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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Names" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Names"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Names</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Names-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Western_Abenaki" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Western_Abenaki"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Western Abenaki</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Western_Abenaki-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Western Abenaki subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Western_Abenaki-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Wabanaki_Nation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wabanaki_Nation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Wabanaki Nation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wabanaki_Nation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eastern_Abenaki" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eastern_Abenaki"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Eastern Abenaki</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eastern_Abenaki-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Location" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Location"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Location</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Location-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Language</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Abenaki_wars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abenaki_wars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Abenaki wars</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abenaki_wars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Canada</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Maine:_federally_recognized_tribes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maine:_federally_recognized_tribes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3.1</span> <span>Maine: federally recognized tribes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maine:_federally_recognized_tribes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vermont:_state-recognized_tribes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vermont:_state-recognized_tribes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3.2</span> <span>Vermont: state-recognized tribes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vermont:_state-recognized_tribes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-"Race-shifting"_controversy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Race-shifting"_controversy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3.2.1</span> <span>"Race-shifting" controversy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Race-shifting"_controversy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_Hampshire_and_minority_recognition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_Hampshire_and_minority_recognition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3.3</span> <span>New Hampshire and minority recognition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_Hampshire_and_minority_recognition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Culture</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Culture subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Gender,_food,_division_of_labor,_and_other_cultural_traits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gender,_food,_division_of_labor,_and_other_cultural_traits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Gender, food, division of labor, and other cultural traits</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gender,_food,_division_of_labor,_and_other_cultural_traits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Storytelling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Storytelling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Storytelling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Storytelling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mythology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mythology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Mythology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mythology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethnobotany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethnobotany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Ethnobotany</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethnobotany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Population_and_epidemics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Population_and_epidemics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Population and epidemics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Population_and_epidemics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fiction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fiction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Fiction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fiction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-fiction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-fiction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Non-fiction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-fiction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Maps" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maps"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Maps</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maps-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_historic_Abenaki_people" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_historic_Abenaki_people"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Notable historic Abenaki people</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_historic_Abenaki_people-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_contemporary_Abenaki_people" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_contemporary_Abenaki_people"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Notable contemporary Abenaki people</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_contemporary_Abenaki_people-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Footnotes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Abenaki</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 38 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-38" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">38 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%83%D9%8A" title="أبيناكي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="أبيناكي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abenaklar" title="Abenaklar – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Abenaklar" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%8F%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BF_%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF" title="এবিনাকি উপজাতি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="এবিনাকি উপজাতি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%96" title="Абенакі – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Абенакі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Абенаки – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Абенаки" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abnakis" title="Abnakis – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Abnakis" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abenakov%C3%A9" title="Abenakové – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Abenakové" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abenaki" title="Abenaki – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Abenaki" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abenaki" title="Abenaki – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Abenaki" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BC%CF%80%CE%B5%CE%BD%CE%AC%CE%BA%CE%B9" title="Αμπενάκι – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αμπενάκι" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abenaki" title="Abenaki – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Abenaki" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ab%C3%A9naquis" title="Abénaquis – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Abénaquis" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pobo_abnaki" title="Pobo abnaki – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Pobo abnaki" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%84%EB%B2%A0%EB%82%98%ED%82%A4%EC%A1%B1" title="아베나키족 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="아베나키족" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abenaki" title="Abenaki – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Abenaki" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abenachi" title="Abenachi – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Abenachi" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%99%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="აბენაკები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="აბენაკები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Абенаки – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Абенаки" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abenaki" title="Abenaki – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Abenaki" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abenaki" title="Abenaki – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Abenaki" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abenaki_(volk)" title="Abenaki (volk) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Abenaki (volk)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%99%E3%83%8A%E3%82%AD%E6%97%8F" title="アベナキ族 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アベナキ族" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abenaki" title="Abenaki – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Abenaki" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abenakifolk" title="Abenakifolk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Abenakifolk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abenakowie" title="Abenakowie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Abenakowie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abenaki" title="Abenaki – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Abenaki" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abenaki" title="Abenaki – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Abenaki" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Абенаки – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Абенаки" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abenaki" title="Abenaki – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Abenaki" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Абенаки – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Абенаки" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abenaki" title="Abenaki – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Abenaki" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abenakit" title="Abenakit – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Abenakit" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abenakis" title="Abenakis – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Abenakis" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abenakiler" title="Abenakiler – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Abenakiler" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" 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</div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenakis&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Abenakis">Abenakis</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Indigenous people of the Northeastern Woodlands of Canada and the US</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ethnic group</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><caption class="infobox-title fn org">Abenaki</caption><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above nickname" style="font-size:115%; font-weight:normal;"><div>Wαpánahki</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Abenakis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Abenakis.jpg/220px-Abenakis.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Abenakis.jpg/330px-Abenakis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Abenakis.jpg/440px-Abenakis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="926" data-file-height="1055" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Total population</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">~21,000</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Regions with significant populations</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Canada</th><td class="infobox-data">18,420 <small>(2021)</small><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a></th><td class="infobox-data">16,400<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">United States (Vermont, New Hampshire, Maine), self-identified</th><td class="infobox-data">2,544 <small>(2000)</small><sup id="cite_ref-UXL_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UXL-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Languages</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/Abenaki_language" title="Abenaki language">Abenaki</a>, French, English</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Religion</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/Abenaki_mythology" title="Abenaki mythology">Abenaki mythology</a> (Wabanaki), <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Related ethnic groups</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">Other <a href="/wiki/Algonquian_peoples" title="Algonquian peoples">Algonquian peoples</a><br />Especially <a href="/wiki/Wolastoqiyik" title="Wolastoqiyik">Wolastoqiyik</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mi%27kmaq" title="Mi'kmaq">Mi'kmaq</a>, <a href="/wiki/Passamaquoddy" title="Passamaquoddy">Passamaquoddy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Penobscot" title="Penobscot">Penobscot</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="background:#fff6d9"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:#fee8ab">People</th><td class="infobox-data">Alnôbak (Wôbanakiak)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:#fee8ab">Language</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Abenaki_language" title="Abenaki language">Abenaki</a> (Alnôbadôwawôgan),<br /><a href="/wiki/Plains_Indian_Sign_Language" title="Plains Indian Sign Language">Plains Indian Sign Language</a> (Môgiadawawôgan)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:#fee8ab">Country</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Wabanaki_Confederacy" title="Wabanaki Confederacy">Dawnland</a> (Ndakinna)<br />     Wabanaki</td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Abenaki</b> (<a href="/wiki/Abenaki_language" title="Abenaki language">Abenaki</a>: <i>Wαpánahki</i>) are <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Northeastern_Woodlands" title="Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands">Indigenous people of the Northeastern Woodlands</a> of Canada and the United States. They are an <a href="/wiki/Algonquian_languages" title="Algonquian languages">Algonquian</a>-speaking people and part of the <a href="/wiki/Wabanaki_Confederacy" title="Wabanaki Confederacy">Wabanaki Confederacy</a>. The Eastern <a href="/wiki/Abenaki_language" title="Abenaki language">Abenaki language</a> was predominantly spoken in <a href="/wiki/Maine" title="Maine">Maine</a>, while the Western Abenaki language was spoken in <a href="/wiki/Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vermont" title="Vermont">Vermont</a>, and <a href="/wiki/New_Hampshire" title="New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a>. </p><p>While Abenaki peoples have shared cultural traits, they did not historically have a centralized government.<sup id="cite_ref-Sultzman_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sultzman-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They came together as a post-contact community after their original tribes were <a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_indigenous_peoples" title="Genocide of indigenous peoples">decimated by colonization, disease, and warfare</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Names">Names</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Names"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The word <i>Abenaki</i> and its <a href="/wiki/Syncope_(phonology)" title="Syncope (phonology)">syncope</a>, <i>Abnaki,</i> are both derived from <i>Wabanaki</i>, or <i>Wôbanakiak,</i> meaning "People of the Dawn Land" in the <a href="/wiki/Abenaki_language" title="Abenaki language">Abenaki language</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-UXL_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UXL-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the two terms are often confused, the Abenaki are one of several tribes in the <a href="/wiki/Wabanaki_Confederacy" title="Wabanaki Confederacy">Wabanaki Confederacy</a>. </p><p>Alternate spellings include: <i>Abnaki</i>, <i>Abinaki</i>, <i>Alnôbak</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Abanakee</i>, <i>Abanaki</i>, <i>Abanaqui</i>, <i>Abanaquois</i>, <i>Abenaka</i>, <i>Abenake</i>, <i>Abenaki</i>, <i>Abenakias</i>, <i>Abenakiss</i>, <i>Abenakkis</i>, <i>Abenaque</i>, <i>Abenaqui</i>, <i>Abenaquioict</i>, <i>Abenaquiois</i>, <i>Abenaquioue</i>, <i>Abenati</i>, <i>Abeneaguis</i>, <i>Abenequa</i>, <i>Abenkai</i>, <i>Abenquois</i>, <i>Abernaqui</i>, <i>Abnaqui</i>, <i>Abnaquies</i>, <i>Abnaquois</i>, <i>Abnaquotii</i>, <i>Abasque</i>, <i>Abnekais</i>, <i>Abneki</i>, <i>Abonakies</i>, <i>Abonnekee</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-clark_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-clark-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>Wôbanakiak</i> is derived from <i>wôban</i> ("dawn" or "east") and <i>aki</i> ("land")<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (compare <a href="/wiki/Proto-Algonquian_language" title="Proto-Algonquian language">Proto-Algonquian</a> <i>*wa·pan</i> and <i>*axkyi</i>) — the aboriginal name of the area broadly corresponding to <a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Maritimes" title="The Maritimes">the Maritimes</a>. It is sometimes used to refer to all the <a href="/wiki/Algonquian_peoples" title="Algonquian peoples">Algonquian-speaking peoples</a> of the area—Western Abenaki, Eastern Abenaki, <a href="/wiki/Wolastoqiyik" title="Wolastoqiyik">Wolastoqiyik</a>-<a href="/wiki/Passamaquoddy" title="Passamaquoddy">Passamaquoddy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mi%27kmaq" title="Mi'kmaq">Mi'kmaq</a>—as a single group.<sup id="cite_ref-UXL_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UXL-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Abenaki people also call themselves <i>Alnôbak</i>, meaning "Real People" (c.f., <a href="/wiki/Delaware_languages" title="Delaware languages">Lenape language</a>: <i><a href="/wiki/Lenape" title="Lenape">Lenapek</a></i>) and by the <a href="/wiki/Endonym_and_exonym" title="Endonym and exonym">autonym</a> <i>Alnanbal,</i> meaning "men".<sup id="cite_ref-Sultzman_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sultzman-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historically, ethnologists have classified the Abenaki by geographic groups: <i>Western Abenaki</i> and <i>Eastern Abenaki</i>. Within these groups are the Abenaki bands: </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Western_Abenaki">Western Abenaki</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Western Abenaki"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wohngebiet_Westlicheabenaki.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Wohngebiet_Westlicheabenaki.png/220px-Wohngebiet_Westlicheabenaki.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="286" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Wohngebiet_Westlicheabenaki.png/330px-Wohngebiet_Westlicheabenaki.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Wohngebiet_Westlicheabenaki.png/440px-Wohngebiet_Westlicheabenaki.png 2x" data-file-width="1255" data-file-height="1633" /></a><figcaption>Historical territories of Western Abenaki tribes, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 17th century</span></figcaption></figure> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Androscoggin_people" title="Androscoggin people">Androscoggin</a></i> (also <i>Arsigantegok</i> <i>Arrasaguntacook</i>, <i>Ersegontegog</i>, <i>Assagunticook</i>, <i>Anasaguntacook</i>), lived along the <a href="/wiki/Saint-Fran%C3%A7ois_River" title="Saint-François River">St. Francis River</a> in Québec. Principal village: St. Francis (<a href="/wiki/Odanak" title="Odanak">Odanak</a>). The people were referred to as "St. Francis River Abenakis", and this term gradually was applied to all Western Abenaki.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cowasuck" title="Cowasuck">Cowasuck</a></i> (also <i>Cohass</i>, <i>Cohasiac</i>, <i>Koasek</i>, <i>Koasek</i>, <i>Coos</i> – "People of the Pines"), lived in the upper <a href="/wiki/Connecticut_River" title="Connecticut River">Connecticut River</a> Valley. Principal village: <i>Cowass</i>, near <a href="/wiki/Newbury_(village),_Vermont" title="Newbury (village), Vermont">Newbury, Vermont</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Missiquoi" title="Missiquoi">Missiquoi</a></i> (also <i>Masipskwoik</i>, <i>Mazipskikskoik</i>, <i>Missique</i>, <i>Misiskuoi</i>, <i>Missisco</i>, <i>Missiassik</i> – "People of the Flint"), also known as the Sokoki. They lived in the <a href="/wiki/Missisquoi_River" title="Missisquoi River">Missisquoi Valley</a>, from <a href="/wiki/Lake_Champlain" title="Lake Champlain">Lake Champlain</a> to the <a href="/wiki/River_source" title="River source">headwaters</a>. Principal village around <a href="/wiki/Swanton,_Vermont_(village)" title="Swanton, Vermont (village)">Swanton, Vermont</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Abenaki_Nation_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abenaki_Nation-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Missiquoi" title="Missiquoi">Sokoki</a></i> (also <i>Sokwaki</i>, <i>Squakheag</i>, <i>Socoquis</i>, <i>Sokoquius</i>, <i>Zooquagese</i>, <i>Soquachjck</i>, <i>Onejagese</i> – "People Who Separated"), lived in the Middle and Upper Connecticut River Valley. Principal villages: <i>Squakheag</i>, <a href="/wiki/Northfield,_Massachusetts" title="Northfield, Massachusetts">Northfield, Massachusetts</a>, and Fort Hill.</li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pennacook" title="Pennacook">Pennacook</a></i> (also <i>Penacook</i>, <i>Penikoke</i>, <i>Openango</i>), lived in the <a href="/wiki/Merrimack_Valley" title="Merrimack Valley">Merrimack Valley</a>, therefore sometimes called <i>Merrimack</i>. Principal village <a href="/wiki/Penacook,_New_Hampshire" title="Penacook, New Hampshire">Penacook, New Hampshire</a>. The Pennacook were once a large confederacy who were politically distinct and competitive with their northern Abenaki neighbors.</li></ul> <p>Smaller tribes: </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amoskeay&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Amoskeay (page does not exist)">Amoskeay</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cocheco_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cocheco people (page does not exist)">Cocheco</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nashaway" title="Nashaway">Nashua</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ossipee,_New_Hampshire#History" title="Ossipee, New Hampshire">Ossipee</a></i>, lived along the shores of <a href="/wiki/Ossipee_Lake" title="Ossipee Lake">Ossipee Lake</a> in east-central New Hampshire. Often classed as <i>Eastern Abenaki</i>.</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pemigewasset_people&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pemigewasset people (page does not exist)">Pemigewasset</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Piscataqua_River#History" title="Piscataqua River">Piscataqua</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Souhegan_River#Etymology" title="Souhegan River">Souhegan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lake_Winnipesaukee#History" title="Lake Winnipesaukee">Winnipesaukee</a></i> (also <i>Winnibisauga</i>, <i>Wioninebeseck</i>, <i>Winninebesakik</i> – "region of the land around lakes"), lived along the shores of <a href="/wiki/Lake_Winnipesaukee" title="Lake Winnipesaukee">Lake Winnipesaukee</a>, New Hampshire.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wabanaki_Nation">Wabanaki Nation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Wabanaki Nation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Odanak" title="Odanak">Odanak</a></i> (also known as <i><a href="/wiki/Pierreville,_Quebec" title="Pierreville, Quebec">Pierreville</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nicolet-Yamaska_Regional_County_Municipality" title="Nicolet-Yamaska Regional County Municipality">MRC Nicolet-Yamaska</a></i>), lived southwest of <a href="/wiki/Trois-Rivi%C3%A8res" title="Trois-Rivières">Trois-Rivières</a>, <a href="/wiki/Centre-du-Qu%C3%A9bec" title="Centre-du-Québec">Centre-du-Québec</a>, and included settlements along the <a href="/wiki/Saint-Fran%C3%A7ois_River" title="Saint-François River">Saint-François River</a> and <a href="/wiki/Magog_River" title="Magog River">Magog River</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/W%C3%B4linak" title="Wôlinak">Wôlinak</a></i> (also <i><a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9cancour,_Quebec_(community)" title="Bécancour, Quebec (community)">Becancour</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9cancour_Regional_County_Municipality" title="Bécancour Regional County Municipality">MRC Becancour</a>), lived around Trois-Rivières, Centre-du-Québec, and included settlements along the <a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9cancour_River" title="Bécancour River">Bécancour River</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Eastern_Abenaki">Eastern Abenaki</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Eastern Abenaki"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wohngebiet_Oestlicheabenaki.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Wohngebiet_Oestlicheabenaki.png/220px-Wohngebiet_Oestlicheabenaki.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="306" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Wohngebiet_Oestlicheabenaki.png/330px-Wohngebiet_Oestlicheabenaki.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Wohngebiet_Oestlicheabenaki.png/440px-Wohngebiet_Oestlicheabenaki.png 2x" data-file-width="1247" data-file-height="1732" /></a><figcaption>Eastern Abenaki</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Androscoggin_people" title="Androscoggin people">Androscoggin</a></i> (also <i>Alessikantekw</i>, <i>Arosaguntacock</i>, <i>Amariscoggin</i>), lived in the Androscoggin Valley and along the <a href="/wiki/Saint-Fran%C3%A7ois_River" title="Saint-François River">St. Francis River</a>, therefore often called "St. Francis River Abenaki".</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Norridgewock" title="Norridgewock">Kennebec</a></i> (also <i>Kinipekw</i>, <i>Kennebeck</i>, <i>Caniba</i>, later known as <i><a href="/wiki/Norridgewock" title="Norridgewock">Norridgewock</a></i>), lived in the Kennebec River Valley in northern Maine. Principal village: Norridgewock (Naridgewalk, Neridgewok, Noronjawoke); other villages: Amaseconti (Amesokanti, Anmissoukanti), Kennebec, and Sagadahoc.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Penobscot" title="Penobscot">Penobscot</a></i> (also <i>Panawahpskek</i>, <i>Pamnaouamske</i>, <i>Pentagouet</i>), lived in the <a href="/wiki/Penobscot_River" title="Penobscot River">Penobscot Valley</a>. Principal villages: Penobscot (Pentagouet), now <a href="/wiki/Penobscot_Indian_Island_Reservation" title="Penobscot Indian Island Reservation">Indian Island</a>, <a href="/wiki/Old_Town,_Maine" title="Old Town, Maine">Old Town, Maine</a>; other villages: Agguncia, Asnela, Catawamtek, <a href="/wiki/Kenduskeag,_Maine" title="Kenduskeag, Maine">Kenduskeag</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mattawamkeag,_Maine" title="Mattawamkeag, Maine">Mattawamkeag</a>, Meecombe, Negas, Olamon, <a href="/wiki/Passadumkeag,_Maine" title="Passadumkeag, Maine">Passadumkeag</a>, Precaute, Segocket, and Wabigganus. Now a separate <a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_in_the_contiguous_United_States" title="List of federally recognized tribes in the contiguous United States">federally recognized tribe</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pequawket" title="Pequawket">Pequawket</a></i> (also <i>Pigwacket</i>, <i>Pequaki</i>), lived along the <a href="/wiki/Saco_River" title="Saco River">Saco River</a> and in the <a href="/wiki/White_Mountains_(New_England)" title="White Mountains (New England)">White Mountains</a>. Principal village Pigwacket was located on the upper Saco River near present-day <a href="/wiki/Fryeburg,_Maine" title="Fryeburg, Maine">Fryeburg, Maine</a>. Occupied an intermediate location, therefore sometimes classed as <i>Western Abenaki</i>.</li></ul> <p>Smaller tribes: </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Apikwahki&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Apikwahki (page does not exist)">Apikwahki</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amaseconti&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Amaseconti (page does not exist)">Amaseconti</a></i>, potentially related to the Androsgoggins, they lived between the upper <a href="/wiki/Kennebec_River" title="Kennebec River">Kennebec</a> and <a href="/wiki/Androscoggin_River" title="Androscoggin River">Androscoggin</a> rivers in western <a href="/wiki/Maine" title="Maine">Maine</a>, their central village was somewhere near modern day <a href="/wiki/Farmington,_Maine" title="Farmington, Maine">Farmington</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kwupahag&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kwupahag (page does not exist)">Kwupahag</a></i> (also <i>Kwapahag</i>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ossipee,_New_Hampshire#History" title="Ossipee, New Hampshire">Ossipee</a></i>, lived along the shores of <a href="/wiki/Ossipee_Lake" title="Ossipee Lake">Ossipee Lake</a> in east-central New Hampshire. Sometimes classed as "Western Abenaki".</li> <li><i>Rocameca</i>, they were one of the major bands of the <a href="/wiki/Androscoggin_people" title="Androscoggin people">Androscoggins</a>, lived along the upper <a href="/wiki/Androscoggin_River" title="Androscoggin River">Androscoggin River</a>, centred around <a href="/wiki/Canton,_Maine" title="Canton, Maine">Canton, Maine</a>.</li> <li><i>Wawinak</i> (also <i>Ouanwinak, Sheepscot, Wawenock, Wawnock, Wewenoc</i>), lived in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Maine_Coast" title="Southern Maine Coast">coastal areas of southern Maine</a>.</li></ul> <p>Wolastoqiyik and Passamaquoddy: </p> <ul><li><i> <a href="/wiki/Wolastoqiyik" title="Wolastoqiyik">Wolastoqiyik</a></i> (also <i>Walastekwyk</i>, <i>Maliseet</i>, <i>Malecite</i>), lived in the inland of upper Maine and middle <a href="/wiki/New_Brunswick" title="New Brunswick">New Brunswick</a> along the <a href="/wiki/Saint_John_River_(Bay_of_Fundy)" title="Saint John River (Bay of Fundy)">St. John River</a>. Principal villages: Meductic, Aukpaque. Now a separate <a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_in_the_contiguous_United_States" title="List of federally recognized tribes in the contiguous United States">federally recognized tribe</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Passamaquoddy" title="Passamaquoddy">Passamaquoddy</a></i> (also <i>Peskotomuhktati</i>, <i>Pestomuhkati</i>), lived on the <a href="/wiki/Passamaquoddy_Bay" title="Passamaquoddy Bay">Passamaquoddy Bay</a> coast and inland, between the <a href="/wiki/Saint_John_River_(Bay_of_Fundy)" title="Saint John River (Bay of Fundy)">St. John</a>, <a href="/wiki/St._Croix_River_(Maine%E2%80%93New_Brunswick)" title="St. Croix River (Maine–New Brunswick)">St. Croix</a> and <a href="/wiki/Penobscot_River" title="Penobscot River">Penobscot</a> rivers, in present-day Maine and New Brunswick. Principal village: <a href="/wiki/Machias,_Maine" title="Machias, Maine">Machias</a>. Now a separate <a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_in_the_contiguous_United_States" title="List of federally recognized tribes in the contiguous United States">federally recognized tribe</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Location">Location</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Location"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wabanaki_wigwam_with_birch_bark_covering.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Wabanaki_wigwam_with_birch_bark_covering.jpg" decoding="async" width="167" height="219" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="167" data-file-height="219" /></a><figcaption>Abenaki <a href="/wiki/Wigwam" title="Wigwam">wigwam</a> with <a href="/wiki/Birch" title="Birch">birch</a> bark covering.</figcaption></figure> <p>The homeland of the Abenaki, called <i>Ndakinna</i> (Our Land; alternately written as <i>N'dakinna</i> or <i>N'Dakinna</i>), previously extended across most of what is now northern <a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a>, southern <a href="/wiki/Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a>, and the southern <a href="/wiki/The_Maritimes" title="The Maritimes">Canadian Maritimes</a>. The Eastern Abenaki population was concentrated in portions of <a href="/wiki/New_Brunswick" title="New Brunswick">New Brunswick</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maine" title="Maine">Maine</a> east of <a href="/wiki/New_Hampshire" title="New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a>'s <a href="/wiki/White_Mountains_(New_England)" title="White Mountains (New England)">White Mountains</a>. The other major group, the Western Abenaki, lived in the <a href="/wiki/Connecticut_River" title="Connecticut River">Connecticut River</a> valley in Vermont, New Hampshire, and Massachusetts.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Missiquoi lived along the eastern shore of <a href="/wiki/Lake_Champlain" title="Lake Champlain">Lake Champlain</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Pennacook" title="Pennacook">Pennacook</a> lived along the <a href="/wiki/Merrimack_River" title="Merrimack River">Merrimack River</a> in southern New Hampshire. The maritime Abenaki lived around the <a href="/wiki/St._Croix_River_(Maine%E2%80%93New_Brunswick)" title="St. Croix River (Maine–New Brunswick)">St. Croix</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saint_John_River_(Bay_of_Fundy)" title="Saint John River (Bay of Fundy)">Wolastoq</a> (Saint John River) Valleys near the <a href="/wiki/Borders_of_Canada" title="Borders of Canada">boundary line</a> between Maine and <a href="/wiki/New_Brunswick" title="New Brunswick">New Brunswick</a>. </p><p>English colonial settlement in New England and frequent violence forced many Abenaki to migrate to <a href="/wiki/Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a>. The Abenaki settled in the <a href="/wiki/Sillery,_Quebec_City" title="Sillery, Quebec City">Sillery</a> region of Quebec between 1676 and 1680, and subsequently, for about twenty years, lived on the banks of the <a href="/wiki/Chaudi%C3%A8re_River" title="Chaudière River">Chaudière River</a> near the falls, before settling in <a href="/wiki/Odanak" title="Odanak">Odanak</a> and <a href="/wiki/W%C3%B4linak" title="Wôlinak">Wôlinak</a> in the early eighteenth century.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In those days, the Abenaki practiced a <a href="/wiki/Subsistence_economy" title="Subsistence economy">subsistence economy</a> based on hunting, fishing, trapping, berry picking and on growing corn, beans, squash, potatoes and tobacco. They also produced baskets, made of ash and sweet grass, for picking wild berries, and boiled <a href="/wiki/Maple_syrup" title="Maple syrup">maple sap</a> to make syrup. <a href="/wiki/Basket_weaving" title="Basket weaving">Basket weaving</a> remains a traditional activity practiced by some tribal members.<sup id="cite_ref-penobscot-nation_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-penobscot-nation-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the Anglo-French wars, the Abenaki were allies of France, having been displaced from Ndakinna by immigrating English settlers. An anecdote from the period tells the story of a Wolastoqew war chief named <a href="/wiki/Nescambious" title="Nescambious">Nescambuit</a> (variant spellings include Assacumbuit), who killed more than 140 enemies of King <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV" title="Louis XIV">Louis XIV of France</a> and received the rank of knight. Not all Abenaki natives fought on the side of the French, however; many remained on their native lands in the northern colonies. Much of the <a href="/wiki/Trapping" title="Trapping">trapping</a> was done by the people and traded to the English colonists for durable goods. These contributions by Native American Abenaki peoples went largely unreported.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="WE cannot make the observation about "largely unreported." A reliable source must do so (May 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Two tribal communities formed in Canada, one once known as <a href="/wiki/Saint-Fran%C3%A7ois-du-Lac,_Quebec" title="Saint-François-du-Lac, Quebec">Saint-Francois-du-lac</a> near <a href="/wiki/Pierreville,_Quebec" title="Pierreville, Quebec">Pierreville</a> (now called <a href="/wiki/Odanak" title="Odanak">Odanak</a>, Abenaki for "coming home"), and the other near <a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9cancour,_Quebec" title="Bécancour, Quebec">Bécancour</a> (now known as <a href="/wiki/W%C3%B4linak" title="Wôlinak">Wôlinak</a>) on the south shore of the <a href="/wiki/St._Lawrence_River" title="St. Lawrence River">St. Lawrence River</a>, directly across the river from <a href="/wiki/Trois-Rivi%C3%A8res" title="Trois-Rivières">Trois-Rivières</a>. These two Abenaki reserves continue to grow and develop. Since the year 2000, the total Abenaki population (on and off reserve) has doubled to 2,101 members in 2011. Approximately 400 Abenaki reside on these two reserves, which cover a total area of less than 7 km<sup>2</sup> (2.7 sq mi). The unrecognized majority are off-reserve members, living in various cities and towns across Canada and the United States.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>There are about 3,200 Abenaki living in Vermont and New Hampshire, without reservations, chiefly around <a href="/wiki/Lake_Champlain" title="Lake Champlain">Lake Champlain</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The remaining Abenaki people live in multi-racial towns and cities across Canada and the US, mainly in Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, and northern New England.<sup id="cite_ref-Sultzman_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sultzman-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In December 2012, the Nulhegan Band of the Coosuk Abenaki Nation created a tribal forest in the town of <a href="/wiki/Barton,_Vermont" title="Barton, Vermont">Barton, Vermont</a>. This forest was established with assistance from the Vermont Sierra Club and the <a href="/wiki/Vermont_Land_Trust" title="Vermont Land Trust">Vermont Land Trust</a>. It contains a hunting camp and <a href="/wiki/Maple_syrup" title="Maple syrup">maple sugaring facilities</a> that are administered cooperatively by the Nulhegan. The forest contains 65 acres (0.26 km<sup>2</sup>).<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Missiquoi Abenaki Tribe owns forest land in the town of <a href="/wiki/Brunswick,_Vermont" title="Brunswick, Vermont">Brunswick, Vermont</a>, centered around the Brunswick Springs. These springs are believed to be a sacred Abenaki site. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Language">Language</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Language"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Abenaki_language" title="Abenaki language">Abenaki language</a></div> <p>The Abenaki language is closely related to the <a href="/wiki/Penobscot" title="Penobscot">Panawahpskek</a> (Penobscot) language. Other neighboring Wabanaki tribes, the <a href="/wiki/Passamaquoddy" title="Passamaquoddy">Pestomuhkati</a> (Passamaquoddy), <a href="/wiki/Wolastoqiyik" title="Wolastoqiyik">Wolastoqiyik</a> (Maliseet), and <a href="/wiki/Mi%27kmaq_language" title="Mi'kmaq language">Mi'kmaq</a>, and other <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Algonquian_languages" title="Eastern Algonquian languages">Eastern Algonquian languages</a> share many linguistic similarities. It has come close to extinction as a spoken language. Tribal members are working to revive the Abenaki language at Odanak (means "in the village"), a First Nations Abenaki reserve near <a href="/wiki/Pierreville,_Quebec" title="Pierreville, Quebec">Pierreville, Quebec</a>, and throughout <a href="/wiki/New_Hampshire" title="New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vermont" title="Vermont">Vermont</a>, and <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">New York</a> state. </p><p>The language is <a href="/wiki/Polysynthetic_language" title="Polysynthetic language">polysynthetic</a>, meaning that a phrase or an entire sentence is expressed by a single word. For example, the word for "white man" <i>awanoch</i> is a combination of the words <i>awani</i> meaning "who" and <i>uji</i> meaning "from". Thus, the word for "white man" literally translates to "Who is this man and where does he come from?" </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There is archaeological evidence of indigenous people in what is today New Hampshire for at least 12,000 years.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Reflections_in_Bullough%27s_Pond" title="Reflections in Bullough's Pond">Reflections in Bullough's Pond</a></i>, historian <a href="/wiki/Diana_Muir" class="mw-redirect" title="Diana Muir">Diana Muir</a> argues that the Abenakis' neighbors, pre-contact Iroquois, were an imperialist, expansionist culture whose cultivation of the <a href="/wiki/Three_Sisters_(agriculture)" title="Three Sisters (agriculture)">corn/beans/squash agricultural complex</a> enabled them to support a large population. They made war primarily against neighboring <a href="/wiki/Algonquian_peoples" title="Algonquian peoples">Algonquian peoples</a>, including the Abenaki. Muir uses archaeological data to argue that the Iroquois expansion onto Algonquian lands was checked by the Algonquian adoption of agriculture. This enabled them to support their own populations large enough to have sufficient warriors to defend against the threat of Iroquois conquest.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (September 2013)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In 1614, Thomas Hunt captured 24 Abenaki people, including <a href="/wiki/Squanto" title="Squanto">Squanto</a> (Tisquantum) and took them to Spain, where they were sold into <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Spain" title="Slavery in Spain">slavery</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the European colonization of North America, the land occupied by the Abenaki was in the area between the new colonies of England in Massachusetts and the French in Quebec. Since no party agreed to territorial boundaries, there was regular conflict among them. The Abenaki were traditionally allied with the French; during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV" title="Louis XIV">Louis XIV</a>, Chief <a href="/wiki/Nescambious" title="Nescambious">Assacumbuit</a> was designated a member of the French nobility for his service. </p><p>Around 1669, the Abenaki started to emigrate to Quebec due to conflicts with English colonists and <a href="/wiki/Epidemic" title="Epidemic">epidemics</a> of new infectious diseases. The governor of <a href="/wiki/New_France" title="New France">New France</a> allocated two <a href="/wiki/Seigneurial_system_of_New_France" title="Seigneurial system of New France">seigneuries</a> (large self-administered areas similar to <a href="/wiki/Fief" title="Fief">feudal fiefs</a>). The first, of what was later to become <a href="/wiki/Indian_reserve" title="Indian reserve">Indian reserves</a>, was on the <a href="/wiki/Saint-Fran%C3%A7ois_River" title="Saint-François River">Saint Francis River</a> and is now known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Odanak" title="Odanak">Odanak</a></i> Indian Reserve; the second was founded near <a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9cancour,_Quebec" title="Bécancour, Quebec">Bécancour</a> and is called the <i><a href="/wiki/W%C3%B4linak" title="Wôlinak">Wôlinak</a></i> Indian Reserve. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Abenaki_wars">Abenaki wars</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Abenaki wars"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_Wars" title="French and Indian Wars">French and Indian Wars</a></div> <p>When the <a href="/wiki/Wampanoag" title="Wampanoag">Wampanoag</a> under King Philip (<a href="/wiki/Metacomet" title="Metacomet">Metacomet</a>) fought the English colonists in New England in 1675 in <a href="/wiki/King_Philip%27s_War" title="King Philip's War">King Philip's War</a>, the Abenaki joined the Wampanoag. For three years they fought along the Maine frontier in the <a href="/wiki/First_Abenaki_War" title="First Abenaki War">First Abenaki War</a>. The Abenaki pushed back the line of white settlement through devastating raids on scattered farmhouses and small villages. The war was settled by a peace treaty in 1678, with the Wampanoag more than decimated and many native survivors having been sold into slavery in Bermuda.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During <a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_War" title="Queen Anne's War">Queen Anne's War</a> in 1702, the Abenaki were allied with the French; they raided numerous English colonial settlements in Maine, from <a href="/wiki/Wells,_Maine" title="Wells, Maine">Wells</a> to <a href="/wiki/Portland,_Maine" title="Portland, Maine">Casco</a>, killing about 300 settlers over ten years. They also occasionally raided into Massachusetts, for instance in <a href="/wiki/Groton,_Massachusetts" title="Groton, Massachusetts">Groton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Deerfield,_Massachusetts" title="Deerfield, Massachusetts">Deerfield</a> in 1704. The raids stopped when the war ended. Some <a href="/wiki/Captives_in_American_Indian_Wars" title="Captives in American Indian Wars">captives</a> were adopted into the <a href="/wiki/Mohawk_people" title="Mohawk people">Mohawk</a> and Abenaki tribes; older captives were generally ransomed, and the colonies carried on a brisk trade.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Third Abenaki War (1722–25), called the <a href="/wiki/Dummer%27s_War" title="Dummer's War">Dummer's War</a> or Father Rale's War, erupted when the French <a href="/wiki/Jesuits" title="Jesuits">Jesuit</a> missionary <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9bastien_Rale" title="Sébastien Rale">Sébastien Rale</a> (or Rasles, ~1657?-1724) encouraged the Abenaki to halt the spread of Yankee settlements. When the Massachusetts militia tried to seize Rale, the Abenaki raided the settlements at <a href="/wiki/Brunswick,_Maine" title="Brunswick, Maine">Brunswick</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arrowsic,_Maine" title="Arrowsic, Maine">Arrowsick</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Merrymeeting_Bay" title="Merrymeeting Bay">Merry-Meeting Bay</a>. The Massachusetts government then declared war and bloody battles were fought at <a href="/wiki/Norridgewock" title="Norridgewock">Norridgewock</a> (1724), where Rale was killed, and at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pequawket" title="Battle of Pequawket">a daylong battle</a> at the Indian village near present-day <a href="/wiki/Fryeburg,_Maine" title="Fryeburg, Maine">Fryeburg, Maine</a>, on the upper <a href="/wiki/Saco_River" title="Saco River">Saco River</a> (1725). <a href="/wiki/Peace_conference" title="Peace conference">Peace conferences</a> at Boston and <a href="/wiki/Casco_Bay" title="Casco Bay">Casco Bay</a> brought an end to the war. After Rale died, the Abenaki moved to a settlement on the <a href="/wiki/Saint_Francis_River_(Canada%E2%80%93United_States)" title="Saint Francis River (Canada–United States)">St. Francis River</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Abenaki from St. Francois continued to raid British settlements in their former homelands along the New England frontier during <a href="/wiki/Father_Le_Loutre%27s_War" title="Father Le Loutre's War">Father Le Loutre's War</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Northeast_Coast_campaign_(1750)" title="Northeast Coast campaign (1750)">Northeast Coast campaign (1750)</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_War" title="French and Indian War">French and Indian War</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Canada">Canada</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Canada"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The development of tourism projects has allowed the Canadian Abenaki to develop a modern economy, while preserving their culture and traditions. For example, since 1960, the Odanak Historical Society has managed the first and one of the largest aboriginal museums in Quebec, a few miles from the Quebec-Montreal axis. Over 5,000 people visit the Abenaki Museum annually.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Several Abenaki companies include: in Wôlinak, General Fiberglass Engineering employs a dozen natives, with annual sales exceeding C$3 million.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Odanak is now active in transportation and distribution.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Notable Abenaki from this area include the documentary filmmaker <a href="/wiki/Alanis_Obomsawin" title="Alanis Obomsawin">Alanis Obomsawin</a> (<a href="/wiki/National_Film_Board_of_Canada" title="National Film Board of Canada">National Film Board of Canada</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Maine:_federally_recognized_tribes">Maine: federally recognized tribes</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Maine: federally recognized tribes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Penobscot" title="Penobscot">Penobscot Indian Nation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Passamaquoddy" title="Passamaquoddy">Passamaquoddy</a> people, and <a href="/wiki/Houlton_Band_of_Maliseet_Indians" title="Houlton Band of Maliseet Indians">Houlton Band of Maliseet Indians</a> have been <a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_in_the_contiguous_United_States" title="List of federally recognized tribes in the contiguous United States">federally recognized</a> as tribes in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vermont:_state-recognized_tribes">Vermont: state-recognized tribes</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Vermont: state-recognized tribes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Nulhegan_Band_of_the_Coosuk_Abenaki_Nation" title="Nulhegan Band of the Coosuk Abenaki Nation">Nulhegan Band of the Coosuk Abenaki Nation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Koasek_Abenaki_Tribe" title="Koasek Abenaki Tribe">Koasek Abenaki Tribe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elnu_Abenaki_Tribe" title="Elnu Abenaki Tribe">Elnu Abenaki Tribe</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Missisquoi_Abenaki_Tribe" title="Missisquoi Abenaki Tribe">Missisquoi Abenaki Tribe</a> are, as of 2011, all <a href="/wiki/State-recognized_tribes_in_the_United_States" title="State-recognized tribes in the United States">state-recognized tribes in the United States</a>. </p><p>The Missisquoi Abenaki applied for federal recognition as an Indian tribe in the 1980s but failed to meet four of the seven criteria.<sup id="cite_ref-State-Recognized_Tribes_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-State-Recognized_Tribes-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Indian_Affairs" title="Bureau of Indian Affairs">Bureau of Indian Affairs</a> found that less than 1 percent of the Missisquoi's 1,171 members could show descent from an Abenaki ancestor. The bureau's report concluded that the petitioner is "a collection of individuals of claimed but mostly <a href="/wiki/Blood_quantum_laws" title="Blood quantum laws">undemonstrated Indian ancestry</a> with little or no social or historical connection with each other before the early 1970s."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>State recognition allows applicants to seek certain scholarship funds reserved for American Indians and to for members to market artwork as American Indian or Native American-made under the 1990 <a href="/wiki/Indian_Arts_and_Crafts_Act_of_1990" title="Indian Arts and Crafts Act of 1990">Indian Arts and Crafts Act</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Abenaki_Turn_to_Vermont_Legislature_for_Recognition_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abenaki_Turn_to_Vermont_Legislature_for_Recognition-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2002, the State of Vermont reported that the Abenaki people have not had a "continuous presence" in the state and had migrated north to <a href="/wiki/Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a> by the end of the 17th century.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Facing annihilation, many Abenaki had begun emigrating to Canada, then under French control, around 1669.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id=""Race-shifting"_controversy"><span id=".22Race-shifting.22_controversy"></span>"Race-shifting" controversy</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: "Race-shifting" controversy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Abenaki Nation, based in Quebec, claim that those self-identifying as Abenaki in Vermont are settlers making false claims to Indigenous ancestry.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the Odanak and Wolinak Abenaki First Nations in Quebec initially believed claims from residents of Vermont who said they were Abenaki, the Odanak reversed their position in 2003, calling on the groups in Vermont to provide them with genealogical evidence of Indigenous ancestry.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Scholars have not been able to find credible evidence of the Vermont Abenaki's claims of Indigenous ancestry.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_25-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anthropological research from the first half of the 20th century indicates that no Abenaki community actively existed in Vermont during that time period.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Researcher Darryl Leroux characterizes the Vermont Abenaki's claims of Abenaki ancestry as "<a href="/wiki/Pretendian" title="Pretendian">race-shifting</a>", arguing that genealogical and archival evidence shows that most members of the state-recognized tribes are descended from white <a href="/wiki/French_Canadians" title="French Canadians">French Canadians</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Leroux found that only 2.2 percent of the Missisquoi Abenaki membership has Abenaki ancestry, with the rest of the organization's root ancestors being primarily French Canadian and migrating to Vermont in the mid-19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Abenaki Nation of Missisquoi's shifting claims about its root ancestors as well as loose membership criteria are consistent with race-shifting patterns.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_31-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Leroux's research prompted renewed calls by the Abenaki First Nations to reassess Vermont's state recognition process.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="New_Hampshire_and_minority_recognition">New Hampshire and minority recognition</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: New Hampshire and minority recognition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Keewakwa_Abenaki_Keenahbeh_Oblique_20160911.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Keewakwa_Abenaki_Keenahbeh_Oblique_20160911.jpg/220px-Keewakwa_Abenaki_Keenahbeh_Oblique_20160911.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="391" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Keewakwa_Abenaki_Keenahbeh_Oblique_20160911.jpg/330px-Keewakwa_Abenaki_Keenahbeh_Oblique_20160911.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Keewakwa_Abenaki_Keenahbeh_Oblique_20160911.jpg/440px-Keewakwa_Abenaki_Keenahbeh_Oblique_20160911.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2754" data-file-height="4896" /></a><figcaption>A 36 ft (11 m) statue of <i>Keewakwa Abenaki Keenahbeh</i> in Opechee Park in <a href="/wiki/Laconia,_New_Hampshire" title="Laconia, New Hampshire">Laconia, New Hampshire</a></figcaption></figure> <p>New Hampshire does not recognize any Abenaki tribes.<sup id="cite_ref-State-Recognized_Tribes_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-State-Recognized_Tribes-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has no federally recognized tribes or state-recognized tribes; however, it established the New Hampshire Commission on Native American Affairs in 2010.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The various <a href="/wiki/Cowasuck" title="Cowasuck">Cowasuck</a>, Abenaki and other Native and heritage groups are represented to the Commission. </p><p>In 2021, a bill was introduced to the New Hampshire legislature to allow New Hampshire communities to rename locations in the Abenaki language.<sup id="cite_ref-lac_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lac-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This bill did not pass.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are a dozen variations of the name "Abenaki", such as Abenaquiois, Abakivis, Quabenakionek, Wabenakies and others. </p><p>The Abenaki were described in the <i><a href="/wiki/The_Jesuit_Relations" title="The Jesuit Relations">Jesuit Relations</a></i> as not <a href="/wiki/Human_cannibalism" title="Human cannibalism">cannibals</a>, and as docile, ingenious, temperate in the use of liquor, and not profane.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Abenaki lifeways were similar to those of <a href="/wiki/Algonquian_peoples" title="Algonquian peoples">Algonquian-speaking peoples</a> of southern New England. They cultivated food crops and built villages on or near fertile river floodplains. They also hunted game, fished, and <a href="/wiki/Foraging" title="Foraging">gathered wild plants and fungi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sultzman_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sultzman-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unlike the <a href="/wiki/Iroquois" title="Iroquois">Haudenosaunee</a>, the Abenaki were <a href="/wiki/Patrilineality" title="Patrilineality">patrilineal</a>. Each man had different hunting territories inherited through his father. </p><p>Most of the year, Abenaki lived in dispersed bands of extended families. Bands came together during the spring and summer at seasonal villages near rivers, or somewhere along the seacoast for planting and fishing. During the winter, the Abenaki lived in small groups further inland. These villages occasionally had to be fortified, depending on the alliances and enemies of other tribes or of Europeans near the village. Abenaki villages were quite small with an average number of 100 residents.<sup id="cite_ref-Sultzman_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sultzman-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most Abenaki crafted dome-shaped, bark-covered <a href="/wiki/Wigwam" title="Wigwam">wigwams</a> for housing, though a few preferred oval-shaped <a href="/wiki/Longhouses_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_North_America" title="Longhouses of the Indigenous peoples of North America">longhouses</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sultzman_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sultzman-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the winter, the Abenaki lined the inside of their conical wigwams with bear and deer skins for warmth. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gender,_food,_division_of_labor,_and_other_cultural_traits"><span id="Gender.2C_food.2C_division_of_labor.2C_and_other_cultural_traits"></span>Gender, food, division of labor, and other cultural traits</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Gender, food, division of labor, and other cultural traits"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Abenaki were a farming society that supplemented agriculture with hunting and gathering. Generally the men were the hunters. The women tended the fields and grew the crops.<sup id="cite_ref-Food_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Food-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In their fields, they planted the crops in groups of "sisters". The three sisters were grown together: the stalk of corn supported the beans, and squash or pumpkins provided ground cover and reduced weeds.<sup id="cite_ref-Food_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Food-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The men would hunt bears, deer, fish, and birds. </p><p>The Abenaki were a patrilineal society, which was common among New England tribes. In this they differed from the <a href="/wiki/Iroquois" title="Iroquois">six Iroquois tribes</a> to the west in New York, and from many other North American Native tribes who had <a href="/wiki/Matrilineality" title="Matrilineality">matrilineal</a> societies. </p><p>Groups used the <a href="/wiki/Consensus_decision-making" title="Consensus decision-making">consensus</a> method to make important decisions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Storytelling">Storytelling</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Storytelling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Storytelling" title="Storytelling">Storytelling</a> is a major part of Abenaki culture. It is used not only as entertainment but also as a teaching method. The Abenaki view stories as having lives of their own and being aware of how they are used. Stories were used as a means of teaching children behavior. Children were not to be mistreated, and so instead of punishing the child, they would be told a story.<sup id="cite_ref-Stories_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stories-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the stories is of Azban the Raccoon. This is a story about a proud <a href="/wiki/Raccoon" title="Raccoon">raccoon</a> that challenges a <a href="/wiki/Waterfall" title="Waterfall">waterfall</a> to a shouting contest. When the waterfall does not respond, Azban dives into the waterfall to try to outshout it; he is swept away because of his <a href="/wiki/Pride" title="Pride">pride</a>. This story would be used to show a child the pitfalls of pride.<sup id="cite_ref-Azban_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Azban-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mythology">Mythology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Mythology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Abenaki_mythology" title="Abenaki mythology">Abenaki mythology</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethnobotany">Ethnobotany</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Ethnobotany"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Abenaki smash the flowers and leaves of <i><a href="/wiki/Ranunculus_acris" title="Ranunculus acris">Ranunculus acris</a></i> and sniff them for headaches.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They consume the fruit of <i><a href="/wiki/Vaccinium_myrtilloides" title="Vaccinium myrtilloides">Vaccinium myrtilloides</a></i> as part of their traditional diet.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They also use the fruit<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the grains of <i><a href="/wiki/Viburnum_nudum" title="Viburnum nudum">Viburnum nudum var. cassinoides</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for food.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many other plants are used for various healing and treatment modalities, including for the skin, as a disinfectant, as a cure-all, as a respiratory aid, for colds, coughs, fevers, grippe, gas, blood strengthening, headaches and other pains, <a href="/wiki/Rheumatism" title="Rheumatism">rheumatism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Demulcent" title="Demulcent">demulcent</a>, nasal inflammation, <a href="/wiki/Anthelmintic" title="Anthelmintic">anthelmintic</a>, for the eyes, <a href="/wiki/Abortifacient" title="Abortifacient">abortifacent</a>, for the bones, <a href="/wiki/Antihemorrhagic" title="Antihemorrhagic">antihemorrhagic</a>, as a <a href="/wiki/Sedative" title="Sedative">sedative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anaphrodisiac" title="Anaphrodisiac">anaphrodisiac</a>, swellings, urinary aid, gastrointestinal aid, as a <a href="/wiki/Hemostat" title="Hemostat">hemostat</a>, pediatric aid (such as for teething), and other unspecified or general uses.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>They use <i><a href="/wiki/Hierochloe_odorata" title="Hierochloe odorata">Hierochloe odorata</a></i> (sweetgrass), <i><a href="/wiki/Apocynum" title="Apocynum">Apocynum</a></i> (dogbane), <i><a href="/wiki/Betula_papyrifera" title="Betula papyrifera">Betula papyrifera</a></i> (paper birch), <i><a href="/wiki/Fraxinus_americana" title="Fraxinus americana">Fraxinus americana</a></i> (white ash), <i><a href="/wiki/Fraxinus_nigra" title="Fraxinus nigra">Fraxinus nigra</a></i> (black ash), <i><a href="/wiki/Laportea_canadensis" title="Laportea canadensis">Laportea canadensis</a></i> (Canada nettle), a variety of <i><a href="/wiki/Willow" title="Willow">Salix</a></i> species, and <i><a href="/wiki/Tilia_americana" title="Tilia americana">Tilia americana</a></i> (basswood, or American linden) var. <i>Americana</i> for making baskets, canoes, snowshoes, and whistles.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They use <i>Hierochloe odorata</i> and willow to make containers, <i>Betula papyrifera</i> to create containers, moose calls and other utilitarian pieces, and the bark of <i><a href="/wiki/Cornus_sericea" title="Cornus sericea">Cornus sericea</a></i> (red osier dogwood) ssp. sericea for smoking.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>They also use <i><a href="/wiki/Acer_rubrum" title="Acer rubrum">Acer rubrum</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Acorus_calamus" title="Acorus calamus">Acornus calamus</a></i>, an unknown <i><a href="/wiki/Amelanchier" title="Amelanchier">Amelanchier</a></i> species, <i><a href="/wiki/Caltha_palustris" title="Caltha palustris">Caltha palustris</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Cardamine_diphylla" title="Cardamine diphylla">Cardamine diphylla</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Cornus_canadensis" title="Cornus canadensis">Cornus canadensis</a></i>, an unknown <i><a href="/wiki/Crataegus" title="Crataegus">Crataegus</a></i> species, <i><a href="/wiki/Fragaria_virginiana" title="Fragaria virginiana">Fragaria virginiana</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Gaultheria_procumbens" title="Gaultheria procumbens">Gaultheria procumbens</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Osmundastrum" title="Osmundastrum">Osmunda cinnamomea</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Phaseolus_vulgaris" title="Phaseolus vulgaris">Phaseolus vulgaris</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Aronia_melanocarpa" title="Aronia melanocarpa">Photinia melanocarpa</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Prunus_virginiana" title="Prunus virginiana">Prunus virginiana</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Rubus_idaeus" title="Rubus idaeus">Rubus idaeus</a></i> and another unknown <i>Rubus</i> species, <i><a href="/wiki/Potato" title="Potato">Solanum tuberosum</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Spiraea_alba" title="Spiraea alba">Spiraea alba</a></i> var. <i>latifolia</i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Vaccinium_angustifolium" title="Vaccinium angustifolium">Vaccinium angustifolium</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">Zea mays</a></i> as a tea, soup, jelly, sweetener, <a href="/wiki/Condiment" title="Condiment">condiment</a>, snack, or meal.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Abenaki use the gum of <i><a href="/wiki/Abies_balsamea" title="Abies balsamea">Abies balsamea</a></i> for slight itches and as an antiseptic ointment.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They stuff the leaves,<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> needles and wood into pillows as a <a href="/wiki/Panacea" title="Panacea">panacea</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Population_and_epidemics">Population and epidemics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Population and epidemics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Before the Abenaki, except the Pennacook and <a href="/wiki/Mi%27kmaq" title="Mi'kmaq">Mi'kmaq</a>, had contact with the European world, their population may have numbered as many as 40,000. Around 20,000 would have been Eastern Abenaki, another 10,000 would have been Western Abenaki, and the last 10,000 would have been Maritime Abenaki. Early contact with European fishermen resulted in two major epidemics that affected Abenaki during the 16th century. The first epidemic was an unknown sickness occurring sometime between 1564 and 1570, and the second one was <a href="/wiki/Typhus" title="Typhus">typhus</a> in 1586. Multiple epidemics arrived a decade prior to the English colonization of Massachusetts in 1620, when three separate sicknesses swept across New England and the <a href="/wiki/The_Maritimes" title="The Maritimes">Canadian Maritimes</a>. Maine was hit very hard during the year of 1617, with a fatality rate of 75 per, and the population of the Eastern Abenaki fell to about 5,000. The more isolated Western Abenaki suffered fewer fatalities, losing about half of their original population of 10,000.<sup id="cite_ref-Sultzman_4-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sultzman-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The new diseases continued to strike in epidemics, starting with <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a> in 1631, 1633, and 1639. Seven years later, an unknown epidemic struck, with <a href="/wiki/Influenza" title="Influenza">influenza</a> passing through the following year. Smallpox affected the Abenaki again in 1649, and <a href="/wiki/Diphtheria" title="Diphtheria">diphtheria</a> came through 10 years later. Smallpox struck in 1670, and influenza in 1675. Smallpox affected the Native Americans in 1677, 1679, 1687, along with <a href="/wiki/Measles" title="Measles">measles</a>, 1691, 1729, 1733, 1755, and finally in 1758.<sup id="cite_ref-Sultzman_4-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sultzman-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Abenaki population continued to decline, but in 1676, they took in thousands of refugees from many southern New England tribes displaced by settlement and <a href="/wiki/King_Philip%27s_War" title="King Philip's War">King Philip's War</a>. Because of this, descendants of nearly every southern New England Algonquian tribe can be found among the Abenaki people. A century later, fewer than 1,000 Abenaki remained after the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a>. </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/1990_United_States_census" title="1990 United States census">1990 US census</a>, 1,549 people identified themselves as Abenaki. So did 2,544 people in the <a href="/wiki/2000_United_States_census" title="2000 United States census">2000 US census</a>, with 6,012 people claiming Abenaki heritage.<sup id="cite_ref-UXL_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UXL-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1991 Canadian Abenaki numbered 945; by 2006 they numbered 2,164.<sup id="cite_ref-UXL_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UXL-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fiction">Fiction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Fiction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Lydia_Maria_Child" title="Lydia Maria Child">Lydia Maria Child</a> wrote of the Abenaki in her short story, "The Church in the Wilderness" (1828). Several Abenaki characters and much about their 18th-century culture are featured in the <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Roberts_(author)" title="Kenneth Roberts (author)">Kenneth Roberts</a>' novel <i>Arundel</i> (1930). The film <i><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Passage_(film)" title="Northwest Passage (film)">Northwest Passage</a></i> (1940) is based on a novel of the same name by Roberts. </p><p>The Abenaki are featured in <a href="/wiki/Charles_McCarry" title="Charles McCarry">Charles McCarry</a>'s historical novel <i>Bride of the Wilderness</i> (1988), and <a href="/wiki/James_Archibald_Houston" title="James Archibald Houston">James Archibald Houston</a>'s novel <i>Ghost Fox</i> (1977), both of which are set in the eighteenth century; and in <a href="/wiki/Jodi_Picoult" title="Jodi Picoult">Jodi Picoult</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Second_Glance" title="Second Glance">Second Glance</a></i> (2003) and <i>Lone Wolf</i> (2012) novels, set in the contemporary world. Books for younger readers both have historical settings: <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Bruchac" title="Joseph Bruchac">Joseph Bruchac</a>'s <i>The Arrow Over the Door</i> (1998) (grades 4–6) is set in 1777; and Beth Kanell's young adult novel, <i>The Darkness Under the Water</i> (2008), concerns a young Abenaki-French Canadian girl during the time of the Vermont Eugenics Project, 1931–1936. </p><p>The first sentence in <a href="/wiki/Norman_Mailer" title="Norman Mailer">Norman Mailer</a>'s novel <i><a href="/wiki/Harlot%27s_Ghost" title="Harlot's Ghost">Harlot's Ghost</a></i> makes reference to the Abenaki: "On a late-winter evening in 1983, while driving through fog along the Maine coast, recollections of old campfires began to drift into the March mist, and I thought of the Abnaki Indians of the Algonquin tribe who dwelt near <a href="/wiki/Bangor,_Maine" title="Bangor, Maine">Bangor</a> a thousand years ago." </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Non-fiction">Non-fiction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Non-fiction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Letters and other non-fiction writing can be found in the anthology <i>Dawnland Voices</i>, edited by Siobhan Senier. Selections include letters from leader of the early praying town, <a href="/wiki/Wamesit" title="Wamesit">Wamesit</a> in Massachusetts Samuel Numphow,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="Rewrite to clarify. Hard to follow. (March 2024)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Sagamore Kancamagus,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="Rewrite to clarify. Hard to follow. (March 2024)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and writings on the Abenaki language by former chief of the reserve at <a href="/wiki/Odanak" title="Odanak">Odanak</a> in Quebec, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Laurent" title="Joseph Laurent">Joseph Laurent</a>, as well as many others.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Accounts of life with the Abenaki can be found in the <a href="/wiki/Captivity_narrative" title="Captivity narrative">captivity narratives</a> written by women taken captive by the Abenaki from the early New England settlements: <a href="/wiki/Mary_Rowlandson" title="Mary Rowlandson">Mary Rowlandson</a> (1682), <a href="/wiki/Hannah_Duston" title="Hannah Duston">Hannah Duston</a> (1702); <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Hanson_(captive_of_Native_Americans)" title="Elizabeth Hanson (captive of Native Americans)">Elizabeth Hanson</a> (1728); <a href="/wiki/Susannah_Willard_Johnson" title="Susannah Willard Johnson">Susannah Willard Johnson</a> (1754); and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jemima_Howe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jemima Howe (page does not exist)">Jemima Howe</a> (1792).<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Maps">Maps</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Maps"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Maps showing the approximate locations of areas occupied by members of the <a href="/wiki/Wabanaki_Confederacy" title="Wabanaki Confederacy">Wabanaki Confederacy</a> (from north to south): </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Les_Micmacs_(multilingual).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Mi'kmaq"><img alt="Mi'kmaq" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Les_Micmacs_%28multilingual%29.svg/120px-Les_Micmacs_%28multilingual%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Les_Micmacs_%28multilingual%29.svg/180px-Les_Micmacs_%28multilingual%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Les_Micmacs_%28multilingual%29.svg/240px-Les_Micmacs_%28multilingual%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="3387" data-file-height="2113" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><a href="/wiki/Mi%27kmaq" title="Mi'kmaq">Mi'kmaq</a></div></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wohngebiet_Maliseet.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Wolastoqiyik, Passamaquoddy"><img alt="Wolastoqiyik, Passamaquoddy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Wohngebiet_Maliseet.png/75px-Wohngebiet_Maliseet.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Wohngebiet_Maliseet.png/112px-Wohngebiet_Maliseet.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Wohngebiet_Maliseet.png/149px-Wohngebiet_Maliseet.png 2x" data-file-width="1003" data-file-height="1609" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><a href="/wiki/Wolastoqiyik" title="Wolastoqiyik">Wolastoqiyik</a>,<br /><a href="/wiki/Passamaquoddy" title="Passamaquoddy">Passamaquoddy</a></div></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wohngebiet_Oestlicheabenaki.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Eastern Abenaki (Penobscot, Kennebec, Arosaguntacook, Pigwacket / Pequawket)"><img alt="Eastern Abenaki (Penobscot, Kennebec, Arosaguntacook, Pigwacket / Pequawket)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Wohngebiet_Oestlicheabenaki.png/86px-Wohngebiet_Oestlicheabenaki.png" decoding="async" width="86" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Wohngebiet_Oestlicheabenaki.png/129px-Wohngebiet_Oestlicheabenaki.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Wohngebiet_Oestlicheabenaki.png/173px-Wohngebiet_Oestlicheabenaki.png 2x" data-file-width="1247" data-file-height="1732" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Eastern Abenaki (<a href="/wiki/Penobscot" title="Penobscot">Penobscot</a>, Kennebec, <a href="/wiki/Androscoggin_people" title="Androscoggin people">Arosaguntacook</a>, Pigwacket / <a href="/wiki/Pequawket" title="Pequawket">Pequawket</a>)</div></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wohngebiet_Westlicheabenaki.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Western Abenaki (Arsigantegok, Missisquoi, Cowasuck, Sokoki, Pennacook)"><img alt="Western Abenaki (Arsigantegok, Missisquoi, Cowasuck, Sokoki, Pennacook)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Wohngebiet_Westlicheabenaki.png/92px-Wohngebiet_Westlicheabenaki.png" decoding="async" width="92" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Wohngebiet_Westlicheabenaki.png/138px-Wohngebiet_Westlicheabenaki.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Wohngebiet_Westlicheabenaki.png/184px-Wohngebiet_Westlicheabenaki.png 2x" data-file-width="1255" data-file-height="1633" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Western Abenaki (Arsigantegok, Missisquoi, Cowasuck, Sokoki, <a href="/wiki/Pennacook" title="Pennacook">Pennacook</a>)</div></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_historic_Abenaki_people">Notable historic Abenaki people</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Notable historic Abenaki people"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Please list living people under their First Nation or state-recognized tribe.</i> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Joe" title="Indian Joe">Indian Joe</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1739</span>–1819), an 18th-century Mi'kmaq scout, adopted by the Abenaki<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Laurent" title="Joseph Laurent">Joseph Laurent</a> (1839–1917), chief, author, language advocate, businessman<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Lorne_Masta" title="Henry Lorne Masta">Henry Lorne Masta</a> (1853–1943), chief, language advocate, and author<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emma_Camp_Mead" title="Emma Camp Mead">Emma Camp Mead</a> (1866-1934), Oneida herbalist and hotel keeper (father was Abenaki)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_Cloud_(actor)" title="Dark Cloud (actor)">Dark Cloud</a> (Elijah Tahamont) (1855–1918), <a href="/wiki/Silent_film" title="Silent film">silent film</a> actor<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_contemporary_Abenaki_people">Notable contemporary Abenaki people</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Notable contemporary Abenaki people"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jeanne_Brink" title="Jeanne Brink">Jeanne Brink</a> (born 1944), basket artist<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annick_Obonsawin" title="Annick Obonsawin">Annick Obonsawin</a> (born 1983), Canadian actress</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Pemigewasset" title="Mount Pemigewasset">Mount Pemigewasset</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Footnotes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns 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a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?LANG=E&GENDERlist=1&STATISTIClist=1,4&DGUIDlist=2021A000011124&HEADERlist=31&SearchText=Canada">"Canada Census Profile 2021"</a>. <i>Census Profile, 2021 Census</i>. Statistics Canada Statistique Canada. May 7, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 3,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Census+Profile%2C+2021+Census&rft.atitle=Canada+Census+Profile+2021&rft.date=2021-05-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww12.statcan.gc.ca%2Fcensus-recensement%2F2021%2Fdp-pd%2Fprof%2Fdetails%2Fpage.cfm%3FLANG%3DE%26GENDERlist%3D1%26STATISTIClist%3D1%2C4%26DGUIDlist%3D2021A000011124%26HEADERlist%3D31%26SearchText%3DCanada&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbenaki" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?lang=E&SearchText=quebec&DGUIDlist=2021A000224&GENDERlist=1,2,3&STATISTIClist=1&HEADERlist=0">"Québec Census Profile 2021"</a>. <i>Census Profile, 2021 Census</i>. Statistics Canada Statistique Canada. May 7, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 3,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Census+Profile%2C+2021+Census&rft.atitle=Qu%C3%A9bec+Census+Profile+2021&rft.date=2021-05-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww12.statcan.gc.ca%2Fcensus-recensement%2F2021%2Fdp-pd%2Fprof%2Fdetails%2Fpage.cfm%3Flang%3DE%26SearchText%3Dquebec%26DGUIDlist%3D2021A000224%26GENDERlist%3D1%2C2%2C3%26STATISTIClist%3D1%26HEADERlist%3D0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbenaki" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-UXL-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-UXL_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-UXL_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-UXL_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-UXL_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-UXL_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140611100559/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G2-3048800002.html">"Abenaki"</a>. <i>U*X*L Encyclopedia of Native American Tribes</i>. 2008. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G2-3048800002.html">the original</a> on June 11, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 14,</span> 2012</span> – via HighBeam Research.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Abenaki&rft.btitle=U%2AX%2AL+Encyclopedia+of+Native+American+Tribes&rft.date=2008&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.highbeam.com%2Fdoc%2F1G2-3048800002.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbenaki" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sultzman-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sultzman_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sultzman_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sultzman_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sultzman_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sultzman_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sultzman_4-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sultzman_4-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sultzman_4-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee_Sultzman1997" class="citation web cs1">Lee Sultzman (July 21, 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100411025556/http://www.tolatsga.org/aben.html">"Abenaki History"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tolatsga.org/aben.html">the original</a> on April 11, 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 20,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Abenaki+History&rft.date=1997-07-21&rft.au=Lee+Sultzman&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftolatsga.org%2Faben.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbenaki" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A Time Before New Hampshire by Michael J. 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Cited in Campbell, Lyle (1997). <i>American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pg. 401. Campbell uses the spelling <i>wabánahki</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Colin G. 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Harvey. p. 22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-921703-07-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-921703-07-9"><bdi>978-2-921703-07-9</bdi></a>. <q>After having lived for several decades around the city of Lévis, the Abenaki settled in Odanak and Wôlinak in 1700 in one of the most picturesque and rich farming districts in Québec.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Native+Peoples+of+Qu%C3%A9bec&rft.pages=22&rft.pub=%C3%89ditions+S.+Harvey&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-2-921703-07-9&rft.aulast=No%C3%ABl&rft.aufirst=Michel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dt2N1AAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbenaki" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-penobscot-nation-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-penobscot-nation_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.penobscotnation.org/departments/cultural-historic-preservation/historic-preservation/women-in-penobscot-history">"Culture"</a>. <i>Penobscot Nation</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Cowasuck Band of the Pennacook-Abenaki People. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110716205725/http://www.cowasuck.org/lifestyle/food.cfm">Archived</a> from the original on July 16, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 22,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+We+Ate&rft.pub=Cowasuck+Band+of+the+Pennacook-Abenaki+People&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cowasuck.org%2Flifestyle%2Ffood.cfm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbenaki" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stories-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stories_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoe_Bruchac" class="citation web cs1">Joe Bruchac. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100210183130/http://www.abenakination.org/stories.html">"The Abenaki Perspective on Storytelling"</a>. Abenaki Nation. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://abenakination.org/stories.html">the original</a> on February 10, 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 22,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Abenaki+Perspective+on+Storytelling&rft.pub=Abenaki+Nation&rft.au=Joe+Bruchac&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fabenakination.org%2Fstories.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbenaki" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Azban-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Azban_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://abenakination.org/azban.html">"Raccoon and the Waterfall"</a>. Abenaki Nation<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 22,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Raccoon+and+the+Waterfall&rft.pub=Abenaki+Nation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fabenakination.org%2Fazban.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbenaki" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rousseau, Jacques 1947 Ethnobotanique Abenakise. Archives de Folklore 11:145–182 (p. 166)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnsHebdaArnason1981" class="citation journal cs1">Johns, Timothy; Hebda, Richard; Arnason, Thor (November 1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cdnsciencepub.com/doi/abs/10.1139/b81-287?journalCode=cjb1">"Use of plants for food and medicine by Native Peoples of eastern Canada"</a>. <i>Canadian Journal of Botany</i>. <b>59</b> (11): 107. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1139%2Fb81-287">10.1139/b81-287</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 16,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Canadian+Journal+of+Botany&rft.atitle=Use+of+plants+for+food+and+medicine+by+Native+Peoples+of+eastern+Canada&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=107&rft.date=1981-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1139%2Fb81-287&rft.aulast=Johns&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rft.au=Hebda%2C+Richard&rft.au=Arnason%2C+Thor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcdnsciencepub.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1139%2Fb81-287%3FjournalCode%3Dcjb1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbenaki" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rousseau, Jacques, 1947, Ethnobotanique Abenakise, Archives de Folklore 11:145-182, page 152, 171</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rousseau, Jacques, 1947, Ethnobotanique Abenakise, Archives de Folklore 11:145-182, page 152</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rousseau, Jacques, 1947, Ethnobotanique Abenakise, Archives de Folklore 11:145-182, page 173</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A full list of their ethnobotany can be found at the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://naeb.brit.org/uses/tribes/1/">Native American Ethnobotany Database</a> (159 documented plant uses).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://naeb.brit.org/uses/search/filtered/?string=&tribe=1&use_category=1">"BRIT - Native American Ethnobotany Database"</a>. <i>naeb.brit.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 17,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=naeb.brit.org&rft.atitle=BRIT+-+Native+American+Ethnobotany+Database&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnaeb.brit.org%2Fuses%2Fsearch%2Ffiltered%2F%3Fstring%3D%26tribe%3D1%26use_category%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbenaki" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://naeb.brit.org/uses/search/filtered/?string=&tribe=1&use_category=3">"BRIT - Native American Ethnobotany Database"</a>. <i>naeb.brit.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 17,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=naeb.brit.org&rft.atitle=BRIT+-+Native+American+Ethnobotany+Database&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnaeb.brit.org%2Fuses%2Fsearch%2Ffiltered%2F%3Fstring%3D%26tribe%3D1%26use_category%3D3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbenaki" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://naeb.brit.org/uses/search/filtered/?string=&tribe=1&use_category=5">"BRIT - Native American Ethnobotany Database"</a>. <i>naeb.brit.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 17,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=naeb.brit.org&rft.atitle=BRIT+-+Native+American+Ethnobotany+Database&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnaeb.brit.org%2Fuses%2Fsearch%2Ffiltered%2F%3Fstring%3D%26tribe%3D1%26use_category%3D5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbenaki" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://naeb.brit.org/uses/search/filtered/?string=&tribe=1&use_category=4">"BRIT - Native American Ethnobotany Database"</a>. <i>naeb.brit.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 17,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=naeb.brit.org&rft.atitle=BRIT+-+Native+American+Ethnobotany+Database&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnaeb.brit.org%2Fuses%2Fsearch%2Ffiltered%2F%3Fstring%3D%26tribe%3D1%26use_category%3D4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbenaki" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rousseau, Jacques, 1947, Ethnobotanique Abenakise, Archives de Folklore 11:145-182, page 164</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rousseau, Jacques, 1947, Ethnobotanique Abenakise, Archives de Folklore 11:145-182, page 155</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rousseau, Jacques, 1947, Ethnobotanique Abenakise, Archives de Folklore 11:145-182, page 163-164</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Women's Indian Captivity Narratives</i>, ed. Kathryn Zabelle Derounian-Stodola, Penguin, London, 1998</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson2007" class="citation web cs1">Johnson, Arthur (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304002324/http://www.nedoba.org/bio_joseph01.html">"Biography of Indian Joe"</a>. <i>nedoba.org</i>. Ne-Do-Ba (Friends), A Maine Nonprofit Corporation. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nedoba.org/bio_joseph01.html">the original</a> on March 4, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 11,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=nedoba.org&rft.atitle=Biography+of+Indian+Joe&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nedoba.org%2Fbio_joseph01.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbenaki" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20150404121607/http://temp.caodanak.com/en/">"Conseil des Abenakis Odanak"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://temp.caodanak.com/en/">the original</a> on April 4, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Conseil+des+Abenakis+Odanak&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftemp.caodanak.com%2Fen%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbenaki" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrooks2008" class="citation book cs1">Brooks, Lisa (2008). <i>The Common Pot: The Recovery of Native Space in the Northeast</i> (NED - New ed.). <a href="/wiki/University_of_Minnesota_Press" title="University of Minnesota Press">University of Minnesota Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780816647835" title="Special:BookSources/9780816647835"><bdi>9780816647835</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5749/j.ctttsd1b">10.5749/j.ctttsd1b</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Common+Pot%3A+The+Recovery+of+Native+Space+in+the+Northeast&rft.edition=NED+-+New&rft.pub=University+of+Minnesota+Press&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.5749%2Fj.ctttsd1b%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=9780816647835&rft.aulast=Brooks&rft.aufirst=Lisa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbenaki" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChamberlain1903" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_F._Chamberlain" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander F. Chamberlain">Chamberlain, Alexander F.</a> (April 1903). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/jstor-533199/533199">"Algonkian Words in American English: A Study in the Contact of the White Man and the Indian"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_American_Folklore" class="mw-redirect" title="The Journal of American Folklore">The Journal of American Folklore</a></i>. <b>16</b> (61). <a href="/wiki/American_Folklore_Society" title="American Folklore Society">American Folklore Society</a>: 128–129. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F533199">10.2307/533199</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/533199">533199</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+American+Folklore&rft.atitle=Algonkian+Words+in+American+English%3A+A+Study+in+the+Contact+of+the+White+Man+and+the+Indian&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=61&rft.pages=128-129&rft.date=1903-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F533199&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F533199%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Chamberlain&rft.aufirst=Alexander+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fjstor-533199%2F533199&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbenaki" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dawnlandvoices.org/collections/items/show/289">"Miniature Baskets by Jeanne Brink"</a>. <i>Dawnland Voices</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Dawnland+Voices&rft.atitle=Miniature+Baskets+by+Jeanne+Brink&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdawnlandvoices.org%2Fcollections%2Fitems%2Fshow%2F289&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbenaki" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Aubery" title="Joseph Aubery">Aubery, Joseph, Fr.</a> and Stephen Laurent, 1995. <i>Father Aubery's French-Abenaki Dictionary: English translation</i>. S. Laurent (Translator). Chisholm Bros. Publishing</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/truestoriesofnew00bake/truestoriesofnew00bake_djvu.txt">Baker, C. Alice, 1897. <i>True Stories of New England Captives Carried to Canada during the Old French and Indian Wars</i>. Press of E.A. Hall & Company</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greenfield,_Massachusetts" title="Greenfield, Massachusetts">Greenfield, Massachusetts</a></li> <li>Charland, Thomas-M. (O.P.), 1964. <i>Les Abenakis D'Odanak: Histoire des Abénakis D'Odanak (1675–1937)</i>. Les Éditions du Lévrier, Montreal, QC</li> <li>Coleman, Emma Lewis. <i>New England Captives Carried to Canada: Between 1677 and 1760 During the French and Indian Wars</i>, Heritage Books, 1989 (reprint 1925).</li> <li>Day, Gordon, 1981. <i>The Identity of the Saint Francis Indians</i>, National Museums of Canada, Ottawa, National Museum Of Man Mercury Series <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0316-1854">0316-1854</a>, Canadian Ethnology Service Paper No. 71 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0316-1862">0316-1862</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaurent1884" class="citation book cs1">Laurent, Joseph (1884). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.canadiana.ca/view/oocihm.08895"><i>New Familiar Abenakis and English Dialogues</i></a>. Quebec: Joseph Laurent (Sozap Lolô Kizitôgw), Abenakis, Chief of the Indian village of St. Francis, P.Q.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Familiar+Abenakis+and+English+Dialogues&rft.place=Quebec&rft.pub=Joseph+Laurent+%28Sozap+Lol%C3%B4+Kizit%C3%B4gw%29%2C+Abenakis%2C+Chief+of+the+Indian+village+of+St.+Francis%2C+P.Q.&rft.date=1884&rft.aulast=Laurent&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.canadiana.ca%2Fview%2Foocihm.08895&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbenaki" class="Z3988"></span> Reprinted (paperback) Sept. 2006: Vancouver: Global Language Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9738924-7-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-9738924-7-1">0-9738924-7-1</a>; Dec. 2009 (hardcover): Kessinger Publishings Legacy Reprint Series; and April 2010 (paperback): <a href="/wiki/BiblioBazaar" title="BiblioBazaar">Nabu Press</a>.</li> <li>Masta, Henry Lorne, 1932. <i>Abenaki Legends, Grammar and Place Names.</i> <a href="/wiki/Victoriaville" title="Victoriaville">Victoriaville</a>, PQ: La Voix Des Bois-Franes. Reprinted 2008: Toronto: Global Language Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-897367-18-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-897367-18-6">978-1-897367-18-6</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/cihm_29555#page/n5/mode/2up">Maurault, Joseph-Anselme (Abbot), 1866. <i>Histoire des Abénakis, depuis 1605 jusqu'à nos jours</i>. Published at L'Atelier typographique de la "Gazette de Sorel", QC</a></li> <li>Moondancer and Strong Woman, 2007. <i>A Cultural History of the Native Peoples of Southern New England: Voices from Past and Present</i>. <a href="/wiki/Boulder,_CO" class="mw-redirect" title="Boulder, CO">Boulder, CO</a>: Bauu Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9721349-3-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-9721349-3-X">0-9721349-3-X</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Other grammar books and dictionaries include: </p> <ul><li>Gordon M. Day's two-volume <i>Western Abenaki Dictionary</i> (August 1994), Paperback: 616 pages, Publisher: <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Museum_of_History" title="Canadian Museum of History">Canadian Museum Of Civilization</a></li> <li>Chief Henry Lorne Masta's <i>Abenaki Legends, Grammar, and Place Names</i> (1932), Odanak, Quebec, reprinted in 2008 by Global Language Press</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Aubery" title="Joseph Aubery">Joseph Aubery</a>'s <i>Father Aubery's French-Abenaki Dictionary</i> (1700), translated into English-Abenaki by Stephen Laurent, and published in hardcover (525 pp.) by Chisholm Bros. Publishing.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lisa_Brooks" title="Lisa Brooks">Lisa Brooks</a>, <i>Our Beloved Kin: A New History of King Philip's War</i> (New Haven; London: <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a>, 2018).</li> <li>Lisa Brooks, <i>The Common Pot: The Recovery of Native Space in the Northeast</i> (Minneapolis: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Minnesota_Press" title="University of Minnesota Press">University of Minnesota Press</a>, 2008).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abenaki&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Abenaki" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Abenaki">Abenaki</a> at Wikimedia Commons </p> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.penobscotnation.org/">Penobscot Nation</a>, Maine</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://caodanak.com/en/">Conseil des Abénakis d'Odanak</a>, Quebec</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://omniglot.com/writing/abenaki.php">Abenaki (Wôbanakiôdwawôgan)</a>, Omniglot</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130107222248/http://tribal.abenakination.com/">Missisquoi Abenaki Tribal Council</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130603174156/http://www.koasekabenaki.org/">Koasek Traditional Band of the Abenaki Nation</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120104163201/http://www.abenakitribe.org/">Nulhegan Abenaki Tribe</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.elnuabenakitribe.org">Elnu Tribe of the Abenaki</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.native-languages.org/abna.htm">Native Languages of the Americas: Abnaki-Penobscot (Abenaki Language) </a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180613085257/http://www.abenakilanguage.com/">Abenaki language</a> – recordings</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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title="Indigenous peoples in Canada">Indigenous peoples</a> in <a href="/wiki/Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>Cultural areas: <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Northeastern_Woodlands" title="Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands">Northeastern Woodlands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Subarctic" title="Indigenous peoples of the Subarctic">Subarctic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Circumpolar_peoples" title="Circumpolar peoples">Arctic</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic group">Ethnolinguistic groups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Abenaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anishinaabe" title="Anishinaabe">Anishinaabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atikamekw" title="Atikamekw">Atikamekw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cree" title="Cree">Cree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innu" title="Innu">Innu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inuit" title="Inuit">Inuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maliseet" class="mw-redirect" title="Maliseet">Maliseet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mi%EA%9E%8Ckmaq" class="mw-redirect" title="Miꞌkmaq">Miꞌkmaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohawk_people" title="Mohawk people">Mohawk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naskapi" title="Naskapi">Naskapi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wyandot_people" title="Wyandot people">Wyandot</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical polities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Nations_of_Canada" title="Seven Nations of Canada">Seven Nations of Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iroquois" title="Iroquois">Iroquois Confederacy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Treaties and land claims</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Peace_of_Montreal" title="Great Peace of Montreal">Great Peace of Montreal</a> (1701)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bay_and_Northern_Quebec_Agreement" title="James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement">James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement</a> (1975)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paix_des_Braves" title="Paix des Braves">Paix des Braves</a> (2002)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regional councils and<br /><a href="/wiki/Band_government" title="Band government">community</a> governments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" 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