Avesta - World History Encyclopedia

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ga4Event('print_button','clicked',AHE.canonicalPath); window.print(); }); } function pdfButtonClicked() { pageReady.then(()=>{ ahe_dialogue('/template/files/print-to-pdf-dialogue.php?v='+AHE.lastDeploy,400,null,'PDF') }); } </script> </p> </div> </nav> <div id="tag_definition_wrapper"> <script> jsQueue(()=>{ async_load_js('https://assets.pinterest.com/js/pinit.js') }); </script> <div class="pinterest_button"> <a href="https://www.pinterest.com/pin/create/button/" data-pin-do="buttonPin" data-pin-id="https://www.worldhistory.org/Avesta/" data-pin-media="https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/11679.jpg" data-pin-url="https://www.worldhistory.org/Avesta/" data-pin-description="The Avesta is the scripture of Zoroastrianism which developed from an oral tradition founded by the prophet Zoroaster (Zarathustra, Zartosht) sometime between c. 1500-1000 BCE. The title is generally accepted as meaning “praise”, though this interpretation is not universally agreed upon. The original..." data-pin-count="beside" > </a> </div> <h2>Definition</h2> <div id="tag_definition_text"> <div class="clr"></div> <div class="ci_info"> <div class="ci_author_image"> <img loading="lazy" alt="Joshua J. Mark" src="/uploads/profile_photos/150-JPryst.JPG" width="50" height="50"> </div> <div class="ci_author trans block"> by <a href="/user/JPryst/" rel="author" title="User Page: Joshua J. Mark">Joshua J. Mark</a> <br/> published on 08 January 2020 </div> </div> <div class="pre_article_section"> <div class="translations_header"> <div class="translations_title">Available in other languages: <a href="/trans/es/1-18672/el-avesta/" class="translation_link es " rel="alternate">Spanish</a></div> </div> <div id="audio-outer-wrapper"> <iframe id="audio-frame-contents" data-src="/audioplayer/en/1-18672/" height="80" width="100%" frameborder="no" scrolling="no"></iframe> </div> <script> pageReady.then(()=>{ jsQueue(()=>{ let litPlayer = $('#audio-frame-contents'); if (litPlayer) { litPlayer.attr('src',litPlayer.attr('data-src')); } }); }); </script> <style> #audio-outer-wrapper { height: 80px; width: 100%; margin: 1em 0em; } #audio-frame-contents { background-image: url("/template/images/loading-audio-3.png"); background-size: contain; background-repeat: no-repeat; max-height: 80px; } </style> <div class="pre_article_buttons no_print"> <a href="/interestemails/?tags=Ahura_Mazda+Ancient_Persian_Religion+Ardashir_I+Avesta+Mithra+Persian_Literature+zoroaster+zoroastrianism" class="topic_subscribe outline_button">Subscribe to topic</a> <a href="/interestemails/?author=JPryst" class="outline_button" rel="nofollow">Subscribe to author</a> <span class="outline_button print_button" onclick="printButtonClicked();">Print Article</span> <span class="outline_button pdf_button" onclick="pdfButtonClicked();">PDF</span> <script> function printButtonClicked() { pageReady.then(()=>{ ga4Event('print_button','clicked',AHE.canonicalPath); window.print(); }); } function pdfButtonClicked() { pageReady.then(()=>{ ahe_dialogue('/template/files/print-to-pdf-dialogue.php?v='+AHE.lastDeploy,400,null,'PDF') }); } </script> </div> </div> <div class="body"> <article> <figure class="definition_image"> <a href="/image/11679/yasna-28/" title="Yasna 28"> <picture>  <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/11679.jpg.webp?v=1697423883 300w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/11679.jpg.webp?v=1697423883 600w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/11679.jpg?v=1697423883 300w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/11679.jpg?v=1697423883 600w" type="image/jpeg"> <img src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/11679.jpg?v=1697423883" width="300" height="162" alt="Yasna 28 (by Jozka, Public Domain)" title="Yasna 28 (by Jozka, Public Domain)" class="tag_definition_image" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Yasna 28</div><div class="figauthor">Jozka (Public Domain)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/11679/yasna-28/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/11679/yasna-28/","caption":"Avesta, Yasna 28, Bodleian Library, MS J2 fol. 175.","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/11679.jpg","copyrightNotice":"Jozka - Public Domain - This item is in the public domain, and can be used, copied, and modified without any restrictions.","creator":{"@type":"Person","name":"Jozka"},"creditText":"Jozka / Wikipedia","dateModified":"2025-04-09T11:04:17+0000","datePublished":"2020-01-06T09:34:10+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"Yasna 28","height":503,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isBasedOn":{"@type":"CreativeWork","url":"https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bodleian_J2_fol_175_Y_28_1.jpg"},"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/11679/yasna-28/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":true,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/11679/yasna-28/","width":930} </script> <p>The Avesta is the scripture of <a href="/zoroastrianism/">Zoroastrianism</a> which developed from an oral tradition founded by the prophet <a href="/zoroaster/">Zoroaster</a> (<a href="/zoroaster/">Zarathustra</a>, Zartosht) sometime between c. 1500-1000 BCE. The title is generally accepted as meaning “praise”, though this interpretation is not universally agreed upon.</p> <p>The original prayers and hymns were composed in a now-extinct language known as Avestan (which takes its name from the work) that was only preserved orally until the <a href="/Sasanian_Empire/">Sassanian Empire</a> (224-651 CE), which committed it to <a href="/writing/">writing</a> by essentially inventing an <a href="/alphabet/">alphabet</a> to convey Avestan based on Aramaic <a href="/script/">script</a>. It is usually divided into the following sections:</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-1"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_1' class="adcontainer intext innerwrapper mobile"> </div> </div> <ul> <li>Yasna-Gathas</li> <li>Vispered</li> <li>Yashts</li> <li>Vendidad</li> <li>Minor Texts</li> <li>Fragments</li> </ul> <p>Zoroastrian tradition holds that the original work of 21 books (known as <em>Nasts</em>) was revealed by <a href="/Ahura_Mazda/">Ahura Mazda</a>, the One True <a href="/God/">God</a>, to Zoroaster who recited them to his benefactor King Vishtaspa who had them inscribed on sheets of <a href="/gold/">gold</a>. This original work was then memorized, recited at services (<em>yasna</em>), and passed down through the generations until committed to writing by the Sassanians, at which time it was accompanied by commentaries and other works such as the <em>Zend</em> (also given as <em>Zand</em>) and, later, the <em>Denkard</em>, and the <em>Bundahisn</em>.</p><div id="primis_intext"> <div id="3e3744ed-0893-4ec9-8757-582bfa65ad5c"></div> <div id="6b0cd791-ab2c-4669-b35a-8252ddaa7467"></div> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/youtube_intext" target="_blank" class="youtube_notice"> <svg role="img" viewBox="0 0 24 24" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><title>YouTube</title><path d="M23.498 6.186a3.016 3.016 0 0 0-2.122-2.136C19.505 3.545 12 3.545 12 3.545s-7.505 0-9.377.505A3.017 3.017 0 0 0 .502 6.186C0 8.07 0 12 0 12s0 3.93.502 5.814a3.016 3.016 0 0 0 2.122 2.136c1.871.505 9.376.505 9.376.505s7.505 0 9.377-.505a3.015 3.015 0 0 0 2.122-2.136C24 15.93 24 12 24 12s0-3.93-.502-5.814zM9.545 15.568V8.432L15.818 12l-6.273 3.568z"></path></svg> Follow us on YouTube!</a> </div> <script> </script> <div class="big_quote">The Avesta contains the original compositions attributed to Zoroaster as well as ecclesiastical laws, commentaries, customs, & beliefs.</div> <p>The work, as recognized today, contains the original compositions attributed to Zoroaster as well as ecclesiastical laws, commentaries, customs, and beliefs which developed later after Zoroastrianism was accepted and became a widespread belief. The core of the Avesta is thought to have been recognized and recited by Zoroastrian Persians from the <a href="/Achaemenid_Empire/">Achaemenid Empire</a> (c. 550-330 BCE) through the <a href="/Sasanian_Empire/">Sassanian</a> <a href="/empire/">Empire</a> which fell to the invading Muslim Arabs in 651 CE.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-2"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_2' class="adcontainer intext innerwrapper mobile"> </div> </div> <p>Afterwards, Zoroastrianism was suppressed and only preserved by the Parsees – Persian Zoroastrians who fled to <a href="/india/">India</a> – and Iranians who managed to keep the faith alive in their native country. In the present day, the Parsees are considered the primary custodians of the Avestan tradition although Zoroastrianism is practiced by people around the world.</p> <h3>Zoroaster & Early Development</h3> <p>The Early Iranian <a href="/religion/">Religion</a> was polytheistic with Ahura Mazda as king of the gods. These gods, and attendant spirits, were forces for good and stood in opposition to the discordant spirit Angra Mainyu and his legions of evil. There was a priesthood, which attended to the gods, and services conducted, but what form these rituals took is unknown.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-3"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_3' class="adcontainer intext innerwrapper mobile desktop"> </div> </div> <p>Roughly between c. 1500-1000 BCE, one of these priests, Zoroaster, received a vision from Ahura Mazda through a being of light who appeared to him on a riverbank. The entity identified itself as Vohu Manah (“good purpose”) and revealed to him that there was actually only one god – Ahura Mazda – and Zoroaster's responsibility was to preach this truth.</p> <p>Zoroaster's early efforts were not appreciated by the priesthood – nor anyone else – and after his life was threatened he left his home region, eventually arriving at the court of King Vishtaspa. Although originally imprisoned for his vision, Zoroaster won the king's admiration by healing his favorite horse, and Vishtaspa became his first notable convert; his kingdom then followed suit, and the religion spread from there.</p> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="11613"> <a href="/image/11613/faravahar-yazd/" title="Faravahar, Yazd" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/11613.jpg.webp?v=1741802704 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/11613.jpg.webp?v=1741802704 1000w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/11613.jpg?v=1741802704 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/11613.jpg?v=1741802704 1000w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/11613.jpg?v=1741802704" alt="Faravahar, Yazd" class="in_text_image" width="500" height="334" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Faravahar, Yazd</div><div class="figauthor">Bernard Gagnon (CC BY-SA)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/11613/faravahar-yazd/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/11613/faravahar-yazd/","caption":"Faravahar symbol on Fire Temple of Yazd, Iran","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/11613.jpg","copyrightNotice":"Bernard Gagnon - CC BY-SA - This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon a work even for commercial reasons, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included.","creator":{"@type":"Person","name":"Bernard Gagnon"},"creditText":"Bernard Gagnon / Wikipedia","dateModified":"2025-04-09T11:04:17+0000","datePublished":"2019-12-12T10:54:50+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"Faravahar, Yazd","height":2346,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isBasedOn":{"@type":"CreativeWork","url":"https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Faravahar_on_Fire_Temple,_Yazd.jpg"},"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/11613/faravahar-yazd/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/11613/faravahar-yazd/","width":3519} </script> </p> <p>The faith was based on Ahura Mazda's revealed truth of a single god who was all-good, all-powerful, and completely loving. This god only required acknowledgment and that human beings express this through good thoughts, good words, and good deeds, which would lead to virtuous lives. Virtuous people would honor truth (<em>asha</em>) and repudiate lies (<em>druj</em>) and, in doing so, fight against the forces of Angra Mainyu and preserve order.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-4"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_4' class="adcontainer intext innerwrapper mobile desktop"> </div> </div> <p>The earliest section of the Avesta is the <em>Gathas</em> – hymns to Ahura Mazda which are thought to have been composed by Zoroaster. They address the god directly and ask for guidance in living the life he expects from adherents. According to legend, as noted, these hymns and other works were written down under Vishtaspa, but there is no actual evidence for the golden sheets of Zoroastrian scripture nor for any other written Zoroastrian works prior to the Sassanian Empire.</p> <h3><a href="/disambiguation/Achaemenid/">Achaemenid</a>, Parthian, & Sassanian Development</h3> <p>The religion was adopted by the Achaemenid Empire, probably during the reign of <a href="/Darius_I/">Darius I</a> (the Great, r. 522-486 BCE). The founder, <a href="/Cyrus_the_Great/">Cyrus the Great</a> (r. c. 550-530 BCE), references Ahura Mazda, but such inscriptions could be alluding to the earlier vision of the polytheistic faith. Allegedly, the Achaemenids wrote down a version of the Avesta which was destroyed by <a href="/Alexander_the_Great/">Alexander the Great</a>'s <a href="/warfare/">conquest</a> and the burning of <a href="/persepolis/">Persepolis</a> in 330 BCE. Modern-day scholars reject this claim, however, noting that there is nothing in the extant work which suggests an earlier Achaemenid version.</p> <p>The Achaemenid Empire was succeeded by the <a href="/Hellenic_World/">Hellenistic</a> <a href="/Seleucid_Empire/">Seleucid Empire</a> (312-63 BCE) during which time Zoroastrianism continued to be practiced by the people but not the <a href="/disambiguation/greek/">Greek</a> upper class. The Seleucids were succeeded by the <a href="/Parthia_(Empire)/">Parthian Empire</a> (247 BCE-224 CE) whose upper class did embrace Zoroastrianism, and early scholars of the religion claimed that a version of the Avesta was written at this time. This version was allegedly based on the texts supposedly lost at the end of the Achaemenid Empire, but, again, there is no evidence for this, and most modern-day scholars reject the claim or, at least, see nothing in the extant work which would make a Parthian version relevant to its development.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-5"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_5' class="adcontainer intext innerwrapper mobile desktop"> </div> </div> <p>The Sassanians are the first historically attested <a href="/disambiguation/Persian_Empire/">Persian empire</a> to have committed the work to writing; inscriptions, as well as the extant text, make this quite clear. The founder of the Sassanian Empire, <a href="/Ardashir_I/">Ardashir I</a> (r. 224-240 CE), brought Zoroastrian priests to his court to recite the sacred verses so they could be written down and this policy was continued by his son <a href="/Shapur_I/">Shapur I</a> (r. 240-270 CE). The work does not seem to have been actually completed, however, until the reign of <a href="/Shapur_II/">Shapur II</a> (309-379 CE) and was not finalized until that of <a href="/Kosrau_I/">Kosrau I</a> (531-579 CE).</p> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="11655"> <a href="/image/11655/ardashir-i--ahura-mazda/" title="Ardashir I & Ahura Mazda" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/11655.jpg.webp?v=1720647485 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/11655.jpg.webp?v=1720647485 1000w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/11655.jpg?v=1720647485 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/11655.jpg?v=1720647485 1000w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/11655.jpg?v=1720647485" alt="Ardashir I & Ahura Mazda" class="in_text_image" width="500" height="332" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Ardashir I & Ahura Mazda</div><div class="figauthor">Lutf 'Ali Khan (Copyright)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/11655/ardashir-i--ahura-mazda/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/11655/ardashir-i--ahura-mazda/","caption":"A drawing of a 3rd century CE Sasanian rock relief in Naqsh-e Rustam, Iran. The relief shows on the right Ardashir I (r. 224-241 CE) and on the left the supreme Persian and Zoroastrian god Ahura Mazda. The god is giving the king his ring of office. Illustration by Lutf 'Ali Khan, 1797-1867 CE. (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York)","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/11655.jpg","copyrightNotice":"Lutf 'Ali Khan - Copyright - You cannot use, copy, distribute, or modify this item without explicit permission from the author.","creator":{"@type":"Person","name":"Lutf 'Ali Khan"},"creditText":"Lutf 'Ali Khan / Metropolitan Museum of Art","dateModified":"2025-04-09T11:04:17+0000","datePublished":"2019-12-20T08:04:48+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"Ardashir I & Ahura Mazda","height":2650,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isBasedOn":{"@type":"CreativeWork","url":"https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/327535?searchField=All&sortBy=Relevance&ao=on&ft=Ahura+Mazda&offset=0&rpp=20&pos=1"},"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/11655/ardashir-i--ahura-mazda/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/11655/ardashir-i--ahura-mazda/","width":4000} </script> </p> <p>Priests recited the text in its original Avestan, and this was then rendered in a script invented for this sole purpose in order to preserve the precise sound and sense of the Avestan words. The script was based on Aramaic but departs from that language in order to preserve the lost Avestan. This method was initiated under Shapur II and continued by his successors.</p> <h3>The Avesta</h3> <p>The most important section of the Avesta is the <em>Gathas</em>. These are personal praise songs comprised of prayer-petition and worship-adoration and, on their own, provide little by way of instruction in how one is to walk the Zoroastrian path in one's daily life. It is thought that Zoroaster must have taught his disciples how to conduct themselves in plain, direct speech, and some of this tradition could be preserved in commentary such as the <em>Zend</em>. However that may be, it is because of the ambiguity of the <em>Gathas</em> that works such as the <em>Vendidad</em>, <em>Minor Texts</em>, and <em>Zend</em> are necessary.</p><div class="intext_6 ahe-ad book_rec_banner"></div> <p><strong>Yasna-Gatha</strong></p> <p>The <em>Yasna-Gathas</em> are 17 such hymns divided into five groups based on meter:</p> <ul> <li>Ahunavaiti Gatha</li> <li>Ushtavaiti Gatha</li> <li>Spentamainyush Gatha</li> <li>Vohukshathra Gatha</li> <li>Vahishtoishti Gatha</li> </ul> <p>The <em>yasna</em> (devotion) is the Zoroastrian religious service but also alludes to the hymns which encourage devotion while the <em>Gatha</em> is the separate grouping of those hymns. Their purpose is to elevate the mind toward enlightenment by focusing it on the grandeur of Ahura Mazda. Yasna 28 from the <em>Ahunavaiti Gatha</em> is a good example of the overall theme and focus of these works:</p> <blockquote> <p>1. With outspread hands in petition for that help, O Mazda, I will pray for the works of the holy spirit, O thou the Right, whereby I may please the will of Good Thought and the Ox-Soul.</p> <p>2. I who would serve you, O Mazda Ahura and Vohu Mano, do ye give through Asha the blessings of both worlds, the bodily and that of the Spirit, which set the faithful in felicity.</p> <p>3. I who would praise ye as never before, Right and Good Thought and Mazda Ahura, and those for whom Piety makes an imperishable Dominion to grow; come ye to me help at my call.</p><div id="mobilenewsletter" class="grey_box mobilenewsletter"> <div class="headline">Love History?</div> <p>Sign up for our free weekly email newsletter!</p> <form action="//ancient.us8.list-manage.com/subscribe/post?u=c3168e59d8bfba7986977db46&id=ac74a77c22" method="post" id="mailchimp-mobile-form" name="mc-embedded-subscribe-form" class="validate"> <input type="email" placeholder="Email address..." name="EMAIL" class="required email" id="mce-EMAIL-mobile" style="width:60%;" required> <input type="submit" value="Sign Up" name="subscribe" id="mc-embedded-subscribe-mobile" style="margin-top: 10px;">  <div style="position: absolute; left: -5000px;"><input type="text" name="b_c3168e59d8bfba7986977db46_ac74a77c22" tabindex="-1" value=""></div> </form> </div> <p>4. I who have set my heart on watching over the soul, in union with Good Thought, and as knowing the rewards of Mazda Ahura for our works, will, while I have power and strength, teach men to seek after Right.</p> <p>5. O Asha, shall I see thee and Good Thought, as one that knows? (Shall I see) the throne of the mightiest Ahura and the following of Mazda? Through this word (of promise) on our tongue will we turn the robber horde unto the Greatest.</p> <p>6. Come thou with Good Thought, give through Asha, O Mazda, as the gift to Zarathushtra, according to thy sure words, long enduring mighty help, and to us, O Ahura, whereby we may overcome the enmity of our foes.</p> <p>7. Grant, O thou Asha, the reward, the blessing of Good Thought; O Piety, give our desire to Vishtaspa and to me; O thou Mazda and King, grant that your Prophet may command a hearing.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-6"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_8' class="adcontainer intext innerwrapper mobile desktop"> </div> </div> <p>8. The best I ask of Thee, O Best, Ahura (Lord) of one will with the Best Asha, desiring (it) for the hero Frashaostra and for those (others) to whom thou wilt give (it), (the best gift) of Good Mind through all time.</p> <p>9. With these bounties, O Ahura, may we never provoke your wrath, O Mazda and Right and Best Thought, we who have been eager in bringing you songs of praise. Ye are they that are the mightiest to advance desire and the Dominion of Blessings.</p> <p>10. The wise whom thou knowest as worthy, for their right (doing) and their good thought, for them do thou fulfill their longing for attainment. For I know words of prayer are effective with Ye, which tend to a good object.</p> <p>11. I would thereby preserve Right and Good Thought for evermore, that I may instruct, do thou teach me, O Mazda Ahura, from thy spirit by thy mouth how it will be with the First Life.</p> <p>(Avesta.org)</p> </blockquote> <p>In this hymn – as in all the others – the importance of the pursuit of truth (<em>asha</em>) and wisdom (<em>mazda</em>) is emphasized as well as the transcendent nature of Ahura Mazda (Lord of Wisdom) and the necessity of resisting evil to maintain order.</p> <p><strong>Visperad</strong></p> <p>The <em>Visperad</em> comprises 23 prayers which serve as a supplement to the <em>yasnas</em> but is also the name of the ceremony in which these prayers are recited (in ancient times, conducted between the rising of the sun and noon). The prayers of the <em>Visperad</em> are never recited independently of the <em>yasnas</em> as they serve to expand upon and develop the hymns' concepts.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-7"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_9' class="adcontainer intext innerwrapper mobile desktop"> </div> </div> <p><strong>Yashts</strong></p> <div class="big_quote">The Yashts are 21 hymns addressed to divine entities & sacred elements such as water & fire.</div> <p>The <em>Yashts</em> are 21 hymns addressed to divine entities and sacred elements such as water and fire. When Zoroaster reformed the earlier religion, he kept many of the most popular gods – such as <a href="/Anahita/">Anahita</a> (goddess of water, fertility, health, and wisdom) and <a href="/Mithra/">Mithra</a> (god of the rising sun, contracts, and covenants), only now these were no longer regarded as deities but as divine emanations of Ahura Mazda. One could still, therefore, pray to Anahita for help in conceiving a child but in the knowledge one was actually praying to Ahura Mazda; Anahita would only be the vehicle through which the Supreme Deity answered the prayer (very like the Catholic conception of praying to saints). The <em>Yashts</em> are these kinds of supplications in the form of hymns which also give thanks for answered prayers.</p> <p><strong>Vendidad</strong></p> <p>The <em>Vendidad</em> is a collection of 22 sections (<em>Fargards</em>) which make up an ecclesiastical code and includes myths, prayers, observances, rituals, and instruction on subjects ranging from personal hygiene to social customs (acceptable and unacceptable behavior), defense against evil demons, care for the dead and funerary rituals (including the importance of dogs in driving off evil spirits after a <a href="/disambiguation/Death/">death</a>), respect for others, charity, and care for animals, among many other topics. The different <em>Fargards</em> address specific answers to questions on how one is to be a Zoroastrian, what that means as far as a daily walk of faith, and how one is to respond to various threats, actions, blessings, and other circumstances.</p> <p>Some Zoroastrians in the present day reject the <em>Vendidad</em> as superfluous while others accept its validity. Scholars, however, generally agree that the <em>Fargards</em> are some of the oldest Zoroastrian texts, the content dating back to around the 8th century BCE. The early myth of the creation of the world, the story of King Yima and the salvation of the earth (an early precursor to the later biblical tale of <a href="/Noah/">Noah</a> and his Ark), and the importance of caring for the earth – all considered ancient tales – are included in the <em>Vendidad</em> and make up the first three <em>Fargards</em>.</p> <p><strong>Minor Texts</strong></p> <p>The so-called <em>Minor Texts </em>are prayers and invocations of various deities for assistance. As with Anahita and Mithra and other former-gods, these deities are regarded as emanations of Ahura Mazda. They are particular energies more conducive to answering a certain type of prayer than others. The<em> Minor Texts </em>are:</p> <ul> <li>Siroza – Invocations of deities in times of need</li> <li>Nyayeshes – Prayers to divine elements of fire, water, and to the sun and moon</li> <li>Gahs – Invocations of and prayers to the Five Deities of the Day</li> <li>Afrinagans – Blessings for the Dead and for the <a href="/Horae/">Seasons</a></li> </ul> <p><strong>Fragments</strong></p> <p>The fragments are incomplete texts or those which do not fit with any other section. Although often overlooked, the fragments are not inconsequential and include information on pre-Zoroastrian deities and important theological subjects such as the end of the world and redemption.</p> <h3>Loss & Recovery</h3> <p>In 651 CE, the Sassanian Empire fell to the Muslim Arabs and Zoroastrianism was suppressed. People either converted to <a href="/islam/">Islam</a>, continued the faith in secret, or fled the region (the Parsees who took the religion to India where it continues to flourish). The Muslims burned the Zoroastrian libraries and either destroyed the <a href="/Fire_Temple/">fire temples</a> or turned them into mosques. Scholars regularly point to this period as one of incalculable loss of Zoroastrian texts and lore, including copies of the Avesta. The Parsees took the Avesta with them to India (Gujarat) at some point between the 8th and 10th centuries CE. Zoroastrian beliefs outside of India, for the most part, were only known through commentary by Greek, Christian, and Muslim writers. The actual Avesta was thought to have been lost in the Muslim conquest of the 7th century CE.</p> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="11612"> <a href="/image/11612/fire-temple/" title="Fire Temple" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/11612.jpg.webp?v=1724957044 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/11612.jpg.webp?v=1724957044 1000w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/11612.jpg?v=1724957044 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/11612.jpg?v=1724957044 1000w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/11612.jpg?v=1724957044" alt="Fire Temple" class="in_text_image" width="500" height="290" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Fire Temple</div><div class="figauthor">Diego Delso (CC BY-SA)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/11612/fire-temple/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/11612/fire-temple/","caption":"Baku Ateshgah or the Fire Temple of Baku, Azerbaijan.","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/11612.jpg","copyrightNotice":"Diego Delso - CC BY-SA - This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon a work even for commercial reasons, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included.","creator":{"@type":"Person","name":"Diego Delso"},"creditText":"Diego Delso / Wikipedia","dateModified":"2025-04-09T11:04:17+0000","datePublished":"2019-12-12T10:30:14+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"Fire Temple","height":928,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isBasedOn":{"@type":"CreativeWork","url":"https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Templo_de_fuego,_Baku,_Azerbaiy%C3%A1n,_2016-09-27,_DD_34.jpg"},"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/11612/fire-temple/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/11612/fire-temple/","width":1600} </script> </p> <p>It was not until 1723 CE, when a merchant traveling in India brought back part of an Avestan manuscript to <a href="/britain/">Britain</a>, that Europeans became aware the book still existed, at least in part. This manuscript was placed in the Bodleian Library of Oxford University where, in 1755 CE, it came to the attention of the young French scholar <a href="/Abraham,_the_Patriarch/">Abraham</a> Hyacinthe Anquetil-Duperron (l. 1731-1805 CE), later the greatest Indologist of his age. Anquetil-Duperron, embarking on an epic journey through India to recover the Avesta, returned to France with over 180 Avestan manuscripts in 1762 CE and began to translate them; all Western Avestan scholarship develops from Anquetil-Duperron's efforts.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-8"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_10' class="adcontainer intext innerwrapper mobile desktop"> </div> </div> <h3>Legacy</h3> <p>The Avesta is a completely original vision of its age, conceiving of a single, all-powerful, creative deity with a personal interest in the lives – and morality – of human beings. Its principles informed the policies of the greatest empires of the ancient East and its theology would influence the later monotheistic faiths of <a href="/disambiguation/judaism/">Judaism</a>, <a href="/christianity/">Christianity</a>, and Islam. Zoroastrianism is the first monotheistic religion to introduce concepts such as judgment after death, heaven and hell, a messiah, an End Time, resurrection of the dead, and a new world after the old is redeemed, among others; all concepts developed by the later monotheistic faiths.</p> <p>These belief systems would have been informed by Zoroastrian thought as the concepts were shared through <a href="/disambiguation/trade/">trade</a> and travel between c. 1000 BCE and 224 CE when the Sassanians wrote the work down. Even if it had never exerted any influence on these later faiths, however, the Avesta would still be a powerful work in its own right as it provides a vision of a completely loving deity, generous and just, who only wants his creation to be the best it can possibly be in every respect.</p> </article> <div id="ci_rating_wrapper"> <div class="rating_label filter_label">Did you like this definition?</div> <div id="ci_rating_buttons_wrapper"> <div class="rating_button up base" data-rating="1"></div> <div class="rating_button down base" data-rating="-1"></div> </div> </div> <div id="sections_below_links"> <p> <a href="/interestemails/?tags=Ahura_Mazda+Ancient_Persian_Religion+Ardashir_I+Avesta+Mithra+Persian_Literature+zoroaster+zoroastrianism" class="topic_subscribe outline_button below_article">Subscribe to topic</a> <a href="#ci_related_content_outer_wrapper" class="outline_button">Related Content</a> <a href="#books_preview" class="outline_button">Books</a> <a href="#citation_info" class="outline_button">Cite This Work</a> <a href="#ci_author_and_copyright" class="outline_button">License</a> </p> </div> <div class="editorial_review_notice"> <span class="editorial_review_header">Editorial Review</span> This human-authored article has been reviewed by our editorial team before publication to ensure accuracy, reliability and adherence to academic standards in accordance with our <a href="/static/editorial-policy/">editorial policy</a>. </div> </div> </div></div> <div class="ad_Flexi_BottomLeft ahe-ad"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id="div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_BottomLeft" class="adcontainer worldhistory_below_content"> </div> </div> <style> .map_container.il { border: none; } .map_container h3 { text-align: center; } </style> <div id="references"> <h2>Bibliography</h2> <ul id="reference_list" class="ref_list bibliography"> <li id="bibID__93893de8f63365a9edb292e8edcb6664"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/2165-avesta" class="reference_link" rel="external" title="Avesta by Kaufmann Kohler and A.V. M. Jackson from Jewish Encyclopedia.com">Avesta by Kaufmann Kohler and A.V. M. Jackson from Jewish Encyclopedia.com</a><span class="accessed_date">, accessed 15 Dec 2019.</span></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__f7f080392fd9f47e24d91e2dfeb43432"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/1375832123/" rel="sponsored">Darmesteter, J. <i>The Zend-Avesta.</i> Andesite Press, 2017.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__032bf37f9fdeabcda5450ba1d4d7e1a6"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/1848848455/" rel="sponsored">Daryaee, T. <i>Sassanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire.</i> I. B. Tauris & Company, 2013.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__ab9f741b53679e8c538aabf6a2589c15"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/1846031087/" rel="sponsored">Farrokh, K. <i>Shadows in the Desert.</i> Osprey Publishing, 2007.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__87ad2b9b3cc3c99b1ffbca86c908d4de"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0742562271/" rel="sponsored">Holland, G. S. <i>Gods in the Desert: Religions of the Ancient Near East.</i> Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2010.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__1403390000a24e4517eaa9bd43eceb83"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/avesta-holy-book" class="reference_link" rel="external" title="J. Kellens, AVESTA i. Survey of the History and Contents of the Book; Encyclopaedia Iranica III/1, pp. 35-44">J. Kellens, AVESTA i. Survey of the History and Contents of the Book; Encyclopaedia Iranica III/1, pp. 35-44</a><span class="accessed_date">, accessed 15 Dec 2019.</span></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__c41cd76b75757144b479bd365e1042ff"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0300169329/" rel="sponsored">Katouzian, H. <i>The Persians: Ancient, Mediaeval, and Modern Iran.</i> Yale University Press, 2010.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__2c117c3050d727a07e8b86a836d59e07"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0226627772/" rel="sponsored">Olmstead, A. T. <i>History of the Persian Empire.</i> University of Chicago Press, 2009.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__9247b92f894633ace9449d1623680da1"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/1108703127/" rel="sponsored">Rawlinson, G. <i>Religions of the Ancient World.</i> Sagwan Press, 2010.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__f24fb650046bbfc5403577a477c6a3b5"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="http://www.avesta.org/gathas.htm" class="reference_link" rel="external" title="The Gathas of Zarathushtra from Avesta.org">The Gathas of Zarathushtra from Avesta.org</a><span class="accessed_date">, accessed 15 Dec 2019.</span></cite> </li> </ul> <div class="book_promo_wrapper"></div> <span class="light affiliate_notice">World History Encyclopedia is an Amazon Associate and earns a commission on qualifying book purchases.</span> <div id="books_rec"> </div> <script> jsQueue(()=>{ $("ul.bibliography").sortList(); }); </script> </div> <div class="user_short_bio_wrapper"> <a href="/interestemails/?author=JPryst" class="headline_button" rel="nofollow">Subscribe to this author</a> <h2>About the Author</h2> <div class="user_short_bio"> <div class="left_col"> </div> <div class="right_col"> <a href="/user/JPryst/" rel="nofollow" title="Joshua J. Mark"><img data-src="/uploads/profile_photos/150-JPryst.JPG?v=1459726565" width="100" height="100" alt="Joshua J. Mark" class="avatar_image" /></a> <div class="user_name"> <a href="/user/JPryst/" rel="author" title="Joshua J. Mark">Joshua J. Mark</a> </div> <div class="short_bio_text"> Joshua J. Mark is World History Encyclopedia's co-founder and Content Director. He was previously a professor at Marist College (NY) where he taught history, philosophy, literature, and writing. He has traveled extensively and lived in Greece and Germany. </div> <div class="sm_links"> <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/pub/joshua-j-mark/38/614/339" title="Joshua J. Mark" class="sm_tiny_sprite linkedin no_external"></a> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="translations_notice"> <h2 class="translations">Translations</h2> <a href="/trans/es/1-18672/el-avesta/" class="translation_link es outline_button" rel="alternate">Spanish</a> <p>We want people all over the world to learn about history. Help us and <a href="/trans/x/1-18672/edit/" class="translation_add_button" rel="nofollow">translate this definition</a> into another language!</p> </div> <div id="ci_related_wrapper"> <div class="ci_related_content_outer_wrapper" id="ci_related_content_outer_wrapper"> <h2>Related Content</h2> <div id="ci_related_type_list"> <span class="filter_label">Filters:</span> <div rel="0" class="ci_type_0 ci_rel_type selected">All<span class="ci_rel_type_count"> </span></div> <div rel="1" class="ci_type_1 ci_rel_type ">Definitions<span class="ci_rel_type_count">60</span></div> <div rel="2" class="ci_type_2 ci_rel_type ">Articles<span class="ci_rel_type_count">20</span></div> <div rel="3" class="ci_type_3 ci_rel_type ">Images<span class="ci_rel_type_count">11</span></div> <div rel="6" class="ci_type_6 ci_rel_type ">Videos<span class="ci_rel_type_count">3</span></div> <div rel="9" class="ci_type_9 ci_rel_type ">Collections<span class="ci_rel_type_count">5</span></div> </div> <div id="ci_related_content"> <div class="ci_related_content_wrapper ci_two_cols three_cols"> <div class="columns"> <a href="/zoroastrianism/" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_1 " id="1-309" data-score="1674524" data-ci-type-id="1"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/11613.jpg.webp?v=1741802704 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/11613.jpg.webp?v=1741802704 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/11613.jpg?v=1741802704 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/11613.jpg?v=1741802704 720w" type="image/jpg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/11613.jpg?v=1741802704" width="360" height="202" alt="Zoroastrianism" class="ci_image " /> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__1"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Definition </div> <h3>Zoroastrianism</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> Zoroastrianism is the monotheistic faith established by the Persian... </div> </div> </a> <a href="/Mithra/" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_1 " id="1-10029" data-score="1518839" data-ci-type-id="1"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/11872.jpg.webp?v=1694706483 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/11872.jpg.webp?v=1694706483 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/11872.jpg?v=1694706483 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/11872.jpg?v=1694706483 720w" type="image/jpg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/11872.jpg?v=1694706483" width="360" height="202" alt="Mithra" class="ci_image " /> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__1"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Definition </div> <h3>Mithra</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> Mithra is the Persian god of the rising sun, contracts, covenants... </div> </div> </a> <a href="/Ahura_Mazda/" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_1 " id="1-15806" data-score="1432526" data-ci-type-id="1"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/3049.jpg.webp?v=1727232364 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/3049.jpg.webp?v=1727232364 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/3049.jpg?v=1727232364 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/3049.jpg?v=1727232364 720w" type="image/jpg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/3049.jpg?v=1727232364" width="360" height="202" alt="Ahura Mazda" class="ci_image " /> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__1"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Definition </div> <h3>Ahura Mazda</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> Ahura Mazda (also known as Ahuramazda, Harzoo, Hormazd, Hourmazd... </div> </div> </a> <a href="/Ardashir_I/" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_1 " id="1-11948" data-score="1385161" data-ci-type-id="1"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/15069.jpg.webp?v=1743785354 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/15069.jpg.webp?v=1743785354 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/15069.jpg?v=1743785354 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/15069.jpg?v=1743785354 720w" type="image/jpg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/15069.jpg?v=1743785354" width="360" height="202" alt="Ardashir I" class="ci_image " /> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__1"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Definition </div> <h3>Ardashir I</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> Ardashir I (l. c. 180-241 CE, r. 224-240 CE) was the founder of... </div> </div> </a> <a href="/Ancient_Persian_Religion/" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_1 " id="1-18650" data-score="1361237" data-ci-type-id="1"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/7985.jpg.webp?v=1723047972 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/7985.jpg.webp?v=1723047972 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/7985.jpg?v=1723047972 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/7985.jpg?v=1723047972 720w" type="image/jpg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/7985.jpg?v=1723047972" width="360" height="202" alt="Ancient Persian Religion" class="ci_image " /> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__1"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Definition </div> <h3>Ancient Persian Religion</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> Ancient Persian religion was a polytheistic faith which corresponds... </div> </div> </a> <a href="/Ahriman/" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_1 " id="1-18787" data-score="1306876" data-ci-type-id="1"> <picture> <source 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Web. 09 Apr 2025. </p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ci_author_and_copyright" id="ci_author_and_copyright"> <h2>License & Copyright</h2> <p> Submitted by <a href="/user/JPryst/" rel="author" title="User Page: Joshua J. Mark">Joshua J. Mark</a>, published on 08 January 2020. The copyright holder has published this content under the following license: <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/deed.en" rel="nofollow">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike</a>. This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. 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