70 years at the high-energy frontier with the CERN accelerator complex

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The ‘jewel in the crown’ of the complex is certainly the 27-km tunnel and its infrastructure, built approximately 100 m underground between the Jura mountains and Lake Geneva on the French–Swiss border. In that tunnel, two energy-frontier machines — the Large Electron–Positron Collider and the Large Hadron Collider — have, for the past 35 years, shaped the landscape of high-energy physics. The tunnel could also house future accelerator complexes that have the potential of further defining that landscape for decades to come.</p></div></div></section> <noscript> <div class="c-nature-box c-nature-box--side " data-component="entitlement-box"> <p class="c-nature-box__text js-text">You have full access to this article via your institution.</p> <div class="c-pdf-download u-clear-both js-pdf-download"> <a href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5.pdf" class="u-button u-button--full-width u-button--primary u-justify-content-space-between c-pdf-download__link" data-article-pdf="true" data-readcube-pdf-url="true" data-test="download-pdf" data-draft-ignore="true" data-track="content_download" data-track-type="article pdf download" data-track-action="download pdf" data-track-label="link" data-track-external download> <span class="c-pdf-download__text">Download PDF</span> <svg aria-hidden="true" focusable="false" width="16" height="16" class="u-icon"><use xlink:href="#icon-download"/></svg> </a> </div> </div> </noscript> <div class="js-context-bar-sticky-point-mobile" data-track-context="article body"> <div class="c-nature-box c-nature-box--side u-display-none u-hide-print" aria-hidden="true" data-component="entitlement-box" id=entitlement-box-entitled-mobile > <p class="c-nature-box__text js-text u-display-none" aria-hidden="true"></p> <div class="c-pdf-download u-clear-both js-pdf-download"> <a href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5.pdf" class="u-button u-button--full-width u-button--primary u-justify-content-space-between c-pdf-download__link" data-article-pdf="true" data-readcube-pdf-url="true" data-test="download-pdf" data-draft-ignore="true" data-track="content_download" data-track-type="article pdf download" data-track-action="download pdf" data-track-label="link" data-track-external download> <span class="c-pdf-download__text">Download PDF</span> <svg aria-hidden="true" focusable="false" width="16" height="16" class="u-icon"><use xlink:href="#icon-download"/></svg> </a> </div> </div> </div> <section aria-labelledby="inline-recommendations" data-title="Inline Recommendations" class="c-article-recommendations" data-track-component="inline-recommendations"> <h3 class="c-article-recommendations-title" id="inline-recommendations">Similar content being viewed by others</h3> <div class="c-article-recommendations-list"> <div class="c-article-recommendations-list__item"> <article class="c-article-recommendations-card" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ScholarlyArticle"> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__img"><img src="https://media.springernature.com/w215h120/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41567-020-0834-8/MediaObjects/41567_2020_834_Fig1_HTML.png" loading="lazy" alt=""></div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__main"> <h3 class="c-article-recommendations-card__heading" itemprop="name headline"> <a class="c-article-recommendations-card__link" itemprop="url" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41567-020-0834-8?fromPaywallRec=false" data-track="select_recommendations_1" data-track-context="inline recommendations" data-track-action="click recommendations inline - 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3" data-track-label="10.1038/s41567-020-0863-3">Particle physics at accelerators in the United States and Asia </a> </h3> <div class="c-article-meta-recommendations" data-test="recommendation-info"> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__item-type">Article</span> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__date">06 April 2020</span> </div> </div> </article> </div> </div> </section> <script> window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; window.dataLayer.push({ recommendations: { recommender: 'semantic', model: 'specter', policy_id: 'NA', timestamp: 1732392046, embedded_user: 'null' } }); </script> <div class="main-content"> <section data-title="Introduction"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec1">Introduction</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec1-content"><p>CERN celebrates its 70th anniversary this year. Founded in 1954 under the umbrella of UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization), CERN brought its first accelerator into operation 3 years later — the 600-MeV Synchrocyclotron. This accelerator was one of the last of its kind, marking the end of a 25-year evolution of cyclotrons in high-energy physics research. Pioneered by Ernest Lawrence<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1" title="Lawrence, E. O. & Livingston, M. S. The production of high speed light ions without the use of high voltages. Phys. Rev. 40, 19–35 (1932)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5#ref-CR1" id="ref-link-section-d144775010e440">1</a></sup>, the cyclotron accelerated charged particles in a spiralling path inside a flat cylindrical vacuum chamber. It was superseded by the synchrotron<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="McMillan, E. M. A history of the synchrotron. Phys. Today 37, 31–37 (1984)." href="#ref-CR2" id="ref-link-section-d144775010e444">2</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Oliphant, M. The acceleration of particles to very high energies. Classified memo to UK Department of Scientific & Industrial Research (Univ. Birmingham Archive, 1943)." href="#ref-CR3" id="ref-link-section-d144775010e444_1">3</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Veksler, V. I. A new method of accelerating relativistic particles. C. R. Acad. Sci. URSS 43, 329–331 (1944)." href="#ref-CR4" id="ref-link-section-d144775010e444_2">4</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 5" title="McMillan, E. M. The synchrotron — a proposed high energy accelerator. Phys. Rev. 68, 143–144 (1945)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5#ref-CR5" id="ref-link-section-d144775010e447">5</a></sup>, whose synchronized magnetic and radio frequency (RF) fields steer and accelerate particles in a fixed loop inside a vacuum pipe. In 1959, CERN commissioned the Proton Synchrotron (PS), its second accelerator and an example of the so-called strong focusing synchrotron that has shaped the landscape of high-energy acceleration to this day. Strong focusing synchrotrons feature rather compact vacuum chambers and magnetic elements for the circulating beams and, in a succession of machines over the past 65 years (refs. <sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 6" title="Shiltsev, V. & Zimmermann, F. Modern and future colliders. Rev. Mod. Phys. 93, 015006 (2021)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5#ref-CR6" id="ref-link-section-d144775010e451">6</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 7" title="Myers, S. & Brüning, O. (eds) Challenges and Goals for Accelerators in the XXI Century (World Scientific, 2016)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5#ref-CR7" id="ref-link-section-d144775010e454">7</a></sup>), have enabled a steady increase in beam energies, limited only by the integrated magnetic bending field along the machine (in the case of accelerated protons, which are non-elementary particles consisting of quarks and gluons) or synchrotron radiation (in the case of electrons, which are truly elementary particles with much smaller mass than protons).</p><p>The 70-year programme of CERN in high-energy physics has so far featured six of these synchrotron machines (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5#Fig1">1</a>): the PS, the PS Booster, the Intersecting Storage Rings (ISR), the Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS), the Large Electron–Positron collider (LEP) and the Large Hadron Collider (LHC). (In fact, the total is really eight, as the ISR and LHC each comprise two accelerator rings in one machine.) There are also five further synchrotrons for the accumulation and preparation of particle beams: the Antiproton Accumulator ring, the Antiproton Cooler ring, the Low Energy Ion Ring, and the Antiproton Decelerator (AD) and Extra Low Energy Antiproton ring (ELENA) that form the ‘antimatter factory’ of CERN.</p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-1" data-title="The present CERN accelerator complex."><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig1" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 1: The present CERN accelerator complex.</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5/figures/1" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fs42254-024-00758-5/MediaObjects/42254_2024_758_Fig1_HTML.png?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig1" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fs42254-024-00758-5/MediaObjects/42254_2024_758_Fig1_HTML.png" alt="figure 1" loading="lazy" width="685" height="386"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-1-desc"><p>Infrastructure such as the Proton Synchrotron (PS, operational since 1959, with a circumference of 628 m) and the Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS) is still in use, feeding a complex that is crowned by the Large Hadron Collider (LHC). The LHC sits in a 27-km underground tunnel, originally built for the Large Electron–Positron collider (LEP); four detectors are positioned around the ring — ALICE, ATLAS, CMS and LHCb. (LEP, the Intersecting Storage Rings and the 600-Mev Synchrocyclotron are decommissioned and not shown; the AWAKE experiment infrastructure was originally built for the CERN Neutrino to Gran Sasso beam line, which operated from 2007 to 2016.) HiRadMat, High Radiation to Materials facility; n-ToF, neutron Time of Flight experiment; AD, Antiproton Decelerator; LINAC, Linear Accelerator; ELENA, Extra Low Energy Antiproton ring; LEIR: Low Energy Ion Ring; RIB, Radioactive Ioan Beam facility; ISOLDE: Isotope Separator On Line DEvice; REX-ISOLDE: Radioactive Ion Beam post accelerator; HIE-ISOLDE, High Intensity and Energy ISOLDE; CLEAR, CERN Linear Electron Accelerator for Research. Figure reproduced with permission from CERN (OPEN-PHO-ACCEL-2018-005).</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5/figures/1" data-track-dest="link:Figure1 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 1" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>The ISR was the first proton–proton collider operated for high-energy physics and was also configured for proton–deuteron and proton–antiproton collisions. It was a testbed for many collider-design features used in later machines, such as improved vacuum technology, techniques to reduce beam impedance (energy loss to the accelerator structure) and Schottky noise, and developments in beam cooling. Stochastic beam cooling<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 8" title="Möhl, D., Petrucci, G., Thorndahl, L. & van der Meer, S. Physics and technique of stochastic cooling. Phys. Rep. 58, 73–102 (1980)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5#ref-CR8" id="ref-link-section-d144775010e486">8</a></sup>, devised by Simon van der Meer, was key to the reconfiguration of the SPS in the early 1980s as a proton–antiproton collider, enabling the discovery of the <i>W</i> and <i>Z</i> bosons that won the 1984 Nobel Prize for Physics for van der Meer and Carlo Rubbia.</p><p>From 1989, the LEP machine — a synchrotron 27 km in circumference, built in an underground tunnel — collided electrons and positrons for precision measurements of the properties of the <i>W</i> and <i>Z</i> bosons. In 2000, LEP was shut down and replaced by the LHC, which was installed in the same underground tunnel and commissioned in 2008, with collider operation from 2010. The LHC features superconducting niobium–titanium alloy (Nb–Ti) magnets that create a peak field of about 8 T, giving maximum proton beam energies of up to 7 TeV. After 2025, the machine will receive a major upgrade, coordinated under the High-Luminosity LHC (HL-LHC) project, to achieve a tenfold increase in data production and to extend LHC operation until the early 2040s.</p><p>Most of the <a href="https://www.home.cern/science/accelerators/accelerator-complex">CERN accelerators</a> are still in use today (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5#Fig1">1</a>). The LHC requires the operation of Linear Accelerator (LINAC) 4, the PS Booster, the PS and the SPS, to provide protons at 450 GeV for acceleration to 7 TeV; this ‘injector complex’ underwent a major upgrade<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 9" title="Damerau, H. et al. (eds) LHC Injectors Upgrade, Technical Design Report. Report No. CERN-ACC-2014-0337 (CERN, 2014)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5#ref-CR9" id="ref-link-section-d144775010e519">9</a></sup> from 2019 to 2021. A new large accelerator project currently in development at CERN, the <a href="https://home.cern/science/accelerators/future-circular-collider">Future Circular Collider</a>, would also re-use most of the existing accelerators at CERN and be based on the enduring concept of the strong focusing synchrotron.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Construction of the 27-km tunnel"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec2-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec2">Construction of the 27-km tunnel</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec2-content"><p>Following the theoretical development of a unified description of the weak and electromagnetic interactions, the first experimental evidence to support this theory was obtained in 1973: the observation of the neutrino interactions resulting in final states that could only be explained by assuming the exchange of virtual massive particles, as predicted within the new ‘electroweak’ theory<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Hasert, F. J. et al. Search for elastic muon-neutrino electron scattering. Phys. Lett. B 46, 121–124 (1973)." href="#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d144775010e538">10</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Haidt, D. The discovery of weak neutral currents. Adv. Ser. Dir. High. Energy Phys. 23, 165–183 (2015)." href="#ref-CR11" id="ref-link-section-d144775010e538_1">11</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 12" title="Di Lella, L. & Rubbia, C. The discovery of the W and Z particles. Adv. Ser. Dir. High. Energy Phys. 23, 137–163 (2015)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5#ref-CR12" id="ref-link-section-d144775010e541">12</a></sup>. The ideal machine to produce these particles — called the <i>W</i> and <i>Z</i> bosons — and to measure their properties was an electron–positron collider. The design work for what would become LEP started in the late 1970s, even though the confirmation of the postulated <i>W</i> and <i>Z</i> bosons came only in 1983, after the SPS synchrotron was converted into a proton–antiproton collider.</p><p>The first important decision for the team designing the LEP machine was the circumference of the tunnel. There were four possibilities: a 30-km ring running close to the CERN site and deep into the nearby Jura mountains, a 22-km ring that avoided the mountains entirely, and two options with a circumference of 26.7 km that ran partially under the Jura mountains — motivated by the idea of later installing a hadron collider in the same tunnel, after LEP ceased operation. The final choice, made by CERN Director General Herwig Schopper<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 13" title="Schopper, H. LEP — The Lord of the Collider Rings at CERN 1980–2000 (Springer, 2009)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5#ref-CR13" id="ref-link-section-d144775010e560">13</a></sup>, was in hindsight a wise one: the 26.7-km option with the minimum amount of tunnelling in the Jura foothills and a 3.8-m-diameter tunnel sitting at a depth below the surface that varied between 50 and 175 m. The project was approved on 30 October 1981.</p><p>Construction of the LEP tunnel started in 1985. It was to be the longest accelerator tunnel ever built, carved by three tunnel-boring machines through the molasse that makes up 90% of the ground in which LEP sits. The remaining 10% of tunnel construction had to be done through limestone, in the foothills of the Jura, and came with the risk of major water leaks. An intensive hydrology study was started in 1981, leading to the application of the much slower drill and blast techniques at this location, combined with advanced test borings. Nevertheless, two major water leaks occurred, of up to 150 l s<sup>−1</sup> at 13 bars pressure (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5#Fig2">2a</a>). The water inflow required systematic injection of resin and cement into the rock faults ahead of the working face and reinforcement of the tunnel with steel lining. It took 6 months to solve the water inlet. Normal tunnelling rates of about 8 m per week were re-established by June 1987, allowing completion of the tunnel ready for the accelerator to be installed. (Figure <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5#Fig2">2b</a> shows the same leak-affected tunnel section after the later installation of the LHC installation.)</p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-2" data-title="Inside the 27-km tunnel of CERN."><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig2" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 2: Inside the 27-km tunnel of CERN.</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5/figures/2" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fs42254-024-00758-5/MediaObjects/42254_2024_758_Fig2_HTML.png?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig2" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fs42254-024-00758-5/MediaObjects/42254_2024_758_Fig2_HTML.png" alt="figure 2" loading="lazy" width="685" height="912"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-2-desc"><p><b>a</b>, During the construction of the LEP tunnel, in 1989, water burst into the section (sector 3) that reaches under the foothills of the Jura mountains, close to CERN. <b>b</b>, That same sector is now part of the LHC tunnel: a dipole magnet (blue) connects to a short straight section (white) that contains a quadrupole and higher-order magnets. LEP, Large Electron–Positron collider; LHC, Large Hadron Collider. Figure reproduced with permission from CERN.</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5/figures/2" data-track-dest="link:Figure2 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 2" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div></div></div></section><section data-title="LEP and the frontier of electroweak physics"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec3-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec3">LEP and the frontier of electroweak physics</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec3-content"><p>LEP produced its first electron–positron collisions on 13 August 1989. A year earlier, the first crucial step had been taken with an octant test — passing a positron beam through the first eighth of the accelerator to be installed. On 12 July 1988, four ‘bunches’ of positrons made a successful journey through the beampipe from Meyrin in Switzerland (‘Point 1’ on the LEP ring) to Sergy in France (‘Point 2’), a distance of 2.5 km. However, the beam measurements made on this first octant revealed a substantial betatron coupling between the transverse planes, that is, there was interference between the horizontal and vertical focusing of the beams. It was caused by a (magnetic) nickel layer that had been used to bond radiation-protecting lead to the aluminium vacuum chamber. Discovering, and fixing, this problem one year ahead of the first circulating beam in the complete machine was invaluable, as otherwise the induced coupling would have limited the machine performance.</p><p>The goal for the first phase of LEP was to generate electron–positron collisions at a centre-of-mass collision energy of around 90 GeV, equivalent to the mass of the <i>Z</i> boson, the neutral carrier of the weak force and a centrepiece of electroweak physics. LEP was intended to be a ‘<i>Z</i> factory’, delivering millions of <i>Z</i>s whose decays, captured inside four detectors placed around the LEP ring, would enable precision tests of the Standard Model. To mass-produce the <i>Z</i>s required beams not only of high energy but also of high intensity. For most of its period of operation, LEP ran with four packages, or bunches, of particles per beam and pushed the bunch intensities up to the beam–beam limit. (Up to the beam–beam limit, the luminosity — or rate of data production — increases quadratically with the bunch intensity; above the beam–beam limit, the beam size starts to increase with the bunch intensity whereas the luminosity only increases linearly.) In addition, LEP operation with such high bunch intensities implied the onset of collective instabilities and required careful control of the radio-frequency system (parameters such as longitudinal tune and bunch length) and the use of active feedback systems to keep the beam stable during operation.</p><p>The second phase of LEP (LEP2) required higher-energy running, initially with beam energies equivalent to the mass of the <i>W</i> boson, moving up to and then beyond the threshold for <i>W</i>-pair production, and finally, pushing to the maximum attainable beam energies at the end of LEP operation, to search for the Higgs boson. The top beam energy was essentially limited by power losses through synchrotron radiation and by the available accelerating voltage from the radio-frequency system. Synchrotron-radiation power grows with the fourth power of the beam energy, and pushing for that last 10% of the LEP beam energies, therefore, meant an almost 50% increase in the power losses — straining the LEP vacuum system (which was heated by the synchrotron radiation) and requiring a rigorous upgrade of the LEP radio-frequency system to be able to compensate for these energy losses as the beams circulated in the machine. A summary of the accelerator parameters and performance is shown in Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5#Tab1">1</a>.</p><div class="c-article-table" data-test="inline-table" data-container-section="table" id="table-1"><figure><figcaption class="c-article-table__figcaption"><b id="Tab1" data-test="table-caption">Table 1 Overview of LEP performance from 1989 to 2000</b></figcaption><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="table-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view table" data-track-label="button" rel="nofollow" href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5/tables/1" aria-label="Full size table 1"><span>Full size table</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>When LEP started up again after a long technical stop in 1996, the operators struggled to get beams circulating in the machine. All evidence pointed towards an obstacle in the beam aperture. Reviving an optics tool that had been used at the beginning of LEP commissioning, the location of the suspected obstacle was traced to a position close to one of the LEP interaction points, inside one of the magnets. The obstacle — discovered to be a Heineken beer bottle, which had probably been placed in the accelerator during the technical stop as a prank — was finally removed using a long poking device to push it to one of the vacuum openings. A check of neighbouring vacuum sections uncovered a second beer bottle. This story highlights the vulnerability of large-scale accelerators and the need for efficient tools to solve such problems in a timely manner.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="LHC and the TeV energy frontier"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec4-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec4">LHC and the TeV energy frontier</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec4-content"><p>The idea of a super-high-energy hadron collider, capable of multi-TeV-energy collisions, emerged from the abandoned ISABELLE project<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 14" title="Mills, F. E. ISABELLE design study. IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 20, 1036–1038 (1973)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5#ref-CR14" id="ref-link-section-d144775010e1184">14</a></sup> in the USA, and out of the success of the CERN SPS<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 15" title="Koziol, H. & Möhl, D. The CERN antiproton collider programme: accelerators and accumulation rings. Phys. Rep. 403–404, 91–106 (2004)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5#ref-CR15" id="ref-link-section-d144775010e1188">15</a></sup> and the Tevatron of Fermilab<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 16" title="Riesselmann, K. 1983 — the year the tevatron came to life. FERMINEWS 26, 15 (2003)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5#ref-CR16" id="ref-link-section-d144775010e1192">16</a></sup>, both operated as proton–antiproton colliders. A hadron is any particle made of quarks and gluons; protons and neutrons are hadrons and not elementary particles (such as the electron). Collisions in hadron machines take place not between a proton and antiproton but between their constituent quarks and gluons. Hence, these collisions cover a wide energy range and are ideal for searching for new, more massive particles that are not accessible at electron–positron colliders. Through the 1980s, US scientists worked on the Superconducting Super Collider<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 17" title="SSC Central Design Group. Conceptual Design of the Superconducting Super Collider. (ed. Jackson, J. D.) SSC Report No. SSC-SR-2020 (SSC, 1986)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5#ref-CR17" id="ref-link-section-d144775010e1196">17</a></sup> (SSC), which, with its intended 40-TeV collision energy in a 87.1-km-long tunnel, was the reference for the field for more than a decade, until its cancellation in 1993.</p><p>However, the concept of a large hadron collider installed in the LEP tunnel had been put forward almost simultaneously with the approval of LEP (see, for example, refs. <sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 18" title="Myers, S. & Schnell, W. Preliminary Performance Estimation for a LEP Proton Collider. Report No. CERN-LEP-Note-440; CERN-LHC-Note-1 (CERN, 1983)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5#ref-CR18" id="ref-link-section-d144775010e1203">18</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 19" title="Evans, L. & Gareyte, J. Some Thoughts on Hadron Colliders in the LEP Tunnel. Report No. CERN-SPS-83-36-DI-MST; CERN-LHC-Note-7 (CERN, 1983)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5#ref-CR19" id="ref-link-section-d144775010e1206">19</a></sup>). As early as 1984, a seminal workshop<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 20" title="Jacob. M. (ed.) ECFA-CERN Workshop on Large Hadron Collider in the LEP Tunnel. Yellow Report No. CERN-84-10 (CERN, 1984)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5#ref-CR20" id="ref-link-section-d144775010e1210">20</a></sup> has discussed the possibility of building a proton–proton collider that would be compatible with maintaining the LEP machine, as a further important mission for the LEP tunnel. A proton–proton collider would reach the desired centre-of-mass collision energy and luminosity (or interaction rate) for studies that would push the frontier of high-energy physics, but it would require opposite dipole fields for the two counter-rotating proton beams. Because of the narrowness of the LEP tunnel, there was no room to have independent magnets guiding the two oppositely circulating beams, with fully separate dipole magnets as has been envisaged for the SSC. Instead, CERN picked up an idea that had matured at Brookhaven National Laboratory in the USA — allocating two magnetic apertures, with opposite fields, inside one cold mass<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 21" title="Blewett, J. P. 200-GeV intersecting storage accelerator. In Proc. 8th International Conference on High Energy Accelerators (eds Blewett, M. H. & Vogt-Nielsen, N.) 501–504 (CERN, 1971)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5#ref-CR21" id="ref-link-section-d144775010e1214">21</a></sup>. Known as the two-in-one magnet, using this concept was the only way to fit a proton–proton collider in the LEP tunnel.</p><p>Rubbia, CERN Director General from 1989 and a strong supporter of the LHC, promoted the project with the argument that the proposed very high luminosity of the LHC (more than an order of magnitude higher than that of the SSC) would largely compensate for the lower centre-of-mass collision energy (about 15 TeV for LHC, compared with 40 TeV for SSC). However, to generate beam energies of 7 TeV in the LEP tunnel required dipole fields in the region of 8–10 T, exceeding the capabilities of established magnet technology at the time.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec5">Magnet development</h3><p>Led by CERN Technical Director Giorgio Brianti, research and development of high-field magnets began in 1986 with the construction of a short (1-m-long) single-aperture model using superconducting niobium–titanium alloy, which improved on the design<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 22" title="Wolff, S. Superconducting HERA magnets. IEEE Trans. Magn. 24, 719–722 (1988)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5#ref-CR22" id="ref-link-section-d144775010e1228">22</a></sup> of the dipole magnets in the Hadron Electron Ring Accelerator (HERA) at the DESY laboratory in Hamburg, Germany: cooled to 1.9 K, the model reached the target field of 9 T. Then, a long (9-m) twin-aperture prototype, assembled from coils wound using HERA-specification Nb–Ti cable, reached 7.7 T at 1.8 K — verifying the two-in-one concept. CERN then addressed the last remaining issues: the design of superfluid helium liquefiers and transport of helium through the 27-km-long ring; the development of suitable Nb–Ti superconductor, with appropriate fineness of filament, and a robust twin-dipole design, to reach 9 T.</p><p>By 1994, the first 10-m-long dipole<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 23" title="Acerbi, E., Bona, M., Leroy, D., Perin, R. & Rossi, L. Development and fabrication of the first 10 m long superconducting dipole prototype for the LHC. IEEE Trans. Magn. 30, 1793–1796 (1994)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5#ref-CR23" id="ref-link-section-d144775010e1235">23</a></sup> — a collaboration between CERN and the INFN-LASA laboratory in Milan, Italy — had reached 9 T. Meanwhile, competition with the SSC had ended, as that project was cancelled on 30 October 1993. On the basis of the terrific achievement of the 1994 prototypes and the project proposal made by then Director General Chris Llewellyn Smith, the CERN Council formally approved the building of the LHC. Lyn Evans became LHC project leader, from beginning of 1994 until beam commissioning at the end of 2008.</p><p>The start-up of LHC main-dipole construction — the driver of the project — together with the building of cryogenic plants took longer and was more expensive than anticipated. This, and other financial issues, triggered a crisis at CERN in 2001 that culminated in an external review, commissioned by the CERN Council and chaired by Robert Aymar. The outcome was a reorganization of CERN into a more agile structure, with reallocation of personnel to LHC and a streamlining of the CERN resources needed to support the LHC project.</p><p>After this difficult period, eventually, near the end of 2002, magnet construction really took off. Obstacles had been numerous, including the sudden, unanticipated bankruptcy of one of the three main-dipole manufacturers and unexpected technical issues, above all, the lack of testing capacity at CERN that reduced the quality of the magnet acceptance: a large number of magnets were only tested up to their nominal operating field of 8.3 T, rather than their ‘ultimate’ design field of 9 T before their acceptance and installation in the tunnel; many other tests were reduced or removed. Dipole production accelerated, and the last dipole was delivered at the end of 2006, respecting the schedule that had been set at the end of 2001 when the magnet-assembly contracts were signed with three industrial partners: the French Alstom–Jeumont consortium, Italian Ansaldo (later ASG Superconductors) and German Babcock Noell (later Bilfinger).</p><p>However, as often happens in large, complex and technically challenging projects, when a key item is removed from the critical path, it exposes other items that were ‘hiding’ in the shadows. For the LHC, one such item was the cryogenic distribution line, carrying liquid helium from cryogenic plants above ground to the magnets in the tunnel. Problems with the distribution line were only noticed during cold tests, after the line installation had already been completed in one octant; among various issues, fibre support table inside the cryostat had cracked during the cool down. The fully installed octant had to be de-installed, which caused almost a year of delay. Most of the issues that came up during the installation and commissioning phases were related to the superconducting magnet system and cryogenics — the most advanced technological equipment that alone accounted for two thirds of the total cost of the LHC machine.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec6">LHC operation begins</h3><p>Finally, on 10 September 2008, came the culmination of those 25 years of development of Nb–Ti superconducting magnets<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 24" title="Evans, L. (ed.) The Large Hadron Collider: A Marvel of Technology 2nd edn (EPFL Press, 2018)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5#ref-CR24" id="ref-link-section-d144775010e1258">24</a></sup>: LHC celebrated a perfect start-up, with beam circulating at first shot, although at minimum energy without acceleration. However, the unexpected was just around the corner: on 19 September 2008, a serious technical accident occurred during the commissioning of the last magnetic circuit at high energy. A bad joint between superconducting cables in adjacent magnets was coupled with a lack of electrical continuity between the stabilizing copper encasing the superconducting-cable splice and the stabilizing copper of the cable. This continuity is required to transport current when there is a quench (loss of the superconducting state of the cable), to avoid overheating before the current can be extracted by the protection system. When the bad cable connection quenched, the current caused thermal runaway that melted the cable and generated an electric arc that cut open the surrounding vacuum components, sending a massive pressure wave through the machine sector and damaging many more magnets. Understanding, repairing and restarting took about 14 months. But then, at the end of 2009, the CERN LHC finally overtook the Fermilab Tevatron as the collider with the highest-energy beams. On 30 March 2010, LHC delivered high-energy collisions, at 7 TeV centre-of-mass energy, to the four underground detectors located around the accelerator ring — ATLAS, CMS, ALICE and LHCb — and opened up a new frontier in physics. Although the design energy was 14 TeV, running initially at half that energy was necessary to limit the current in the main dipoles and avoid further trouble: the 2008 fault had made evident the weakness of the interconnections all around the ring, and it was not until the ‘long shutdown’ in 2013–2014 that all interconnections were fully consolidated for design current.</p><p>However, following the 8 TeV run during the first half of 2012, sufficient integrated luminosity (20 fb<sup>−1</sup>, more than the total luminosity accumulated by all previous hadron colliders) had accumulated that the ATLAS and CMS experiments were able to pinpoint the Higgs boson, which had been predicted to exist nearly 50 years earlier. This discovery is rightly considered to be one of the most important scientific achievements of all time and highlights the contribution of thousands of technicians, experimental and theoretical physicists to the success of the LHC accelerator complex and experiments.</p><p>Subsequently, 15 years into the LHC programme, the integrated luminosity has reached more than 300 fb<sup>−1</sup> (more than was promised), and the machine energy has gradually increased to 13.6 TeV. This is 3% short of the design value, owing to the fact that magnet training — the process of progressively pushing up the current in a superconducting magnet until it reaches the design current required for 7-TeV beam energy — needs much longer than anticipated. Yet the design value tends to be achieved or even exceeded in coming years. The original LHC design has proved to be sound, almost all principal choices turned out to be the right ones.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Upgrade to the High-Luminosity LHC"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec7-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec7">Upgrade to the High-Luminosity LHC</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec7-content"><p>The LHC has already reached a peak luminosity of 2 × 10<sup>34 </sup>cm<sup>−2</sup> s<sup>−2</sup>, twice its nominal design value. At this level of performance, the LHC produces roughly one Higgs boson per second (the Higgs production <a href="https://atlas.cern/Resources/Cheat-sheets">cross section</a> is about 50 pb), but only 1 in 1,000 of those Higgs bosons can be easily detected by the LHC experiments. By the end of 2025, the integrated luminosity will reach more than 400 fb<sup>−1</sup>, corresponding to about 40,000 recorded Higgs bosons. To reduce the statistical error in studies of the Higgs boson — by at least a factor of two over a reasonable timescale, say, 10 years — a substantial increase in luminosity is needed on the same timescale.</p><p>In this context, CERN established the High-Luminosity LHC project<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 25" title="The HiLumi LHC Collaboration. HL-LHC Preliminary Design Report. Report No. CERN-ACC-2014-0300 (CERN, 2014)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5#ref-CR25" id="ref-link-section-d144775010e1299">25</a></sup> as a design study in 2010, and it was approved by the CERN Council in June 2016 with a full budget for completion. The goal is to achieve a peak luminosity of 5 × 10<sup>34 </sup>cm<sup>−2</sup> s<sup>−1</sup> (which is five times the original LHC design value) and a total integrated luminosity between 3,000 fb<sup>−1</sup> and 4,000 fb<sup>−1</sup> over the lifetime of the HL-LHC. Such a high luminosity requires ‘luminosity levelling’ — a new concept to control the event pile-up at an acceptable level in the initial phases of the high-luminosity runs (‘pile-up’ describes the overlap of multiple interactions: the LHC collides bunches of protons not single particles). The HL-LHC upgrade must overcome several hardware limitations in the existing machine, introduce new technologies that can further boost the performance level of the collider and increase the overall efficiency of the machine operation. The HL-LHC is, therefore, not only a performance upgrade project but also a general technology driver for future accelerator projects.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec8">Technology challenges</h3><p>The HL-LHC upgrade is challenging because it increases the particle intensity along the entire accelerator circumference and, thus, the radiation levels for all equipment in the tunnel. New underground structures will be constructed to house critical components for LHC operation and protect them from radiation while still allowing easy access to the equipment (and, hence, reduced downtime owing to equipment failure) during machine operation.</p><p>Already a key limitation of the existing LHC machine is the increasing radiation damage to magnetic elements close to the main experiments: these ‘triplet quadrupole magnets’, which focus the proton beams into the interaction points, need to be replaced by the end of 2025 with magnets that can tolerate ten times higher radiation levels. Indeed, the development of radiation-tolerant quadrupole magnets with active shielding against radiation damage has been centre stage in the HL-LHC project. Larger magnet apertures required the use of Nb<sub>3</sub>Sn superconductor technology to achieve magnetic gradients of about 140 T m<sup>–1</sup> and to boost the attainable peak field in the magnet coils to more than 12 T.</p><p>In addition to the Nb<sub>3</sub>Sn magnet development, the HL-LHC project has driven several other key accelerator technologies (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5#Fig3">3</a>): these include transversely deflecting, superconducting, radio-frequency systems — known as crab cavities — that optimize the overlap of the colliding beams inside the detectors; superconducting links, based on high-temperature MgB<sub>2</sub> superconductors and carrying more than 100 kA of current, that connect the power converters in the new underground areas with the magnets inside the LHC tunnel, over a distance of 100 m without Ohmic losses; more efficient, robust and radiation-tolerant beam absorbers and collimators; and high-precision power converters with resolution better than one part per million. The HL-LHC also features upgrades of cryogenic plants, the beam vacuum system, the machine protection system and the beam diagnostics and alignment system.</p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-3" data-title="Key technology developments required for the High-Luminosity Large Hadron Collider (LHC) project."><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig3" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 3: Key technology developments required for the High-Luminosity Large Hadron Collider (LHC) project.</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5/figures/3" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fs42254-024-00758-5/MediaObjects/42254_2024_758_Fig3_HTML.png?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig3" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fs42254-024-00758-5/MediaObjects/42254_2024_758_Fig3_HTML.png" alt="figure 3" loading="lazy" width="685" height="432"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-3-desc"><p>In addition, major upgrades are foreseen for the beam vacuum and cryogenic systems, the machine protection system, and the cryogenic plants and warm power converters. Figure reproduced with permission from CERN (CERN-GRAPHICS-2023-001).</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5/figures/3" data-track-dest="link:Figure3 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 3" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec9">Collaborative solutions</h3><p>To meet the ambitious goals of the HL-LHC project, particularly for Nb<sub>3</sub>Sn magnet technology, CERN pursued collaboration of international partner laboratories from the outset.</p><p>In 1998, the US Department of Energy launched a development programme for Nb<sub>3</sub>Sn superconductors, and in 2004, initiated the US LHC Accelerator Research Program, which was vital in completing the development of the triplet magnets and crab cavities. This programme formalized the close collaboration of CERN with six US institutes: Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and Stanford Linear Accelerator Centre (SLAC) in California, Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory in Illinois, Brookhaven National Laboratory in New York state, and Old Dominion University and Jefferson Lab in Virginia.</p><p>When CERN launched the broad studies of possible LHC upgrades in 2011, through a Europea-n-Union-funded design study, it further developed the network of international partner institutes working on HL-LHC technologies. After final approval in 2016, the HL-LHC project had become an international collaboration that included the six US institutes already mentioned, institutes in Japan, Canada and China, and several more in CERN member states Italy, Spain, Sweden and the UK. As well as the vital technical expertise of staff at these institutes, the collaboration network has contributed roughly 10% of the total HL-LHC budget.</p><p>As of 2024, underground civil engineering for the HL-LHC has been completed, and all key new technologies have been fully validated. In 2026, LHC operation will stop for a third period of long shutdown, during which the accelerator and experiments receive maintenance and any necessary repairs and upgrades. This shutdown will last 3 years, and the HL-LHC upgrade will be implemented and brought into operation at the beginning of 2029. The HL-LHC project is described in detail in refs. <sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 26" title="Brüning, O. & Rossi, L. The High Luminosity Large Hadron Collider 2nd edn (World Scientific, 2024)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5#ref-CR26" id="ref-link-section-d144775010e1378">26</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 27" title="Aberle, O. et al. High-Luminosity Large Hadron Collider (HL-LHC): Technical Design Report. Report No. CERN-2020-010 (CERN, 2020)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5#ref-CR27" id="ref-link-section-d144775010e1381">27</a></sup> and is complemented by an upgrade of the full LHC injector chain<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 9" title="Damerau, H. et al. (eds) LHC Injectors Upgrade, Technical Design Report. Report No. CERN-ACC-2014-0337 (CERN, 2014)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5#ref-CR9" id="ref-link-section-d144775010e1385">9</a></sup>.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="A future for the CERN tunnel"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec10-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec10">A future for the CERN tunnel</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec10-content"><p>Over the years, the main experimental technique for advancing the field of high-energy physics has been to increase the energy and luminosity of successive colliders. Usually, there has been some diversity in the type of collider — proton–proton at Fermilab’s Tevatron, electron–proton at DESY’s HERA, and electron–positron at CERN’s LEP and the Stanford Linear Collider at SLAC. The successes of these colliders and their associated experiments were complementary: the discovery of the top quark at the Tevatron; the determination of the number of light neutrinos and the verification of the Z–WW self-coupling of the electroweak bosons at LEP; and the measurement of the parton distributions inside the proton, in a much extended kinematic range, with unprecedented precision at HERA. Thus, the three-family quark and lepton doublet structure was complete, quantum chromodynamics verified, and the characteristics of particles transmitting the electroweak and strong interactions pinned down. The Standard Model was established.</p><p>The LHC is a remarkably powerful hadron collider at TeV centre-of-mass energies, but it lacks the complement of new, high-energy, electron–proton and electron–positron colliders when compared with the era of the Tevatron, HERA and LEP. It is possible, however, to envisage a new-generation electron–proton collider, at TeV centre-of-mass energies, that uses the existing LHC infrastructure — the so-called <a href="https://lhec.web.cern.ch/">Large Hadron–Electron Collider</a> (LHeC), which has been in design for many years. A dedicated TeV-scale electron–positron collider, conversely, would require the construction of an entirely new accelerator complex, such as the Future Circular Collider, FCC-ee<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 28" title="Abada, A. et al. FCC-ee: the lepton collider. Eur. Phys. J. Spec. Top. 228, 261–623 (2019)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5#ref-CR28" id="ref-link-section-d144775010e1409">28</a></sup>.</p><p>The HL-LHC, discussed in the section ‘Upgrade to the High-Luminosity LHC’, is projected to operate until the early 2040s: after that, the machine will require another major upgrade, or it will reach the end of its operational life. A recent publication<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 29" title="Brüning, O., Klein, M., Rossi, L. & Spagnolo, P. (eds) The Future of the Large Hadron Collider (World Scientific, 2024)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5#ref-CR29" id="ref-link-section-d144775010e1416">29</a></sup>, entitled ‘The Future of the LHC’, presents several options for further interesting exploitation of the LHC infrastructure, including the LHeC and a High-Energy LHC (HE-LHC). Here, we will focus on two major options: an energy upgrade of the LHC with stronger-field magnets to create the HE-LHC and the realization of electron–proton (and electron–ion) collisions — the LHeC — in parallel with proton–proton (and ion–ion) operation of the HL-LHC.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec11">The High-Energy LHC</h3><p>The CERN 27-km tunnel and its technical infrastructure, together with the CERN injector complex, are a unique asset. It is not surprising that the community has been considering, since 2002 (ref. <sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 30" title="Brüning, O. et al. LHC Luminosity and Energy Upgrade: A Feasibility Study. Report No. CERN LHC-Project-Report 626 (CERN, 2002)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5#ref-CR30" id="ref-link-section-d144775010e1427">30</a></sup>), how this facility could be re-used in the post-HL-LHC era. The possibility of an energy upgrade of the LHC was renewed<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 31" title="Assmann, R. et al. First Thoughts on a Higher-Energy LHC. Report No. CERN-ATS-2010-2177 (CERN, 2010)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5#ref-CR31" id="ref-link-section-d144775010e1431">31</a></sup> in 2010 by a CERN working group and then discussed extensively in a dedicated workshop<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 32" title="Todesco, E. & Zimmermann, F. (eds) EuCARD-AccNet-EuroLumi Workshop: The High-Energy Large Hadron Collider.Report No. CERN-2011-003 (CERN, 2011)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5#ref-CR32" id="ref-link-section-d144775010e1435">32</a></sup>; a review of the various versions of a higher-energy LHC is given in ref. <sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 33" title="Bottura, L. & Zimmermann, F. in The Future of the Large Hadron Collider (eds Brüning, O. et al.) 367–396 (World Scientific, 2024)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5#ref-CR33" id="ref-link-section-d144775010e1439">33</a></sup>. The HE-LHC promises to double the energy of the LHC proton beam and deliver an integrated luminosity of order 10<sup>4</sup> fb<sup>−1</sup>. Owing to higher production cross sections at high energy and that very high integrated luminosity, the HE-LHC (especially if combined with a concurrently operating HE-LHeC) would be able to measure the decay couplings of the Higgs boson about five to ten times more precisely than even the HL-LHC, and, most remarkably, measure the Higgs self-coupling to an accuracy of about 10%. A recent summary of the HE-LHC physics potential can be found in ref. <sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 29" title="Brüning, O., Klein, M., Rossi, L. & Spagnolo, P. (eds) The Future of the Large Hadron Collider (World Scientific, 2024)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5#ref-CR29" id="ref-link-section-d144775010e1448">29</a></sup>.</p><p>Exactly like LHC, the HE-LHC is fully dependent on the attainable dipole field, which can only be enhanced through a dedicated R&D effort with adequate resources and time (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5#Fig4">4</a> illustrates the timeline for development of magnet technology). The HL-LHC has demonstrated the viability of the superconductor Nb<sub>3</sub>Sn: the possibility of dipole magnets with 12–16 T fields and apertures of 50 mm, as required for HE-LHC, seems to be within reach. The development of high-field dipole magnets using Nb<sub>3</sub>Sn is already underway, in the context of a design study for a hadron-colliding Future Circular Collider (FCC-hh). However, for the HE-LHC, the size of the magnet cross section must be carefully controlled, as the LHC tunnel is narrow. Probably a good solution is to limit the operational field to 12 T, or 14 T at most, providing an energy reach of 20–25 TeV centre-of-mass energy for the HE-LHC. Even if this is a little short of doubling the LHC energy, it is an option that could be done at a cost not much bigger than that of the LHC and could allow the HE-LHC to be ready by 2045–2050.</p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-4" data-title="Lead time for research and development (R&D) of magnet technology."><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig4" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 4: Lead time for research and development (R&D) of magnet technology.</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5/figures/4" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fs42254-024-00758-5/MediaObjects/42254_2024_758_Fig4_HTML.png?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig4" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fs42254-024-00758-5/MediaObjects/42254_2024_758_Fig4_HTML.png" alt="figure 4" loading="lazy" width="685" height="415"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-4-desc"><p>Earlier accelerators, including the Tevatron and HERA, and the LHC have used magnets based on Nb–Ti, reaching fields up to 8 T. Using Nb<sub>3</sub>Sn, R&D for the High-Luminosity LHC has pushed magnet technology to achieve peak fields up to 14 T, ahead of the construction (from 2026) and operation (2029) of this accelerator. The international High-Field Magnet (HFM) programme is pushing up to 15 T and beyond; however, for the field range, in excess of 15 T, that is desirable for a High-Energy LHC (HE-LHC), high-temperature superconductors (HTS) are the only probable solution. LHC, Large Hadron Collider; SPS, Super Proton Synchrotron; SSC, Superconducting Super Collider; RHIC, Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider.</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5/figures/4" data-track-dest="link:Figure4 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 4" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>In the 2010 HE-LHC workshop<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 32" title="Todesco, E. & Zimmermann, F. (eds) EuCARD-AccNet-EuroLumi Workshop: The High-Energy Large Hadron Collider.Report No. CERN-2011-003 (CERN, 2011)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5#ref-CR32" id="ref-link-section-d144775010e1487">32</a></sup>, high-temperature superconductors (HTS) were proposed as the only means to reach fields of 20 T, overcoming the 15–16 T limitation of Nb<sub>3</sub>Sn: in fact, the design was a full hybrid, made using Nb–Ti and Nb<sub>3</sub>Sn coils to reach 15–16 T, with a tiny central part of HTS to boost the field to 20 T. Various versions of a hybrid design are still being pursued, usually based on Nb<sub>3</sub>Sn and HTS only, for simplicity. HTS are usually considered to be not yet compatible with liquid-helium cooling, so to operate a hybrid Nb<sub>3</sub>Sn–HTS dipole at 4.4 K would require a redesign of the magnet cooling.</p><p>More recently, the reduction in cost of HTS to not far above that of Nb<sub>3</sub>Sn and increased consideration of sustainability have led to a different option emerging for high-field magnets — operating at a temperature higher than 4 K and limiting the field at about 15 T. This full HTS magnet option, running at 20 K with helium gas cooling, would increase the cooling efficiency by a factor of 10, implying large energy savings with respect to the present LHC (wherein the cryogenic complex accounts for by far the largest share of the electricity bill). This solution might yield a real energy doubling (for which about 17 T is required) — or even more if HTS continue to improve in performance and decrease in cost. However, there are still serious issues to be resolved, such as, for example, the difficulty of attaining sufficient field quality, of achieving good thermalization of the magnets without liquid, and of redesigning the cryogenic distribution inside the narrow LHC tunnel. However, given the importance of sustainability in future accelerator projects, we believe that full HTS magnets are a promising option, well worth exploring (and we note that most magnet issues and challenges are shared with similar options for the FCC-hh<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 34" title="Abada, A. et al. FCC-hh: the Hadron Collider. Eur. Phys. J. Spec. Top. 228, 755–1107 (2019)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5#ref-CR34" id="ref-link-section-d144775010e1504">34</a></sup>).</p><p>The HE-LHC faces many other important challenges that will require considerable research and development, including the fact that the levels of synchrotron radiation would be much higher than in the LHC and need to be dealt with. If a HE-LHC aims at (at least) doubling the LHC beam energy, this also means a doubling of the dynamic range of the main magnets (that is, the ratio of ‘flat-top’ field, after acceleration, to the field at the point of particle injection) — from 16 to more than 30 — which is believed to be impossible for both the Nb<sub>3</sub>Sn and HTS magnet options. There could be two ways to overcome this issue. The first and most obvious is to double (or more) the energy of the SPS; this has a cost but would give CERN the further asset of a 1-TeV beam yielding a record 1.5–2 MW of proton beam power out of the SPS. The second, already studied and feasible in principle, is to use the SPS as it is (at 450 GeV) and add another low-energy ring in the LHC tunnel, with the HE-LHC. Of course, further studies of all these proposals are needed.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec12">The Large Hadron–Electron Collider</h3><p>From the very beginning of planning for the LEP–LHC collider complex, options had been considered for the realization of an electron–hadron collider with a centre-of-mass collision energy in the TeV range, assuming a proton beam energy of 7 TeV and an electron beam energy of 50–60 GeV. Previous proposals envisaged either mounting the hadron collider (LHC) on top of the electron machine (LEP) or re-installing the LEP magnets after LHC installation, on top of the LHC machine<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 35" title="Dainton, J. B., Klein, M., Newman, P., Perez, E. & Willeke, F. Deep inelastic electron–nucleon scattering at the LHC. J. Instrum. 1, P10001 (2006)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5#ref-CR35" id="ref-link-section-d144775010e1523">35</a></sup>. This LHeC would achieve an electron–proton luminosity of 10<sup>33</sup> cm<sup>−2</sup> s<sup>−1</sup>, exceeding that of HERA (which operated at DESY from 1992 to 2007) by a factor of about 30.</p><p>A 2007 follow-up study culminated, in 2012, in a first detailed design report<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 36" title="Abelleira Fernandez, J. L. et al. A large hadron electron collider at CERN : report on the physics and design concepts for machine and detector. J. Phys. G. 39, 075001 (2012)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5#ref-CR36" id="ref-link-section-d144775010e1536">36</a></sup> for the LHeC. It introduced an alternative option of a combined ring and linear accelerator (linac) that avoided many of the integration challenges and offered an even higher luminosity reach, but at the price of requiring significant civil engineering work — a tunnel of length approximately 9 km in a racetrack shape, for a new underground facility. Following the Higgs discovery in 2012 and recognizing the potential of the LHeC as a ‘Higgs factory’, the design report was updated<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 37" title="Agostini, P. et al. The large hadron–electron collider at the HL-LHC. J. Phys. G. 48, 110501 (2021)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5#ref-CR37" id="ref-link-section-d144775010e1540">37</a></sup> in 2021 to offer an instantaneous luminosity of 10<sup>34</sup> cm<sup>−2</sup> s<sup>−1</sup> and an integrated luminosity of about 10<sup>3</sup> fb<sup>−1</sup> (exceeding the HERA data set by a factor of 1,000). The updated LHeC configuration exploits the boosted proton-beam parameters of the HL-LHC and the potential of the Energy Recovery Linac (ERL). The ERL scheme substantially reduces the overall power consumption of the linac–ring configuration: the spent electron beam, after collisions, is decelerated and its energy recuperated for the acceleration of the next electron beam pulse. The LHeC ERL concept, for a similar but much smaller energy LHeC configuration, is being pursued by an international collaboration at the PERLE facility at IJCLab in Orsay, France. A summary of the accelerator, physics, detector and civil engineering design considerations of the LHeC appears in ref. <sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 29" title="Brüning, O., Klein, M., Rossi, L. & Spagnolo, P. (eds) The Future of the Large Hadron Collider (World Scientific, 2024)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5#ref-CR29" id="ref-link-section-d144775010e1555">29</a></sup>. (It should be highlighted that the racetrack ERL could also be combined with the HE-LHC and the FCC-hh accelerators.)</p><p>The LHeC electron beam requires a separate tunnel, a new element in the extended CERN accelerator complex. Positioned inside the ring of the LHC, the underground structure of the ERL has a racetrack shape with two straight sections each about 1 km long and return arcs on either side, and a tunnel diameter of 5.5 m. The LHeC has been studied for three size variations (a fifth, a quarter and a third) of the LHC tunnel circumference, each variation featuring different synchrotron-radiation losses and energy reaches, and the proposed interaction region would be located at the existing LHC Point 2.</p><p>Energy-recovery technology enables the performance goals to be reached with a total added energy footprint of only about 100 MW — addressing the growing need for energy efficiency in modern research facilities. Key parameter choices and constraints for the ERL configuration of the LHeC include the following<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 37" title="Agostini, P. et al. The large hadron–electron collider at the HL-LHC. J. Phys. G. 48, 110501 (2021)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5#ref-CR37" id="ref-link-section-d144775010e1565">37</a></sup>: a frequency of 802 MHz, for compatibility with the hadron beam and for optimum ERL operation efficiency (that frequency is also chosen for the high-energy phase of the FCC-ee, leading to useful synergy in the cavity development); a beam current of 20 mA to achieve the 10<sup>34</sup> cm<sup>−2</sup> s<sup>−1</sup> luminosity goal, leading to a maximum current of 120 mA in the cavities of the ERL, which is a major topic of study at PERLE; and an electron beam energy of 50 GeV to 60 GeV.</p><p>The Large Hadron Collider, with its major investment and outstanding physics and technical characteristics, represents a unique opportunity to realize a TeV-energy scale electron–hadron collider within the coming two decades. Owing to its high energy and luminosity, the LHeC physics programme has great discovery potential, both on its own and when considered in combination with the LHC. Many consider the LHeC to be a bridge towards a grand, future collider at CERN, a salient opportunity that — for physics, funding and accelerator-technology reasons — should not be missed.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec13">Other accelerator options for the LEP–LHC tunnel</h3><p>The infrastructure of the LEP–LHC tunnel is a unique asset for CERN, and there are many more options for future projects. In addition to the HE-LHC, FCC and LHeC mentioned in the section ‘A future for the CERN tunnel’, we also highlight here the FCC injector complex, an upgrade of LEP and a muon collider.</p><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec14">Injector for the FCC</h4><p>The FCC is one of the major design studies being pursued in Europe in preparation for the update of the European Strategy for Particle Physics (due in 2026). The centrepiece of the study is the construction at CERN of a new 90-km-long tunnel to house the FCC, but a powerful injector complex is also required.</p><p>To implement the hadron collider<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 34" title="Abada, A. et al. FCC-hh: the Hadron Collider. Eur. Phys. J. Spec. Top. 228, 755–1107 (2019)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5#ref-CR34" id="ref-link-section-d144775010e1597">34</a></sup> FCC-hh, the LHC machine could be reconfigured for use as an injector stage (just as previous colliders such as the SPS became injectors for LEP and LHC). In the present baseline plan for the FCC, LHC would be used at a reduced flat-top energy as the last ring of the proton injector chain. It would be kept more or less in the same configuration, with minimal maintenance, and would be in use with beam for about 10% of the time. Many of its systems (above all, the cryogenics) would, however, be operational and consuming energy 100% of the time (although with a noticeable reduction with respect to the LHC and HL-LHC high-performance runs). Clearly, in such a case, the additional use of the LHC in the 90% idle-time would be an obvious extension of CERN’s programme.</p><p>For the electron–positron collider<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 28" title="Abada, A. et al. FCC-ee: the lepton collider. Eur. Phys. J. Spec. Top. 228, 261–623 (2019)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5#ref-CR28" id="ref-link-section-d144775010e1604">28</a></sup> FCC-ee, the electron accelerator of the LHeC configuration could be re-used as the injector, with top-up injection capabilities: the baseline FCC-ee design assumes continuous running at the collision energy, with top-up of the beam intensities during this operation to maximize the time spent in collisions for data production; but this does require a rather powerful injector that can deliver beams at the collision energy to the accelerator ring.</p><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec15">LEP-III</h4><p>An older proposal, known as LEP-III, is to re-install an electron–positron collider in the LEP tunnel, with potential to study the properties of the Higgs boson. LEP performance was ultimately limited by the number of bunches that could be circulated inside the accelerator, owing to the common vacuum system for the electron and positron beams. Rebuilding LEP with a more powerful RF system and separate vacuum chambers for the two counter-rotating beams would allow a significant increase in the number of bunches per beam. LEP reached a peak luminosity of about 10<sup>32</sup> cm<sup>−2</sup> s<sup>−1</sup> at 100 GeV beam energy with four bunches per beam (Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5#Tab1">1</a>), and featured synchrotron-radiation losses of about 20 MW. LEP-III could deliver luminosities up to 10<sup>33</sup> cm<sup>−2</sup> s<sup>−1</sup> with synchrotron-radiation power losses up to 200 MW — about two orders of magnitude less than the performance reach of the FCC-ee machine.</p><p>A 2012 report<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 38" title="Blondel, A. et al. LEP3: A High Luminosity e+e− Collider to Study the Higgs Boson. Report No. CERN-ATS-Note-2012-062 TECH (CERN, 2012)." href="/articles/s42254-024-00758-5#ref-CR38" id="ref-link-section-d144775010e1635">38</a></sup> has projected luminosities up to 10<sup>34</sup> cm<sup>−2</sup> s<sup>−1</sup> for LEP-III if the focusing magnet arrangement near the detectors were modified: integrating the focusing quadrupoles only 4 m from the interaction point and reducing the optical function at the interaction by an order of magnitude with respect to that of LEP. However, such a high performance level also implies a beam lifetime of only 16 min, and a very powerful injector complex would be needed to perform continuous top-up injection into the LEP-III collider.</p><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec16">Muon collider inside the LEP–LHC tunnel</h4><p>Another more recent possibility stems from the <a href="https://muoncollider.web.cern.ch/">Muon Collider design study</a>, launched in 2021. The appealing feature of such a collider is that muons are elementary particles, like electrons but are more massive — hence, synchrotron radiation in a muon collider is much suppressed, compared with an electron–positron collider, and the production rate of Higgs bosons is much enhanced as the coupling is proportional to mass. In the version of a muon collider customized for the CERN site, the LHC tunnel would be used to host rapid-cycling synchrotrons, a critical part of the muon fast-acceleration chain: the LHC itself would need to be removed. However, a severe level of neutrino radiation has hampered previous designs, and it remains a big challenge for a high-energy, high-intensity muon collider.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Summary"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec17-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec17">Summary</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec17-content"><p>Over the past 70 years, CERN has built an impressive accelerator infrastructure — with the LEP–LHC tunnel as the crown jewel in this valuable complex. Many of the past CERN accelerator systems, once at the frontier of high-energy physics, are still operational today and represent an enabling infrastructure for the machines, particularly LEP and LHC, that have taken over at that frontier. Whether the future for the 27-km tunnel of CERN is as a host to new frontier-pushing machines such as the HE-LHC or LHeC, or as a servant to the FCC or a muon collider, that future is certainly bright.</p></div></div></section> </div> <div> <div id="MagazineFulltextArticleBodySuffix"><section aria-labelledby="Bib1" data-title="References"><div class="c-article-section" id="Bib1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Bib1">References</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Bib1-content"><div data-container-section="references"><ol class="c-article-references" data-track-component="outbound reference" data-track-context="references section"><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="1."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR1">Lawrence, E. O. & Livingston, M. S. The production of high speed light ions without the use of high voltages. <i>Phys. 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Report No. CERN-ATS-Note-2012-062 TECH (CERN, 2012).</p></li></ol><p class="c-article-references__download u-hide-print"><a data-track="click" data-track-action="download citation references" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow" href="https://citation-needed.springer.com/v2/references/10.1038/s42254-024-00758-5?format=refman&flavour=references">Download references<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-download-medium"></use></svg></a></p></div></div></div></section></div><section data-title="Acknowledgements"><div class="c-article-section" id="Ack1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Ack1">Acknowledgements</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Ack1-content"><p>It is with great sadness that we note that our co-author Max Klein passed away as the article was being prepared for publication. We lost a great scientist and friend. Our thoughts are with his family and friends. The projects described here are the result of the ingenuitive and collaborative work of thousands of technicians, engineers and physicists over several generations. The construction of the 27-km tunnel was carried out under then Director General of CERN H. Schopper, who supervised its realization and whom the authors cordially thank for advice on this paper.</p></div></div></section><section aria-labelledby="author-information" data-title="Author information"><div class="c-article-section" id="author-information-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="author-information">Author information</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="author-information-content"><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="affiliations">Authors and Affiliations</h3><ol class="c-article-author-affiliation__list"><li id="Aff1"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Accelerator & Technology Sector, Directors Office, CERN, Geneva, Switzerland</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Oliver Brüning</p></li><li id="Aff2"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Department of Physics, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Max Klein</p></li><li id="Aff3"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Retired from CERN, Geneva, Switzerland</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Stephen Myers</p></li><li id="Aff4"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Department of Physics, University of Milan, Milan, Italy</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Lucio Rossi</p></li><li id="Aff5"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">INFN Division of Milan, LASA Laboratory, Milan, Italy</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Lucio Rossi</p></li></ol><div class="u-js-hide u-hide-print" data-test="author-info"><span class="c-article__sub-heading">Authors</span><ol class="c-article-authors-search u-list-reset"><li id="auth-Oliver-Br_ning-Aff1"><span class="c-article-authors-search__title u-h3 js-search-name">Oliver Brüning</span><div class="c-article-authors-search__list"><div 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id="auth-Lucio-Rossi-Aff4-Aff5"><span class="c-article-authors-search__title u-h3 js-search-name">Lucio Rossi</span><div class="c-article-authors-search__list"><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--left"><a href="/search?author=Lucio%20Rossi" class="c-article-button" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - publication" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">View author publications</a></div><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--right"><p class="search-in-title-js c-article-authors-search__text">You can also search for this author in <span class="c-article-identifiers"><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=search&term=Lucio%20Rossi" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - pubmed" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">PubMed</a><span class="u-hide"> </span><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" 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