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id="mw-content-subtitle"></div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="content"> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><script>function mfTempOpenSection(id){var block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r963460841">@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1034237262">.mw-parser-output .stack{box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .stack>div{margin:1px;overflow:hidden}@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-left{float:left;clear:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-right{float:right;clear:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-left{float:left;clear:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-right{float:right;clear:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-left{float:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-right{float:right;margin-left:1em}}</style>The Punic Wars were a series of wars between 264 and 146 BC fought between the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Ancient Carthage</a>. Three wars took place, on both land and sea, across the <a href="/wiki/Western_Mediterranean" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Mediterranean">western Mediterranean</a> region and involved a total of forty-three years of warfare. The Punic Wars are also considered to include the four-year-long <a href="/wiki/Mercenary_War" title="Mercenary War">revolt against Carthage</a> which started in 241 BC. Each war involved immense <a href="/wiki/Materiel" title="Materiel">materiel</a> and human losses on both sides. <div class="stack mw-stack stack-clear-right"><div><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Punic Wars</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/File:Domain_changes_during_the_Punic_Wars.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="An animated display showing the territory controlled by Rome and Carthage at different times during the Punic Wars" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Domain_changes_during_the_Punic_Wars.gif/300px-Domain_changes_during_the_Punic_Wars.gif" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Domain_changes_during_the_Punic_Wars.gif/450px-Domain_changes_during_the_Punic_Wars.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Domain_changes_during_the_Punic_Wars.gif/600px-Domain_changes_during_the_Punic_Wars.gif 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600"></a> Territory controlled by Rome and Carthage at different times during the Punic Wars <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"> Carthaginian possessions</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> Roman possessions</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td>264 BC – 146 BC</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location">Western Mediterranean region</div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>Roman victory</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Territorial changes</th><td> Roman conquest of all <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthaginian</a> territories (except <a href="/wiki/Numidia" title="Numidia">Numidia</a>)</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Rome</a></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthage</a></td></tr></tbody></table><div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div></div></div> The <a href="/wiki/First_Punic_War" title="First Punic War">First Punic War</a> broke out on the Mediterranean island of <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a> in 264 BC as Rome's expansion began to encroach on Carthage's <a href="/wiki/Sphere_of_influence" title="Sphere of influence">sphere of influence</a> on the island. At the start of the war Carthage was the dominant power of the western Mediterranean, with an extensive <a href="/wiki/Thalassocracy" title="Thalassocracy">maritime empire</a>, while Rome was a rapidly expanding power in <a href="/wiki/Roman_Italy" title="Roman Italy">Italy</a>, with a strong <a href="/wiki/Roman_army_of_the_mid-Republic" title="Roman army of the mid-Republic">army</a> but no navy. The fighting took place primarily on Sicily and its surrounding waters, as well as in <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corsica" title="Corsica">Corsica</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sardinia" title="Sardinia">Sardinia</a>. It lasted 23 years, until 241 BC, when the Carthaginians were defeated. By the terms of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Lutatius" title="Treaty of Lutatius">Treaty of Lutatius</a> (241, amended 237 BC), Carthage paid large <a href="/wiki/War_reparations" title="War reparations">reparations</a> and Sicily was annexed as a <a href="/wiki/Sicilia_(Roman_province)" title="Sicilia (Roman province)">Roman province</a>. The end of the war sparked a major but eventually unsuccessful revolt within Carthaginian territory known as the <a href="/wiki/Mercenary_War" title="Mercenary War">Mercenary War</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Second_Punic_War" title="Second Punic War">Second Punic War</a> began in 218 BC and witnessed the Carthaginian general <a href="/wiki/Hannibal" title="Hannibal">Hannibal</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Hannibal%27s_crossing_of_the_Alps" title="Hannibal's crossing of the Alps">crossing of the Alps</a> and invasion of <a href="/wiki/Mainland_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Mainland Italy">mainland Italy</a>. This expedition enjoyed considerable early success and campaigned in Italy for 14 years before the survivors withdrew. There was also extensive fighting in <a href="/wiki/Iberians" title="Iberians">Iberia</a> (modern Spain and Portugal), Sicily, Sardinia, and North Africa. The successful Roman invasion of the Carthaginian homeland in Africa in 204 BC led to Hannibal's recall. He was defeated in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zama" title="Battle of Zama">battle of Zama</a> in 202 BC and Carthage <a href="/wiki/Suing_for_peace" title="Suing for peace">sued for peace</a>. A treaty was agreed in 201 BC which stripped Carthage of its overseas territories and some of its African ones, imposed a large indemnity, severely restricted the size of its <a href="/wiki/Military_of_Carthage" title="Military of Carthage">armed forces</a>, and prohibited Carthage from waging war without Rome's express permission. This caused Carthage to cease to be a military threat. In 151 BC, Carthage attempted to <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Oroscopa" title="Battle of Oroscopa">defend itself</a> against <a href="/wiki/Numidia" title="Numidia">Numidian</a> encroachments and Rome used this as a justification to declare war in 149 BC, starting the <a href="/wiki/Third_Punic_War" title="Third Punic War">Third Punic War</a>. This conflict was fought entirely on Carthage's territories in what is now Tunisia and centred on the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Carthage_(Third_Punic_War)" title="Siege of Carthage (Third Punic War)">siege of Carthage</a>. In 146 BC, the Romans stormed the city of <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Looting" title="Looting">sacked</a> it, slaughtered or enslaved most of its population, and completely demolished the city. The Carthaginian territories were taken over as the <a href="/wiki/Africa_(Roman_province)" title="Africa (Roman province)">Roman province of Africa</a>. The ruins of the city lie east of modern <a href="/wiki/Tunis" title="Tunis">Tunis</a> on the North African coast. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Primary_sources">1 Primary sources</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Background_and_origin">2 Background and origin</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Opposing_forces">3 Opposing forces</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Armies">3.1 Armies</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Navies">3.2 Navies</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#First_Punic_War,_264%E2%80%93241_BC">4 First Punic War, 264–241 BC</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Course">4.1 Course</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-8"><a href="#Sicily,_264%E2%80%93257_BC">4.1.1 Sicily, 264–257 BC</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-9"><a href="#Africa,_256%E2%80%93255_BC">4.1.2 Africa, 256–255 BC</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-10"><a href="#Sicily,_255%E2%80%93241_BC">4.1.3 Sicily, 255–241 BC</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-11"><a href="#Roman_victory,_243%E2%80%93241_BC">4.1.4 Roman victory, 243–241 BC</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#Interbellum,_241%E2%80%93218_BC">5 Interbellum, 241–218 BC</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Mercenary_War">5.1 Mercenary War</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Carthaginian_expansion_in_Iberia">5.2 Carthaginian expansion in Iberia</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#Second_Punic_War,_218%E2%80%93201_BC">6 Second Punic War, 218–201 BC</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Italy">6.1 Italy</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-17"><a href="#Hannibal_crosses_the_Alps,_218%E2%80%93217_BC">6.1.1 Hannibal crosses the Alps, 218–217 BC</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-18"><a href="#Roman_defeats,_217%E2%80%93216_BC">6.1.2 Roman defeats, 217–216 BC</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-19"><a href="#Roman_allies_defect,_216%E2%80%93207_BC">6.1.3 Roman allies defect, 216–207 BC</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-20"><a href="#Greece,_Sardinia_and_Sicily">6.1.4 Greece, Sardinia and Sicily</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-21"><a href="#Italy,_207%E2%80%93203_BC">6.1.5 Italy, 207–203 BC</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Iberia">6.2 Iberia</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-23"><a href="#Iberia,_218%E2%80%93209_BC">6.2.1 Iberia, 218–209 BC</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-24"><a href="#Roman_victory_in_Iberia,_208%E2%80%93205_BC">6.2.2 Roman victory in Iberia, 208–205 BC</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><a href="#Africa">6.3 Africa</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-26"><a href="#Scipio's_invasion_of_Africa,_204%E2%80%93201_BC">6.3.1 Scipio's invasion of Africa, 204–201 BC</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-27"><a href="#Interbellum,_201%E2%80%93149_BC">7 Interbellum, 201–149 BC</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-28"><a href="#Third_Punic_War,_149%E2%80%93146_BC">8 Third Punic War, 149–146 BC</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-29"><a href="#Siege_of_Carthage">8.1 Siege of Carthage</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-30"><a href="#Aftermath">9 Aftermath</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-31"><a href="#See_also">10 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-32"><a href="#Notes,_citations,_and_sources">11 Notes, citations, and sources</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-33"><a href="#Notes">11.1 Notes</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-34"><a href="#Citations">11.2 Citations</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-35"><a href="#Sources">11.3 Sources</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h2></div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stele_des_Polybios.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="A monochrome relief stele depicting a man in classical Greek clothing raising one arm" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Stele_des_Polybios.jpg/120px-Stele_des_Polybios.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="241" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="255" data-file-height="512"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 120px;height: 241px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Stele_des_Polybios.jpg/120px-Stele_des_Polybios.jpg" data-alt="A monochrome relief stele depicting a man in classical Greek clothing raising one arm" data-width="120" data-height="241" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Stele_des_Polybios.jpg/180px-Stele_des_Polybios.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Stele_des_Polybios.jpg/240px-Stele_des_Polybios.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Polybius, the historian whose work "The Histories" provides critical insight on the Punic Wars</div></figcaption></figure> The most reliable source for the Punic Wars<a href="#cite_note-2">[note 1]</a> is the historian <a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 200 – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 118 BC), a <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greek</a> sent to Rome in 167 BC as a hostage.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200620%E2%80%9321-3">[2]</a> He is best known for <a href="/wiki/The_Histories_(Polybius)" title="The Histories (Polybius)">The Histories</a>, written sometime after 146 BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200620%E2%80%9321-3">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalbank199011%E2%80%9312-4">[3]</a> Polybius's work is considered broadly objective and largely neutral between <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthaginian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman</a> points of view.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby1996x%E2%80%93xi-5">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHau201623%E2%80%9324-6">[5]</a> Polybius was an <a href="/wiki/Historian#History_analysis" title="Historian">analytical historian</a> and wherever possible interviewed participants from both sides in the events he wrote about.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200620%E2%80%9321-3">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShutt193855-7">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChampion201598,_101-8">[7]</a> Modern historians consider Polybius to have treated the relatives of <a href="/wiki/Scipio_Aemilianus" title="Scipio Aemilianus">Scipio Aemilianus</a>, his <a href="/wiki/Patronage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Patronage in ancient Rome">patron</a> and friend, unduly favourably, but the consensus is to accept his account largely at face value.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200620%E2%80%9321-3">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby1996x%E2%80%93xi,_82%E2%80%9384-9">[8]</a> The modern historian Andrew Curry sees Polybius as being "fairly reliable";<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurry201234-10">[9]</a> <a href="/wiki/Craige_B._Champion" title="Craige B. Champion">Craige Champion</a> describes him as "a remarkably well-informed, industrious, and insightful historian".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChampion2015102-11">[10]</a> The details of the war in modern sources are largely based on interpretations of Polybius's account.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200620%E2%80%9321-3">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby1996x%E2%80%93xi,_82%E2%80%9384-9">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETipps1985432-12">[11]</a> The account of the Roman historian <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a> is commonly used by modern historians where Polybius's account is not extant. Livy relied heavily on Polybius, but wrote in a more structured way, with more details about Roman politics, as well as being openly pro-Roman.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby199887-13">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200622-14">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChampion201595-15">[14]</a> His accounts of military encounters are often demonstrably inaccurate; the classicist <a href="/wiki/Adrian_Goldsworthy" title="Adrian Goldsworthy">Adrian Goldsworthy</a> says Livy's "reliability is often suspect",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006222-16">[15]</a> and the historian <a href="/wiki/Philip_Sabin" title="Philip Sabin">Philip Sabin</a> refers to Livy's "military ignorance".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESabin199662-17">[16]</a> Later ancient histories of the wars also exist in fragmentary or summary form.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200621%E2%80%9323-18">[17]</a> Modern historians usually take into account the writings of various Roman <a href="/wiki/Annalists" title="Annalists">annalists</a>, some contemporary; the <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicilian</a> Greek <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a>; and the later Roman historians<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChampion201595-15">[14]</a> <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Appian" title="Appian">Appian</a>,<a href="#cite_note-20">[note 2]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Dio Cassius</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMineo2015111%E2%80%93127-21">[19]</a> Goldsworthy writes "Polybius' account is usually to be preferred when it differs with any of our other accounts".<a href="#cite_note-22">[note 3]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200620%E2%80%9321-3">[2]</a> Other sources include coins, inscriptions, archaeological evidence and empirical evidence from reconstructions, such as the <a href="/wiki/Trireme" title="Trireme">trireme</a> <a href="/wiki/Olympias_(trireme)" title="Olympias (trireme)">Olympias</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200623,_98-23">[20]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="Background_and_origin">Background and origin</h2></div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:First_Punic_War_264_BC_v3.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="a colour of the western Mediterranean region showing the areas under Roman and Carthaginian control in 264 BC" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/First_Punic_War_264_BC_v3.png/320px-First_Punic_War_264_BC_v3.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="189" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1412" data-file-height="832"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 320px;height: 189px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/First_Punic_War_264_BC_v3.png/320px-First_Punic_War_264_BC_v3.png" data-alt="a colour of the western Mediterranean region showing the areas under Roman and Carthaginian control in 264 BC" data-width="320" data-height="189" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/First_Punic_War_264_BC_v3.png/480px-First_Punic_War_264_BC_v3.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/First_Punic_War_264_BC_v3.png/640px-First_Punic_War_264_BC_v3.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">The approximate extent of territory controlled by Rome and Carthage immediately before the start of the First Punic War.</div></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> had been <a href="/wiki/Roman_expansion_in_Italy" title="Roman expansion in Italy">aggressively expanding</a> in the southern Italian mainland for a century before the <a href="/wiki/First_Punic_War" title="First Punic War">First Punic War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011157%E2%80%93158-24">[21]</a> It had conquered peninsular Italy south of the <a href="/wiki/Arno" title="Arno">Arno</a> River by 270 BC, when the Greek cities of southern Italy (<a href="/wiki/Magna_Graecia" title="Magna Graecia">Magna Graecia</a>) submitted after the conclusion of the <a href="/wiki/Pyrrhic_War" title="Pyrrhic War">Pyrrhic War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall199921%E2%80%9322-25">[22]</a> During this period of Roman expansion Carthage, with its capital in what is now <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a>, had come to dominate southern Iberia, much of the coastal regions of North Africa, the <a href="/wiki/Balearic_Islands" title="Balearic Islands">Balearic Islands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corsica" title="Corsica">Corsica</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sardinia" title="Sardinia">Sardinia</a> and the western half of Sicily in a <a href="/wiki/Thalassocracy" title="Thalassocracy">thalassocracy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200629%E2%80%9330-26">[23]</a> Beginning in 480 BC Carthage fought a <a href="/wiki/Sicilian_Wars" title="Sicilian Wars">series of inconclusive wars</a> against the Greek <a href="/wiki/City-state" title="City-state">city-states</a> of Sicily, led by <a href="/wiki/Syracuse,_Sicily" title="Syracuse, Sicily">Syracuse</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011115,_132-27">[24]</a> By 264 BC Carthage was the dominant external power on the island, and Carthage and Rome were the preeminent powers in the western Mediterranean.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200625%E2%80%9326-28">[25]</a> Relationships were good, and the two states had several times declared their mutual friendship in <a href="/wiki/Treaties_between_Rome_and_Carthage" title="Treaties between Rome and Carthage">formal alliances</a>: in 509 BC, 348 BC and around 279 BC. There were strong commercial links. During the Pyrrhic War of 280–275 BC, against a king of <a href="/wiki/Epirus" title="Epirus">Epirus</a> who alternately fought Rome in Italy and Carthage on Sicily, Carthage provided <a href="/wiki/Materiel" title="Materiel">materiel</a> to the Romans and on at least one occasion provided its navy to ferry a Roman force.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles201194,_160,_163,_164%E2%80%93165-29">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200669%E2%80%9370-30">[27]</a> According to the classicist <a href="/wiki/Richard_Miles_(historian)" title="Richard Miles (historian)">Richard Miles</a>, Rome had an expansionary attitude after its conquest of southern Italy, while Carthage had a proprietary approach to Sicily. The conflict between these policies pushed the two powers to stumble into war more by accident than design.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011175%E2%80%93176-31">[28]</a> The spark that ignited the First Punic War in 264 BC was the issue of control of the independent Sicilian city state of Messana (modern <a href="/wiki/Messina" title="Messina">Messina</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200674%E2%80%9375-32">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarmington1993168-33">[30]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Opposing_forces">Opposing forces</h2></div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Armies">Armies</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Roman_army_of_the_mid-Republic" title="Roman army of the mid-Republic">Roman army of the mid-Republic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Military_of_Carthage" title="Military of Carthage">Military of Carthage</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Altar_Domitius_Ahenobarbus_Louvre_n3_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="A monochrome relief stele depicting two figures dressed as Roman legionaries" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Altar_Domitius_Ahenobarbus_Louvre_n3_%28cropped%29.jpg/180px-Altar_Domitius_Ahenobarbus_Louvre_n3_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="225" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1072" data-file-height="1340"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 180px;height: 225px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Altar_Domitius_Ahenobarbus_Louvre_n3_%28cropped%29.jpg/180px-Altar_Domitius_Ahenobarbus_Louvre_n3_%28cropped%29.jpg" data-alt="A monochrome relief stele depicting two figures dressed as Roman legionaries" data-width="180" data-height="225" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Altar_Domitius_Ahenobarbus_Louvre_n3_%28cropped%29.jpg/270px-Altar_Domitius_Ahenobarbus_Louvre_n3_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Altar_Domitius_Ahenobarbus_Louvre_n3_%28cropped%29.jpg/360px-Altar_Domitius_Ahenobarbus_Louvre_n3_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Detail from the <a href="/wiki/Altar_of_Domitius_Ahenobarbus" title="Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus">Ahenobarbus relief</a> showing two Roman foot-soldiers from the second century BC</div></figcaption></figure> Most male Roman citizens were liable for military service and would serve as infantry, with a <a href="/wiki/Equites" title="Equites">better-off minority</a> providing a cavalry component. Traditionally, when at war the Romans would raise two <a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">legions</a>, each of 4,200 infantry<a href="#cite_note-36">[note 4]</a> and 300 cavalry. Approximately 1,200 members of the infantry – poorer or younger men unable to afford the armour and equipment of a standard <a href="/wiki/Legionary" title="Legionary">legionary</a> – served as <a href="/wiki/Javelin" title="Javelin">javelin</a>-armed <a href="/wiki/Skirmisher" title="Skirmisher">skirmishers</a> known as <a href="/wiki/Velites" title="Velites">velites</a>; they each carried several javelins, which would be thrown from a distance, as well as a short sword and a 90-centimetre (3 ft) shield.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200648-37">[33]</a> The rest of the soldiers were equipped as <a href="/wiki/Heavy_infantry" title="Heavy infantry">heavy infantry</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Body_armor" title="Body armor">body armour</a>, a large <a href="/wiki/Scutum_(shield)" class="mw-redirect" title="Scutum (shield)">shield</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gladius" title="Gladius">short thrusting swords</a>. They were divided into three ranks: the <a href="/wiki/Hastati" title="Hastati">front rank</a> also carried two javelins, while the <a href="/wiki/Principes" title="Principes">second</a> and <a href="/wiki/Triari" class="mw-redirect" title="Triari">third</a> ranks had a <a href="/wiki/Hasta_(spear)" title="Hasta (spear)">thrusting spear</a> instead. Both legionary <a href="/wiki/Maniple_(military_unit)" title="Maniple (military unit)">sub-units</a> and individual legionaries fought in relatively open order. It was the long-standing Roman procedure to elect two men each year as senior <a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">magistrates</a>, known as <a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">consuls</a>, who in a time of war would each lead an army. An army was usually formed by combining a Roman legion with a similarly sized and equipped legion provided by their <a href="/wiki/Socii" title="Socii">Latin allies</a>; allied legions usually had a larger attached complement of cavalry than Roman ones.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall199922%E2%80%9325-38">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200650-39">[35]</a> Carthaginian citizens only served in their army if there was a direct threat to the city of <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby19989-40">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScullard2006494-41">[37]</a> When they did they fought as well-armoured heavy infantry armed with long thrusting spears, although they were notoriously ill-trained and ill-disciplined. In most circumstances Carthage recruited foreigners to make up its army.<a href="#cite_note-43">[note 5]</a> Many were from North Africa and these were frequently referred to as "Libyans". The region provided several types of fighters, including: <a href="/wiki/Close_order_formation" title="Close order formation">close order</a> infantry equipped with large shields, helmets, short swords and long thrusting <a href="/wiki/Spear" title="Spear">spears</a>; javelin-armed <a href="/wiki/Light_infantry" title="Light infantry">light infantry</a> skirmishers; close order <a href="/wiki/Shock_cavalry" class="mw-redirect" title="Shock cavalry">shock cavalry</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[note 6]</a> (also known as "heavy cavalry") carrying spears; and light cavalry skirmishers who threw javelins from a distance and avoided close combat; the latter were usually <a href="/wiki/Numidian" class="mw-redirect" title="Numidian">Numidians</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200632%E2%80%9334-46">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKoon201579%E2%80%9387-47">[41]</a> The close order African infantry and the citizen-militia both fought in a tightly-packed formation known as a <a href="/wiki/Phalanx" title="Phalanx">phalanx</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKoon201593-48">[42]</a> On occasion some of the infantry would wear captured Roman armour, especially among the troops of the Carthaginian general <a href="/wiki/Hannibal" title="Hannibal">Hannibal</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawlings2015305-49">[43]</a> In addition both <a href="/wiki/Iberians" title="Iberians">Iberia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a> provided many experienced infantry and cavalry. The infantry from these areas were unarmoured troops who would charge ferociously, but had a reputation for breaking off if a combat was protracted.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200632%E2%80%9334-46">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall19999-50">[44]</a> The Gallic cavalry, and possibly some of the Iberians, wore armour and fought as close order troops; most or all of the mounted Iberians were <a href="/wiki/Light_cavalry" title="Light cavalry">light cavalry</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarey200713-51">[45]</a> <a href="/wiki/Balearic_slinger" title="Balearic slinger">Slingers</a> were frequently recruited from the Balearic Islands.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200632-52">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall19998-53">[47]</a> The Carthaginians also employed <a href="/wiki/War_elephant" title="War elephant">war elephants</a>; North Africa had indigenous <a href="/wiki/African_forest_elephant" title="African forest elephant">African forest elephants</a> at the time.<a href="#cite_note-55">[note 7]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall19999-50">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby199627-56">[49]</a> Garrison duty and land <a href="/wiki/Blockade" title="Blockade">blockades</a> were the most common operations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200682,_311,_313%E2%80%93314-57">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999237-58">[51]</a> When armies were campaigning, surprise attacks, <a href="/wiki/Ambush" title="Ambush">ambushes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ruse_de_guerre" title="Ruse de guerre">stratagems</a> were common.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKoon201593-48">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200655-59">[52]</a> More <a href="/wiki/Pitched_battle" title="Pitched battle">formal battles</a> were usually preceded by the two armies camping two–twelve kilometres (1–7 miles) apart for days or weeks; sometimes both forming up in battle order each day. If either commander felt at a disadvantage, they might march off without engaging. In such circumstances it was difficult to force a battle if the other commander was unwilling to fight.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200656-60">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESabin199664-61">[54]</a> Forming up in battle order was a complicated and premeditated affair, which took several hours. Infantry were usually positioned in the centre of the battle line, with light infantry skirmishers to their front and cavalry on each flank.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200657-62">[55]</a> Many battles were decided when one side's infantry force was <a href="/wiki/Flanking_maneuver" title="Flanking maneuver">attacked in the flank or rear</a> and they were partially or wholly <a href="/wiki/Envelopment" title="Envelopment">enveloped</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKoon201593-48">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESabin199666-63">[56]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Navies">Navies</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Corvus.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="A diagram showing the location and usage of a corvus on a Roman galley." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Corvus.svg/220px-Corvus.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="517" data-file-height="391"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 166px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Corvus.svg/220px-Corvus.svg.png" data-alt="A diagram showing the location and usage of a corvus on a Roman galley." data-width="220" data-height="166" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Corvus.svg/330px-Corvus.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Corvus.svg/440px-Corvus.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">The <a href="/wiki/Corvus_(weapon)" class="mw-redirect" title="Corvus (weapon)">corvus</a>, the Roman <a href="/wiki/Naval_boarding" title="Naval boarding">ship boarding</a> device</div></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Quinqueremes" class="mw-redirect" title="Quinqueremes">Quinqueremes</a>, meaning "five-oarsmen",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200698-64">[57]</a> provided the workhorses of the Roman and Carthaginian fleets throughout the Punic Wars.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby199627%E2%80%9328-65">[58]</a> So ubiquitous was the type that Polybius uses it as a shorthand for "warship" in general.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006104-66">[59]</a> A quinquereme carried a crew of 300: 280 oarsmen and 20 deck crew and officers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006100-67">[60]</a> It would also normally carry a complement of 40 marines;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETipps1985435-68">[61]</a> if battle was thought to be imminent this would be increased to as many as 120.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECasson1995121-69">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006102%E2%80%93103-70">[63]</a> In 260 BC Romans set out to construct a <a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">fleet</a> and used a shipwrecked Carthaginian quinquereme as a blueprint for their own.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200697,_99%E2%80%93100-71">[64]</a> As novice <a href="/wiki/Shipbuilding" title="Shipbuilding">shipwrights</a>, the Romans built copies that were heavier than the Carthaginian vessels; thus they were slower and less manoeuvrable.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurray201169-72">[65]</a> Getting the oarsmen to row as a unit, let alone to execute more complex battle manoeuvres, required long and arduous training.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECasson1995278%E2%80%93280-73">[66]</a> At least half of the oarsmen would need to have had some experience if the ship was to be handled effectively.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Souza2008358-74">[67]</a> As a result, the Romans were initially at a disadvantage against the more experienced Carthaginians. To counter this, the Romans introduced the <a href="/wiki/Corvus_(weapon)" class="mw-redirect" title="Corvus (weapon)">corvus</a>, a bridge 1.2 metres (4 feet) wide and 11 metres (36 feet) long, with a heavy spike on the underside, which was designed to pierce and anchor into an enemy ship's deck.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECasson1995121-69">[62]</a> This allowed Roman legionaries acting as marines to <a href="/wiki/Naval_boarding" title="Naval boarding">board enemy ships</a> and capture them, rather than employing the previously <a href="/wiki/Naval_tactics_in_the_Age_of_Galleys" class="mw-redirect" title="Naval tactics in the Age of Galleys">traditional tactic</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ramming" title="Ramming">ramming</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011178-75">[68]</a> All warships were equipped with rams, a triple set of 60-centimetre-wide (2 ft) bronze blades weighing up to 270 kilograms (600 lb) positioned at the waterline. In the century prior to the Punic Wars, boarding had become increasingly common and ramming had declined, as the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic-era_warships" title="Hellenistic-era warships">larger and heavier vessels</a> adopted in this period increasingly lacked the speed and manoeuvrability necessary to ram effectively, while their sturdier construction reduced a ram's effect on them even in case of a successful attack. The Roman adaptation of the corvus was a continuation of this trend and compensated for their initial disadvantage in ship-manoeuvring skills. The added weight in the prow compromised both the ship's manoeuvrability and its seaworthiness, and in rough sea conditions the corvus became useless; part way through the First Punic War the Romans ceased using it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011178-75">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWallinga195677%E2%80%9390-76">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006100%E2%80%93101,_103-77">[70]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="First_Punic_War,_264–241_BC">First Punic War, 264–241 BC</h2></div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/First_Punic_War" title="First Punic War">First Punic War</a></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sicilia_-_prima_guerra_punica_key_en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="A relief map of Sicily showing the main cities at the time of the First Punic War" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Sicilia_-_prima_guerra_punica_key_en.svg/300px-Sicilia_-_prima_guerra_punica_key_en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="186" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="606" data-file-height="375"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 186px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Sicilia_-_prima_guerra_punica_key_en.svg/300px-Sicilia_-_prima_guerra_punica_key_en.svg.png" data-alt="A relief map of Sicily showing the main cities at the time of the First Punic War" data-width="300" data-height="186" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Sicilia_-_prima_guerra_punica_key_en.svg/450px-Sicilia_-_prima_guerra_punica_key_en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Sicilia_-_prima_guerra_punica_key_en.svg/600px-Sicilia_-_prima_guerra_punica_key_en.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Sicily, the main theatre of the First Punic War</div></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Course">Course</h3></div> Much of the First Punic War was fought on, or in the waters near, Sicily.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006310-78">[71]</a> Away from the coasts its hilly and rugged terrain made manoeuvring large forces difficult and so encouraged defensive strategies. Land operations were largely confined to <a href="/wiki/Raid_(military)" title="Raid (military)">raids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siege" title="Siege">sieges</a> and <a href="/wiki/Interdiction" title="Interdiction">interdiction</a>; in 23 years of war on Sicily there were only two full-scale pitched battles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200682-79">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sicily,_264–257_BC">Sicily, 264–257 BC</h4></div> The war began with the Romans gaining a foothold on Sicily at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Messana" title="Battle of Messana">Messana</a> (modern Messina) in 264 BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall199952%E2%80%9353-80">[73]</a> They then pressed Syracuse, the only significant independent power on the island, into allying with them<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErdkamp201571-81">[74]</a> and laid siege to Carthage's main base at <a href="/wiki/Agrigento" title="Agrigento">Akragas</a> on the south coast.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011179-82">[75]</a> A Carthaginian army of 50,000 infantry, 6,000 cavalry and 60 elephants attempted to lift the siege in 262 BC, but was badly defeated at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Agrigentum" title="Battle of Agrigentum">battle of Akragas</a>. That night the Carthaginian garrison escaped and the Romans seized the city and its inhabitants, selling 25,000 of them <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">into slavery</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011179%E2%80%93180-83">[76]</a> After this the land war on Sicily reached a stalemate as the Carthaginians focused on defending their well-fortified towns and cities; these were mostly on the coast and so could be supplied and reinforced without the Romans being able to use their superior army to interfere.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall199964%E2%80%9366-84">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200697-85">[78]</a> The focus of the war shifted to the sea, where the Romans had little experience; on the few occasions they had previously felt the need for a naval presence they had usually relied on small <a href="/wiki/Squadron_(naval)" title="Squadron (naval)">squadrons</a> provided by their Latin or Greek allies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011179-82">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall199966-86">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200691%E2%80%9392,_97-87">[80]</a> The Romans built a navy to challenge Carthage's,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011180%E2%80%93181-88">[81]</a> and using the corvus inflicted a major defeat at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mylae" title="Battle of Mylae">battle of Mylae</a> in 260 BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006109%E2%80%93110-89">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall199965-90">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby199673%E2%80%9374-91">[84]</a> A Carthaginian base on Corsica was seized, but an attack on Sardinia was repulsed; the base on Corsica was then lost.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall199963%E2%80%9365-92">[85]</a> In 258 BC a Roman fleet defeated a smaller Carthaginian fleet at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sulci" title="Battle of Sulci">battle of Sulci</a> off the western coast of Sardinia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall199965-90">[83]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Africa,_256–255_BC">Africa, 256–255 BC</h4></div> Taking advantage of their naval victories the Romans launched an invasion of North Africa in 256 BC,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERankov2015155-93">[86]</a> which the Carthaginians intercepted at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Ecnomus" title="Battle of Cape Ecnomus">battle of Cape Ecnomus</a> off the southern coast of Sicily. The Carthaginian's superior seamanship was not as effective as they had hoped, while the Romans' corvus gave them an edge as the battle degenerated into a shapeless brawl.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006102%E2%80%93103-70">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETipps1985435,_459-94">[87]</a> The Carthaginians were again beaten;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERankov2015155%E2%80%93156-95">[88]</a> this was possibly the <a href="/wiki/Largest_naval_battle_in_history" title="Largest naval battle in history">largest naval battle in history</a> by the number of combatants involved.<a href="#cite_note-99">[note 8]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006110%E2%80%93111-96">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby199687-97">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETipps1985436-98">[91]</a> The invasion initially went well and in 255 BC the Carthaginians <a href="/wiki/Suing_for_peace" title="Suing for peace">sued for peace</a>; the proposed terms were so harsh they decided to fight on.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200687-100">[92]</a> At the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bagradas_River_(255_BC)" title="Battle of the Bagradas River (255 BC)">battle of Tunis</a> in spring 255 BC a combined force of infantry, cavalry and war elephants under the command of the Spartan mercenary <a href="/wiki/Xanthippus_of_Carthage" class="mw-redirect" title="Xanthippus of Carthage">Xanthippus</a> crushed the Romans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011188-101">[93]</a> The Romans sent a fleet to evacuate their survivors and the Carthaginians opposed it at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Hermaeum" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Cape Hermaeum">battle of Cape Hermaeum</a> (modern <a href="/wiki/Cape_Bon" title="Cape Bon">Cape Bon</a>); the Carthaginians were again heavily defeated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETipps2003382-102">[94]</a> The Roman fleet, in turn, was devastated by a storm while returning to Italy, losing most of its ships and more than 100,000 men.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETipps1985438-103">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011189-104">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErdkamp201566-105">[97]</a> It is possible that the presence of the corvus, making the Roman ships unusually <a href="/wiki/Unseaworthy" class="mw-redirect" title="Unseaworthy">unseaworthy</a>, contributed to this disaster; there is no record of them being used again.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScullard2006557-106">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby1996112,_117-107">[99]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sicily,_255–241_BC">Sicily, 255–241 BC</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pompeii,_Statuette_of_a_war_elephant.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="A small, white statuette of an elephant with a mahout" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Pompeii%2C_Statuette_of_a_war_elephant.jpg/200px-Pompeii%2C_Statuette_of_a_war_elephant.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="248" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="565" data-file-height="700"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 200px;height: 248px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Pompeii%2C_Statuette_of_a_war_elephant.jpg/200px-Pompeii%2C_Statuette_of_a_war_elephant.jpg" data-alt="A small, white statuette of an elephant with a mahout" data-width="200" data-height="248" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Pompeii%2C_Statuette_of_a_war_elephant.jpg/300px-Pompeii%2C_Statuette_of_a_war_elephant.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Pompeii%2C_Statuette_of_a_war_elephant.jpg/400px-Pompeii%2C_Statuette_of_a_war_elephant.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Roman statuette of a <a href="/wiki/War_elephant" title="War elephant">war elephant</a> recovered from <a href="/wiki/Herculaneum" title="Herculaneum">Herculaneum</a></div></figcaption></figure> The war continued, with neither side able to gain a decisive advantage.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScullard2006559-108">[100]</a> The Carthaginians attacked and recaptured Akragas in 255 BC, but not believing they could hold the city they razed and abandoned it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby1996114%E2%80%93116,_169-109">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERankov2015158-110">[102]</a> The Romans rapidly rebuilt their fleet, adding 220 new ships, and captured Panormus (modern <a href="/wiki/Palermo" title="Palermo">Palermo</a>) in 254 BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall199980-111">[103]</a> The next year they lost another 150 ships to a storm.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011189%E2%80%93190-112">[104]</a> On Sicily the Romans avoided battle in 252 and 251 BC, according to Polybius because they feared the war elephants which the Carthaginians had shipped to the island.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby1996118-113">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERankov2015159-114">[106]</a> In 250 BC the Carthaginians advanced on Panormus, but in a <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Panormus" title="Battle of Panormus">battle outside the walls</a> the Romans drove off the Carthaginian elephants with javelins. The elephants routed through the Carthaginian infantry, who were then charged by the Roman infantry to complete their defeat.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERankov2015159-114">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby1996169-115">[107]</a> Slowly the Romans had occupied most of Sicily; in 250 BC they besieged the last two Carthaginian strongholds – <a href="/wiki/Lilybaeum" class="mw-redirect" title="Lilybaeum">Lilybaeum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Drepana" title="Drepana">Drepana</a> in the extreme west.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011190-116">[108]</a> Repeated attempts to storm Lilybaeum's strong walls failed, as did attempts to block access to its harbour, and the Romans <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Lilybaeum_(250%E2%80%93241_BC)" title="Siege of Lilybaeum (250–241 BC)">settled down to a siege</a> which was to last nine years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby1996127-117">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall199984%E2%80%9386-118">[110]</a> They launched a surprise attack on the Carthaginian fleet, but were defeated at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Drepana" title="Battle of Drepana">battle of Drepana</a>; Carthage's greatest naval victory of the war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006117%E2%80%93121-119">[111]</a> Carthage turned to the maritime offensive, inflicting another heavy naval defeat at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Phintias" title="Battle of Phintias">battle of Phintias</a> and all but swept the Romans from the sea.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall199988%E2%80%9391-120">[112]</a> It was to be seven years before Rome again attempted to field a substantial fleet, while Carthage put most of its ships into reserve to save money and free up manpower.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006121%E2%80%93122-121">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERankov2015163-122">[114]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Roman_victory,_243–241_BC">Roman victory, 243–241 BC</h4></div> After more than 20 years of war, both states were financially and demographically exhausted.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBringmann2007127-123">[115]</a> Evidence of Carthage's financial situation includes their request for a 2,000-talent loan<a href="#cite_note-126">[note 9]</a> from <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic Egypt">Ptolemaic Egypt</a>, which was refused.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall199992-127">[118]</a> Rome was also close to <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_default" title="Sovereign default">bankruptcy</a> and the number of adult male citizens, who provided the manpower for the navy and the legions, had declined by 17 per cent since the start of the war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall199991-128">[119]</a> Historian Adrian Goldsworthy (2006) has described Roman manpower losses as "appalling".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006131-129">[120]</a> The Romans rebuilt their fleet again in 243 BC after the Senate approached Rome's wealthiest citizens for loans to finance the construction of one ship each, repayable from the <a href="/wiki/War_reparations" title="War reparations">reparations</a> to be imposed on Carthage once the war was won.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby199649-130">[121]</a> This new fleet effectively blockaded the Carthaginian garrisons.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScullard2006565-125">[117]</a> Carthage assembled a fleet which attempted to relieve them, but it was destroyed at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Aegates_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of the Aegates Islands">battle of the Aegates Islands</a> in 241 BC,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011196-131">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall199996-132">[123]</a> forcing the cut-off Carthaginian troops on Sicily to negotiate for peace.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScullard2006565-125">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby1996157-133">[124]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Lutatius" title="Treaty of Lutatius">Treaty of Lutatius</a> was agreed by which Carthage paid 3,200 talents of silver<a href="#cite_note-134">[note 10]</a> in reparations and <a href="/wiki/Sicilia_(Roman_province)" title="Sicilia (Roman province)">Sicily was annexed</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Roman province</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011196-131">[122]</a> Polybius regarded the war as "the longest, most continuous and most severely contested war known to us in history".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScullard2002178-135">[125]</a> Henceforth Rome considered itself the leading military power in the western Mediterranean and increasingly the Mediterranean region as a whole. The immense effort of repeatedly building large fleets of galleys during the war laid the foundation for Rome's maritime dominance, which was to last 600 years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006128%E2%80%93129,_357,_359%E2%80%93360-136">[126]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="Interbellum,_241–218_BC">Interbellum, 241–218 BC</h2></div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mercenary_War">Mercenary War</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mercenary_War" title="Mercenary War">Mercenary War</a></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:First_Punic_War_237_BC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="A map of the western Mediterranean showing the territory ceded to Rome by Carthage under the treaty." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/First_Punic_War_237_BC.jpg/320px-First_Punic_War_237_BC.jpg" decoding="async" width="320" height="189" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="473"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 320px;height: 189px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/First_Punic_War_237_BC.jpg/320px-First_Punic_War_237_BC.jpg" data-alt="A map of the western Mediterranean showing the territory ceded to Rome by Carthage under the treaty." data-width="320" data-height="189" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/First_Punic_War_237_BC.jpg/480px-First_Punic_War_237_BC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/First_Punic_War_237_BC.jpg/640px-First_Punic_War_237_BC.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Territory ceded to Rome by Carthage under the treaty is shown in pink</div></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Mercenary_War" title="Mercenary War">Mercenary, or Truceless, War</a> began in 241 BC as a dispute over the payment of wages owed to 20,000 foreign soldiers who had fought for Carthage on Sicily during the First Punic War. This erupted into full-scale mutiny under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Spendius" title="Spendius">Spendius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mathos" title="Mathos">Matho</a>; 70,000 Africans from Carthage's oppressed dependant territories flocked to join the mutineers, bringing supplies and finance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999112%E2%80%93114-137">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006133%E2%80%93134-138">[128]</a> War-weary Carthage fared poorly in the initial engagements, especially under the generalship of <a href="/wiki/Hanno_II_the_Great" title="Hanno II the Great">Hanno</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEckstein20176-139">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999115-140">[130]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hamilcar_Barca" title="Hamilcar Barca">Hamilcar Barca</a>, a veteran of the campaigns in Sicily, was given joint command of the army in 240 BC and supreme command in 239 BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999115-140">[130]</a> He campaigned successfully, initially demonstrating leniency in an attempt to woo the rebels over.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999118-141">[131]</a> To prevent this, in 240 BC Spendius tortured 700 Carthaginian prisoners to death and henceforth the war was pursued with great brutality.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011208-142">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEckstein20177-143">[133]</a> By early 237 BC, after numerous setbacks, the rebels were defeated and their cities brought back under Carthaginian rule.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoyos2000377-144">[134]</a> An expedition was prepared to reoccupy Sardinia, where mutinous soldiers had slaughtered all Carthaginians. The Roman Senate stated they considered the preparation of this force an act of war and demanded Carthage cede Sardinia and Corsica and pay an additional 1,200-talent indemnity.<a href="#cite_note-145">[note 11]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScullard2006569-146">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011209,_212%E2%80%93213-147">[136]</a> Weakened by 30 years of war, Carthage agreed rather than again enter into conflict with Rome.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby1996175-148">[137]</a> Polybius considered this "contrary to all justice" and modern historians have variously described the Romans' behaviour as "unprovoked aggression and treaty-breaking",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScullard2006569-146">[135]</a> "shamelessly opportunistic"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006136-149">[138]</a> and an "unscrupulous act".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999124-150">[139]</a> These events fuelled resentment of Rome in Carthage, which was not reconciled to Rome's perception of its situation. This breach of the recently signed treaty is considered by modern historians to be the single greatest cause of war with Carthage breaking out again in 218 BC in the <a href="/wiki/Second_Punic_War" title="Second Punic War">Second Punic War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollins199813-151">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoyos2015211-152">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011213-153">[142]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Carthaginian_expansion_in_Iberia">Carthaginian expansion in Iberia</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carthage,_quarter_shekel,_237-209_BC,_SNG_BM_Spain_102.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Image of both sides of a coin: one depicting a man's head; the other an elephant" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Carthage%2C_quarter_shekel%2C_237-209_BC%2C_SNG_BM_Spain_102.jpg/200px-Carthage%2C_quarter_shekel%2C_237-209_BC%2C_SNG_BM_Spain_102.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="95" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="380"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 200px;height: 95px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Carthage%2C_quarter_shekel%2C_237-209_BC%2C_SNG_BM_Spain_102.jpg/200px-Carthage%2C_quarter_shekel%2C_237-209_BC%2C_SNG_BM_Spain_102.jpg" data-alt="Image of both sides of a coin: one depicting a man's head; the other an elephant" data-width="200" data-height="95" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Carthage%2C_quarter_shekel%2C_237-209_BC%2C_SNG_BM_Spain_102.jpg/300px-Carthage%2C_quarter_shekel%2C_237-209_BC%2C_SNG_BM_Spain_102.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Carthage%2C_quarter_shekel%2C_237-209_BC%2C_SNG_BM_Spain_102.jpg/400px-Carthage%2C_quarter_shekel%2C_237-209_BC%2C_SNG_BM_Spain_102.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">A <a href="/wiki/Carthaginian_currency" class="mw-redirect" title="Carthaginian currency">Carthaginian</a> quarter-<a href="/wiki/Shekel" title="Shekel">shekel</a>, dated 237–209 BC, depicting the Punic god <a href="/wiki/Melqart" title="Melqart">Melqart</a> (who was associated with <a href="/wiki/Hercules" title="Hercules">Hercules</a>/<a href="/wiki/Heracles" title="Heracles">Heracles</a>). On the reverse is an elephant; possibly a <a href="/wiki/War_elephant" title="War elephant">war elephant</a>, which were linked with the <a href="/wiki/Barcids" title="Barcids">Barcids</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011226%E2%80%93227-154">[143]</a></div></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Barcid_conquest_of_Hispania" title="Barcid conquest of Hispania">Barcid conquest of Hispania</a></div> With the suppression of the rebellion, Hamilcar understood that Carthage needed to strengthen its economic and military base if it were to again confront Rome.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoyos201577-155">[144]</a> After the First Punic War, Carthaginian possessions in Iberia (modern Spain and Portugal) were limited to a handful of prosperous coastal cities in the south.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoyos201580-156">[145]</a> Hamilcar took the army which he had led in the Mercenary War to Iberia in 237 BC and carved out a <a href="/wiki/Carthaginian_Iberia" title="Carthaginian Iberia">quasi-monarchial, autonomous state</a> in its south east.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011220-157">[146]</a> This gave Carthage the silver mines, agricultural wealth, <a href="/wiki/Manpower" class="mw-redirect" title="Manpower">manpower</a>, military facilities such as <a href="/wiki/Shipyard" title="Shipyard">shipyards</a>, and territorial depth to stand up to future Roman demands with confidence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011219%E2%80%93220,_225-158">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEckstein2006173%E2%80%93174-159">[148]</a> Hamilcar ruled as a <a href="/wiki/Viceroy" title="Viceroy">viceroy</a> and was succeeded by his son-in-law, <a href="/wiki/Hasdrubal_the_Fair" title="Hasdrubal the Fair">Hasdrubal</a>, in the early 220s BC and then his son, Hannibal, in 221 BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011222,_225-160">[149]</a> In 226 BC the <a href="/wiki/Ebro_Treaty" title="Ebro Treaty">Ebro Treaty</a> was agreed with Rome, specifying the <a href="/wiki/Ebro_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Ebro River">Ebro River</a> as the northern boundary of the Carthaginian <a href="/wiki/Sphere_of_influence" title="Sphere of influence">sphere of influence</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006143%E2%80%93144-161">[150]</a> At some time during the next six years Rome made a separate agreement with the city of <a href="/wiki/Saguntum" class="mw-redirect" title="Saguntum">Saguntum</a>, which was situated well south of the Ebro.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006144-162">[151]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="Second_Punic_War,_218–201_BC">Second Punic War, 218–201 BC</h2></div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Second_Punic_War" title="Second Punic War">Second Punic War</a></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div> In 219 BC a Carthaginian army under Hannibal <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Saguntum" title="Siege of Saguntum">besieged, captured and sacked Saguntum</a><a href="#cite_note-163">[note 12]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollins199813-151">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006144%E2%80%93145-164">[152]</a> and in spring 218 BC Rome <a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_war" title="Declaration of war">declared war</a> on Carthage.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006145-165">[153]</a> There were three main <a href="/wiki/Theater_(military)" class="mw-redirect" title="Theater (military)">military theatres</a> in the war: Italy, where Hannibal defeated the Roman legions repeatedly, with occasional subsidiary campaigns in Sicily, Sardinia and Greece; Iberia, where <a href="/wiki/Hasdrubal_(Barcid)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hasdrubal (Barcid)">Hasdrubal</a>, a younger brother of Hannibal, defended the Carthaginian colonial cities with mixed success until moving into Italy; and Africa, where the war was decided.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006310%E2%80%93311-166">[154]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Italy">Italy</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hannibal_crosses_the_Alps,_218–217_BC">Hannibal crosses the Alps, 218–217 BC</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_Rome_and_Carthage_at_the_start_of_the_Second_Punic_War_Modified.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="a map of the western Mediterranean region showing the territory and allies of Rome and Carthage in 218 BC" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Map_of_Rome_and_Carthage_at_the_start_of_the_Second_Punic_War_Modified.svg/320px-Map_of_Rome_and_Carthage_at_the_start_of_the_Second_Punic_War_Modified.svg.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="230" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1067" data-file-height="768"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 320px;height: 230px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Map_of_Rome_and_Carthage_at_the_start_of_the_Second_Punic_War_Modified.svg/320px-Map_of_Rome_and_Carthage_at_the_start_of_the_Second_Punic_War_Modified.svg.png" data-alt="a map of the western Mediterranean region showing the territory and allies of Rome and Carthage in 218 BC" data-width="320" data-height="230" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Map_of_Rome_and_Carthage_at_the_start_of_the_Second_Punic_War_Modified.svg/480px-Map_of_Rome_and_Carthage_at_the_start_of_the_Second_Punic_War_Modified.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Map_of_Rome_and_Carthage_at_the_start_of_the_Second_Punic_War_Modified.svg/640px-Map_of_Rome_and_Carthage_at_the_start_of_the_Second_Punic_War_Modified.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">The territory and allies of Rome and Carthage immediately before the start of the Second Punic War.</div></figcaption></figure> In 218 BC there was some naval skirmishing in the waters around Sicily; the Romans <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lilybaeum" title="Battle of Lilybaeum">defeated a Carthaginian attack</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriscoe200661-167">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwell2015327-168">[156]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Malta_(218_BC)" title="Capture of Malta (218 BC)">captured the island of Malta</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECastillo200625-169">[157]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Cisalpine_Gaul" title="Cisalpine Gaul">Cisalpine Gaul</a> (modern northern Italy), the major <a href="/wiki/Gauls" title="Gauls">Gallic</a> tribes attacked the Roman colonies there, causing the Roman settlers to flee to their previously-established colony of Mutina (modern <a href="/wiki/Modena" title="Modena">Modena</a>), where they were besieged. A Roman relief force broke through the siege, but was then ambushed and besieged itself.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006151-170">[158]</a> An army had previously been created by the Romans to campaign in Iberia and the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Roman Senate</a> detached one Roman and one allied legion from it to send to north Italy. Raising fresh troops to replace these delayed the army's departure for Iberia until September.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006151%E2%80%93152-171">[159]</a> Meanwhile, Hannibal assembled a Carthaginian army in New Carthage (modern <a href="/wiki/Cartagena,_Spain" title="Cartagena, Spain">Cartagena</a>) in Iberia and led it northwards along the coast in May or June. It entered Gaul and took an inland route, to avoid the Roman allies to the south.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMahaney2008221-172">[160]</a> At the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rhone_Crossing" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Rhone Crossing">battle of the Rhone Crossing</a> Hannibal defeated a force of local Gauls which sought to bar his way.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999161%E2%80%93162-173">[161]</a> A Roman fleet carrying the Iberian-bound army landed at Rome's ally Massalia (modern <a href="/wiki/Marseille" title="Marseille">Marseille</a>) at the mouth of the Rhone,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFronda2011252-174">[162]</a> but Hannibal evaded the Romans and they continued to Iberia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZimmermann2011291-175">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwell2015321-176">[164]</a> The Carthaginians reached the foot of the Alps by late autumn and <a href="/wiki/Hannibal%27s_crossing_of_the_Alps" title="Hannibal's crossing of the Alps">crossed them</a> in 15 days, surmounting the difficulties of climate, terrain<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMahaney2008221-172">[160]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">guerrilla tactics</a> of the native tribes. Hannibal arrived with 20,000 infantry, 6,000 cavalry and an unknown number of elephants – the survivors of the 37 with which he left Iberia<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErdkamp201571-81">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoyos2015b107-177">[165]</a> – in what is now <a href="/wiki/Piedmont" title="Piedmont">Piedmont</a>, northern Italy in early November; the Romans were still in their winter quarters. His surprise entry into the Italian peninsula led to the cancellation of Rome's planned campaign for the year: an invasion of Africa.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZimmermann2011283%E2%80%93284-178">[166]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Roman_defeats,_217–216_BC">Roman defeats, 217–216 BC</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hannibal_Slodtz_Louvre_MR2093_(cropped2).png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="a photograph of a marble head depicting Hannibal" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Hannibal_Slodtz_Louvre_MR2093_%28cropped2%29.png/170px-Hannibal_Slodtz_Louvre_MR2093_%28cropped2%29.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="210" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="464" data-file-height="572"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 210px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Hannibal_Slodtz_Louvre_MR2093_%28cropped2%29.png/170px-Hannibal_Slodtz_Louvre_MR2093_%28cropped2%29.png" data-alt="a photograph of a marble head depicting Hannibal" data-width="170" data-height="210" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Hannibal_Slodtz_Louvre_MR2093_%28cropped2%29.png/255px-Hannibal_Slodtz_Louvre_MR2093_%28cropped2%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Hannibal_Slodtz_Louvre_MR2093_%28cropped2%29.png/340px-Hannibal_Slodtz_Louvre_MR2093_%28cropped2%29.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Hannibal</div></figcaption></figure> The Carthaginians captured the chief city of the hostile <a href="/wiki/Taurini" title="Taurini">Taurini</a> (in the area of modern <a href="/wiki/Turin" title="Turin">Turin</a>) and seized its food stocks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999171-179">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006168-180">[168]</a> In late November the Carthaginian cavalry routed the cavalry and light infantry of the Romans at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ticinus" title="Battle of Ticinus">battle of Ticinus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFronda2011243-181">[169]</a> As a result, most of the Gallic tribes declared for the Carthaginian cause and Hannibal's army grew to 37,000 men.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006177%E2%80%93178-182">[170]</a> A large Roman army was lured into combat by Hannibal at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Trebia" title="Battle of the Trebia">battle of the Trebia</a>, encircled and destroyed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFronda2011243%E2%80%93244-183">[171]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999175%E2%80%93176-184">[172]</a> Only 10,000 Romans out of 42,000 were able to cut their way to safety. Gauls now joined Hannibal's army in large numbers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999175%E2%80%93176,_193-185">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011270-186">[174]</a> The Romans stationed an army at <a href="/wiki/Arretium" class="mw-redirect" title="Arretium">Arretium</a> and one on the <a href="/wiki/Adriatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Adriatic">Adriatic</a> coast to block Hannibal's advance into central Italy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZimmermann2011285-187">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006182-188">[176]</a> In early spring 217 BC, the Carthaginians crossed the <a href="/wiki/Apennine_Mountains" title="Apennine Mountains">Apennines</a> unopposed, taking a difficult but unguarded route.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006184-189">[177]</a> Hannibal attempted to draw the main Roman army under <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Flaminius_(consul_223_BC)" title="Gaius Flaminius (consul 223 BC)">Gaius Flaminius</a> into a pitched battle by devastating the area they had been sent to protect,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiddell_Hart196745-190">[178]</a> provoking Flaminius into a hasty pursuit without proper reconnaissance. Hannibal set an ambush and in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lake_Trasimene" title="Battle of Lake Trasimene">battle of Lake Trasimene</a> completely defeated the Roman army, killing 15,000 Romans, including Flaminius, and taking 15,000 <a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war">prisoners</a>. A cavalry force of 4,000 from the other Roman army was also engaged and wiped out.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006189%E2%80%93190-191">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFronda2011244-192">[180]</a> The prisoners were badly treated if they were Romans, but released if they were from one of Rome's Latin allies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011270-186">[174]</a> Hannibal hoped some of these allies could be persuaded to <a href="/wiki/Defection" title="Defection">defect</a> and marched south hoping to win over Roman allies among the ethnic Greek and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_peoples_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient peoples of Italy">Italic</a> states.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZimmermann2011285-187">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby199886-193">[181]</a> The Romans, panicked by these heavy defeats, appointed <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Fabius_Maximus_Verrucosus" title="Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus">Quintus Fabius</a> as <a href="/wiki/Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator">dictator</a>, with sole charge of the war effort.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999183-194">[182]</a> Fabius introduced the <a href="/wiki/Fabian_strategy" title="Fabian strategy">Fabian strategy</a> of avoiding open battle with his opponent, but constantly skirmishing with small detachments of the enemy. This was not popular with parts of the Roman army, public and senate, since he avoided battle while Italy was being devastated by the enemy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZimmermann2011285-187">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006195%E2%80%93196-195">[183]</a> Hannibal marched through the richest and most fertile provinces of Italy, hoping the devastation would draw Fabius into battle, but Fabius refused.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999184%E2%80%93188-196">[184]</a> In the 216 BC elections <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Terentius_Varro" title="Gaius Terentius Varro">Gaius Varro</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Aemilius_Paullus_(consul_219_BC)" title="Lucius Aemilius Paullus (consul 219 BC)">Lucius Paullus</a> were elected as consuls; both were more aggressive-minded than Fabius.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZimmermann2011286-197">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006199%E2%80%93200-198">[186]</a> The Roman Senate authorised the raising of a force of 86,000 men, the largest in Roman history to that point.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999191,_194-199">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006198%E2%80%93199-200">[188]</a> Paullus and Varro marched southward to confront Hannibal, who accepted battle on the open plain near <a href="/wiki/Cannae" title="Cannae">Cannae</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cannae" title="Battle of Cannae">battle of Cannae</a> the Roman legions forced their way through Hannibal's deliberately weak centre, but Libyan heavy infantry on the wings swung around their advance, menacing their flanks. <a href="/wiki/Hasdrubal,_commander_of_the_service_corps" class="mw-redirect" title="Hasdrubal, commander of the service corps">Hasdrubal</a><a href="#cite_note-202">[note 13]</a> led the Carthaginian cavalry on the left wing and routed the Roman cavalry opposite, then swept around the rear of the Romans to attack the cavalry on the other wing. He then charged into the legions from behind. As a result, the Roman infantry was surrounded with no means of escape.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFronda2011245-203">[190]</a> At least 67,500 Romans were killed or captured.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999192%E2%80%93194-204">[191]</a> The historian Richard Miles describes Cannae as "Rome's greatest military disaster".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011279-205">[192]</a> Toni Ñaco del Hoyo describes the Trebia, Lake Trasimene and Cannae as the three "great military calamities" suffered by the Romans in the first three years of the war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C3%91aco_del_Hoyo2015377-206">[193]</a> Brian Carey writes that these three defeats brought Rome to the brink of collapse.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarey20072-207">[194]</a> Within a few weeks of Cannae a Roman army of 25,000 was ambushed by <a href="/wiki/Boii" title="Boii">Boii</a> Gauls at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Silva_Litana" title="Battle of Silva Litana">battle of Silva Litana</a> and annihilated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoberts2017vi%E2%80%931x-208">[195]</a> Fabius was elected consul in 215 BC and was re-elected in 214 BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006227-209">[196]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby199894,_99-210">[197]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Roman_allies_defect,_216–207_BC">Roman allies defect, 216–207 BC</h4></div> Little survives of Polybius's account of Hannibal's army in Italy after Cannae and Livy is the best surviving source for this part of the war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby199887-13">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006222-16">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESabin199662-17">[16]</a> Several of the city states in southern Italy allied with Hannibal or were captured when pro-Carthaginian factions betrayed their defences. These included the large city of <a href="/wiki/Capua" title="Capua">Capua</a> and the major port city of Tarentum (modern <a href="/wiki/Taranto" title="Taranto">Taranto</a>). Two of the major <a href="/wiki/Samnium" title="Samnium">Samnite</a> tribes also joined the Carthaginian cause. By 214 BC the bulk of southern Italy had turned against Rome, although there were many exceptions. The majority of Rome's allies in central Italy remained loyal. All except the smallest towns were too well fortified for Hannibal to take by assault and blockade could be a long-drawn-out affair, or, if the target was a port, impossible. Carthage's new allies felt little sense of community with Carthage, or even with each other. The new allies increased the number of places that Hannibal's army was expected to defend from Roman retribution, but provided relatively few fresh troops to assist him in doing so. Such Italian forces as were raised resisted operating away from their home cities and performed poorly when they did.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006222%E2%80%93226-211">[198]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawlings2015313-212">[199]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Second_Punic_war_(cropped).png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="a map of southern peninsular Italy showing the maximum extent of Carthaginian control" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Second_Punic_war_%28cropped%29.png/300px-Second_Punic_war_%28cropped%29.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="281" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="323" data-file-height="303"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 281px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Second_Punic_war_%28cropped%29.png/300px-Second_Punic_war_%28cropped%29.png" data-alt="a map of southern peninsular Italy showing the maximum extent of Carthaginian control" data-width="300" data-height="281" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/Second_Punic_war_%28cropped%29.png 1.5x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Hannibal's allies in southern Italy <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 213 BC, shown in light blue</div></figcaption></figure> When the port city of <a href="/wiki/Locri" title="Locri">Locri</a> defected to Carthage in the summer of 215 BC it was immediately used to reinforce the Carthaginian forces in Italy with soldiers, supplies and war elephants.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby199898-213">[200]</a> It was the only time during the war that Carthage reinforced Hannibal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErdkamp201575-214">[201]</a> A second force, under Hannibal's youngest brother <a href="/wiki/Mago_Barca" title="Mago Barca">Mago</a>, was meant to land in Italy in 215 BC but was diverted to Iberia after the Carthaginian defeat there at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dertosa" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Dertosa">battle of Dertosa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby199898-213">[200]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarcel%C3%B32015370-215">[202]</a> Meanwhile, the Romans took drastic steps to raise new legions: enrolling slaves, criminals and those who did not meet the usual property qualification.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006226-216">[203]</a> By early 215 BC they were fielding at least 12 legions; by 214 BC, 18; and by 213 BC, 22. By 212 BC the full complement of the legions deployed would have been in excess of 100,000 men, plus, as always, a similar number of allied troops. The majority were deployed in southern Italy in field armies of approximately 20,000 men each. This was insufficient to challenge Hannibal's army in open battle, but sufficient to force him to concentrate his forces and to hamper his movements.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006227-209">[196]</a> For 12 years after Cannae the war surged around southern Italy as cities went over to the Carthaginians or were taken by subterfuge and the Romans recaptured them by siege or by suborning pro-Roman factions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006222%E2%80%93235-217">[204]</a> Hannibal repeatedly defeated Roman armies, in 209 BC both consuls were killed in a cavalry skirmish. But wherever his main army was not active the Romans threatened Carthaginian-supporting towns or sought battle with Carthaginian or Carthaginian-allied detachments; frequently with success.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby1996158-124">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006236-218">[205]</a> By 207 BC Hannibal had been confined to the extreme south of Italy and many of the cities and territories which had joined the Carthaginian cause had returned to their Roman allegiance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006237%E2%80%93238-219">[206]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Greece,_Sardinia_and_Sicily">Greece, Sardinia and Sicily</h4></div> During 216 BC the Macedonian king, <a href="/wiki/Philip_V_of_Macedon" title="Philip V of Macedon">Philip V</a>, <a href="/wiki/Macedonian%E2%80%93Carthaginian_Treaty" title="Macedonian–Carthaginian Treaty">pledged his support</a> to Hannibal,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999199%E2%80%93200-220">[207]</a> initiating the <a href="/wiki/First_Macedonian_War" title="First Macedonian War">First Macedonian War</a> against Rome in 215 BC. In 211 BC Rome contained this threat by allying with the <a href="/wiki/Aetolian_League" title="Aetolian League">Aetolian League</a>, a coalition of Greek city states which was already at war against Macedonia. In 205 BC this war ended with a <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Phoenice" title="Treaty of Phoenice">negotiated peace</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006253%E2%80%93260-221">[208]</a> A rebellion in support of the Carthaginians broke out on Sardinia in 213 BC, but it was quickly put down by the Romans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011288-222">[209]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Archimedes_before_his_death_with_the_Roman_soldier,_Roman_mosaic.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="a colourful mosaic of a sword-armed soldier gesturing to a seated man in ancient-style robes" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Archimedes_before_his_death_with_the_Roman_soldier%2C_Roman_mosaic.jpg/250px-Archimedes_before_his_death_with_the_Roman_soldier%2C_Roman_mosaic.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="191" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1570" data-file-height="1200"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 250px;height: 191px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Archimedes_before_his_death_with_the_Roman_soldier%2C_Roman_mosaic.jpg/250px-Archimedes_before_his_death_with_the_Roman_soldier%2C_Roman_mosaic.jpg" data-alt="a colourful mosaic of a sword-armed soldier gesturing to a seated man in ancient-style robes" data-width="250" data-height="191" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Archimedes_before_his_death_with_the_Roman_soldier%2C_Roman_mosaic.jpg/375px-Archimedes_before_his_death_with_the_Roman_soldier%2C_Roman_mosaic.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Archimedes_before_his_death_with_the_Roman_soldier%2C_Roman_mosaic.jpg/500px-Archimedes_before_his_death_with_the_Roman_soldier%2C_Roman_mosaic.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Archimedes before being killed by the Roman soldier – copy of a Roman mosaic from the 2nd century</div></figcaption></figure> Up to 215 BC Sicily remained firmly in Roman hands, blocking the ready seaborne reinforcement and resupply of Hannibal from Carthage. <a href="/wiki/Hiero_II_of_Syracuse" title="Hiero II of Syracuse">Hiero II</a>, the tyrant of Syracuse for the previous forty-five years and a staunch Roman ally, died in that year and his successor <a href="/wiki/Hieronymus_of_Syracuse" title="Hieronymus of Syracuse">Hieronymus</a> was discontented with his situation. Hannibal negotiated a treaty whereby Syracuse defected to Carthage, in exchange for making the whole of Sicily a Syracusan possession. The Syracusan army proved no match for a Roman army led by <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Claudius_Marcellus" title="Marcus Claudius Marcellus">Claudius Marcellus</a> and by spring 213 BC <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Syracuse_(213%E2%80%93212_BC)" title="Siege of Syracuse (213–212 BC)">Syracuse was besieged</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwell2011327-223">[210]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999200-224">[211]</a> The siege was marked by the ingenuity of <a href="/wiki/Archimedes" title="Archimedes">Archimedes</a> in inventing war machines to counteract the traditional siege warfare methods of the Romans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwell2011328-225">[212]</a> A large Carthaginian army led by <a href="/wiki/Himilco_(fl._3rd_century_BC)" title="Himilco (fl. 3rd century BC)">Himilco</a> was sent to relieve the city in 213 BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011288-222">[209]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwell2011329-226">[213]</a> It captured several Roman-garrisoned towns on Sicily; many Roman garrisons were either expelled or massacred by Carthaginian partisans. In spring 212 BC the Romans stormed Syracuse in a surprise night assault and captured several districts of the city. Meanwhile, the Carthaginian army was crippled by <a href="/wiki/Plague_(disease)" title="Plague (disease)">plague</a>. After the Carthaginians failed to resupply the city, Syracuse fell that autumn; Archimedes was killed by a Roman soldier.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwell2011329-226">[213]</a> Carthage sent more reinforcements to Sicily in 211 BC and went on the offensive. A fresh Roman army attacked the main Carthaginian stronghold on the island, <a href="/wiki/Agrigentum" class="mw-redirect" title="Agrigentum">Agrigentum</a>, in 210 BC and the city was betrayed to the Romans by a discontented Carthaginian officer. The remaining Carthaginian-controlled towns then surrendered or were taken through force or treachery<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwell2011330-227">[214]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006266%E2%80%93267-228">[215]</a> and the Sicilian grain supply to Rome and its armies was secured.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawlings2015311-229">[216]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Italy,_207–203_BC">Italy, 207–203 BC</h4></div> In the spring of 207 BC <a href="/wiki/Hasdrubal_Barca" title="Hasdrubal Barca">Hasdrubal Barca</a> repeated the feat of his elder brother by marching an army of 35,000 men across the Alps and invading Italy. His aim was to join his forces with those of Hannibal, but Hannibal was unaware of his presence. The Romans facing Hannibal in southern Italy tricked him into believing the whole Roman army was still in camp, while a large portion marched north under the consul <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Claudius_Nero" title="Gaius Claudius Nero">Claudius Nero</a> and reinforced the Romans facing Hasdrubal, who were commanded by the other consul, <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Livius_Salinator" title="Marcus Livius Salinator">Marcus Salinator</a>. The combined Roman force attacked Hasdrubal at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Metaurus" title="Battle of the Metaurus">battle of the Metaurus</a> and destroyed his army, killing Hasdrubal. This battle confirmed Roman dominance in Italy and marked the end of their Fabian strategy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZimmermann2011290-230">[217]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011304%E2%80%93306-231">[218]</a> In 205 BC, Mago landed in <a href="/wiki/Genoa" title="Genoa">Genua</a> in north-west Italy with the remnants of his Spanish army (see <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Iberia">§ Iberia</a> below) where it received Gallic and Ligurian reinforcements. Mago's arrival in the north of the Italian peninsula was followed by Hannibal's inconclusive <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Crotona" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Crotona">battle of Crotona</a> in 204 BC in the far south of the peninsula. Mago marched his reinforced army towards the lands of Carthage's main Gallic allies in the <a href="/wiki/Po_Valley" title="Po Valley">Po Valley</a>, but was checked by a large Roman army and defeated at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Insubria" title="Battle of Insubria">battle of Insubria</a> in 203 BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999286%E2%80%93287-232">[219]</a> After Publius Cornelius Scipio invaded the Carthaginian homeland in 204 BC, defeating the Carthaginians in two major battles and winning the allegiance of the Numidian kingdoms of North Africa, Hannibal and the remnants of his army were recalled.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011310-233">[220]</a> They sailed from <a href="/wiki/Crotone" title="Crotone">Croton</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006244-234">[221]</a> and landed at Carthage with 15,000–20,000 experienced veterans. Mago was also recalled; he died of wounds on the voyage and some of his ships were intercepted by the Romans,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011312-235">[222]</a> but 12,000 of his troops reached Carthage.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999289-236">[223]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Iberia">Iberia</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Iberia,_218–209_BC">Iberia, 218–209 BC</h4></div> The Roman fleet continued on from Massala in the autumn of 218 BC, landing the army it was transporting in north-east Iberia, where it won support among the local tribes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZimmermann2011291-175">[163]</a> A rushed Carthaginian attack in late 218 BC was beaten back at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cissa" title="Battle of Cissa">battle of Cissa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZimmermann2011291-175">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwell2011321-237">[224]</a> In 217 BC 40 Carthaginian and Iberian warships were defeated by 55 Roman and Massalian vessels at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ebro_River" title="Battle of Ebro River">battle of Ebro River</a>, with 29 Carthaginian ships lost. The Romans' lodgement between the Ebro and the <a href="/wiki/Pyrenees" title="Pyrenees">Pyrenees</a> blocked the route from Iberia to Italy and greatly hindered the despatch of reinforcements from Iberia to Hannibal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwell2011321-237">[224]</a> The Carthaginian commander in Iberia, Hannibal's brother Hasdrubal, marched into this area in 215 BC, offered battle and was <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ibera" title="Battle of Ibera">defeated at Dertosa</a>, although both sides suffered heavy casualties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwell2011322-238">[225]</a> The Carthaginians suffered a wave of defections of local <a href="/wiki/Celtiberians" title="Celtiberians">Celtiberian</a> tribes to Rome.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZimmermann2011291-175">[163]</a> The Roman commanders captured Saguntum in 212 BC and in 211 BC hired 20,000 Celtiberian mercenaries to reinforce their army. Observing that the three Carthaginian armies were deployed apart from each other, the Romans split their forces.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwell2011322-238">[225]</a> This strategy resulted in two separate battles in 211 BC, usually referred to jointly as the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Upper_Baetis" title="Battle of the Upper Baetis">battle of the Upper Baetis</a>. Both battles ended in complete defeat for the Romans, as Hasdrubal had bribed the Romans' mercenaries to desert. The Romans retreated to their coastal stronghold north of the Ebro, from which the Carthaginians again failed to expel them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZimmermann2011291-175">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwell2011322-238">[225]</a> Claudius Nero brought over reinforcements in 210 BC and stabilised the situation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwell2011322-238">[225]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bust_of_Sulla_(loan_from_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek)_-_Glyptothek_-_Munich_-_Germany_2017.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="a black and white photograph of a marble bust of a man, with the nose broken off" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Bust_of_Sulla_%28loan_from_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek%29_-_Glyptothek_-_Munich_-_Germany_2017.jpg/150px-Bust_of_Sulla_%28loan_from_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek%29_-_Glyptothek_-_Munich_-_Germany_2017.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="225" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="5184"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 150px;height: 225px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Bust_of_Sulla_%28loan_from_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek%29_-_Glyptothek_-_Munich_-_Germany_2017.jpg/150px-Bust_of_Sulla_%28loan_from_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek%29_-_Glyptothek_-_Munich_-_Germany_2017.jpg" data-alt="a black and white photograph of a marble bust of a man, with the nose broken off" data-width="150" data-height="225" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Bust_of_Sulla_%28loan_from_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek%29_-_Glyptothek_-_Munich_-_Germany_2017.jpg/225px-Bust_of_Sulla_%28loan_from_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek%29_-_Glyptothek_-_Munich_-_Germany_2017.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Bust_of_Sulla_%28loan_from_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek%29_-_Glyptothek_-_Munich_-_Germany_2017.jpg/300px-Bust_of_Sulla_%28loan_from_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek%29_-_Glyptothek_-_Munich_-_Germany_2017.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">2nd century BC marble bust, identified as Scipio Africanus<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoarelli200273%E2%80%9374-239">[226]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEtcheto2012274%E2%80%93278-240">[227]</a></div></figcaption></figure> In 210 BC <a href="/wiki/Scipio_Africanus" title="Scipio Africanus">Publius Cornelius Scipio</a>,<a href="#cite_note-242">[note 14]</a> arrived in Iberia with further Roman reinforcements.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwell2011323-243">[229]</a> In a carefully planned assault in 209 BC, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cartagena_(209_BC)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Cartagena (209 BC)">he captured Cartago Nova</a>, the lightly-defended centre of Carthaginian power in Iberia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwell2011323-243">[229]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZimmermann2011292-244">[230]</a> Scipio seized a vast booty of gold, silver and siege artillery, but released the captured population. He also liberated the Iberian hostages who had been held there by the Carthaginians to ensure the loyalty of their tribes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwell2011323-243">[229]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarcel%C3%B32015362-245">[231]</a> Even so, many of them later fought against the Romans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwell2011323-243">[229]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Roman_victory_in_Iberia,_208–205_BC">Roman victory in Iberia, 208–205 BC</h4></div> In the spring of 208 BC Hasdrubal moved to engage Scipio at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Baecula" title="Battle of Baecula">battle of Baecula</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwell2015323-246">[232]</a> The Carthaginians were defeated, but Hasdrubal was able to withdraw the majority of his army and prevent any Roman pursuit; most of his losses were among his Iberian allies. Scipio was not able to prevent Hasdrubal from leading his depleted army through the western passes of the Pyrenees into Gaul. In 207 BC, after recruiting heavily in Gaul, Hasdrubal crossed the Alps into Italy in an attempt to join his brother, Hannibal, but was defeated before he could.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwell2015323-246">[232]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarey200786%E2%80%9390-247">[233]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999211-248">[234]</a> In 206 BC at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ilipa" title="Battle of Ilipa">Battle of Ilipa</a>, Scipio with 48,000 men, half Italian and half Iberian, defeated a Carthaginian army of 54,500 men and 32 elephants. This sealed the fate of the Carthaginians in Iberia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwell2011323-243">[229]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZimmermann2011293-249">[235]</a> The last Carthaginian-held city in Iberia, Gades, defected to the Romans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011303-250">[236]</a> Later the same year a <a href="/wiki/Mutiny_at_Sucro" title="Mutiny at Sucro">mutiny</a> broke out among Roman troops, which attracted support from Iberian leaders, disappointed that Roman forces had remained in the peninsula after the expulsion of the Carthaginians, but it was effectively put down by Scipio. In 205 BC a last attempt was made by Mago to recapture New Carthage when the Roman occupiers were shaken by another mutiny and an Iberian uprising, but he was repulsed. Mago left Iberia for Cisalpine Gaul with his remaining forces.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarcel%C3%B32015362-245">[231]</a> In 203 BC Carthage succeeded in recruiting at least 4,000 mercenaries from Iberia, despite Rome's nominal control.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwell2011333-251">[237]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Africa">Africa</h3></div> In 213 BC <a href="/wiki/Syphax" title="Syphax">Syphax</a>, a powerful <a href="/wiki/Numidians" title="Numidians">Numidian</a> king in North Africa, declared for Rome. In response, Roman advisers were sent to train his soldiers and he waged war against the Carthaginian ally <a href="/wiki/Gala_(king)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gala (king)">Gala</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwell2011322-238">[225]</a> In 206 BC the Carthaginians ended this drain on their resources by dividing several Numidian kingdoms with him. One of those disinherited was the Numidian prince <a href="/wiki/Masinissa" title="Masinissa">Masinissa</a>, who was thus driven into the arms of Rome.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarcel%C3%B32015372-252">[238]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Scipio's_invasion_of_Africa,_204–201_BC">Scipio's invasion of Africa, 204–201 BC</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Campagna_africana_di_Scipione_204-203_aC.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="a terrain map of northern Tunisia, with the manoeuvres of Scipio's army in 204–203 BC superimposed on it" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Campagna_africana_di_Scipione_204-203_aC.png/360px-Campagna_africana_di_Scipione_204-203_aC.png" decoding="async" width="360" height="184" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1530" data-file-height="780"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 360px;height: 184px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Campagna_africana_di_Scipione_204-203_aC.png/360px-Campagna_africana_di_Scipione_204-203_aC.png" data-alt="a terrain map of northern Tunisia, with the manoeuvres of Scipio's army in 204–203 BC superimposed on it" data-width="360" data-height="184" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Campagna_africana_di_Scipione_204-203_aC.png/540px-Campagna_africana_di_Scipione_204-203_aC.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Campagna_africana_di_Scipione_204-203_aC.png/720px-Campagna_africana_di_Scipione_204-203_aC.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><a href="/wiki/Scipio_Africanus" title="Scipio Africanus">Scipio</a>'s military campaign in Africa 204–203 BC</div></figcaption></figure> In 205 BC Publius Scipio was given command of the legions in Sicily and allowed to enrol volunteers for his plan to end the war by an invasion of Africa.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006286%E2%80%93288-253">[239]</a> After landing in Africa in 204 BC, he was joined by Masinissa and a force of Numidian cavalry.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006291%E2%80%93292-254">[240]</a> Scipio gave battle to and destroyed two large Carthaginian armies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011310-233">[220]</a> After the second of these Syphax was pursued and taken prisoner by Masinissa at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cirta" title="Battle of Cirta">battle of Cirta</a>; Masinissa then seized most of Syphax's kingdom with Roman help.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999282%E2%80%93283-255">[241]</a> Rome and Carthage entered into peace negotiations and Carthage recalled Hannibal from Italy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006298%E2%80%93300-256">[242]</a> The Roman Senate ratified a draft treaty, but because of mistrust and a surge in confidence when Hannibal arrived from Italy Carthage repudiated it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999287%E2%80%93291-257">[243]</a> Hannibal was placed in command of an army formed from his and Mago's veterans from Italy and newly raised troops from Africa, but with few cavalry.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006302-258">[244]</a> The decisive <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zama" title="Battle of Zama">battle of Zama</a> followed in October 202 BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011315-259">[245]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarey2007119-260">[246]</a> Unlike most battles of the Second Punic War, the Romans had superiority in cavalry and the Carthaginians in infantry.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006302-258">[244]</a> Hannibal attempted to use 80 elephants to break into the Roman infantry formation, but the Romans countered them effectively and they routed back through the Carthaginian ranks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999291%E2%80%93293-261">[247]</a> The Roman and allied Numidian cavalry then pressed their attacks and drove the Carthaginian cavalry from the field. The two sides' infantry fought inconclusively until the Roman cavalry returned and attacked the Carthaginian rear. The Carthaginian formation collapsed; Hannibal was one of the few to escape the field.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011315-259">[245]</a> The new peace treaty dictated by Rome stripped Carthage of all of its overseas territories and some of its African ones; an indemnity of 10,000 silver talents<a href="#cite_note-263">[note 15]</a> was to be paid over 50 years; hostages were to be taken; Carthage was forbidden to possess war elephants and its fleet was restricted to 10 warships; it was prohibited from waging war outside Africa and in Africa only with Rome's express permission. Many senior Carthaginians wanted to reject it, but Hannibal spoke strongly in its favour and it was accepted in spring 201 BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006308%E2%80%93309-264">[249]</a> Henceforth it was clear that Carthage was politically subordinate to Rome.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEckstein2006176-265">[250]</a> Scipio was awarded a <a href="/wiki/Roman_triumph" title="Roman triumph">triumph</a> and received the <a href="/wiki/Agnomen" title="Agnomen">agnomen</a> "Africanus".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011318-266">[251]</a> Under the pressure of the war, the Romans developed an increasingly effective system of logistics to equip and feed the unprecedented numbers of soldiers they field. During the last three years of the war this was extended to the transporting by sea from Sicily to Africa of almost all of the requirements of Scipio's large army. These developments made possible the subsequent Roman overseas wars of conquest.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006359%E2%80%93360-267">[252]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="Interbellum,_201–149_BC">Interbellum, 201–149 BC</h2></div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> At the end of the war, Masinissa emerged as by far the most powerful ruler among the Numidians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKunze2015398-268">[253]</a> Over the following 48 years he repeatedly took advantage of Carthage's inability to protect its possessions. Whenever Carthage petitioned Rome for redress, or permission to take military action, Rome backed its ally, Masinissa, and refused.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKunze2015398,_407-269">[254]</a> Masinissa's seizures of and raids into Carthaginian territory became increasingly flagrant. In 151 BC Carthage raised an army, the treaty notwithstanding, and <a href="/wiki/Counterattack" title="Counterattack">counterattacked</a> the Numidians. The campaign ended in disaster for the Carthaginians and their army surrendered.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKunze2015407-270">[255]</a> Carthage had paid off its indemnity and was prospering economically, but was no military threat to Rome.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKunze2015408-271">[256]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015434-272">[257]</a> Elements in the Roman Senate had long wished to destroy Carthage and with the breach of the treaty as a <a href="/wiki/Casus_belli" title="Casus belli">casus belli</a>, war was declared in 149 BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKunze2015407-270">[255]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="Third_Punic_War,_149–146_BC">Third Punic War, 149–146 BC</h2></div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Third_Punic_War" title="Third Punic War">Third Punic War</a></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div> In 149 BC a Roman army of approximately 50,000 men, jointly commanded by both consuls, landed near <a href="/wiki/Utica,_Tunisia" title="Utica, Tunisia">Utica</a>, 35 kilometres (22 mi) north of Carthage.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015436%E2%80%93437-273">[258]</a> Rome demanded that if war were to be avoided, the Carthaginians must hand over all of their armaments. Vast amounts of materiel were delivered, including 200,000 sets of armour, 2,000 <a href="/wiki/Ballista#Early_Roman_ballistae" title="Ballista">catapults</a> and a large number of warships.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015438-274">[259]</a> This done, the Romans demanded the Carthaginians burn their city and relocate at least 16 kilometres (10 mi) from the sea; the Carthaginians broke off negotiations and set to recreating their <a href="/wiki/Arsenal" title="Arsenal">armoury</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999309%E2%80%93310-275">[260]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Siege_of_Carthage">Siege of Carthage</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Carthage_(Third_Punic_War)" title="Siege of Carthage (Third Punic War)">Siege of Carthage (Third Punic War)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bronze_statue_of_a_Hellenistic_prince,_1st_half_of_2nd_century_BC,_found_on_the_Quirinal_in_Rome,_Palazzo_Massimo_alle_Terme,_Rome_(31479801364).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="a bronze head, believed by some experts to depict Scipio Aemilianus" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Bronze_statue_of_a_Hellenistic_prince%2C_1st_half_of_2nd_century_BC%2C_found_on_the_Quirinal_in_Rome%2C_Palazzo_Massimo_alle_Terme%2C_Rome_%2831479801364%29.jpg/150px-Bronze_statue_of_a_Hellenistic_prince%2C_1st_half_of_2nd_century_BC%2C_found_on_the_Quirinal_in_Rome%2C_Palazzo_Massimo_alle_Terme%2C_Rome_%2831479801364%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="228" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3048" data-file-height="4626"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 150px;height: 228px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Bronze_statue_of_a_Hellenistic_prince%2C_1st_half_of_2nd_century_BC%2C_found_on_the_Quirinal_in_Rome%2C_Palazzo_Massimo_alle_Terme%2C_Rome_%2831479801364%29.jpg/150px-Bronze_statue_of_a_Hellenistic_prince%2C_1st_half_of_2nd_century_BC%2C_found_on_the_Quirinal_in_Rome%2C_Palazzo_Massimo_alle_Terme%2C_Rome_%2831479801364%29.jpg" data-alt="a bronze head, believed by some experts to depict Scipio Aemilianus" data-width="150" data-height="228" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Bronze_statue_of_a_Hellenistic_prince%2C_1st_half_of_2nd_century_BC%2C_found_on_the_Quirinal_in_Rome%2C_Palazzo_Massimo_alle_Terme%2C_Rome_%2831479801364%29.jpg/225px-Bronze_statue_of_a_Hellenistic_prince%2C_1st_half_of_2nd_century_BC%2C_found_on_the_Quirinal_in_Rome%2C_Palazzo_Massimo_alle_Terme%2C_Rome_%2831479801364%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Bronze_statue_of_a_Hellenistic_prince%2C_1st_half_of_2nd_century_BC%2C_found_on_the_Quirinal_in_Rome%2C_Palazzo_Massimo_alle_Terme%2C_Rome_%2831479801364%29.jpg/300px-Bronze_statue_of_a_Hellenistic_prince%2C_1st_half_of_2nd_century_BC%2C_found_on_the_Quirinal_in_Rome%2C_Palazzo_Massimo_alle_Terme%2C_Rome_%2831479801364%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">The "<a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Prince" title="Hellenistic Prince">Hellenistic Prince</a>", tentatively identified as Scipio Aemilianus<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoarelli1981187-276">[261]</a></div></figcaption></figure> As well as manning the walls of Carthage, the Carthaginians formed a <a href="/wiki/Field_army" title="Field army">field army</a> under <a href="/wiki/Hasdrubal_the_Boetharch" title="Hasdrubal the Boetharch">Hasdrubal the Boetharch</a>, which was based 25 kilometres (16 mi) to the south.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015439-277">[262]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011343-278">[263]</a> The Roman army moved to lay siege to Carthage, but its walls were so strong and its citizen-militia so determined it was unable to make any impact, while the Carthaginians struck back effectively. Their army raided the Roman <a href="/wiki/Line_of_communication" title="Line of communication">lines of communication</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011343-278">[263]</a> and in 148 BC Carthaginian <a href="/wiki/Fire_ship" title="Fire ship">fire ships</a> destroyed many Roman vessels. The main Roman camp was in a swamp, which caused an outbreak of disease during the summer.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999314-279">[264]</a> The Romans moved their camp, and their ships, further away – so they were now more blockading than closely besieging the city.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999315-280">[265]</a> The war dragged on into 147 BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011343-278">[263]</a> In early 147 BC, <a href="/wiki/Scipio_Aemilianus" title="Scipio Aemilianus">Scipio Aemilianus</a>, an adopted grandson of Scipio Africanus who had distinguished himself during the previous two years' fighting, was elected consul and took control of the war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKunze2015407-270">[255]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015440-281">[266]</a> The Carthaginians continued to resist vigorously: they constructed warships and, during the summer, twice gave battle to the Roman fleet, losing both times.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015440-281">[266]</a> The Romans launched an assault on the walls; after confused fighting they broke into the city, but, lost in the dark, withdrew. Hasdrubal and his army retreated into the city to reinforce the garrison.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006348%E2%80%93349-282">[267]</a> Hasdrubal had Roman prisoners tortured to death on the walls, in view of the Roman army. He was reinforcing the will to resist in the Carthaginian citizens; from this point there could be no possibility of negotiations. Some members of the city council denounced his actions and Hasdrubal had them put to death and took control of the city.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015440-281">[266]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006349-283">[268]</a> With no Carthaginian army in the field, those cities which had remained loyal went over to the Romans or were captured.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall1999318-284">[269]</a> Scipio moved back to a close blockade of the city and built a <a href="/wiki/Mole_(architecture)" title="Mole (architecture)">mole</a> which cut off supply from the sea.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles20112-285">[270]</a> In the spring of 146 BC, the Roman army managed to secure a foothold on the fortifications near the harbour.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015441-286">[271]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011346-287">[272]</a> Scipio launched a major assault which quickly captured the city's main square, where the legions camped overnight.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles20113-288">[273]</a> The next morning, the Romans started systematically working their way through the residential part of the city, killing everyone they encountered and firing the buildings behind them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015441-286">[271]</a> At times, the Romans progressed from rooftop to rooftop, to prevent missiles being hurled down on them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles20113-288">[273]</a> It took six days to clear the city of resistance; only on the last day did Scipio take prisoners. The last holdouts, including Roman <a href="/wiki/Deserter" class="mw-redirect" title="Deserter">deserters</a> in Carthaginian service, fought on from the Temple of <a href="/wiki/Eshmun" title="Eshmun">Eshmoun</a> and burnt it down around themselves when all hope was gone.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles20113%E2%80%934-289">[274]</a> There were 50,000 Carthaginian prisoners, a small proportion of the pre-war population, who were sold into slavery.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScullard2002316-290">[275]</a> There is a tradition that Roman forces then <a href="/wiki/Salting_the_earth" title="Salting the earth">sowed the city with salt</a>, but this has been shown to have been a 19th-century invention.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERidley1986144%E2%80%93145-291">[276]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaker201450-292">[277]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><h2 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h2></div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tunisie_Carthage_Ruines_08.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="a colour photograph of excavated ruins from the classical period on a sunny day" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Tunisie_Carthage_Ruines_08.JPG/180px-Tunisie_Carthage_Ruines_08.JPG" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2000"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 180px;height: 120px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Tunisie_Carthage_Ruines_08.JPG/180px-Tunisie_Carthage_Ruines_08.JPG" data-alt="a colour photograph of excavated ruins from the classical period on a sunny day" data-width="180" data-height="120" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Tunisie_Carthage_Ruines_08.JPG/270px-Tunisie_Carthage_Ruines_08.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Tunisie_Carthage_Ruines_08.JPG/360px-Tunisie_Carthage_Ruines_08.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Part of the ruins of Carthage in 2006</div></figcaption></figure> The remaining Carthaginian territories were annexed by Rome and reconstituted to become the <a href="/wiki/Africa_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Africa Province">Roman province of Africa</a> with Utica as its capital.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScullard2002310,_316-293">[278]</a> The province became a major source of grain and other foodstuffs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittaker1996596-294">[279]</a> Numerous large Punic cities, such as those in <a href="/wiki/Mauretania" title="Mauretania">Mauretania</a>, were taken over by the Romans,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPollard2015249-295">[280]</a> although they were permitted to retain their Punic system of government.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFantar2015455%E2%80%93456-296">[281]</a> A century later, the site of Carthage was <a href="/wiki/Roman_Carthage" title="Roman Carthage">rebuilt as a Roman city</a> by <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a>; it became one of the main cities of Roman Africa by the time of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardson2015480%E2%80%93481-297">[282]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011363%E2%80%93364-298">[283]</a> Rome still exists as the capital of Italy;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMazzoni201013%E2%80%9314-299">[284]</a> the ruins of Carthage lie 24 kilometres (15 mi) east of <a href="/wiki/Tunis" title="Tunis">Tunis</a> on the North African coast.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006296-300">[285]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUNESCO2020-301">[286]</a><div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(10)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div><section class="mf-section-10 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-10"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides_Trap" title="Thucydides Trap">Thucydides Trap</a></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(11)"><h2 id="Notes,_citations,_and_sources">Notes, citations, and sources</h2></div><section class="mf-section-11 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-11"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> The term Punic comes from the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> word Punicus (or Poenicus), meaning "<a href="/wiki/History_of_Carthage" title="History of Carthage">Carthaginian</a>" and is a reference to the Carthaginians' <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a> ancestry.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESidwellJones199816-1">[1]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> Whose account of the <a href="/wiki/Third_Punic_War" title="Third Punic War">Third Punic War</a> is especially valuable.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015430-19">[18]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> Sources other than Polybius are discussed by Bernard Mineo in "Principal Literary Sources for the Punic Wars (apart from Polybius)".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMineo2015111%E2%80%93127-21">[19]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> This could be increased to 5,000 in some circumstances,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBagnall199923-34">[31]</a> or, rarely, even more.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006287-35">[32]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> Roman and Greek sources refer to these foreign fighters derogatively as "mercenaries", but the modern historian Adrian Goldsworthy describes this as "a gross oversimplification". They served under a variety of arrangements; for example, some were the regular troops of allied cities or kingdoms seconded to Carthage as part of formal treaties, some were from allied states fighting under their own leaders, many were volunteers from areas under Carthaginian control who were not Carthaginian citizens. (Which was largely reserved for inhabitants of the city of Carthage.)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200633-42">[38]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Shock_troops" title="Shock troops">"Shock" troops</a> are those trained and used to close rapidly with an opponent, with the intention of breaking them before, or immediately upon, contact.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones19871-44">[39]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> These elephants were typically about 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in) high at the shoulder and should not be confused with the larger <a href="/wiki/African_bush_elephant" title="African bush elephant">African bush elephant</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011240-54">[48]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> Polybius gives 140,000 personnel in the Roman fleet and 150,000 in the Carthaginian; these figures are broadly accepted by historians of the conflict.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006110%E2%80%93111-96">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby199687-97">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETipps1985436-98">[91]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> Several different "talents" are known from antiquity. The ones referred to in this article are all Euboic (or Euboeic) talents, of approximately 26 kilograms (57 lb).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby1996158-124">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScullard2006565-125">[117]</a> 2,000 talents was approximately 52,000 kilograms (51 long tons) of silver.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby1996158-124">[116]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> 3,200 talents was approximately 82,000 kg (81 long tons).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby1996158-124">[116]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> 1,200 talents was approximately 30,000 kg (30 long tons) of silver.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby1996158-124">[116]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> There is scholarly debate as to whether Saguntum was a formal Roman ally, in which case attacking it may have been a breach of the clause in the Treaty of Lutatius prohibiting attacking each others allies; or whether the city had less formally requested Rome's protection, and possibly been granted it. In either case, the Carthaginians argued that relationships entered into after the signing of the treaty were not covered by it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006144-162">[151]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a> Not the same man as Hasdrubal Barca, one of Hannibal's younger brothers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarey200764-201">[189]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-242"><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a> Publius Scipio was the bereaved son of the previous Roman co-commander in Iberia, also named Publius Scipio, and the nephew of the other co-commander, Gnaeus Scipio.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiles2011268,_298%E2%80%93299-241">[228]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-263"><a href="#cite_ref-263">^</a> 10,000 talents was approximately 269,000 kg (265 long tons) of silver.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby1996179-262">[248]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESidwellJones199816-1"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESidwellJones199816_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSidwellJones1998">Sidwell & Jones 1998</a>, p. 16. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200620–21-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200620%E2%80%9321_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200620%E2%80%9321_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200620%E2%80%9321_3-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200620%E2%80%9321_3-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200620%E2%80%9321_3-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200620%E2%80%9321_3-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoldsworthy2006">Goldsworthy 2006</a>, pp. 20–21. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalbank199011–12-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalbank199011%E2%80%9312_4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWalbank1990">Walbank 1990</a>, pp. 11–12. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby1996x–xi-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELazenby1996x%E2%80%93xi_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLazenby1996">Lazenby 1996</a>, pp. x–xi. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHau201623–24-6"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHau201623%E2%80%9324_6-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHau2016">Hau 2016</a>, pp. 23–24. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShutt193855-7"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShutt193855_7-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShutt1938">Shutt 1938</a>, p. 55. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChampion201598,_101-8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChampion201598,_101_8-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChampion2015">Champion 2015</a>, pp. 98, 101. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby1996x–xi,_82–84-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELazenby1996x%E2%80%93xi,_82%E2%80%9384_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELazenby1996x%E2%80%93xi,_82%E2%80%9384_9-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLazenby1996">Lazenby 1996</a>, pp. x–xi, 82–84. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECurry201234-10"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECurry201234_10-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCurry2012">Curry 2012</a>, p. 34. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChampion2015102-11"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChampion2015102_11-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChampion2015">Champion 2015</a>, p. 102. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETipps1985432-12"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETipps1985432_12-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTipps1985">Tipps 1985</a>, p. 432. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby199887-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELazenby199887_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELazenby199887_13-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLazenby1998">Lazenby 1998</a>, p. 87. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200622-14"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200622_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoldsworthy2006">Goldsworthy 2006</a>, p. 22. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChampion201595-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChampion201595_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChampion201595_15-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFChampion2015">Champion 2015</a>, p. 95. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006222-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006222_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2006222_16-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoldsworthy2006">Goldsworthy 2006</a>, p. 222. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESabin199662-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESabin199662_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESabin199662_17-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSabin1996">Sabin 1996</a>, p. 62. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200621–23-18"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy200621%E2%80%9323_18-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoldsworthy2006">Goldsworthy 2006</a>, pp. 21–23. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015430-19"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Bohec2015430_19-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLe_Bohec2015">Le Bohec 2015</a>, p. 430. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMineo2015111–127-21">^ <a 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.refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBagnall1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nigel_Bagnall" title="Nigel Bagnall">Bagnall, Nigel</a> (1999). 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The World of Rome: an Introduction to Roman Culture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-38600-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-38600-5"><bdi>978-0-521-38600-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+World+of+Rome%3A+an+Introduction+to+Roman+Culture&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-521-38600-5&rft.aulast=Sidwell&rft.aufirst=Keith+C.&rft.au=Jones%2C+Peter+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APunic+Wars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Souza2008" class="citation book cs1">de Souza, Philip (2008). "Naval Forces". In Sabin, Philip; van Wees, Hans & Whitby, Michael (eds.). 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Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. 34 (4): 432–465. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4435938">4435938</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Historia%3A+Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Alte+Geschichte&rft.atitle=The+Battle+of+Ecnomus&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=432-465&rft.date=1985&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4435938%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Tipps&rft.aufirst=G.K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APunic+Wars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTipps2003" class="citation journal cs1">Tipps, G. K. (2003). "The Defeat of Regulus". The Classical World. 96 (4): 375–385. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F4352788">10.2307/4352788</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4352788">4352788</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Classical+World&rft.atitle=The+Defeat+of+Regulus&rft.volume=96&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=375-385&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F4352788&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4352788%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Tipps&rft.aufirst=G.+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APunic+Wars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUNESCO2020" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/37">"Archaeological Site of Carthage"</a>. 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Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-06981-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-06981-7"><bdi>978-0-520-06981-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Polybius&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-520-06981-7&rft.aulast=Walbank&rft.aufirst=F.W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APunic+Wars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWallinga1956" class="citation book cs1">Wallinga, Herman (1956). The Boarding-bridge of the Romans: Its Construction and its Function in the Naval Tactics of the First Punic War. Groningen: J.B. 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New York: Barnes & Noble, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56619-210-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56619-210-1"><bdi>978-1-56619-210-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Carthage&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Barnes+%26+Noble%2C+Inc&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-1-56619-210-1&rft.aulast=Warmington&rft.aufirst=Brian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APunic+Wars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhittaker1996" class="citation book cs1">Whittaker, C. R. (1996). "Roman Africa: Augustus to Vespasian". In Bowman, A.; Champlin, E.; Lintott, A. (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. X. 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Oxford: John Wiley. pp. 280–298. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-405-17600-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-405-17600-2"><bdi>978-1-405-17600-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Roman+Strategy+and+Aims+in+the+Second+Punic+War&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+Punic+Wars&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=280-298&rft.pub=John+Wiley&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-405-17600-2&rft.aulast=Zimmermann&rft.aufirst=Klaus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APunic+Wars" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link 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title="Portal:History">History</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:Phoenician_aleph.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Black on white image of the Phoenician letter Aleph" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Phoenician_aleph.svg/19px-Phoenician_aleph.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="85" data-file-height="85"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 19px;height: 19px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Phoenician_aleph.svg/19px-Phoenician_aleph.svg.png" data-alt="Black on white image of the Phoenician letter Aleph" data-width="19" data-height="19" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Phoenician_aleph.svg/29px-Phoenician_aleph.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Phoenician_aleph.svg/38px-Phoenician_aleph.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <a 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/21px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="14" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 21px;height: 14px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/21px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png" data-alt="flag" data-width="21" data-height="14" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/32px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/42px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">  <a href="/wiki/Portal:Italy" title="Portal:Italy">Italy</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><noscript><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/21px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="14" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 21px;height: 14px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/21px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png" data-alt="flag" data-width="21" data-height="14" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/32px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/42px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">  <a href="/wiki/Portal:Portugal" title="Portal:Portugal">Portugal</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><noscript><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/21px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="14" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="500"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 21px;height: 14px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/21px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png" data-alt="flag" data-width="21" data-height="14" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/32px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/42px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">  <a href="/wiki/Portal:Spain" title="Portal:Spain">Spain</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><noscript><img alt="map" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/19px-Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="550"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 19px;height: 19px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/19px-Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" data-alt="map" data-width="19" data-height="19" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/29px-Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/38px-Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">  <a href="/wiki/Portal:Africa" title="Portal:Africa">Africa</a></li></ul></div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236088147">.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline;font-size:88%;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em 0 0;padding:0 2em}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;padding:0.2em 0;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px;line-height:22px}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;align-items:baseline;padding:0.2em 0;column-gap:1em;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{display:flex;align-items:baseline;margin:0.15em 0;min-height:24px;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-logo{width:22px;line-height:22px;margin:0 0.2em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-link{margin:0 0.2em;text-align:left}@media screen and (max-width:960px){.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{flex-flow:column wrap;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{flex:0 1}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{flex:1;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{flex:0 0 20em;min-width:20em}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.portal-bar{margin-top:-1px}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="noprint metadata sister-bar" role="navigation" aria-label="sister-projects"><div class="sister-bar-header">Punic Wars at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a>:</div><ul class="sister-bar-content"><li class="sister-bar-item"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/19px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 19px;height: 19px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/19px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="19" data-height="19" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/29px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/38px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Punic_War" class="extiw" title="wikt:Punic War">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/14px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 14px;height: 19px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/14px-Commons-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="14" data-height="19" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/21px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/28px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Punic_Wars" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Punic Wars">Media</a> from Commons</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="19" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 18px;height: 19px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="18" data-height="19" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/28px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/36px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Portal:Punic_Wars" class="extiw" title="s:Portal:Punic Wars">Texts</a> from Wikisource</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/21px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="12" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 21px;height: 12px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/21px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="21" data-height="12" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/32px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/42px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q124988" class="extiw" title="d:Q124988">Data</a> from Wikidata</li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div>    </section></div> <noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&mobile=1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Punic_Wars&oldid=1246024226">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Punic_Wars&oldid=1246024226</a>"</div></div> </div> <div class="post-content" id="page-secondary-actions"> </div> </main> <footer class="mw-footer minerva-footer" role="contentinfo"> <a class="last-modified-bar" href="/w/index.php?title=Punic_Wars&action=history"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> Last edited on 16 September 2024, at 13:32 </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puniese_Oorlo%C3%AB" title="Puniese Oorloë – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Puniese Oorloë" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الحروب البونيقية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الحروب البونيقية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerres_p%C3%BAniques" title="Guerres púniques – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Guerres púniques" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pun_m%C3%BCharib%C9%99l%C9%99ri" title="Pun müharibələri – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Pun müharibələri" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%B9" title="পিউনিক যুদ্ধসমূহ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="পিউনিক যুদ্ধসমূহ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%83%D0%BD_%D2%BB%D1%83%D2%93%D1%8B%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B" title="Пун һуғыштары – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Пун һуғыштары" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%83%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%8B" title="Пунічныя войны – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Пунічныя войны" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Пунически войни – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Пунически войни" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punski_ratovi" title="Punski ratovi – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Punski ratovi" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerres_p%C3%BAniques" title="Guerres púniques – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Guerres púniques" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%B2%C4%83%D1%80%C3%A7%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Пуни вăрçисем – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Пуни вăрçисем" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mga_gubat_Puniko" title="Mga gubat Puniko – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Mga gubat Puniko" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punsk%C3%A9_v%C3%A1lky" title="Punské války – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Punské války" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhyfeloedd_Pwnig" title="Rhyfeloedd Pwnig – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Rhyfeloedd Pwnig" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puniske_krige" title="Puniske krige – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Puniske krige" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punische_Kriege" title="Punische Kriege – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Punische Kriege" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puunia_s%C3%B5jad" title="Puunia sõjad – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Puunia sõjad" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%B1%CF%81%CF%87%CE%B7%CE%B4%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%AF_%CE%A0%CF%8C%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%BC%CE%BF%CE%B9" title="Καρχηδονιακοί Πόλεμοι – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Καρχηδονιακοί Πόλεμοι" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerras_p%C3%BAnicas" title="Guerras púnicas – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Guerras púnicas" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punikaj_militoj" title="Punikaj militoj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Punikaj militoj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerra_Punikoak" title="Gerra Punikoak – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Gerra Punikoak" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%86%DB%8C" title="جنگ‌های پونی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جنگ‌های پونی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tey_punisku_kr%C3%ADggini" title="Tey punisku kríggini – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Tey punisku kríggini" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerres_puniques" title="Guerres puniques – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Guerres puniques" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punyske_oarloggen" title="Punyske oarloggen – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Punyske oarloggen" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Na_Coga%C3%AD_P%C3%BAnacha" title="Na Cogaí Púnacha – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Na Cogaí Púnacha" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerras_p%C3%BAnicas" title="Guerras púnicas – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Guerras púnicas" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%8F%AC%EC%97%90%EB%8B%88_%EC%A0%84%EC%9F%81" title="포에니 전쟁 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="포에니 전쟁" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8A%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%A6%D5%B4%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Պունիկյան պատերազմներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Պունիկյան պատերազմներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punski_ratovi" title="Punski ratovi – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Punski ratovi" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perang_Punik" title="Perang Punik – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Perang Punik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%BAnversku_str%C3%AD%C3%B0in" title="Púnversku stríðin – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Púnversku stríðin" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerre_puniche" title="Guerre puniche – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Guerre puniche" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%9C%D7%97%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA" title="המלחמות הפוניות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="המלחמות הפוניות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="პუნიკური ომები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="პუნიკური ომები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bella_Punica" title="Bella Punica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Bella Punica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C5%ABnie%C5%A1u_kari" title="Pūniešu kari – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Pūniešu kari" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punesch_Kricher" title="Punesch Kricher – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Punesch Kricher" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C5%ABn%C5%B3_karai" title="Pūnų karai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Pūnų karai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geras_punica" title="Geras punica – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Geras punica" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pun_h%C3%A1bor%C3%BAk" title="Pun háborúk – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Pun háborúk" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%83%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%98%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Пунски војни – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Пунски војни" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A7%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%BE" title="പ്യൂനിക് യുദ്ധങ്ങൾ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="പ്യൂനിക് യുദ്ധങ്ങൾ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwerer_Puni%C4%8Bi" title="Gwerer Puniċi – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Gwerer Puniċi" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%9A%E1%83%B7%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98" title="პუნიკური ლჷმეფი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="პუნიკური ლჷმეფი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%82%D9%8A%D9%87" title="الحروب البونيقيه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="الحروب البونيقيه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perang_Punik" title="Perang Punik – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Perang Punik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punische_oorlogen" title="Punische oorlogen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Punische oorlogen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%9D%E3%82%A8%E3%83%8B%E6%88%A6%E4%BA%89" title="ポエニ戦争 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ポエニ戦争" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punerkrigene" title="Punerkrigene – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Punerkrigene" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punarkrigane" title="Punarkrigane – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Punarkrigane" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gu%C3%A8rras_Punicas" title="Guèrras Punicas – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Guèrras Punicas" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puni_urushlari" title="Puni urushlari – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Puni urushlari" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%86%DB%8C%DA%A9_%D8%AC%DA%AB%DA%93%DB%90" title="پونیک جګړې – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="پونیک جګړې" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wojny_punickie" title="Wojny punickie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wojny punickie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerras_P%C3%BAnicas" title="Guerras Púnicas – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Guerras Púnicas" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C4%83zboaiele_punice" title="Războaiele punice – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Războaiele punice" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%8B" title="Пунические войны – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Пунические войны" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punic_Wars" title="Punic Wars – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Punic Wars" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%BAnske_vojny" title="Púnske vojny – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Púnske vojny" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punske_vojne" title="Punske vojne – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Punske vojne" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%83%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8" title="Пунски ратови – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Пунски ратови" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punski_ratovi" title="Punski ratovi – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Punski ratovi" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puunilaissodat" title="Puunilaissodat – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Puunilaissodat" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puniska_krigen" title="Puniska krigen – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Puniska krigen" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mga_Digmaang_Puniko" title="Mga Digmaang Puniko – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Mga Digmaang Puniko" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D" title="பியூனிக் போர்கள் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பியூனிக் போர்கள்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%81" title="สงครามพิวนิก – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สงครามพิวนิก" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%B6n_Sava%C5%9Flar%C4%B1" title="Pön Savaşları – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Pön Savaşları" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%83%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%96_%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Пунічні війни – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Пунічні війни" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%88%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%82%DB%8C_%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF%DB%8C%DA%BA" title="فونیقی جنگیں – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="فونیقی جنگیں" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chi%E1%BA%BFn_tranh_Punic" title="Chiến tranh Punic – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Chiến tranh Punic" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mga_Gera_Puniko" title="Mga Gera Puniko – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Mga Gera Puniko" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B8%83%E5%8C%BF%E6%88%98%E4%BA%89" title="布匿战争 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="布匿战争" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B8%83%E5%8C%BF%E6%88%B0%E7%88%AD" title="布匿戰爭 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="布匿戰爭" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B8%83%E5%8C%BF%E6%88%98%E4%BA%89" title="布匿战争 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="布匿战争" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 16 September 2024, at 13:32 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Content is available under <a class="external" rel="nofollow" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">CC BY-SA 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places" class="footer-places hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a 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