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aria-controls="toc-Reception-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Reception subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Reception-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tycho_Brahe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tycho_Brahe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Tycho Brahe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tycho_Brahe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Johannes_Kepler" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Johannes_Kepler"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Johannes Kepler</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Johannes_Kepler-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Kepler's_laws_of_planetary_motion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kepler's_laws_of_planetary_motion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Kepler's laws of planetary motion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kepler's_laws_of_planetary_motion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Galileo_Galilei" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Galileo_Galilei"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Galileo Galilei</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Galileo_Galilei-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sphere_of_the_fixed_stars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sphere_of_the_fixed_stars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Sphere of the fixed stars</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sphere_of_the_fixed_stars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Isaac_Newton" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Isaac_Newton"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Isaac Newton</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Isaac_Newton-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Metaphorical_usage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metaphorical_usage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Metaphorical usage</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Metaphorical_usage-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Metaphorical usage subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Metaphorical_usage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Immanuel_Kant" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Immanuel_Kant"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Immanuel Kant</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Immanuel_Kant-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-After_Kant" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#After_Kant"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>After Kant</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-After_Kant-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Works cited</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Copernican Revolution</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 28 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-28" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">28 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koperniese_Rewolusie" title="Koperniese Rewolusie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Koperniese Rewolusie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AB%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D9%83%D9%88%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%83%D9%88%D8%B3" title="ثورة كوبرنيكوس – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ثورة كوبرنيكوس" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9A_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%B1" title="কপাৰনিকাচ বিপ্লৱ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="কপাৰনিকাচ বিপ্লৱ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revoluci%C3%B3_de_Cop%C3%A8rnic" title="Revolució de Copèrnic – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Revolució de Copèrnic" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kopern%C3%ADkovsk%C3%BD_obrat" title="Koperníkovský obrat – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Koperníkovský obrat" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kopernikanische_Wende" title="Kopernikanische Wende – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kopernikanische Wende" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%BF%CF%80%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BD%CE%AF%CE%BA%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%B1_%CE%B5%CF%80%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%AC%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%B7_(%CE%BC%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%86%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AC)" title="Κοπερνίκεια επανάσταση (μεταφορά) – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κοπερνίκεια επανάσταση (μεταφορά)" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revoluci%C3%B3n_de_Cop%C3%A9rnico" title="Revolución de Copérnico – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Revolución de Copérnico" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8_%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%BE%D8%B1%D9%86%DB%8C%DA%A9%DB%8C" title="انقلاب کوپرنیکی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="انقلاب کوپرنیکی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9volution_copernicienne" title="Révolution copernicienne – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Révolution copernicienne" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revoluci%C3%B3n_copernicana" title="Revolución copernicana – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Revolución copernicana" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%BD%94%ED%8E%98%EB%A5%B4%EB%8B%88%EC%BF%A0%EC%8A%A4_%ED%98%81%EB%AA%85" title="코페르니쿠스 혁명 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="코페르니쿠스 혁명" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolusi_Copernicus" title="Revolusi Copernicus – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Revolusi Copernicus" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rivoluzione_copernicana" title="Rivoluzione copernicana – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Rivoluzione copernicana" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%94%D7%A4%D7%9B%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%90%D7%99%D7%AA" title="המהפכה הקופרניקאית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="המהפכה הקופרניקאית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copernicaanse_revolutie" title="Copernicaanse revolutie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Copernicaanse revolutie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B3%E3%83%9A%E3%83%AB%E3%83%8B%E3%82%AF%E3%82%B9%E7%9A%84%E8%BB%A2%E5%9B%9E" title="コペルニクス的転回 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="コペルニクス的転回" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Przewr%C3%B3t_kopernika%C5%84ski" title="Przewrót kopernikański – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Przewrót kopernikański" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolu%C3%A7%C3%A3o_copernicana" title="Revolução copernicana – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Revolução copernicana" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolu%C8%9Bia_copernician%C4%83" title="Revoluția coperniciană – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Revoluția coperniciană" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Коперниковская революция – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Коперниковская революция" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolucioni_Kopernikan" title="Revolucioni Kopernikan – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Revolucioni Kopernikan" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kopernikanski_obrat" title="Kopernikanski obrat – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Kopernikanski obrat" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D1%82" title="Коперникански обрт – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Коперникански обрт" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kopernik_Devrimi" title="Kopernik Devrimi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kopernik Devrimi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Коперниківська революція – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Коперниківська революція" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A1ch_m%E1%BA%A1ng_Copernic" title="Cách mạng Copernic – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Cách mạng Copernic" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%93%A5%E7%99%BD%E5%B0%BC%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD" title="哥白尼革命 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="哥白尼革命" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1191320#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">16th to 17th century intellectual revolution</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/The_Copernican_Revolution_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="The Copernican Revolution (disambiguation)">The Copernican Revolution (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Apparent_retrograde_motion.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Apparent_retrograde_motion.gif/390px-Apparent_retrograde_motion.gif" decoding="async" width="390" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/Apparent_retrograde_motion.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="256" /></a><figcaption>Motion of <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a> (yellow), <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a> (blue), and <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a> (red). At left, Copernicus' <a href="/wiki/Heliocentrism" title="Heliocentrism">heliocentric</a> motion. At right, traditional <a href="/wiki/Geocentrism" class="mw-redirect" title="Geocentrism">geocentric</a> motion, including the <a href="/wiki/Apparent_retrograde_motion" title="Apparent retrograde motion">retrograde motion</a> of Mars.<br /> <small>For simplicity, Mars' period of revolution is depicted as 2 years instead of 1.88, and <a href="/wiki/Orbit" title="Orbit">orbits</a> are depicted as perfectly circular or <a href="/wiki/Epitrochoid" title="Epitrochoid">epitrochoid</a>.</small></figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>Copernican Revolution</b> was the <a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">paradigm shift</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic system">Ptolemaic model</a> of the heavens, which described the cosmos as having <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a> stationary at the center of the universe, to the <a href="/wiki/Heliocentric_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Heliocentric model">heliocentric model</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a> at the center of the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a>. This revolution consisted of two phases; the first being extremely mathematical in nature and the second phase starting in 1610 with the publication of a pamphlet by <a href="/wiki/Galileo" class="mw-redirect" title="Galileo">Galileo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Beginning with the 1543 publication of <a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus" title="Nicolaus Copernicus">Nicolaus Copernicus</a>’s <i><a href="/wiki/De_revolutionibus_orbium_coelestium" title="De revolutionibus orbium coelestium">De revolutionibus orbium coelestium</a></i>, contributions to the “revolution” continued until finally ending with <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>’s work over a century later. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Heliocentrism">Heliocentrism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copernican_Revolution&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Heliocentrism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Before_Copernicus">Before Copernicus</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copernican_Revolution&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Before Copernicus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Heliocentrism" title="Heliocentrism">Heliocentrism</a></div> <p>The "Copernican Revolution" is named for <a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus" title="Nicolaus Copernicus">Nicolaus Copernicus</a>, whose <i><a href="/wiki/Commentariolus" title="Commentariolus">Commentariolus</a></i>, written before 1514, was the first explicit presentation of the heliocentric model in Renaissance scholarship. The idea of heliocentrism is much older; it can be traced to <a href="/wiki/Aristarchus_of_Samos" title="Aristarchus of Samos">Aristarchus of Samos</a>, a Hellenistic author writing in the 3rd century BC, who may in turn have been drawing on even older concepts in <a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreanism</a>. Ancient heliocentrism was, however, eclipsed by the geocentric model presented by <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest">Almagest</a> and accepted in <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Martianus_Capella" title="Martianus Capella">Martianus Capella</a> (5th century CE) expressed the opinion that the planets Venus and Mercury did not go about the Earth but instead circled the Sun.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Capella's model was discussed in the <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a> by various anonymous 9th-century commentators<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Copernicus mentions him as an influence on his own work.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a> (420 CE) described a heliocentric model.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/John_Scotus_Eriugena" title="John Scotus Eriugena">John Scotus Eriugena</a>(815-877 CE) proposed a model reminiscent of that from Tycho Brahe.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>European scholars were well aware of the problems with Ptolemaic astronomy by the 13th century. The debate was precipitated by the <a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">reception</a> by <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a>' criticism of Ptolemy, and it was again revived by the recovery of Ptolemy's text and its translation into Latin in the mid-15th century.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Otto_E._Neugebauer" title="Otto E. Neugebauer">Otto E. Neugebauer</a> in 1957 argued that the debate in 15th-century Latin scholarship must also have been informed by the criticism of Ptolemy produced after Averroes, by the <a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanid</a>-era (13th to 14th centuries) Persian school of astronomy associated with the <a href="/wiki/Maragheh_observatory" title="Maragheh observatory">Maragheh observatory</a> (especially the works of <a href="/wiki/Al-Urdi" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Urdi">Al-Urdi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nasir_al-Din_al-Tusi" title="Nasir al-Din al-Tusi">Al-Tusi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Shatir" title="Ibn al-Shatir">Ibn al-Shatir</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The state of the question as received by Copernicus is summarized in the <i>Theoricae novae planetarum</i> by <a href="/wiki/Georg_von_Peuerbach" title="Georg von Peuerbach">Georg von Peuerbach</a>, compiled from lecture notes by Peuerbach's student <a href="/wiki/Regiomontanus" title="Regiomontanus">Regiomontanus</a> in 1454 but printed only in 1472. Peuerbach attempts to give a new, mathematically more elegant presentation of Ptolemy's system, but he does not arrive at heliocentrism. Regiomontanus himself was the teacher of <a href="/wiki/Domenico_Maria_Novara_da_Ferrara" title="Domenico Maria Novara da Ferrara">Domenico Maria Novara da Ferrara</a>, who was in turn the teacher of Copernicus. </p><p>There is a possibility that Regiomontanus already arrived at a theory of heliocentrism before his death in 1476, as he paid particular attention to the heliocentric theory of <a href="/wiki/Aristarchus_of_Samos" title="Aristarchus of Samos">Aristarchus</a> in a later work, and mentions the "motion of the Earth" in a letter.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nicolaus_Copernicus">Nicolaus Copernicus</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copernican_Revolution&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Nicolaus Copernicus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus" title="Nicolaus Copernicus">Nicolaus Copernicus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Copernican_heliocentrism" title="Copernican heliocentrism">Copernican heliocentrism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Copernicus%27s_heliocentric_model.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Copernicus%27s_heliocentric_model.jpg/220px-Copernicus%27s_heliocentric_model.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="313" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Copernicus%27s_heliocentric_model.jpg/330px-Copernicus%27s_heliocentric_model.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/Copernicus%27s_heliocentric_model.jpg 2x" data-file-width="352" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>Nicolaus Copernicus's heliocentric model</figcaption></figure> <p>Copernicus studied at <a href="/wiki/Bologna_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Bologna University">Bologna University</a> during 1496–1501, where he became the assistant of <a href="/wiki/Domenico_Maria_Novara_da_Ferrara" title="Domenico Maria Novara da Ferrara">Domenico Maria Novara da Ferrara</a>. He is known to have studied the <i>Epitome in Almagestum Ptolemei</i> by Peuerbach and Regiomontanus (printed in Venice in 1496) and to have performed observations of lunar motions on 9 March 1497. Copernicus went on to develop an explicitly heliocentric model of planetary motion, at first written in his short work <i><a href="/wiki/Commentariolus" title="Commentariolus">Commentariolus</a></i> some time before 1514, circulated in a limited number of copies among his acquaintances. He continued to refine his system until publishing his larger work, <i>De revolutionibus orbium coelestium</i> (1543), which contained detailed diagrams and tables.<sup id="cite_ref-Osler_Revolutions_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Osler_Revolutions-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Copernican model makes the claim of describing the physical reality of the cosmos, something which the Ptolemaic model was no longer believed to be able to provide. Copernicus removed Earth from the center of the universe, set the heavenly bodies in rotation around the Sun, and introduced Earth's daily rotation on its axis.<sup id="cite_ref-Osler_Revolutions_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Osler_Revolutions-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While Copernicus's work sparked the "Copernican Revolution", it did not mark its end. In fact, Copernicus's own system had multiple shortcomings that would have to be amended by later astronomers. </p><p>Copernicus did not only come up with a theory regarding the nature of the Sun in relation to the Earth, but thoroughly worked to debunk some of the minor details within the geocentric theory.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his article about heliocentrism as a model, author Owen Gingerich writes that in order to persuade people of the accuracy of his model, Copernicus created a mechanism in order to return the description of celestial motion to a “pure combination of circles.”<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Copernicus’s theories made a lot of people uncomfortable and somewhat upset. Even with the scrutiny that he faced regarding his conjecture that the universe was not centered around the Earth, he continued to gain support- other scientists and astrologists even posited that his system allowed a better understanding of astronomy concepts than did the geocentric theory. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reception">Reception</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copernican_Revolution&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Reception"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tycho_Brahe">Tycho Brahe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copernican_Revolution&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Tycho Brahe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tycho_Brahe" title="Tycho Brahe">Tycho Brahe</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tycho_Brahe%27s_Great_Comet_of_1577.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Tycho_Brahe%27s_Great_Comet_of_1577.jpg/220px-Tycho_Brahe%27s_Great_Comet_of_1577.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="288" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Tycho_Brahe%27s_Great_Comet_of_1577.jpg/330px-Tycho_Brahe%27s_Great_Comet_of_1577.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Tycho_Brahe%27s_Great_Comet_of_1577.jpg 2x" data-file-width="382" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>Tycho Brahe's geoheliocentric model</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Tycho_Brahe" title="Tycho Brahe">Tycho Brahe</a> (1546–1601) was a <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Danish</a> <a href="/wiki/Nobleman" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobleman">nobleman</a> who was well known as an astronomer in his time. Further advancement in the understanding of the cosmos would require new, more accurate observations than those that <a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus" title="Nicolaus Copernicus">Nicolaus Copernicus</a> relied on and Tycho made great strides in this area. Tycho formulated a geoheliocentrism, meaning the Sun moved around the Earth while the planets orbited the Sun, known as the <a href="/wiki/Tychonic_system" title="Tychonic system">Tychonic system</a>. Although Tycho appreciated the advantages of Copernicus's system, he like many others could not accept the movement of the Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-Osler_Tycho_Comet_53_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Osler_Tycho_Comet_53-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1572, Tycho Brahe observed a new star in the constellation <a href="/wiki/Cassiopeia_(constellation)" title="Cassiopeia (constellation)">Cassiopeia</a>. For eighteen months, it shone brightly in the sky with no visible <a href="/wiki/Stellar_parallax" title="Stellar parallax">parallax</a>, indicating it was part of the heavenly region of stars according to <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle's</a> model. However, according to that model, no change could take place in the heavens so Tycho's observation was a major discredit to Aristotle's theories. In 1577, Tycho observed a <a href="/wiki/Great_Comet_of_1577" title="Great Comet of 1577">great comet</a> in the sky. Based on his parallax observations, the comet passed through the region of the <a href="/wiki/Planet" title="Planet">planets</a>. According to Aristotelian theory, only uniform circular motion on solid spheres existed in this region, making it impossible for a comet to enter this region. Tycho concluded there were no such spheres, raising the question of what kept a planet in <a href="/wiki/Orbit" title="Orbit">orbit</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Osler_Tycho_Comet_53_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Osler_Tycho_Comet_53-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With the <a href="/wiki/Patronage" title="Patronage">patronage</a> of the King of Denmark, Tycho Brahe established <a href="/wiki/Uraniborg" title="Uraniborg">Uraniborg</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Observatory" title="Observatory">observatory</a> in Hven.<sup id="cite_ref-Oconnor_Tycho_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oconnor_Tycho-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For 20 years, Tycho and his team of astronomers compiled astronomical observations that were vastly more accurate than those made before. These observations would prove vital in future astronomical breakthroughs. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Johannes_Kepler">Johannes Kepler</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copernican_Revolution&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Johannes Kepler"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Johannes Kepler</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kepler-solar-system-1.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Kepler-solar-system-1.png/220px-Kepler-solar-system-1.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Kepler-solar-system-1.png/330px-Kepler-solar-system-1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Kepler-solar-system-1.png/440px-Kepler-solar-system-1.png 2x" data-file-width="704" data-file-height="774" /></a><figcaption>Kepler's <a href="/wiki/Platonic_solid" title="Platonic solid">Platonic solid</a> model of the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a> from <i>Mysterium Cosmographicum</i></figcaption></figure> <p>Kepler found employment as an assistant to Tycho Brahe and, upon Brahe's unexpected death, replaced him as imperial mathematician of <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Rudolph_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor Rudolph II">Emperor Rudolph II</a>. He was then able to use Brahe's extensive observations to make remarkable breakthroughs in astronomy, such as the <a href="/wiki/Kepler%27s_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Kepler's laws">three laws of planetary motion</a>. Kepler would not have been able to produce his laws without the observations of Tycho, because they allowed Kepler to prove that planets traveled in ellipses, and that the Sun does not sit directly in the center of an orbit but at a focus. <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a> came after Kepler and developed his own <a href="/wiki/Telescope" title="Telescope">telescope</a> with enough magnification to allow him to study <a href="/wiki/Venus" title="Venus">Venus</a> and discover that it has <a href="/wiki/Lunar_phase" title="Lunar phase">phases</a> like a moon. The discovery of the phases of Venus was one of the more influential reasons for the transition from <a href="/wiki/Geocentrism" class="mw-redirect" title="Geocentrism">geocentrism</a> to <a href="/wiki/Heliocentrism" title="Heliocentrism">heliocentrism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Thoren_Copernican_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thoren_Copernican-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sir Isaac Newton's <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica" title="Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica">Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica</a></i> concluded the Copernican Revolution. The development of his laws of planetary motion and <a href="/wiki/Universal_gravitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Universal gravitation">universal gravitation</a> explained the presumed motion related to the heavens by asserting a gravitational force of attraction between two objects.<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen_1999_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen_1999-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1596, Kepler published his first book, the <i><a href="/wiki/Mysterium_Cosmographicum" title="Mysterium Cosmographicum">Mysterium Cosmographicum</a></i>, which was the second (after <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Digges" title="Thomas Digges">Thomas Digges</a>, in 1576) to endorse Copernican cosmology by an astronomer since 1540.<sup id="cite_ref-Osler_Tycho_Comet_53_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Osler_Tycho_Comet_53-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The book described his model that used <a href="/wiki/Pythagorean_mathematics" class="mw-redirect" title="Pythagorean mathematics">Pythagorean mathematics</a> and the five <a href="/wiki/Platonic_solids" class="mw-redirect" title="Platonic solids">Platonic solids</a> to explain the number of planets, their proportions, and their order. The book garnered enough respect from Tycho Brahe to invite Kepler to <a href="/wiki/Prague" title="Prague">Prague</a> and serve as his assistant. </p><p>In 1600, Kepler set to work on the orbit of <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a>, the second most eccentric of the six planets known at that time. This work was the basis of his next book, the <i><a href="/wiki/Astronomia_nova" title="Astronomia nova">Astronomia nova</a></i>, which he published in 1609. The book argued heliocentrism and ellipses for planetary orbits instead of circles modified by epicycles. This book contains the first two of his eponymous three laws of planetary motion. In 1619, Kepler published his third and final law which showed the relationship between two planets instead of single planet movement.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Kepler's work in astronomy was new in part. Unlike those who came before him, he discarded the assumption that planets moved in a uniform circular motion, replacing it with <a href="/wiki/Elliptic_orbit" title="Elliptic orbit">elliptical motion</a>. Also, like Copernicus, he asserted the physical reality of a heliocentric model as opposed to a geocentric one. Yet, despite all of his breakthroughs, Kepler could not explain the physics that would keep a planet in its elliptical orbit. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Kepler's_laws_of_planetary_motion"><span id="Kepler.27s_laws_of_planetary_motion"></span>Kepler's laws of planetary motion</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copernican_Revolution&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Kepler's laws of planetary motion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kepler%27s_laws_of_planetary_motion" title="Kepler's laws of planetary motion">Kepler's laws of planetary motion</a></div> <dl><dd>1. The Law of Ellipses: All planets move in elliptical orbits, with the Sun at one focus.</dd> <dd>2. The Law of Equal Areas in Equal Time: A line that connects a planet to the Sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times.</dd> <dd>3. The Law of Harmony: The time required for a planet to orbit the Sun, called its period, is proportional to long axis of the ellipse raised to the 3/2 power. The constant of proportionality is the same for all the planets.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Galileo_Galilei">Galileo Galilei</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copernican_Revolution&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Galileo Galilei"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:408px;max-width:408px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Phases-of-Venus2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c2/Phases-of-Venus2.svg/200px-Phases-of-Venus2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c2/Phases-of-Venus2.svg/300px-Phases-of-Venus2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c2/Phases-of-Venus2.svg/400px-Phases-of-Venus2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="750" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Phases-of-Venus-Geocentric.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Phases-of-Venus-Geocentric.svg/200px-Phases-of-Venus-Geocentric.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Phases-of-Venus-Geocentric.svg/300px-Phases-of-Venus-Geocentric.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Phases-of-Venus-Geocentric.svg/400px-Phases-of-Venus-Geocentric.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="750" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">In 1610 <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a> observed with his telescope that <a href="/wiki/Phases_of_Venus" title="Phases of Venus">Venus showed phases</a>, despite remaining near the Sun in Earth's sky (first image). This proved that it orbits the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a> and not <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>, as predicted by <a href="/wiki/Copernicus" class="mw-redirect" title="Copernicus">Copernicus</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Heliocentric_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Heliocentric model">heliocentric model</a> and disproved the then conventional <a href="/wiki/Geocentric_model" title="Geocentric model">geocentric model</a> (second image).</div></div></div></div> <p>Galileo Galilei was an Italian scientist who is sometimes referred to as the "father of modern <a href="/wiki/Observational_astronomy" title="Observational astronomy">observational astronomy</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-Singer_Galileo_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Singer_Galileo-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His improvements to the <a href="/wiki/Telescope" title="Telescope">telescope</a>, astronomical observations, and support for Copernicanism were all integral to the Copernican Revolution. </p><p>Based on the designs of <a href="/wiki/Hans_Lippershey" class="mw-redirect" title="Hans Lippershey">Hans Lippershey</a>, Galileo designed his own telescope which, in the following year, he had improved to 30x magnification.<sup id="cite_ref-Drake_Mag_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drake_Mag-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Using this new instrument, Galileo made a number of astronomical observations which he published in the <i><a href="/wiki/Sidereus_Nuncius" title="Sidereus Nuncius">Sidereus Nuncius</a></i> in 1610. In this book, he described the surface of the <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a> as rough, uneven, and imperfect. He also noted that "the boundary dividing the bright from the dark part does not form a uniformly oval line, as would happen in a perfectly spherical solid, but is marked by an uneven, rough, and very sinuous line, as the figure shows."<sup id="cite_ref-Galileo_Sidereus_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Galileo_Sidereus-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These observations challenged Aristotle's claim that the Moon was a perfect sphere and the larger idea that the heavens were perfect and unchanging. </p><p>Galileo's next astronomical discovery would prove to be a surprising one. While observing <a href="/wiki/Jupiter" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</a> over the course of several days, he noticed four stars close to Jupiter whose positions were changing in a way that would be impossible if they were fixed stars. After much observation, he concluded these four stars were orbiting the planet Jupiter and were in fact moons, not stars.<sup id="cite_ref-Drake_Jupiter_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drake_Jupiter-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was a radical discovery because, according to Aristotelian cosmology, all heavenly bodies revolve around the Earth and a planet with moons obviously contradicted that popular belief.<sup id="cite_ref-Drake_Contradiction_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drake_Contradiction-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While contradicting Aristotelian belief, it supported Copernican cosmology which stated that Earth is a planet like all others.<sup id="cite_ref-Osler_Copernican_63_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Osler_Copernican_63-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1610, Galileo observed that Venus had a full set of phases, similar to the phases of the moon we can observe from Earth. This was explainable by the Copernican or Tychonic systems which said that all phases of Venus would be visible due to the nature of its orbit around the Sun, unlike the Ptolemaic system which stated only some of Venus's phases would be visible. Due to Galileo's observations of Venus, Ptolemy's system became highly suspect and the majority of leading astronomers subsequently converted to various heliocentric models, making his discovery one of the most influential in the transition from geocentrism to heliocentrism.<sup id="cite_ref-Thoren_Copernican_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thoren_Copernican-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sphere_of_the_fixed_stars">Sphere of the fixed stars</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copernican_Revolution&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Sphere of the fixed stars"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fixed_stars" title="Fixed stars">Fixed stars</a></div> <p>In the sixteenth century, a number of writers inspired by Copernicus, such as <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Digges" title="Thomas Digges">Thomas Digges</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Giordano_Bruno" title="Giordano Bruno">Giordano Bruno</a><sup id="cite_ref-thirddialogue_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thirddialogue-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/William_Gilbert_(astronomer)" class="mw-redirect" title="William Gilbert (astronomer)">William Gilbert</a><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> argued for an indefinitely extended or even infinite universe, with other stars as distant suns. This contrasts with the Aristotelian view of a <a href="/wiki/Fixed_stars" title="Fixed stars">sphere of the fixed stars</a>. Although opposed by Copernicus and (initially) Kepler, in 1610 Galileo made his telescopic observation of the faint strip of the <a href="/wiki/Milky_Way" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a>, which he found it resolves in innumerable white star-like spots, presumably farther stars themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the middle of the 17th century this new view became widely accepted, partly due to the support of <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Isaac_Newton">Isaac Newton</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copernican_Revolution&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Isaac Newton"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Newton%27s_Principia_title_page.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Newton%27s_Principia_title_page.png/220px-Newton%27s_Principia_title_page.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="305" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Newton%27s_Principia_title_page.png/330px-Newton%27s_Principia_title_page.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Newton%27s_Principia_title_page.png/440px-Newton%27s_Principia_title_page.png 2x" data-file-width="1930" data-file-height="2674" /></a><figcaption>Title page of Newton's 'Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica', first edition (1687)</figcaption></figure> <p>Newton was a well known English <a href="/wiki/Physicist" title="Physicist">physicist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mathematician" title="Mathematician">mathematician</a> who was known for his book <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica" title="Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica">Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Principia_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Principia-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was a main figure in the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a> for his <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_laws_of_motion" title="Newton's laws of motion">laws of motion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Universal_gravitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Universal gravitation">universal gravitation</a>. The laws of Newton are said to be the ending point of the Copernican Revolution.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (March 2017)">by whom?</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Newton used Kepler's laws of planetary motion to derive his law of universal gravitation. Newton's law of universal gravitation was the first law he developed and proposed in his book <i>Principia</i>. The law states that any two objects exert a <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitational force">gravitational force</a> of attraction on each other. The magnitude of the force is proportional to the product of the gravitational masses of the objects, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen_1999_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen_1999-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Along with Newton's law of universal gravitation, the <i>Principia</i> also presents his three laws of motion. These three laws explain inertia, acceleration, action and reaction when a net force is applied to an object. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Metaphorical_usage">Metaphorical usage</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copernican_Revolution&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Metaphorical usage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Immanuel_Kant">Immanuel Kant</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copernican_Revolution&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Immanuel Kant"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> in his <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i> (1787 edition) drew a parallel between the "Copernican revolution" and the <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a> of his new <a href="/wiki/Transcendental_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcendental philosophy">transcendental philosophy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kant's comparison is made in the Preface to the second edition of the <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i> (published in 1787; a heavy revision of the first edition of 1781). Kant argues that, just as Copernicus moved from the supposition of heavenly bodies revolving around a stationary spectator to a moving spectator, so metaphysics, "proceeding precisely on the lines of Copernicus' primary hypothesis", should move from assuming that "knowledge must conform to objects" to the supposition that "objects must conform to our [<i><a href="/wiki/A_priori_knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="A priori knowledge">a priori</a></i>] knowledge".<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Much has been said on what Kant meant by referring to his philosophy as "proceeding precisely on the lines of Copernicus' primary hypothesis". There has been a long-standing discussion on the appropriateness of Kant's analogy because, as most commentators see it, Kant inverted Copernicus' primary move.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Tom_Rockmore" title="Tom Rockmore">Tom Rockmore</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kant himself never used the "Copernican revolution" phrase about himself, though it was "routinely" applied to his work by others. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="After_Kant">After Kant</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copernican_Revolution&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: After Kant"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Copernican_principle" title="Copernican principle">Copernican principle</a></div> <p>Following Kant, the phrase "Copernican Revolution" in the 20th century came to be used for any (supposed) <a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">paradigm shift</a>, for example in reference to <a href="/wiki/Freudianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Freudianism">Freudian</a> <a href="/wiki/Psychoanalysis" title="Psychoanalysis">psychoanalysis</a><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">continental philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">analytic</a> <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_philosophy" title="Linguistic philosophy">linguistic philosophy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copernican_Revolution&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_in_the_Renaissance" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science in the Renaissance">History of science in the Renaissance</a></li> <li>Comparison between the systems of Ptolemy, Copernicus, Descartes and Tycho-Bahé,<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bibnum.obspm.fr/ark:/11287/XzL1V">[archives]</a> on the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bibnum.obspm.fr">Digital Library</a> of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/">Paris Observatory</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copernican_Revolution&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Averroes' criticism of Ptolemaic astronomy precipitated this debate in Europe. [...] The recovery of Ptolemy's texts and their translation from Greek into Latin in the middle of the fifteenth century stimulated further consideration of these issues."<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In an English translation: "Hitherto it has been assumed that all our knowledge must conform to objects. But all attempts to extend our knowledge of objects by establishing something in regard to them <i>a priori</i>, by means of concepts, have, on this assumption, ended in failure. We must therefore make trial whether we may not have more success in the tasks of metaphysics, if we suppose that objects must conform to our knowledge. This would agree better with what is desired, namely, that it should be possible to have knowledge of objects <i>a priori</i>, determining something in regard to them prior to their being given. We should then be proceeding precisely on the lines of Copernicus' primary hypothesis. Failing of satisfactory progress in explaining the movements of the heavenly bodies on the supposition that they all revolved round the spectator, he tried whether he might not have better success if he made the spectator to revolve and the stars to remain at rest. A similar experiment can be tried in metaphysics, as regards the <i>intuition</i> of objects."<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copernican_Revolution&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:0-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGillies2019" class="citation cs2">Gillies, Donald (2019-04-10), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332320835"><i>Why did the Copernican revolution take place in Europe rather than China?</i></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-12-03</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Why+did+the+Copernican+revolution+take+place+in+Europe+rather+than+China%3F&rft.date=2019-04-10&rft.aulast=Gillies&rft.aufirst=Donald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F332320835&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopernican+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/William_Harris_Stahl" title="William Harris Stahl"> William Stahl</a>, trans., <i>Martianus Capella and the Seven Liberal Arts</i>, vol. 2, <i>The Marriage of Philology and Mercury</i>, 854, 857, New York: Columbia Univ. Pr, 1977, pp. 332–333</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEastwood2007" class="citation cs2">Eastwood, Bruce S. (2007), <i>Ordering the Heavens: Roman Astronomy and Cosmology in the Carolingian Renaissance</i>, Leiden: Brill, pp. 244–259, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16186-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16186-3"><bdi>978-90-04-16186-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ordering+the+Heavens%3A+Roman+Astronomy+and+Cosmology+in+the+Carolingian+Renaissance&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=244-259&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-90-04-16186-3&rft.aulast=Eastwood&rft.aufirst=Bruce+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopernican+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEastwood1982" class="citation cs2">Eastwood, Bruce S. (1982), "Kepler as Historian of Science: Precursors of Copernican Heliocentrism according to <i>De revolutionibus</i> I, 10", <i>Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society</i>, <b>126</b>: 367–394.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+American+Philosophical+Society&rft.atitle=Kepler+as+Historian+of+Science%3A+Precursors+of+Copernican+Heliocentrism+according+to+De+revolutionibus+I%2C+10&rft.volume=126&rft.pages=367-394&rft.date=1982&rft.aulast=Eastwood&rft.aufirst=Bruce+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopernican+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarman2017" class="citation journal cs1">Carman, Christián C. (2017-12-23). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00407-017-0198-3">"The first Copernican was Copernicus: the difference between Pre-Copernican and Copernican heliocentrism"</a>. <i>Archive for History of Exact Sciences</i>. <b>72</b> (1): 1–20. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00407-017-0198-3">10.1007/s00407-017-0198-3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-9519">0003-9519</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archive+for+History+of+Exact+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+first+Copernican+was+Copernicus%3A+the+difference+between+Pre-Copernican+and+Copernican+heliocentrism&rft.volume=72&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-20&rft.date=2017-12-23&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00407-017-0198-3&rft.issn=0003-9519&rft.aulast=Carman&rft.aufirst=Christi%C3%A1n+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1007%2Fs00407-017-0198-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopernican+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Osler (2010), p. 42</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">George Saliba (1979). "The First Non-Ptolemaic Astronomy at the Maraghah School", Isis 70 (4), pp. 571–576.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Koestler" title="Arthur Koestler">Arthur Koestler</a>, <i>The Sleepwalkers</i>, Penguin Books, 1959, p. 212.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Osler_Revolutions-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Osler_Revolutions_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Osler_Revolutions_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Osler (2010), p. 44</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRushkin2015" class="citation journal cs1">Rushkin, Ilia (6 February 2015). "Optimizing the Ptolemaic Model of Planetary and Solar Motion". <i>History and Philosophy of Physics</i>. <b>1</b>: 1–13. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1502.01967">1502.01967</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015arXiv150201967R">2015arXiv150201967R</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+and+Philosophy+of+Physics&rft.atitle=Optimizing+the+Ptolemaic+Model+of+Planetary+and+Solar+Motion&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=1-13&rft.date=2015-02-06&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1502.01967&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015arXiv150201967R&rft.aulast=Rushkin&rft.aufirst=Ilia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopernican+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGingerich1973" class="citation journal cs1">Gingerich, Owen (1973). "From Copernicus to Kepler: Heliocentrism as Model and as Reality". <i>Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society</i>. <b>117</b> (6): 513–522. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1973PAPhS.117..513G">1973PAPhS.117..513G</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-049X">0003-049X</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/986462">986462</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+American+Philosophical+Society&rft.atitle=From+Copernicus+to+Kepler%3A+Heliocentrism+as+Model+and+as+Reality&rft.volume=117&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=513-522&rft.date=1973&rft.issn=0003-049X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F986462%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1973PAPhS.117..513G&rft.aulast=Gingerich&rft.aufirst=Owen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopernican+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Osler_Tycho_Comet_53-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Osler_Tycho_Comet_53_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Osler_Tycho_Comet_53_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Osler_Tycho_Comet_53_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Osler (2010), p. 53</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oconnor_Tycho-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Oconnor_Tycho_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J J O'Connor and E F Robertson. Tycho Brahe biography. April 2003. Retrieved 2008-09-28</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thoren_Copernican-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Thoren_Copernican_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Thoren_Copernican_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Thoren (1989), p. 8</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cohen_1999-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen_1999_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen_1999_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewton1999" class="citation book cs1">Newton, Isaac (1999). <i>The Principia: Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy</i>. Translated by I. Bernard Cohen; Anne Whitman; Julia Budenz. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-08817-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-08817-4"><bdi>0-520-08817-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Principia%3A+Mathematical+Principles+of+Natural+Philosophy&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-520-08817-4&rft.aulast=Newton&rft.aufirst=Isaac&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopernican+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Singer_Galileo-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Singer_Galileo_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Singer (1941), p. 217</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Drake_Mag-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Drake_Mag_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Drake (1990), pp. 133-134</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Galileo_Sidereus-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Galileo_Sidereus_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Galileo, Helden (1989), p. 40</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Drake_Jupiter-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Drake_Jupiter_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Drake (1978), p. 152</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Drake_Contradiction-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Drake_Contradiction_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Drake (1978), p. 157</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Osler_Copernican_63-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Osler_Copernican_63_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Osler (2010), p. 63</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHellyer2008" class="citation book cs1">Hellyer, Marcus, ed. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1VhC63yV-WgC&pg=PA63"><i>The Scientific Revolution: The Essential Readings</i></a>. Blackwell Essential Readings in History. Vol. 7. <a href="/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons" class="mw-redirect" title="John Wiley & Sons">John Wiley & Sons</a>. p. 63. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780470754771" title="Special:BookSources/9780470754771"><bdi>9780470754771</bdi></a>. <q>The Puritan Thomas Digges (1546–1595?) was the earliest Englishman to offer a defense of the Copernican theory. ... Accompanying Digges's account is a diagram of the universe portraying the heliocentric system surrounded by the orb of fixed stars, described by Digges as infinitely extended in all dimensions.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Scientific+Revolution%3A+The+Essential+Readings&rft.series=Blackwell+Essential+Readings+in+History&rft.pages=63&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780470754771&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1VhC63yV-WgC%26pg%3DPA63&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopernican+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-thirddialogue-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-thirddialogue_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBruno" class="citation book cs1">Bruno, Giordano. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120427091405/http://www.positiveatheism.org/hist/brunoiuw3.htm">"Third Dialogue"</a>. <i>On the infinite universe and worlds</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.positiveatheism.org/hist/brunoiuw3.htm">the original</a> on 27 April 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Third+Dialogue&rft.btitle=On+the+infinite+universe+and+worlds&rft.aulast=Bruno&rft.aufirst=Giordano&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.positiveatheism.org%2Fhist%2Fbrunoiuw3.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopernican+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGilbert1893" class="citation book cs1">Gilbert, William (1893). "Book 6, Chapter III". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/williamgilbertof00gilb"><i>De Magnete</i></a>. Translated by Mottelay, P. Fleury. (Facsimile). New York: Dover Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-26761-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-26761-X"><bdi>0-486-26761-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Book+6%2C+Chapter+III&rft.btitle=De+Magnete&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Dover+Publications&rft.date=1893&rft.isbn=0-486-26761-X&rft.aulast=Gilbert&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwilliamgilbertof00gilb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopernican+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Galileo Galilei, <i>Sidereus Nuncius</i> (Venice, (Italy): Thomas Baglioni, 1610), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/Sidereusnuncius00Gali#page/n37/mode/2up">pages 15 and 16.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160316173644/https://archive.org/stream/Sidereusnuncius00Gali">Archived</a> March 16, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a><br /> English translation: Galileo Galilei with Edward Stafford Carlos, trans., <i>The Sidereal Messenger</i> (London: Rivingtons, 1880), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/siderealmessenge80gali#page/42/mode/2up/">pages 42 and 43.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121202215542/https://archive.org/stream/siderealmessenge80gali">Archived</a> December 2, 2012, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Principia-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Principia_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See the <i>Principia</i> online at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/newtonspmathema00newtrich">Andrew Motte Translation</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ermanno Bencivenga (1987), <i>Kant's Copernican Revolution</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFImmanuel_Kant1929" class="citation book cs1">Immanuel Kant (1929) [1787]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090416033655/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk:80/~ppp/cpr/prefs.html">"Preface"</a>. <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i>. Translated by <a href="/wiki/Norman_Kemp_Smith" title="Norman Kemp Smith">Norman Kemp Smith</a>. Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4039-1194-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-4039-1194-0"><bdi>1-4039-1194-0</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/prefs.html">the original</a> on 2009-04-16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Preface&rft.btitle=Critique+of+Pure+Reason&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=1929&rft.isbn=1-4039-1194-0&rft.au=Immanuel+Kant&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hkbu.edu.hk%2F~ppp%2Fcpr%2Fprefs.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopernican+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For an overview see Engel, M., <i>Kant’s Copernican Analogy: A Re-examination</i>, Kant-Studien, 54, 1963, p. 243. According to <a href="/wiki/Victor_Cousin" title="Victor Cousin">Victor Cousin</a>: "Copernicus, seeing it was impossible to explain the motion of the heavenly bodies on the supposition that these bodies moved around the earth considered as an immovable centre, adopted the alternative, of supposing all to move round the sun. So Kant, instead of supposing man to move around objects, supposed on the contrary, that he himself was the centre, and that all moved round him." Cousin, Victor, <i>The Philosophy of Kant</i>. London: John Chapman, 1854, p. 21</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tom Rockmore, <i>Marx After Marxism: The Philosophy of Karl Marx</i> (2002), p. 184.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"By defining hysteria as an illness whose symptoms were produced by a person's unconscious ideas, Freud started what can be called a ‘Copernican Revolution’ in the understanding of mental illness — which put him into opposition both to the Parisian Charcot and to the German and Austrian scientific community." José Brunner, <i>Freud and the Politics of Psychoanalysis</i> (2001), p. 32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a href="/wiki/Jacques_Lacan" title="Jacques Lacan">Jacques Lacan</a>'s formulation that the unconscious, as it reveals itself in analytic phenomena, ‘is structured like a language’, can be seen as a Copernican revolution (of sorts), bringing together Freud and the insights of linguistic philosophers and theorists such as <a href="/wiki/Roman_Jakobson" title="Roman Jakobson">Roman Jakobson</a>." Ben Highmore, <i>Michel de Certeau: Analysing Culture</i> (2006), p. 64.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copernican_Revolution&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Works cited"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBala2006" class="citation book cs1">Bala, Arun (2006). <i>The Dialogue of Civilizations in the Birth of Modern Science</i>. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-60121-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-60121-5"><bdi>978-0-230-60121-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/191662056">191662056</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dialogue+of+Civilizations+in+the+Birth+of+Modern+Science&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F191662056&rft.isbn=978-0-230-60121-5&rft.aulast=Bala&rft.aufirst=Arun&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopernican+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Reference-Drake-1978" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stillman_Drake" title="Stillman Drake">Drake, Stillman</a> (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/galileoatwork00stil"><i>Galileo At Work</i></a>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-16226-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-16226-5"><bdi>0-226-16226-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Galileo+At+Work&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=0-226-16226-5&rft.aulast=Drake&rft.aufirst=Stillman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgalileoatwork00stil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopernican+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Reference-Drake-1990" class="citation book cs1">Drake, Stillman (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/galileo00stil_0"><i>Galileo: Pioneer Scientist</i></a>. Toronto: <a href="/wiki/The_University_of_Toronto_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="The University of Toronto Press">The University of Toronto Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8020-2725-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8020-2725-3"><bdi>0-8020-2725-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Galileo%3A+Pioneer+Scientist&rft.place=Toronto&rft.pub=The+University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-8020-2725-3&rft.aulast=Drake&rft.aufirst=Stillman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgalileo00stil_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopernican+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGalilei1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galilei, Galileo</a> (1989). <i>Sidereus Nuncius</i>. Albert Van Helden (trans.). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226279039" title="Special:BookSources/9780226279039"><bdi>9780226279039</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sidereus+Nuncius&rft.place=Chicago%2C+Illinois&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=9780226279039&rft.aulast=Galilei&rft.aufirst=Galileo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopernican+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Gillies, Donald. (2019). Why did the Copernican revolution take place in Europe rather than China?. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332320835_Why_did_the_Copernican_revolution_take_place_in_Europe_rather_than_China">https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332320835_Why_did_the_Copernican_revolution_take_place_in_Europe_rather_than_China</a></li> <li>Gingerich, Owen. "From Copernicus to Kepler: Heliocentrism as Model and as Reality". <i>Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society</i> 117, no. 6 (December 31, 1973): 513–22.</li> <li>Huff, Toby E. (2017). <i>The Rise of Early Modern Science</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781316417805" title="Special:BookSources/9781316417805">9781316417805</a>.</li> <li>Huff, Toby E. (Autumn–Winter 2002). "The Rise of Early Modern Science: A Reply to George Sabila". <i>Bulletin of the Royal Institute of Inter-Faith Studies (BRIIFS)</i>. <b>4, 2</b>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuhn1957" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Kuhn, Thomas S.</a> (1957). <a href="/wiki/The_Copernican_Revolution:_Planetary_Astronomy_in_the_Development_of_Western_Thought" class="mw-redirect" title="The Copernican Revolution: Planetary Astronomy in the Development of Western Thought"><i>The Copernican Revolution: Planetary Astronomy in the Development of Western Thought</i></a>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-17103-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-17103-9"><bdi>0-674-17103-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Copernican+Revolution%3A+Planetary+Astronomy+in+the+Development+of+Western+Thought&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1957&rft.isbn=0-674-17103-9&rft.aulast=Kuhn&rft.aufirst=Thomas+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopernican+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Kuhn, Thomas S. (1970). <i>The Structure of Scientific Revolutions</i>. Chicago: Chicago University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0226458032" title="Special:BookSources/0226458032">0226458032</a>.</li> <li>Kunitzch, Paul. "The Arabic Translations of Ptolemy's Almagest". Qatar Digital Library, July 31, 2018. https://www.qdl.qa/en/arabic-translations-ptolemys-almagest.</li> <li>Koyré, Alexandre (2008). <i>From the Closed World to the Infinite Universe</i>. Charleston, S.C.: Forgotten Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781606201435" title="Special:BookSources/9781606201435">9781606201435</a>.</li> <li>Lawson, Russell M. <i>Science in the Ancient World: An Encyclopedia</i>. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2004.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_Yifu_Lin" title="Justin Yifu Lin">Lin, Justin Y.</a> (1995). <i>The Needham Puzzle: Why the Industrial Revolution Did Not Originate in China.</i> <i>Economic Development and Cultural Change</i>, 43(2), 269–292. Retrieved from <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1154499">1154499</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C3%A9l%C3%A8ne_Metzger" title="Hélène Metzger">Metzger, Hélène</a> (1932). Histoire des sciences. <i>Revue Philosophique De La France Et De L'Étranger,</i> <i>114</i>, 143–155. 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Baltimore, Maryland: The Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 184. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-9656-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-9656-9"><bdi>978-0-8018-9656-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reconfiguring+the+World&rft.place=Baltimore%2C+Maryland&rft.pages=184&rft.pub=The+Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-9656-9&rft.aulast=Osler&rft.aufirst=Margaret&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopernican+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRedd2012" class="citation web cs1">Redd, Nola (May 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.space.com/15787-johannes-kepler.html">"Johannes Kepler Biography"</a>. Tech Media Network<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 23,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Johannes+Kepler+Biography&rft.pub=Tech+Media+Network&rft.date=2012-05&rft.aulast=Redd&rft.aufirst=Nola&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.space.com%2F15787-johannes-kepler.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopernican+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Rushkin, Ilia. "Optimizing the Ptolemaic Model of Planetary and Solar Motion". <i>History and Philosophy of Physics</i> 1 (February 6, 2015): 1–13.</li> <li>Saliba, George (1979). "The First Non-Ptolemaic Astronomy at the Maraghah School". <i>Isis</i>. <b>70</b> (4). <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> 0021-1753.</li> <li>Sabila, George (Autumn 1999). "Seeking the Origins of Modern Science?". <i>Bulletin of the Royal Institute for Inter-Faith Studies (BRIIFS)</i>. <b>1, 2</b>.</li> <li>Sabila, George (Autumn–Winter 2002). "Flying Goats and Other Obsessions: A Response to Toby Huff's "Reply"". <i>Bulletin of the Royal Institute for Inter-Faith Studies (BRIIFS)</i>. <b>4, 2</b>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSinger2007" class="citation book cs1">Singer, Charles (2007). <i>A Short History of Science to the Nineteenth Century</i>. Clarendon Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+Science+to+the+Nineteenth+Century&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Singer&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopernican+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Swetz, Frank J. "Mathematical Treasure: Ptolemy's Almagest". Mathematical Treasure: Ptolemy's Almagest | Mathematical Association of America, August 2013. https://www.maa.org/press/periodicals/convergence/mathematical-treasure-ptolemy-s-almagest.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Reference-Thoren-1989" class="citation book cs1">Thoren, Victor E. (1989). <i>Tycho Brahe</i>. In <a href="#Reference-Taton&Wilson-1989">Taton and Wilson (1989, pp. 3–21)</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-35158-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-35158-8"><bdi>0-521-35158-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tycho+Brahe&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=0-521-35158-8&rft.aulast=Thoren&rft.aufirst=Victor+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopernican+Revolution" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copernican_Revolution&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/16px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/24px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/32px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> The dictionary definition of <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Copernican_Revolution" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Copernican Revolution"><i>Copernican Revolution</i></a> at Wiktionary</li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Copernican_Revolution" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Copernican Revolution">Copernican Revolution</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UJ9SuchDuJc"><span class="plainlinks">The Heliocentric Model and Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion</span></a> on <a href="/wiki/YouTube_video_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="YouTube video (identifier)">YouTube</a> - The development of the Heliocentric model with the contributions of Nicolaus Copernicus, Giordano Bruno, Tycho Brahe, Galileo Galilei and Johannes Kepler</li></ul> 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class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scientific career</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Copernican_heliocentrism" title="Copernican heliocentrism">Copernican heliocentrism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Copernican Revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Commentariolus" title="Commentariolus">Commentariolus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_revolutionibus_orbium_coelestium" title="De revolutionibus orbium coelestium">De revolutionibus orbium coelestium</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Locationes_mansorum_desertorum" title="Locationes mansorum desertorum">Locationes mansorum desertorum</a></i></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Monetae_cudendae_ratio" title="Monetae cudendae ratio">Monetae cudendae ratio</a>"</li> <li>Translations of <a href="/wiki/Theophylact_Simocatta" title="Theophylact Simocatta">Theophylact Simocatta</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lucas_Watzenrode_the_Elder" title="Lucas Watzenrode the Elder">Lucas Watzenrode the Elder</a> (grandfather)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucas_Watzenrode" title="Lucas Watzenrode">Lucas Watzenrode</a> (uncle)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus_Gesamtausgabe" title="Nicolaus Copernicus Gesamtausgabe">Nicolaus Copernicus Gesamtausgabe</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gresham%27s_law" title="Gresham's law">Copernicus law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copernican_principle" title="Copernican principle">Copernican principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archcathedral_Basilica_of_the_Assumption_of_the_Blessed_Virgin_Mary_and_St._Andrew,_Frombork" title="Archcathedral Basilica of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary and St. Andrew, Frombork">Frombork Cathedral</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Astronomer_Copernicus,_or_Conversations_with_God" title="Astronomer Copernicus, or Conversations with God">Astronomer Copernicus, or Conversations with God</a></i></li> <li>Monuments <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus_Monument_(Chicago)" title="Nicolaus Copernicus Monument (Chicago)">Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomers_Monument" title="Astronomers Monument">Los Angeles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus_Monument,_Montreal" title="Nicolaus Copernicus Monument, Montreal">Montreal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus_Monument,_Toru%C5%84" title="Nicolaus Copernicus Monument, Toruń">Toruń</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus_Monument,_Krak%C3%B3w" title="Nicolaus Copernicus Monument, Kraków">Kraków</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus_Monument,_Warsaw" title="Nicolaus Copernicus Monument, Warsaw">Warsaw</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copernicium" title="Copernicium">Copernicium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copernicus_(lunar_crater)" title="Copernicus (lunar crater)">Copernicus (lunar crater)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copernicus_(Martian_crater)" title="Copernicus (Martian crater)">Copernicus (Martian crater)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Sir_Isaac_Newton" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Isaac_Newton" title="Template:Isaac Newton"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Isaac_Newton" title="Template talk:Isaac Newton"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Isaac_Newton" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Isaac Newton"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Sir_Isaac_Newton" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Sir Isaac Newton</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;vertical-align:top;">Publications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Method_of_Fluxions" title="Method of Fluxions">Fluxions</a></i> (1671)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_motu_corporum_in_gyrum" title="De motu corporum in gyrum">De Motu</a></i> (1684)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica" title="Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica">Principia</a></i> (1687)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Opticks" title="Opticks">Opticks</a></i> (1704)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Queries" class="mw-redirect" title="The Queries">Queries</a></i> (1704)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Arithmetica_Universalis" title="Arithmetica Universalis">Arithmetica</a></i> (1707)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_analysi_per_aequationes_numero_terminorum_infinitas" title="De analysi per aequationes numero terminorum infinitas">De Analysi</a></i> (1711)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;vertical-align:top;">Other writings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Quaestiones_quaedam_philosophicae" title="Quaestiones quaedam philosophicae">Quaestiones</a></i> (1661–1665)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Standing_on_the_shoulders_of_giants" title="Standing on the shoulders of giants">standing on the shoulders of giants</a>" (1675)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Notes_on_the_Jewish_Temple" title="Notes on the Jewish Temple">Notes on the Jewish Temple</a></i> (c. 1680)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/General_Scholium" title="General Scholium">General Scholium</a>" (1713; <i>"<a href="/wiki/Hypotheses_non_fingo" title="Hypotheses non fingo">hypotheses non fingo</a>"</i> )</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Chronology_of_Ancient_Kingdoms_Amended" title="The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended">Ancient Kingdoms Amended</a></i> (1728)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/An_Historical_Account_of_Two_Notable_Corruptions_of_Scripture" title="An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture">Corruptions of Scripture</a></i> (1754)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;vertical-align:top;">Contributions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calculus" title="Calculus">Calculus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fluxion" title="Fluxion">fluxion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_depth" title="Impact depth">Impact depth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inertia" title="Inertia">Inertia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton_disc" title="Newton disc">Newton disc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton_polygon" title="Newton polygon">Newton polygon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Newton%E2%80%93Okounkov_body" title="Newton–Okounkov body">Newton–Okounkov body</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_reflector" title="Newton's reflector">Newton's reflector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtonian_telescope" title="Newtonian telescope">Newtonian telescope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton_scale" title="Newton scale">Newton scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_metal" title="Newton's metal">Newton's metal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectrum" title="Spectrum">Spectrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_coloration" title="Structural coloration">Structural coloration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Newtonianism" title="Newtonianism">Newtonianism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bucket_argument" title="Bucket argument">Bucket argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_inequalities" title="Newton's inequalities">Newton's inequalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_cooling" title="Newton's law of cooling">Newton's law of cooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_universal_gravitation" title="Newton's law of universal gravitation">Newton's law of universal gravitation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post-Newtonian_expansion" title="Post-Newtonian expansion">post-Newtonian expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parameterized_post-Newtonian_formalism" title="Parameterized post-Newtonian formalism">parameterized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_constant" title="Gravitational constant">gravitational constant</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton%E2%80%93Cartan_theory" title="Newton–Cartan theory">Newton–Cartan theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schr%C3%B6dinger%E2%80%93Newton_equation" title="Schrödinger–Newton equation">Schrödinger–Newton equation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_laws_of_motion" title="Newton's laws of motion">Newton's laws of motion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kepler%27s_laws_of_planetary_motion" title="Kepler's laws of planetary motion">Kepler's laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtonian_dynamics" title="Newtonian dynamics">Newtonian dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_method_in_optimization" title="Newton's method in optimization">Newton's method in optimization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_Apollonius" title="Problem of Apollonius">Apollonius's problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truncated_Newton_method" title="Truncated Newton method">truncated Newton method</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gauss%E2%80%93Newton_algorithm" title="Gauss–Newton algorithm">Gauss–Newton algorithm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_rings" title="Newton's rings">Newton's rings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_theorem_about_ovals" title="Newton's theorem about ovals">Newton's theorem about ovals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton%E2%80%93Pepys_problem" title="Newton–Pepys problem">Newton–Pepys problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtonian_potential" title="Newtonian potential">Newtonian potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtonian_fluid" title="Newtonian fluid">Newtonian fluid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics" title="Classical mechanics">Classical mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corpuscular_theory_of_light" title="Corpuscular theory of light">Corpuscular theory of light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leibniz%E2%80%93Newton_calculus_controversy" title="Leibniz–Newton calculus controversy">Leibniz–Newton calculus controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_notation" class="mw-redirect" title="Newton's notation">Newton's notation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotating_spheres" title="Rotating spheres">Rotating spheres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_cannonball" title="Newton's cannonball">Newton's cannonball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton%E2%80%93Cotes_formulas" title="Newton–Cotes formulas">Newton–Cotes formulas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_method" title="Newton's method">Newton's method</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Generalized_Gauss%E2%80%93Newton_method" title="Generalized Gauss–Newton method">generalized Gauss–Newton method</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton_fractal" title="Newton fractal">Newton fractal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_identities" title="Newton's identities">Newton's identities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton_polynomial" title="Newton polynomial">Newton polynomial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_theorem_of_revolving_orbits" title="Newton's theorem of revolving orbits">Newton's theorem of revolving orbits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton%E2%80%93Euler_equations" title="Newton–Euler equations">Newton–Euler equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_number" title="Power number">Newton number</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kissing_number" title="Kissing number">kissing number problem</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Difference_quotient" title="Difference quotient">Newton's quotient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallelogram_of_force" title="Parallelogram of force">Parallelogram of force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puiseux_series" title="Puiseux series">Newton–Puiseux theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_space_and_time#Newton" title="Absolute space and time">Absolute space and time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luminiferous_aether" title="Luminiferous aether">Luminiferous aether</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finite_difference" title="Finite difference">Newtonian series</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Table_of_Newtonian_series" title="Table of Newtonian series">table</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;vertical-align:top;">Personal life</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Woolsthorpe_Manor" title="Woolsthorpe Manor">Woolsthorpe Manor</a> (birthplace)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cranbury_Park" title="Cranbury Park">Cranbury Park</a> (home)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_life_of_Isaac_Newton" title="Early life of Isaac Newton">Early life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_life_of_Isaac_Newton" title="Later life of Isaac Newton">Later life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton%27s_apple_tree" title="Isaac Newton's apple tree">Apple tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_views_of_Isaac_Newton" title="Religious views of Isaac Newton">Religious views</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton%27s_occult_studies" title="Isaac Newton's occult studies">Occult studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Copernican Revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;vertical-align:top;">Relations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_Barton" title="Catherine Barton">Catherine Barton</a> (niece)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Conduitt" title="John Conduitt">John Conduitt</a> (nephew-in-law)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Barrow" title="Isaac Barrow">Isaac Barrow</a> (professor)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Clarke_(apothecary)" title="William Clarke (apothecary)">William Clarke</a> (mentor)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Pulleyn" title="Benjamin Pulleyn">Benjamin Pulleyn</a> (tutor)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Cotes" title="Roger Cotes">Roger Cotes</a> (student)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Whiston" title="William Whiston">William Whiston</a> (student)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Keill" title="John Keill">John Keill</a> (disciple)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Stukeley" title="William Stukeley">William Stukeley</a> (friend)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Jones_(mathematician)" title="William Jones (mathematician)">William Jones</a> (friend)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_de_Moivre" title="Abraham de Moivre">Abraham de Moivre</a> (friend)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton_in_popular_culture" title="Isaac Newton in popular culture">Depictions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Newton_(Blake)" title="Newton (Blake)"><i>Newton</i> by Blake</a> (monotype)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton_(Paolozzi)" title="Newton (Paolozzi)"><i>Newton</i> by Paolozzi</a> (sculpture)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton_Gargoyle" title="Isaac Newton Gargoyle">Isaac Newton Gargoyle</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Astronomers_Monument" title="Astronomers Monument">Astronomers Monument</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Isaac_Newton" title="List of things named after Isaac Newton">Namesake</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Newton_(unit)" title="Newton (unit)">Newton (unit)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_cradle" title="Newton's cradle">Newton's cradle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton_Institute" title="Isaac Newton Institute">Isaac Newton Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Physics_Isaac_Newton_Medal" class="mw-redirect" title="Institute of Physics Isaac Newton Medal">Isaac Newton Medal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton_Telescope" title="Isaac Newton Telescope">Isaac Newton Telescope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton_Group_of_Telescopes" title="Isaac Newton Group of Telescopes">Isaac Newton Group of Telescopes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XMM-Newton" title="XMM-Newton">XMM-Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sir_Isaac_Newton_Sixth_Form" title="Sir Isaac Newton Sixth Form">Sir Isaac Newton Sixth Form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statal_Institute_of_Higher_Education_Isaac_Newton" title="Statal Institute of Higher Education Isaac Newton">Statal Institute of Higher Education Isaac Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton_International_Fellowship" title="Newton International Fellowship">Newton International Fellowship</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;vertical-align:top;">Categories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="div-col"> <div class="CategoryTreeTag" data-ct-options="{"mode":20,"hideprefix":20,"showcount":false,"namespaces":false,"notranslations":false}"><div class="CategoryTreeSection"><div class="CategoryTreeItem"><span class="CategoryTreeBullet"><a class="CategoryTreeToggle" data-ct-title="Isaac_Newton" aria-expanded="false"></a> </span> <bdi dir="ltr"><a href="/wiki/Category:Isaac_Newton" title="Category:Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></bdi></div><div class="CategoryTreeChildren" style="display:none"></div></div></div> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_physics_(timeline)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_physics" title="Template:History of physics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_physics" title="Template talk:History of physics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_physics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of physics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_physics_(timeline)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_physics" title="History of physics">History of physics</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries" title="Timeline of fundamental physics discoveries">timeline</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_physics" title="Classical physics">Classical physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_astronomy" title="History of astronomy">Astronomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_astronomy" title="Timeline of astronomy">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_electromagnetic_theory" title="History of electromagnetic theory">Electromagnetism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics" title="Timeline of electromagnetism and classical optics">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_electrical_engineering" title="History of electrical engineering">Electrical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maxwell%27s_equations" title="History of Maxwell's equations">Maxwell's equations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_fluid_mechanics" title="History of fluid mechanics">Fluid mechanics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_fluid_and_continuum_mechanics" title="Timeline of fluid and continuum mechanics">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_aerodynamics" title="History of aerodynamics">Aerodynamics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_classical_field_theory" title="History of classical field theory">Field theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_gravitational_theory" title="History of gravitational theory">Gravitational theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_gravitational_physics_and_relativity" title="Timeline of gravitational physics and relativity">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_materials_science" title="History of materials science">Material science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_materials_technology" title="Timeline of materials technology">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_metamaterials" title="History of metamaterials">Metamaterials</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_classical_mechanics" title="History of classical mechanics">Mechanics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_classical_mechanics" title="Timeline of classical mechanics">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_variational_principles_in_physics" title="History of variational principles in physics">Variational principles</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_optics" title="History of optics">Optics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_spectroscopy" title="History of spectroscopy">Spectroscopy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_thermodynamics" title="History of thermodynamics">Thermodynamics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_thermodynamics" title="Timeline of thermodynamics">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_energy" title="History of energy">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_entropy" title="History of entropy">Entropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_perpetual_motion_machines" title="History of perpetual motion machines">Perpetual motion</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_physics" title="Modern physics">Modern physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Computational physics <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_computational_physics" title="Timeline of computational physics">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li>Condensed matter <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_condensed_matter_physics" title="Timeline of condensed matter physics">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_superconductivity" title="History of superconductivity">Superconductivity</a></li></ul></li> <li>Cosmology <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories" title="Timeline of cosmological theories">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Big_Bang_theory" title="History of the Big Bang theory">Big Bang theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_general_relativity" title="History of general relativity">General relativity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tests_of_general_relativity" title="Tests of general relativity">tests</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_geophysics" title="History of geophysics">Geophysics</a></li> <li>Nuclear physics <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_nuclear_fission" title="Discovery of nuclear fission">Fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_nuclear_fusion" title="History of nuclear fusion">Fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_nuclear_power" title="History of nuclear power">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_nuclear_weapons" title="History of nuclear weapons">Weapons</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_quantum_mechanics" title="History of quantum mechanics">Quantum mechanics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_quantum_mechanics" title="Timeline of quantum mechanics">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_atomic_theory" title="History of atomic theory">Atoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_theory" title="History of molecular theory">Molecules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_quantum_field_theory" title="History of quantum field theory">Quantum field theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_subatomic_physics" title="History of subatomic physics">Subatomic physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_atomic_and_subatomic_physics" title="Timeline of atomic and subatomic physics">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_special_relativity" title="History of special relativity">Special relativity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_special_relativity_and_the_speed_of_light" title="Timeline of special relativity and the speed of light">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lorentz_transformations" title="History of Lorentz transformations">Lorentz transformations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tests_of_special_relativity" title="Tests of special relativity">tests</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Recent developments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Quantum information <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_quantum_computing_and_communication" title="Timeline of quantum computing and communication">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_loop_quantum_gravity" title="History of loop quantum gravity">Loop quantum gravity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_nanotechnology" title="History of nanotechnology">Nanotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_string_theory" title="History of string theory">String theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">On specific discoveries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_cosmic_microwave_background_radiation" title="Discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation">Cosmic microwave background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_graphene" title="Discovery of graphene">Graphene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_observation_of_gravitational_waves" title="First observation of gravitational waves">Gravitational waves</a></li> <li>Subatomic particles <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_particle_discoveries" title="Timeline of particle discoveries">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Search_for_the_Higgs_boson" title="Search for the Higgs boson">Higgs boson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_the_neutron" title="Discovery of the neutron">Neutron</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%B8mer%27s_determination_of_the_speed_of_light" title="Rømer's determination of the speed of light">Speed of light</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By periods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Copernican Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_age_of_physics" title="Golden age of physics">Golden age of physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_age_of_cosmology" title="Golden age of cosmology">Golden age of cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Physics in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval Islamic world</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">Astronomy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noisy_intermediate-scale_quantum_era" title="Noisy intermediate-scale quantum era">Noisy intermediate-scale quantum era</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Computers" title="Harvard Computers">Harvard Computers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Martians_(scientists)" title="The Martians (scientists)">The Martians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxford_Calculators" title="Oxford Calculators">Oxford Calculators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Via_Panisperna_boys" title="Via Panisperna boys">Via Panisperna boys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_physics" title="Women in physics">Women in physics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scientific disputes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bohr%E2%80%93Einstein_debates" title="Bohr–Einstein debates">Bohr–Einstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chandrasekhar%E2%80%93Eddington_dispute" title="Chandrasekhar–Eddington dispute">Chandrasekhar–Eddington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_affair" title="Galileo affair">Galileo affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leibniz%E2%80%93Newton_calculus_controversy" title="Leibniz–Newton calculus controversy">Leibniz–Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_equivalent_of_heat" title="Mechanical equivalent of heat">Joule–von Mayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Debate_(astronomy)" title="Great Debate (astronomy)">Shapley–Curtis</a></li> <li>Relativity priority <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Relativity_priority_dispute" title="Relativity priority dispute">Special relativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_relativity_priority_dispute" title="General relativity priority dispute">General relativity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfermium_Wars" title="Transfermium Wars">Transfermium Wars</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, 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