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It was known for building large, earthen [[platform mounds]], and often other shaped mounds as well.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url= http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-707|author= Adam King|title= Mississippian Period: Overview|encyclopedia= New Georgia Encyclopedia|date= 2002|access-date= 15 Nov 2009|archive-date= 1 March 2012|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120301201548/http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-707|url-status= dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia| author= John H. Blitz| title= Mississippian Period | url= http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-1130| publisher= Alabama Humanities Foundation |encyclopedia= Encyclopedia of Alabama}}</ref> It was composed of a series of urban settlements and [[satellite village]]s linked together by loose trading networks.<ref>{{Cite news| url= https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/national/daily/march/12/cahokia.htm| title= Metropolitan Life on the Mississippi | newspaper=Washington Post |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100115172643/https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/national/daily/march/12/cahokia.htm| archive-date=2010-01-15}}</ref> The largest city was [[Cahokia]], believed to be a major religious center, located in what is present-day southern [[Illinois]]. The Mississippian way of life began to develop in the [[Mississippi River]] Valley (for which it is named). Cultures in the tributary [[Tennessee River]] Valley may have also begun to develop Mississippian characteristics at this point. Almost all dated Mississippian sites predate 1539–1540 (when [[Hernando de Soto]] explored the area),<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://archaeology.about.com/od/mississippiancivilization/tp/Mississippian-Period-Sites.htm|title=Mississippian Period Archaeological Sites|newspaper=About.com Education|access-date=2016-12-13|archive-date=2016-12-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220103351/http://archaeology.about.com/od/mississippiancivilization/tp/Mississippian-Period-Sites.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> with notable exceptions being [[Natchez people|Natchez]] communities. These maintained Mississippian cultural practices into the 18th century.<ref>Barnett, Jim. [http://mshistorynow.mdah.state.ms.us/index.php?id=4 "The Natchez Indians"]. ''Mississippi History Now.'' Retrieved 1 Oct 2013.</ref> ==Cultural traits== [[File:Chromesun mississippian priest digital painting.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|A priest with a ceremonial flint mace and severed [[human sacrifice|sacrificial head]], based on a [[Mississippian copper plates|repoussé copper plate]]]] [[File:Spiro Wulfing and Etowah repousse plates HRoe 2012.jpg|thumb|right|[[Mississippian copper plates]]]] [[File:Bird Man Cahokia USA.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|Reconstruction of the [[Southeastern Ceremonial Complex#Birdman|Birdman]] burial at [[Cahokia]].]] [[File:Mound 72 sacrifice ceremony HRoe 2013.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|A [[human sacrifice]] of fifty-three [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] women at [[Cahokia]]]] [[File:Mississippian Underwater Panther ceramic.JPG|thumb|upright=0.9|Shell tempered ceramic effigy jug with swirls painted in clay slip, [[Parkin Archeological State Park#Culture of the Parkin phase people|Rose Mound]], [[Cross County, Arkansas]], U.S., 1400–1600, 8" (20 cm) high]]{{More citations needed section|date=September 2023}} A number of cultural traits are recognized as being characteristic of the Mississippians. Although not all Mississippian peoples practiced all of the following activities, they were distinct from their ancestors in the adoption of some or all of these traits. #The construction of large, truncated [[Earthworks (archaeology)|earthwork]] pyramid mounds, or [[platform mound]]s. Such mounds were usually square, rectangular, or occasionally circular. Structures (domestic houses, temples, [[Charnel house#New World|burial buildings]], or other) were usually constructed atop such mounds. #[[Maize]]-based agriculture. In most places, the development of Mississippian culture coincided with the adoption of comparatively large-scale, intensive maize agriculture, which supported larger populations and craft specialization. #[[Shell-tempered pottery]]. The adoption and use of riverine (or more rarely marine) shells as tempering agents in [[Mississippian culture pottery|ceramics]]. #Widespread trade networks extending as far west as the [[Rocky Mountains]], north to the [[Great Lakes]], south to the [[Gulf of Mexico]], and east to the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. #The development of the [[chiefdom]] or complex chiefdom level of social complexity. #The development of institutionalized [[social inequality]]. #A centralization of control of combined political and religious power in the hands of few or one. #The beginnings of a [[settlement hierarchy]], in which one major center (with [[mound]]s) has clear influence or control over a number of lesser communities, which may or may not possess a smaller number of mounds. #The adoption of the paraphernalia of the [[Southeastern Ceremonial Complex]] (SECC), also called the Southern Cult. This is the belief system of the Mississippians as we know it. SECC items are found in Mississippian-culture sites from [[Wisconsin]] (see [[Aztalan State Park]]) to the Gulf Coast, and from [[Florida]] to [[Arkansas]] and [[Oklahoma]]. The SECC was frequently tied into ritual game-playing, as with [[chunkey]]. The Mississippians had no [[writing system]] or stone architecture. They worked naturally occurring metal deposits, such as hammering and [[Annealing (metallurgy)|annealing]] copper for ritual objects such as [[Mississippian copper plates]] and other decorations,<ref>{{cite journal|title=Metallurgical analysis of copper artifacts from Cahokia|author1= Chastain, Matthew L.|author2= Deymier-Black, Alix C.|author3=Kelly, John E.|author4=Brown, James A.|author5= Dunand, David C.|journal=Journal of Archaeological Science|volume =38|number=7|date=July 2011|pages= 1727–1736|doi=10.1016/j.jas.2011.03.004|bibcode= 2011JArSc..38.1727C}}</ref> but did not smelt iron or practice bronze [[metallurgy]]. ==Chronology== The Mississippian stage is usually divided into three or more chronological periods. Each period is an arbitrary historical distinction varying regionally. At a particular site, each period may be considered to begin earlier or later, depending on the speed of adoption or development of given Mississippian traits. The "Mississippian period" should not be confused with the "Mississippian culture". The Mississippian period is the chronological stage, while Mississippian culture refers to the cultural similarities that characterize this society. *The '''Early Mississippian period''' ({{Circa|1000}}–1200) had just transitioned from the [[Woodland period|Late Woodland]] period way of life (500–1000). Different groups abandoned [[Tribe|tribal]] lifeways for increasing complexity, sedentism, centralization, and agriculture. Production of surplus corn and attractions of the regional chiefdoms led to rapid population concentrations in major centers. *The '''Middle Mississippian period''' ({{Circa|1200}}–1400) is the apex of the Mississippian era. The expansion of the great metropolis and ceremonial complex at [[Cahokia]] (in present-day Illinois), the formation of other complex [[chiefdom]]s, and the spread and development of SECC art and symbolism are characteristic changes of this period. The Mississippian traits listed above came to be widespread throughout the region. *The '''Late Mississippian period''' ({{Circa|1400}}–1540) is characterized by increasing warfare, political turmoil, and population movement. The population of Cahokia dispersed early in this period (1350–1400), perhaps migrating to other rising political centers. More defensive structures are often seen at sites, and sometimes a decline in mound-building and large-scale, public ceremonialism. Although some areas continued an essentially Middle Mississippian culture until the first significant contact with Europeans, the population of most areas had dispersed or were experiencing severe social stress by 1500.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Pauketat |first=Timothy R. |year=2003 |title=Resettled Farmers and the Making of a Mississippian Polity |journal=American Antiquity |volume=68 |issue=1 |pages=39–66 |doi=10.2307/3557032 |jstor=3557032 |s2cid=163856087 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Pauketat |first=Timothy R. |year=1998 |title=Refiguring the Archaeology of Greater Cahokia |journal=Journal of Archaeological Research |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=45–89 |doi=10.1023/A:1022839329522 |s2cid=195219118 }}</ref><ref>Sullivan, Lynne P., ''Archaeology of the Appalachian Highlands'', University of Tennessee Press, 2001 {{ISBN|1-57233-142-9}}.</ref> Along with the contemporaneous [[Ancestral Pueblo peoples]], these cultural collapses coincide with the global climate change of the [[Little Ice Age]]. The Little Ice Age led to a period of cold-season-like conditions which reduced effective moisture from 1200 to 1800, consistent with the population decline of Cahokia from 1200 and its abandonment from 1350 to 1400.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pompeani, D.P., Bird, B.W., Wilson, J.J., William P. Gilhooly III, Aubrey L. Hillman, Matthew S. Finkenbinder & Mark B. Abbott |date=5 July 2021 |title=Severe Little Ice Age drought in the midcontinental United States during the Mississippian abandonment of Cahokia |journal=Sci Rep |volume=11 |issue=13829|page=13829 |doi=10.1038/s41598-021-92900-x |pmid=34226591 |pmc=8257696 |bibcode=2021NatSR..1113829P |hdl=1805/29952 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Scholars theorize drought and the reduction of maize agriculture, together with possible deforestation and overhunting by the concentrated populations, forced them to move away from major sites. This period ended with European contact in the 16th century. ==Regional variations== ===Middle Mississippian=== [[File:Native American homestead - Wisconsin Historical Museum - DSC02854.JPG|thumb|right|upright=0.9|Replica of a Mississippian house from over 1000 years ago excavated at the [[Aztalan State Park|Aztalan]] site of the ''Oneota'' region in an exhibit at the [[Wisconsin Historical Museum]]]] [[File:Mississippian culture mound components HRoe 2011.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.9|A mound diagram of the Mississippian cultural period showing the multiple layers of mound construction, mound structures such as temples or mortuaries, ramps with log stairs, and prior structures under later layers, multiple terraces, and intrusive burials.]] [[File:Cahokia Aerial HRoe 2015.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|[[Cahokia]], the largest Mississippian culture site]] [[File:Kincaid Mounds 1300 CE HRoe 2017.jpg|right|upright=0.9|thumb|[[Kincaid Mounds State Historic Site|Kincaid]], showing its platform mounds and encircling palisade]] The term ''Middle Mississippian'' is also used to describe the core of the classic Mississippian culture area. This area covers the central Mississippi River Valley, the lower Ohio River Valley, and most of the Mid-South area, including western and central Kentucky, western Tennessee, and northern Alabama and Mississippi. Sites in this area often contain large ceremonial platform mounds, residential complexes and are often encircled by earthen ditches and ramparts or [[palisade]]s.<ref name=SEAC>{{cite web|url=http://www.nps.gov/seac/hnc/outline/05-mississippian/index.htm|title=Southeastern Prehistory:Mississippian and Late Prehistoric Period|access-date=2011-06-16|publisher=[[National Park Service]]}}</ref> Middle Mississippian cultures, especially the Cahokia polity located near [[East St. Louis, Illinois]], were very influential on neighboring societies. High-status artifacts, including [[Mississippian stone statuary#Cahokia Style|stone statuary]] and [[Mississippian culture pottery#Cahokian pottery|elite pottery]] associated with Cahokia, have been found far outside of the Middle Mississippian area. These items, especially the pottery, were also copied by local artists. * [[Cahokia]] (fl. 1050–1350 CE): The largest and most complex Mississippian site and the largest Pre-Columbian settlement north of Mexico, Cahokia is considered to have been the most influential of the Mississippian culture centers. Discoveries found at the massive site include evidence of copper working ([[Mound 34]]), astronomy ([[Cahokia Woodhenge]] and the symbolic [[Lunar standstill|maximum southern moon rise]] aligned [[Rattlesnake Causeway]]), and [[Retainer sacrifice#United States and Canada|ritual retainer burials]] ([[Mound 72]]). * [[Angel Mounds]]: A chiefdom in southern [[Indiana]] near [[Evansville, Indiana|Evansville]]. It is thought by some archaeologists that the Late Mississippian [[Caborn-Welborn culture]] developed from the [[Angel phase]] people around 1400 and lasted to around 1700 CE.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Caborn-Welborn - Constructing a New Society after the Angel Chiefdom Collapse|author=David Pollack|publisher=[[University of Alabama Press]]|year=2004|isbn=978-0-8173-5126-7|page=24}}</ref> * [[Kincaid Mounds State Historic Site|Kincaid site]]: A major Mississippian mound center in southern [[Illinois]] across the [[Ohio River]] from [[Paducah, Kentucky]]. * [[Moundville Archaeological Site|Moundville]]: Ranked with Cahokia as one of the two most important sites at the core of the Mississippian culture,<ref name=SEAC /> located near [[Tuscaloosa, Alabama]]. * [[Parkin Archeological State Park|The Parkin site]]: The [[type site]] for the "Parkin phase", an expression of Late Mississippian culture, believed by many archaeologists to be the province of [[Casqui]] visited by Hernando de Soto in 1542.<ref>{{cite book|author=Hudson, Charles M.|title =Knights of Spain, Warriors of the Sun|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780820318882|url-access=registration|year =1997|publisher=[[University of Georgia Press]]|isbn =9780820318882|author-link=Charles M. Hudson (author)}}</ref> ===South Appalachian Mississippian=== [[File:Etowah statues HRoe 2007.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|[[Mississippian stone statuary|Stone effigies]] found at the [[Etowah Indian Mounds|Etowah site]]]] The term ''South Appalachian Province'' was originally used by [[W. H. Holmes]] in 1903 to describe a regional ceramic style in the southeast involving surface decorations applied with a carved wooden paddle. By the late 1960s, archaeological investigations had shown the similarity of the culture that produced the pottery and the midwestern ''Mississippian pattern'' defined in 1937 by the Midwestern Taxonomic System. In 1967, [[James Bennett Griffin|James B. Griffin]] coined ''South Appalachian Mississippian'' to describe the evolving understanding of the peoples of the Southeast.<ref name=SEAC1974>{{cite conference|url=http://www.southeasternarchaeology.org/PDF/bulletins/SEAC%20Bulletin%2018.pdf|conference=Thirty First Southeastern Archaeological Conference|location=Atlanta, Georgia|last1=Ferguson|first1=Leland G.|editor-last=Drexel A.|editor-first=Peterson|title=South Appalachian Mississippian: A Definition and Introduction|pages=8–9|date=October 25–26, 1974|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314154656/http://www.southeasternarchaeology.org/PDF/bulletins/SEAC%20Bulletin%2018.pdf|archive-date=2012-03-14}}</ref> South Appalachian Mississippian area sites are distributed across a contiguous area including Alabama, Georgia, northern Florida, South Carolina, central and western North Carolina, and Tennessee. Chronologically this area became influenced by Mississippian culture later than the Middle Mississippian area (about 1000 as compared to 800) to its northwest. It is believed that the peoples of this area adopted Mississippian traits from their northwestern neighbors.<ref name=SEAC /> Typical settlements were located on riverine floodplains and included villages with defensive palisades enclosing platform mounds and residential areas.<ref name=SEAC /> [[Etowah Indian Mounds|Etowah]] and [[Ocmulgee National Monument|Ocmulgee]] in Georgia are both prominent examples of major South Appalachian Mississippian settlements. Both include multiple large earthwork mounds serving a variety of functions. Villages with single platform mounds were more typical of the river valley settlements throughout the mountainous area of southwest North and South Carolina and southeastern Tennessee that were known as the historic Cherokee homelands. In [[Western North Carolina]] for example, some 50 such mound sites in the eleven westernmost counties have been identified since the late 20th century, following increased research in this area of the Cherokee homeland.<ref name="steere">{{cite journal|url= https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/ja/2015/ja_2015_steere_001.pdf|last=Steere|first=Benjamin A.|title=Revisiting Platform Mounds and Townhouses in the Cherokee Heartland: A Collaborative Approach |journal=Southeastern Archaeology|date=2015|volume=34|number=3|pages=196–219|doi=10.1179/2168472315Y.0000000001|s2cid=155444628|access-date=15 Dec 2020}}</ref> ===Caddoan Mississippian=== {{Main|Caddoan Mississippian culture}} [[File:Caddoan Mississippian culture map HRoe 2010.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.9|Map of the Caddoan Mississippian culture]] [[File:Spiro Aerial HRoe 2016.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.9|[[Spiro Mounds|Spiro]], in eastern Oklahoma]] The Caddoan Mississippian area, a regional variant of the Mississippian culture, covered a large territory, including what is now eastern [[Oklahoma]], western [[Arkansas]], northeastern [[East Texas|Texas]], and northwestern [[Louisiana]]. Archaeological evidence has led to a scholarly consensus that the cultural continuity is unbroken from prehistory to the present, and that the [[Caddo]] and related [[Caddoan languages|Caddo language]] speakers in prehistoric times and at first European contact are the direct ancestors of the modern [[Caddo Nation of Oklahoma]].<ref name=TejasLinguistics>{{Cite web | url= http://www.texasbeyondhistory.net/tejas/fundamentals/languages.html | title= Tejas-Caddo Fundamentals-Caddoan Languages and Peoples | access-date= 2010-02-04 | archive-date= 2020-06-14 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200614185831/https://texasbeyondhistory.net/tejas/fundamentals/languages.html | url-status= dead }}</ref> The climate in this area was drier than areas in the eastern woodlands, hindering maize production, and the lower population on the plains to the west may have meant fewer neighboring competing chiefdoms to contend with. Major sites such as [[Spiro Mounds|Spiro]] and the [[Battle Mound Site]] are in the [[Arkansas River]] and [[Red River of the South|Red River]] Valleys, the largest and most fertile of the waterways in the Caddoan region, where maize agriculture would have been the most productive.<ref name=Tejas>{{Cite web|url=http://www.texasbeyondhistory.net/Tejas/fundamentals/miss.html|title=Tejas-Caddo Fundamentals-Mississippian World|access-date=2010-02-04|archive-date=2010-01-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100121073127/http://www.texasbeyondhistory.net/tejas/fundamentals/miss.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> The sites generally lacked wooden [[palisade]] fortifications often found in the major Middle Mississippian towns. Living on the western edge of the Mississippian world, the Caddoans may have faced fewer military threats from their neighbors. Their societies may also have had a somewhat lower level of [[social stratification]]. The Caddoan people were speakers of one of the many [[Caddoan languages]].<ref name="TejasLinguistics"/> These languages once had a broad geographic distribution, but many are now extinct. The modern languages in the Caddoan family include Caddo and [[Pawnee language|Pawnee]]. Hernando de Soto led an expedition into the area in the early 1540s, he [[List of sites and peoples visited by the Hernando de Soto Expedition|encountered several native groups]] now thought to have been Caddoan. Composed of many tribes, the Caddo were organized into three confederacies, the [[Hasinai]], [[Kadohadacho]], and [[Natchitoches people|Natchitoches]], which were all linked by their similar languages. ===Plaquemine Mississippian=== {{Main|Plaquemine culture}} [[File:Plaquemine culture map HRoe 2010.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|Map showing the geographical extent of the Plaquemine culture and some of its major sites]] The Plaquemine culture was an [[archaeological culture]] in the lower [[Mississippi River]] Valley in western [[Mississippi]] and eastern [[Louisiana]]. Good examples of this culture are the [[Medora site]] (the [[type site]] for the culture and period) in [[West Baton Rouge Parish, Louisiana]], and the [[Anna site|Anna]], [[Emerald Mound site|Emerald Mound]], [[Winterville site|Winterville]] and [[Holly Bluff site|Holly Bluff]] sites located in Mississippi.<ref name=SEAC /> Plaquemine culture was contemporaneous with the Middle Mississippian culture at the [[Cahokia]] site near [[St. Louis]], Missouri. It is considered ancestral to the [[Natchez people|Natchez]] and [[Taensa]] Peoples.<ref name="The Plaquemine Culture, AD 1000">{{cite web | url = http://bcn.boulder.co.us/environment/cacv/cacvbrvl.htm| title = The Plaquemine Culture, A.D 1000 |publisher=Cedar Mesa Project |access-date = 2013-10-02 }}</ref> *[[Emerald Mound site|Emerald Mound]]: A [[Plaquemine culture|Plaquemine Mississippian]] period archaeological site located on the [[Natchez Trace Parkway]] near [[Stanton, Mississippi]]. The site dates from the period between 1200 and 1730. The platform mound is the second-largest Pre-Columbian earthwork in the country, after [[Monks Mound]] at Cahokia. *[[Grand Village of the Natchez]]: The main village of the [[Natchez people]], with three mounds. The only mound site to be used and maintained into historic times. ==Known Mississippian settlements== {{main|List of Mississippian sites}} Although the Mississippian culture was heavily disrupted before a complete understanding of the political landscape was written down, many Mississippian political bodies were documented and others have been discovered by research. ==Related modern nations== {{More citations needed|section|date=April 2023}} Mississippian peoples were ancestral to the majority of the American Indian nations living in this region when European trade began.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ethridge |first=Robbie Franklyn |year=2010 |title=From Chicaza to Chickasaw: The European Invasion and the Transformation of the Mississippian World, 1540–1715 |location=Chapel Hill, North Carolina |publisher=University of North Carolina Press |isbn=978-0-8078-9933-5 }}</ref> The historic and modern day American Indian nations believed to have descended from the overarching Mississippian culture include: the [[Alabama people|Alabama]], [[Apalachee]], [[Arikara]], [[Caddo]], [[Chickasaw]],<ref name="DuVal-list">{{Cite book|last=DuVal |first=Kathleen |year=2006 |chapter=Table 1. Indian Peoples of the Mid-Continent 1670s–1750s |title=[[The Native Ground: Indians and Colonists in the Heart of the Continent]] |location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |pages=66–67 |isbn=978-0-8122-0182-6 }}</ref> [[Catawba people|Catawba]],{{citation needed|date=January 2020}} [[Choctaw]],<ref name="DuVal-list" /> [[Muscogee Creek people|Muscogee Creek]], [[Guale]], [[Hitchiti]], [[Ho-Chunk]],{{citation needed|date=January 2020}} [[Houma people|Houma]], [[Iowa people|Iowa]],{{citation needed|date=January 2020}} [[Kaw people|Kansa]], [[Koroas]],<ref name="DuVal-list" /> [[Missouria]], [[Mabila|Mobilian]], [[Natchez people|Natchez]],<ref name="DuVal-list" /> [[Omaha_people|Omaha]], [[Osage Nation|Osage]] (possibly),<ref name="DuVal-list" /> [[Otoe]],{{citation needed|date=January 2020}} [[Pawnee people|Pawnee]], [[Ponca]],{{citation needed|date=January 2020}} [[Quapaw]] (possibly),<ref name="DuVal-list" /> [[Seminole]] (broad origins),<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Mahon |first1=John K. |last2=Weisman |first2=Brent R. |year=1996 |chapter=Florida's Seminole and Miccosukee Peoples |editor-last=Gannon |editor-first=Michael |title=The New History of Florida |pages=183–187 |location=Gainesville |publisher=University Press of Florida |isbn=978-0-8130-1415-9}}</ref> [[Taensas]],<ref name="DuVal-list" /> [[Tunica-Biloxi|Tunicas]],<ref name="DuVal-list" /> [[Yamasee]], [[Yazoos]],<ref name="DuVal-list" /> and [[Yuchi]].{{Citation needed|reason=15 Nov 2009|date=November 2009}} ==Contact with Europeans== {{see also|Mississippian shatter zone}} [[File:DeSoto Map HRoe 2008.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|A map showing the de Soto route through the Southeast]] Scholars have studied the records of [[Hernando de Soto]]'s expedition of 1539–1543 to learn of his contacts with Mississippians, as he traveled through their villages of the Southeast. He visited many villages, in some cases staying for a month or longer. The [[list of sites and peoples visited by the Hernando de Soto Expedition]] chronicles those villages. Some encounters were violent, while others were relatively peaceful. In some cases, de Soto seems to have been used as a tool or ally in long-standing native feuds. In one example, de Soto negotiated a truce between the [[Pacaha]] and the [[Casqui]]. De Soto's later encounters left about half of the Spaniards and perhaps many hundreds of Native Americans dead. The chronicles of de Soto are among the first documents written about Mississippian peoples and are an invaluable source of information on their cultural practices. The chronicles of the [[Narváez expedition]] were written before the de Soto expedition; the Narváez expedition informed the Court of de Soto about the New World. After the destruction and flight of the de Soto expedition, the Mississippian peoples continued their way of life with little direct European influence. Indirectly, however, European introductions dramatically changed these native societies. Because the natives lacked [[immunity (medical)|immunity]] to [[infectious diseases]] unknowingly carried by the Europeans, such as [[measles]] and [[smallpox]], epidemics caused so many fatalities that they undermined the social order of many chiefdoms. Some groups adopted European horses and changed to [[nomadism]].<ref>Bense pp.&nbsp;256–257, 275–279</ref> Political structures collapsed in many places. At [[Joara]], near [[Morganton, North Carolina]], Native Americans of the Mississippian culture interacted with [[Spain|Spanish]] colonizers of the [[Juan Pardo (explorer)|Juan Pardo]] expedition, who built a base there in 1567 called [[Fort San Juan (Joara)|Fort San Juan]]. Expedition documentation and archaeological evidence of the fort and Native American culture both exist. The soldiers were at the fort about 18 months (1567–1568) before the natives killed them and destroyed the fort. (They killed soldiers stationed at five other forts as well; only one man of 120 survived.) Sixteenth-century Spanish artifacts have been recovered from the site, marking the first European colonization in the interior of what became the United States.<ref>Constance E. Richards, "[http://www.warren-wilson.edu/~arch/berrysitepress/amerarchspring2008.pdf Contact and Conflict] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090624110618/http://www.warren-wilson.edu/~arch/berrysitepress/amerarchspring2008.pdf |date=2009-06-24 }}", ''American Archaeologist'', Spring 2004, accessed 26 Jun 2008</ref> By the time more documentary accounts were being written, the Mississippian way of life had changed irrevocably. Some groups maintained an oral tradition link to their mound-building past, such as the late 19th-century [[Cherokee]].<ref>Hudson pp.&nbsp;334</ref> Other Native American groups, having migrated many hundreds of miles and lost their elders to diseases, did not know their ancestors had built the mounds dotting the landscape. This contributed to the myth of the [[Mound builder (people)|Mound Builders]] as a people distinct from Native Americans, which was rigorously debunked by [[Cyrus Thomas]] in 1894. ==See also== * [[List of Mississippian sites]] * [[List of burial mounds in the United States]] * [[Ocmulgee Mounds National Historical Park]] * [[Southeastern Ceremonial Complex]] ==Notes== {{Reflist|2}} ==References== * Bense, Judith A. ''Archaeology of the Southeastern United States: Paleoindian to World War I''. Academic Press, New York, 1994. {{ISBN|0-12-089060-7}}. * Cheryl Anne Cox; and David H. Dye, eds; ''Towns and Temples along the Mississippi.'' University of Alabama Press, 1990 * [[Charles M. Hudson (author)|Hudson, Charles]]; ''The Southeastern Indians''. University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville, 1976. {{ISBN|0-87049-248-9}}. * [[Charles R. Keyes|Keyes, Charles R.]] Prehistoric Man in Iowa. Palimpsest 8(6):185–229. (1927). * O'Connor, Mallory McCane. ''Lost Cities of the Ancient Southeast.'' University Press of Florida, Florida A & M University, Gainesville, Fla., 1995. {{ISBN|0-8130-1350-X}}. * [[Timothy Pauketat|Pauketat, Timothy R.]]; ''The Ascent of Chiefs: Cahokia and Mississippian Politics in Native North America''. University of Alabama Press, 1994, {{ISBN|978-0-8173-0728-8}}. * Pauketat, Timothy R.; "The Forgotten History of the Mississippians" in ''North American Archaeology.'' Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 2005. ==External links== {{Commons category|Mississippian culture}} *[https://web.archive.org/web/20170215021150/https://www.nps.gov/SEAC/hnc/outline/05-mississippian/index.htm The Mississippian and Late Prehistoric Period], [[National Park Service]] Southeastern Archaeology Center, archived at [[Internet Archive]] *[http://www.texasbeyondhistory.net/tejas/fundamentals/miss.html Mississippian World] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100121073127/http://www.texasbeyondhistory.net/tejas/fundamentals/miss.html |date=2010-01-21 }}, Texas Beyond History *[https://web.archive.org/web/20081006185053/http://www.cahokiamounds.com/cahokia.html Cahokia Mounds] *[http://www.ngeorgia.com/parks/etowah.html Etowah Indian Mounds State Historic Site] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051215040554/http://www.ngeorgia.com/parks/etowah.html |date=2005-12-15 }} *[http://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/mounds/ Indian Mounds of Mississippi, a National Park Service ''Discover Our Shared Heritage'' Travel Itinerary] *[[Moundville Archaeological Park]] [http://moundville.ua.edu/] *[[Chucalissa Museum]] and [http://chucalissa.memphis.edu/ Archaeological site] *[http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/face/Article.jsp?id=h-1130 Mississippian Period] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141218010053/http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/face/Article.jsp?id=h-1130 |date=2014-12-18 }} in ''[[Encyclopedia of Alabama]]'' *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yL8UuoYFYpQ Animation: Towns and Temples of the Mississippian Culture-5 Sites] {{Mississippian and related cultures}} {{Pre-Columbian North America}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Mississippian culture}} [[Category:Mississippian culture| ]] [[Category:Mound Builders]] [[Category:Archaeological cultures of North America]] [[Category:History of Indigenous peoples of North America]] [[Category:Native American history]] [[Category:Formative period in the Americas]] [[Category:Indigenous peoples of the Southeastern Woodlands]] [[Category:Great Lakes tribes]] [[Category:Mississippi River]] [[Category:Pre-Columbian civilizations]] [[Category:Post-Archaic period in North America]] [[Category:8th-century establishments in North America]] [[Category:16th-century disestablishments in North America]] [[Category:Pyramids in the United States]] </textarea><div class="templatesUsed"><div class="mw-templatesUsedExplanation"><p><span id="templatesused">Pages transcluded onto the current version of this page<span class="posteditwindowhelplinks"> (<a href="/wiki/Help:Transclusion" title="Help:Transclusion">help</a>)</span>:</span> </p></div><ul> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Ambox" title="Template:Ambox">Template:Ambox</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Ambox&action=edit" title="Template:Ambox">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Catalog_lookup_link" title="Template:Catalog lookup link">Template:Catalog lookup link</a> (<a 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