Ciprofloxacin</a></td> <td>500 750</td> <td>70 70</td> <td>2.30 3.00</td> <td>1.2 1.2</td> <td>10.1 14.0</td> <td>3.5 3.5</td> <td>3.5 3.5</td> <td>30 30</td> <td>34 34</td> <td>Yes Yes</td> <td>No No </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Garenoxacin" title="Garenoxacin">Garenoxacin</a></td> <td>400 600</td> <td><abbr title="No data">ND</abbr> 92</td> <td>5.0 10.4</td> <td><abbr title="No data">ND</abbr> 1.2</td> <td>60 96.7</td> <td>14.2 9.8</td> <td><abbr title="No data">ND</abbr> <abbr title="No data">ND</abbr></td> <td>75 <abbr title="No data">ND</abbr></td> <td>40 <abbr title="No data">ND</abbr></td> <td><abbr title="No data">ND</abbr> <abbr title="No data">ND</abbr></td> <td><abbr title="No data">ND</abbr> <abbr title="No data">ND</abbr> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Gatifloxacin" title="Gatifloxacin">Gatifloxacin</a></td> <td>400</td> <td>96</td> <td>3.86</td> <td>1.5</td> <td>33.8</td> <td>8.0</td> <td>1.8</td> <td>20</td> <td>76</td> <td>Yes</td> <td>No </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Gemifloxacin" title="Gemifloxacin">Gemifloxacin</a></td> <td>320 640</td> <td>70 70</td> <td>1.19 2.29</td> <td>1.2 1.2</td> <td>7.3 15.9</td> <td>8.0 8.0</td> <td>3.5 3.5</td> <td>60 60</td> <td>27 27</td> <td>Yes Yes</td> <td>No No </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Levofloxacin" title="Levofloxacin">Levofloxacin</a></td> <td>500 750</td> <td>99 99</td> <td>5.08 7.13</td> <td>1.7 1.7</td> <td>48.0 82.0</td> <td>6.9 6.9</td> <td>1.1 1.1</td> <td>31 31</td> <td>83 83</td> <td>Yes Yes</td> <td><abbr title="No data">ND</abbr> <abbr title="No data">ND</abbr> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Moxifloxacin" title="Moxifloxacin">Moxifloxacin</a></td> <td>200 400</td> <td>86 86</td> <td>1.16 3.34</td> <td>1.7 1.7</td> <td>15.4 33.8</td> <td>12.1 12.1</td> <td>3.3 3.3</td> <td>47 47</td> <td>19 19</td> <td>No No</td> <td>No No </td></tr> <tr class="sortbottom"> <td colspan="12">a = Dosage applies only to Cmax and <abbr title="area under the curve">AUC</abbr>. The other parameters an average of the values available in the literature irrespective of dosage. </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Quinolone_antibiotic&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nalidixic_acid.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Nalidixic_acid.png/220px-Nalidixic_acid.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Nalidixic_acid.png/330px-Nalidixic_acid.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Nalidixic_acid.png/440px-Nalidixic_acid.png 2x" data-file-width="1834" data-file-height="1339" /></a><figcaption>Nalidixic acid. Although technically a <a href="/wiki/Naphthyridine" class="mw-redirect" title="Naphthyridine">naphthyridine</a>, it is considered the predecessor of all subsequently developed quinolone antibiotics.</figcaption></figure> Although not formally a quinolone, <a href="/wiki/Nalidixic_acid" title="Nalidixic acid">nalidixic acid</a> is considered the first quinolone drug. It was introduced in 1962 for treatment of <a href="/wiki/Urinary_tract_infections" class="mw-redirect" title="Urinary tract infections">urinary tract infections</a> (UTIs) in humans.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> Nalidixic acid was discovered by George Lesher and coworkers in a <a href="/wiki/Distillate" class="mw-redirect" title="Distillate">distillate</a> during an attempt at <a href="/wiki/Chloroquine" title="Chloroquine">chloroquine</a> synthesis.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> Nalidixic acid is thus considered to be the predecessor of all members of the quinolone family, including the second, third and fourth generations commonly known as fluoroquinolones. Since the introduction of nalidixic acid, more than 10,000 <a href="/wiki/Structural_analog" title="Structural analog">analogs</a> have been synthesized, but only a handful have found their way into clinical practice. The first generation also included other quinolone drugs, such as <a href="/wiki/Pipemidic_acid" title="Pipemidic acid">pipemidic acid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oxolinic_acid" title="Oxolinic acid">oxolinic acid</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cinoxacin" title="Cinoxacin">cinoxacin</a>, which were introduced in the 1970s. They proved to be only marginal improvements over nalidixic acid.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> These drugs were widely used as a first-line treatment for many infections, including very commons ones such as acute sinusitis, acute bronchitis, and uncomplicated UTIs.<a href="#cite_note-FDA201607-86">[86]</a> Reports of serious adverse events began emerging, and the FDA first added a black-box warning to fluoroquinolones in July 2008 for the increased risk of tendinitis and tendon rupture. In February 2011, the risk of worsening symptoms for those with myasthenia gravis was added to the warning. In August 2013, the agency required updates to the labels to describe the potential for irreversible peripheral neuropathy (serious nerve damage).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In November 2015, an FDA Advisory Committee discussed the risks and benefits of fluoroquinolones for the treatment of acute bacterial sinusitis, acute bacterial exacerbation of chronic bronchitis, and uncomplicated UTIs based on new safety information. The new information focused on two or more side effects occurring at the same time and causing the potential for irreversible impairment. The advisory committee concluded that the serious risks associated with the use of fluoroquinolones for these types of uncomplicated infections generally outweighed the benefits for patients with other treatment options.<a href="#cite_note-FDA201607-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-FDAdeck2017-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> The 21-member joint committee overwhelmingly recommended stronger label warnings on the containers because of rare but sometimes devastating side effects.<a href="#cite_note-WSJ-91">[91]</a> On 12 May 2016, the FDA issued a drug safety communication advising that fluoroquinolones should be reserved for these conditions only when no other options are available due to potentially permanent, disabling side effects occurring together. The drug safety communication also announced the required labeling updates to reflect this new safety information.<a href="#cite_note-FDA201607-86">[86]</a> The FDA put out another label change in July 2017, strengthening the warnings about potentially disabling adverse effects and limiting use of these drugs to second-line treatments for acute sinusitis, acute bronchitis, and uncomplicated UTIs.<a href="#cite_note-FDA201607-86">[86]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Generations">Generations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Quinolone_antibiotic&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Generations">edit</a>]</div> The first generation of the quinolones began following introduction of the related, but structurally distinct naphthyridine-family nalidixic acid in 1962 for treatment of UTIs in humans.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> Nalidixic acid was discovered by George Lesher and coworkers in a chemical <a href="/wiki/Distillate" class="mw-redirect" title="Distillate">distillate</a> during an attempt at synthesis of the chloroquinoline antimalarial agent, <a href="/wiki/Chloroquine" title="Chloroquine">chloroquine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> Naphthyridone and quinolone classes of antibiotics prevent bacterial DNA replication by inhibition of DNA unwinding events, and can be both bacteriostatic and bacteriocidal.<a href="#cite_note-Hooper--72">[72]</a> (See <a href="#Mechanism_of_action">Mechanism of Action</a> earlier.) The majority of quinolones in clinical use belong to the second generation class of "fluoroquinolones", which have a true quinoline framework, maintain the C-3 carboxylic acid group, and add a <a href="/wiki/Fluorine" title="Fluorine">fluorine</a> <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atom</a> to the all-carbon containing ring, typically at the C-6 or C-8 positions.<a href="#cite_note-VT2005-74">[74]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Quinolone.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Quinolone.svg/250px-Quinolone.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Quinolone.svg/330px-Quinolone.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Quinolone.svg/440px-Quinolone.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="363" data-file-height="246" /></a><figcaption>Sites of substitution in second-generation fluoroquinolone antibiotics: Here, and in following the orientation of the quinolones are flipped with respect to horizontal and vertical axes, relative to earlier images; the nitrogen (N)-containing pyridine ring is now on the left, and the N-1 atom and C-6 carbonyl are at 12 o'clock and 6 o'clock in the pyridine ring. The characteristic 6-fluoro group is shown in red. For instance, in ciprofloxacin, above, the R substituent attached to the N-1 atom is a <a href="/wiki/Cyclopropyl" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyclopropyl">cyclopropyl</a> group, the R substituent in blue is a <a href="/wiki/Piperazine" title="Piperazine">piperazine</a> moiety, and the remaining substitution sites (R groups) are hydrogen atoms.</figcaption></figure> Quinolones can be classified into generations based on their antibacterial spectrums.<a href="#cite_note-pmid10997595-94">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-titleNew_Classification_and_Update_on_the_Quinolone_Antibiotics_–_1_May_2000_–_American_Academy_of_Family_Physicians-95">[95]</a> The earlier-generation agents are, in general, more narrow-spectrum than the later ones, but no standard is employed to determine which drug belongs to which generation. The only universal standard applied is the grouping of the non-<a href="/wiki/Fluorine" title="Fluorine">fluorinated</a> drugs found within this class (quinolones) within the first-generation heading. As such, a wide variation exists within the literature dependent upon the methods employed by the authors.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The first generation is rarely used. Frequently prescribed drugs are <a href="/wiki/Moxifloxacin" title="Moxifloxacin">moxifloxacin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ciprofloxacin" title="Ciprofloxacin">ciprofloxacin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Levofloxacin" title="Levofloxacin">levofloxacin</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="First_generation">First generation</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Quinolone_antibiotic&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: First generation">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flumequine" title="Flumequine">flumequine</a> (veterinary use)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxolinic_acid" title="Oxolinic acid">oxolinic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosoxacin" title="Rosoxacin">rosoxacin</a></li></ul> Structurally related first-generation drugs, but formally not 4-quinolones, include <a href="/wiki/Cinoxacin" title="Cinoxacin">cinoxacin</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Oliphant_2002-96">[96]</a> <a href="/wiki/Nalidixic_acid" title="Nalidixic acid">nalidixic acid</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Oliphant_2002-96">[96]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Piromidic_acid" title="Piromidic acid">piromidic acid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pipemidic_acid" title="Pipemidic acid">pipemidic acid</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Second_generation">Second generation</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Quinolone_antibiotic&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Second generation">edit</a>]</div> The second-generation class is sometimes subdivided into "Class 1" and "Class 2".<a href="#cite_note-Oliphant_2002-96">[96]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ciprofloxacin" title="Ciprofloxacin">ciprofloxacin</a><a href="#cite_note-Oliphant_2002-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-Medscape-97">[97]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fleroxacin" title="Fleroxacin">fleroxacin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lomefloxacin" title="Lomefloxacin">lomefloxacin</a><a href="#cite_note-Oliphant_2002-96">[96]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadifloxacin" title="Nadifloxacin">nadifloxacin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norfloxacin" title="Norfloxacin">norfloxacin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ofloxacin" title="Ofloxacin">ofloxacin</a><a href="#cite_note-Oliphant_2002-96">[96]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pefloxacin" title="Pefloxacin">pefloxacin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rufloxacin" title="Rufloxacin">rufloxacin</a></li></ul> A structurally related second-generation drug, but formally not a 4-quinolone, is <a href="/wiki/Enoxacin" title="Enoxacin">enoxacin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Oliphant_2002-96">[96]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Third_generation">Third generation</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Quinolone_antibiotic&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Third generation">edit</a>]</div> Unlike the first and second generations, the third generation is active against <a href="/wiki/Streptococci" class="mw-redirect" title="Streptococci">streptococci</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Oliphant_2002-96">[96]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balofloxacin" title="Balofloxacin">balofloxacin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grepafloxacin" title="Grepafloxacin">grepafloxacin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levofloxacin" title="Levofloxacin">levofloxacin</a><a href="#cite_note-Oliphant_2002-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-Medscape-97">[97]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pazufloxacin" title="Pazufloxacin">pazufloxacin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sparfloxacin" title="Sparfloxacin">sparfloxacin</a><a href="#cite_note-Oliphant_2002-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temafloxacin" title="Temafloxacin">temafloxacin</a></li></ul> A structurally related third-generation drug, but formally not a 4-quinolone, is <a href="/wiki/Tosufloxacin" title="Tosufloxacin">tosufloxacin</a> (Ozex, Tosacin). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Fourth_generation">Fourth generation</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Quinolone_antibiotic&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Fourth generation">edit</a>]</div> Fourth-generation fluoroquinolones act at DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV.<a href="#cite_note-Gupta2009-99">[99]</a> This dual action slows development of resistance.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute">dubious</a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Quinolone_antibiotic#Dubious" title="Talk:Quinolone antibiotic">discuss</a>] <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clinafloxacin" title="Clinafloxacin">clinafloxacin</a><a href="#cite_note-Medscape-97">[97]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gatifloxacin" title="Gatifloxacin">gatifloxacin</a><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moxifloxacin" title="Moxifloxacin">moxifloxacin</a><a href="#cite_note-Oliphant_2002-96">[96]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sitafloxacin" title="Sitafloxacin">sitafloxacin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prulifloxacin" title="Prulifloxacin">prulifloxacin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Besifloxacin" title="Besifloxacin">besifloxacin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delafloxacin" title="Delafloxacin">delafloxacin</a></li></ul> Two structurally related fourth-generation drugs, but formally not 4-quinolones, are <a href="/wiki/Gemifloxacin" title="Gemifloxacin">gemifloxacin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trovafloxacin" title="Trovafloxacin">trovafloxacin</a> (removed from clinical use).<a href="#cite_note-Oliphant_2002-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-Medscape-97">[97]</a> In development: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ozenoxacin" title="Ozenoxacin">ozenoxacin</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Veterinary_use">Veterinary use</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Quinolone_antibiotic&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Veterinary use">edit</a>]</div> Quinolones have been widely used in <a href="/wiki/Animal_husbandry" title="Animal husbandry">animal husbandry</a>, and several agents have veterinary-specific applications. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Danofloxacin" title="Danofloxacin">danofloxacin</a> – 2nd gen, related to ciprofloxacin</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Difloxacin" title="Difloxacin">difloxacin</a> – 2nd/3rd gen, related to temafloxacin</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrofloxacin" title="Enrofloxacin">enrofloxacin</a> – 2nd gen, metabolizes into ciprofloxacin</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibafloxacin" title="Ibafloxacin">ibafloxacin</a> – 3rd gen, related to levofloxacin</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marbofloxacin" title="Marbofloxacin">marbofloxacin</a> – 3rd gen, related to levofloxacin</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbifloxacin" title="Orbifloxacin">orbifloxacin</a> – 3rd gen, related to sparfloxacin</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarafloxacin" title="Sarafloxacin">sarafloxacin</a> – 2nd/3rd gen, related to difloxacin</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pradofloxacin" title="Pradofloxacin">pradofloxacin</a> – 3rd gen</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Quinolone_antibiotic&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <img alt="Public Domain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /> This article incorporates <a href="/wiki/Copyright_status_of_works_by_the_federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Copyright status of works by the federal government of the United States">public domain material</a> from <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm513183.htm">FDA updates warnings for fluoroquinolone antibiotics</a>. <a 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Retrieved 6 May 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Seminars+in+Respiratory+and+Critical+Care+Medicine&rft.atitle=Clinical+Usefulness+of+Quinolones&rft.date=2000-03-01&rft.aulast=Ambrose&rft.aufirst=PG&rft.au=Owens+Jr%2C+RC&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.medscape.com%2Fviewarticle%2F410872_6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQuinolone+antibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.un.org/esa/coordination/CL12.pdf">"Consolidated list of products – Pharmaceuticals 12th issue"</a> (PDF). United Nations. 2005. Retrieved 6 May 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Consolidated+list+of+products+%E2%80%93+Pharmaceuticals+12th+issue&rft.pub=United+Nations&rft.date=2005&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.un.org%2Fesa%2Fcoordination%2FCL12.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQuinolone+antibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gupta2009-99"><a href="#cite_ref-Gupta2009_99-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGupta2009" class="citation book cs1">Gupta (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=__GWFXs2IuwC&pg=PA112">Clinical Ophthalmology: Contemporary Perspectives, 9/e</a>. Elsevier India. pp. 112–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-312-1680-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-312-1680-4"><bdi>978-81-312-1680-4</bdi></a>. Retrieved 20 September 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Clinical+Ophthalmology%3A+Contemporary+Perspectives%2C+9%2Fe&rft.pages=112-&rft.pub=Elsevier+India&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-81-312-1680-4&rft.au=Gupta&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D__GWFXs2IuwC%26pg%3DPA112&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQuinolone+antibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSchmid2006" class="citation news cs1">Schmid RE (1 May 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071125104959/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=%2Fnews%2Farchive%2F2006%2F05%2F01%2Fnational%2Fw120748D88.DTL&type=health">"Drug Company Taking Tequin Off Market"</a>. Associated Press. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/news/archive/2006/05/01/national/w120748D88.DTL&type=health">the original</a> on 25 November 2007. Retrieved 1 May 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Drug+Company+Taking+Tequin+Off+Market&rft.date=2006-05-01&rft.aulast=Schmid&rft.aufirst=RE&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sfgate.com%2Fcgi-bin%2Farticle.cgi%3Ffile%3D%2Fnews%2Farchive%2F2006%2F05%2F01%2Fnational%2Fw120748D88.DTL%26type%3Dhealth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQuinolone+antibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Quinolone_antibiotic&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/HAI/settings/lab/Quinolones-Clinical-Laboratory.html">Healthcare-associated Infections (HAIs)- Quinolones and the Clinical Laboratory</a> CDC</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fda.gov/drugs/drugsafety/postmarketdrugsafetyinformationforpatientsandproviders/ucm126085.htm">Information for Healthcare Professionals: Fluoroquinolone Antimicrobial Drugs</a> from the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Food_and_Drug_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Food and Drug Administration">U.S. Food and Drug Administration</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fpnotebook.com/ID160.htm">Fluoroquinolones</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060617042701/http://fpnotebook.com/ID160.htm">Archived</a> 17 June 2006 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>) "Family Practice Notebook" entry page for Fluoroquinolones</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060304094439/http://www.infectio-lille.com/diaporamas/invites/struct-act-duatb05-bryskier.pdf">Structure Activity Relationships</a> "Antibacterial Agents; 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style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dihydrofolate_reductase_inhibitor" title="Dihydrofolate reductase inhibitor">DHFR inhibitor</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2,4-Diaminopyrimidine" title="2,4-Diaminopyrimidine">2,4-Diaminopyrimidine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodimoprim" title="Brodimoprim">Brodimoprim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iclaprim" title="Iclaprim">Iclaprim</a>†</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ormetoprim" title="Ormetoprim">Ormetoprim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrimethamine" title="Pyrimethamine">Pyrimethamine</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetroxoprim" title="Tetroxoprim">Tetroxoprim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trimethoprim" title="Trimethoprim">Trimethoprim</a>#</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sulfonamide_(medicine)" title="Sulfonamide (medicine)">Sulfonamides</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dihydropteroate_synthetase_inhibitor" class="mw-redirect" title="Dihydropteroate synthetase inhibitor">DHPS inhibitor</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sulfonamide_(medicine)#Short-acting" title="Sulfonamide (medicine)">Short-acting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sulfisomidine" title="Sulfisomidine">Sulfaisodimidine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfamethizole" title="Sulfamethizole">Sulfamethizole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfadimidine" title="Sulfadimidine">Sulfadimidine</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sulfamethazine" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulfamethazine">Sulfamethazine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sulfadimerazine" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulfadimerazine">Sulfadimerazine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sulfadimezine" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulfadimezine">Sulfadimezine</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfapyridine" title="Sulfapyridine">Sulfapyridine</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sulfasalazine" title="Sulfasalazine">Sulfasalazine</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfafurazole" title="Sulfafurazole">Sulfafurazole</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Acetyl_sulfisoxazole&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Acetyl sulfisoxazole (page does not exist)">Acetyl sulfisoxazole</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfanilamide" title="Sulfanilamide">Sulfanilamide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prontosil" title="Prontosil">Prontosil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfathiazole" title="Sulfathiazole">Sulfathiazole</a> (<a href="/wiki/Phthalylsulfathiazole" title="Phthalylsulfathiazole">Phthalylsulfathiazole</a>, <a href="/wiki/Succinylsulfathiazole" title="Succinylsulfathiazole">Succinylsulfathiazole</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfathiourea" title="Sulfathiourea">Sulfathiourea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sulfonamide_(medicine)#Intermediate-acting" title="Sulfonamide (medicine)">Intermediate-acting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sulfamethoxazole" title="Sulfamethoxazole">Sulfamethoxazole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfadiazine" title="Sulfadiazine">Sulfadiazine</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfamoxole" title="Sulfamoxole">Sulfamoxole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sulfonamide_(medicine)#Long-acting" title="Sulfonamide (medicine)">Long-acting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sulfadimethoxine" title="Sulfadimethoxine">Sulfadimethoxine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfadoxine" title="Sulfadoxine">Sulfadoxine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfalene" title="Sulfalene">Sulfalene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfametomidine" title="Sulfametomidine">Sulfametomidine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfametoxydiazine" title="Sulfametoxydiazine">Sulfametoxydiazine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfamethoxypyridazine" title="Sulfamethoxypyridazine">Sulfamethoxypyridazine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfaperin" title="Sulfaperin">Sulfaperin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfamerazine" title="Sulfamerazine">Sulfamerazine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfaphenazole" title="Sulfaphenazole">Sulfaphenazole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfamazone" title="Sulfamazone">Sulfamazone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other/ungrouped</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mafenide" title="Mafenide">Mafenide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfacetamide" title="Sulfacetamide">Sulfacetamide</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sulfaclozine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sulfaclozine (page does not exist)">Sulfaclozine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfadicramide" title="Sulfadicramide">Sulfadicramide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfaguanidine" title="Sulfaguanidine">Sulfaguanidine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfametrole" title="Sulfametrole">Sulfametrole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfanitran" title="Sulfanitran">Sulfanitran</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Combinations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole" title="Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole">Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfadimethoxine#with_ormetoprim" title="Sulfadimethoxine">Ormetoprim/sulfadimethoxine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pyrimethamine/dapsone&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pyrimethamine/dapsone (page does not exist)">Pyrimethamine/dapsone</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pyrimethamine/sulfadoxine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pyrimethamine/sulfadoxine (page does not exist)">Pyrimethamine/sulfadoxine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other DHPS inhibitors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acediasulfone" title="Acediasulfone">Acediasulfone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dapsone" title="Dapsone">Dapsone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solasulfone" title="Solasulfone">Solasulfone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfoxone" title="Sulfoxone">Sulfoxone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Quinolones</a> (inhibit bacterial <a href="/wiki/Topoisomerase_inhibitor" title="Topoisomerase inhibitor">topoisomerase</a> and/or <a href="/wiki/DNA_gyrase" title="DNA gyrase">DNA gyrase</a>, thereby inhibiting <a href="/wiki/DNA_replication" title="DNA replication">DNA replication</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#First_generation">1st generation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cinoxacin" title="Cinoxacin">Cinoxacin</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flumequine" title="Flumequine">Flumequine</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nalidixic_acid" title="Nalidixic acid">Nalidixic acid</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxolinic_acid" title="Oxolinic acid">Oxolinic acid</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pipemidic_acid" title="Pipemidic acid">Pipemidic acid</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piromidic_acid" title="Piromidic acid">Piromidic acid</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosoxacin" title="Rosoxacin">Rosoxacin</a>‡</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Fluoroquinolones</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Second_generation">2nd generation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ciprofloxacin" title="Ciprofloxacin">Ciprofloxacin</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ofloxacin" title="Ofloxacin">Ofloxacin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enoxacin" title="Enoxacin">Enoxacin</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fleroxacin" title="Fleroxacin">Fleroxacin</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lomefloxacin" title="Lomefloxacin">Lomefloxacin</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadifloxacin" title="Nadifloxacin">Nadifloxacin</a>‡/<a href="/wiki/Levonadifloxacin" title="Levonadifloxacin">Levonadifloxacin</a>/<a href="/wiki/Alalevonadifloxacin" title="Alalevonadifloxacin">Alalevonadifloxacin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norfloxacin" title="Norfloxacin">Norfloxacin</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pefloxacin" title="Pefloxacin">Pefloxacin</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rufloxacin" title="Rufloxacin">Rufloxacin</a>‡</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Third_generation">3rd generation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Levofloxacin" title="Levofloxacin">Levofloxacin</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balofloxacin" title="Balofloxacin">Balofloxacin</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grepafloxacin" title="Grepafloxacin">Grepafloxacin</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pazufloxacin" title="Pazufloxacin">Pazufloxacin</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sparfloxacin" title="Sparfloxacin">Sparfloxacin</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temafloxacin" title="Temafloxacin">Temafloxacin</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tosufloxacin" title="Tosufloxacin">Tosufloxacin</a>‡</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Fourth_generation">4th generation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Besifloxacin" title="Besifloxacin">Besifloxacin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delafloxacin" title="Delafloxacin">Delafloxacin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gatifloxacin" title="Gatifloxacin">Gatifloxacin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finafloxacin" title="Finafloxacin">Finafloxacin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemifloxacin" title="Gemifloxacin">Gemifloxacin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moxifloxacin" title="Moxifloxacin">Moxifloxacin</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinafloxacin" title="Clinafloxacin">Clinafloxacin</a>†</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garenoxacin" title="Garenoxacin">Garenoxacin</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prulifloxacin" title="Prulifloxacin">Prulifloxacin</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sitafloxacin" title="Sitafloxacin">Sitafloxacin</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trovafloxacin" title="Trovafloxacin">Trovafloxacin</a>‡/<a href="/wiki/Alatrofloxacin" title="Alatrofloxacin">Alatrofloxacin</a>‡</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Veterinary_use">Veterinary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Danofloxacin" title="Danofloxacin">Danofloxacin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Difloxacin" title="Difloxacin">Difloxacin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrofloxacin" title="Enrofloxacin">Enrofloxacin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibafloxacin" title="Ibafloxacin">Ibafloxacin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marbofloxacin" title="Marbofloxacin">Marbofloxacin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbifloxacin" title="Orbifloxacin">Orbifloxacin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pradofloxacin" title="Pradofloxacin">Pradofloxacin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarafloxacin" title="Sarafloxacin">Sarafloxacin</a>‡</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Newer non-fluorinated</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nemonoxacin" title="Nemonoxacin">Nemonoxacin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozenoxacin" title="Ozenoxacin">Ozenoxacin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related (<a href="/wiki/DNA_gyrase" title="DNA gyrase">DG</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aminocoumarin" title="Aminocoumarin">Aminocoumarins</a>: <a href="/wiki/Novobiocin" title="Novobiocin">Novobiocin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anaerobic_organism" title="Anaerobic organism">Anaerobic</a> DNA <a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid_inhibitor#DNA_inhibitors" title="Nucleic acid inhibitor">inhibitors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Nitroimidazole_derivatives30" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nitroimidazole" title="Nitroimidazole">Nitroimidazole</a> derivatives</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Secnidazole" title="Secnidazole">Secnidazole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a> synthesis</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Rifamycin" title="Rifamycin">Rifamycins</a>/ <a href="/wiki/RNA-dependent_RNA_polymerase" title="RNA-dependent RNA polymerase">RNA polymerase</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rifampicin" title="Rifampicin">Rifampicin</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rifabutin" title="Rifabutin">Rifabutin</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rifapentine" title="Rifapentine">Rifapentine</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rifaximin" title="Rifaximin">Rifaximin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rifalazil" title="Rifalazil">Rifalazil</a>§</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lipiarmycin" class="mw-redirect" title="Lipiarmycin">Lipiarmycins</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fidaxomicin" title="Fidaxomicin">Fidaxomicin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="padding: 0px;"><div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li>#<a href="/wiki/WHO_Model_List_of_Essential_Medicines" title="WHO Model List of Essential Medicines">WHO-EM</a></li> <li>‡<a href="/wiki/List_of_withdrawn_drugs" title="List of withdrawn drugs">Withdrawn</a> from market</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_trial" title="Clinical trial">Clinical trials</a>: <ul><li>†<a href="/wiki/Phases_of_clinical_research#Phase_III" title="Phases of clinical research">Phase III</a></li> <li>§Never to phase III</li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox759" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist 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