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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>South Asia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Southeast_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Southeast_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Southeast Asia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Southeast_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Death_toll" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Death_toll"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Death toll</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Death_toll-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Primary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Mongol invasions and conquests</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 40 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-40" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">40 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%BA%D8%B2%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%88%D9%81%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%BA%D9%88%D9%84" title="غزوات وفتوحات المغول – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="غزوات وفتوحات المغول" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monqol_i%C5%9F%C4%9Fallar%C4%B1" title="Monqol işğalları – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Monqol işğalları" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%88%D8%BA%D9%88%D9%84_%D9%81%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="موغول فوتوحاتی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="موغول فوتوحاتی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Монголски нашествия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Монголски нашествия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongolska_osvajanja" title="Mongolska osvajanja – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Mongolska osvajanja" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conquestes_mongoles" title="Conquestes mongoles – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Conquestes mongoles" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongolensturm" title="Mongolensturm – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Mongolensturm" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongolite_vallutused" title="Mongolite vallutused – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Mongolite vallutused" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasiones_mongolas" title="Invasiones mongolas – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Invasiones mongolas" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongolaj_invadoj_kaj_konkeroj" title="Mongolaj invadoj kaj konkeroj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Mongolaj invadoj kaj konkeroj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongolen_inbasioak" title="Mongolen inbasioak – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Mongolen inbasioak" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%85%D8%BA%D9%88%D9%84" title="فتوحات مغول – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فتوحات مغول" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conqu%C3%AAtes_mongoles" title="Conquêtes mongoles – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Conquêtes mongoles" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AA%BD%EA%B3%A8_%EC%A0%9C%EA%B5%AD%EC%9D%98_%EC%A0%95%EB%B3%B5_%EC%A0%84%EC%9F%81" title="몽골 제국의 정복 전쟁 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="몽골 제국의 정복 전쟁" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perluasan_Mongol" title="Perluasan Mongol – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Perluasan Mongol" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasioni_e_conquiste_mongole" title="Invasioni e conquiste mongole – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Invasioni e conquiste mongole" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%95%D7%9B%D7%99%D7%91%D7%95%D7%A9%D7%99%D7%9D_%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%92%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9D" title="פלישות וכיבושים מונגוליים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פלישות וכיבושים מונגוליים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A6%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%97%E1%83%90_%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A7%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="მონღოლთა დამპყრობლური ომები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მონღოლთა დამპყრობლური ომები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D2%A3%D2%93%D0%BE%D0%BB_%D1%88%D0%B0%D0%BF%D2%9B%D1%8B%D0%BD%D1%88%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%93%D1%8B" title="Моңғол шапқыншылығы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Моңғол шапқыншылығы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serangan_dan_penaklukan_Mongol" title="Serangan dan penaklukan Mongol – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Serangan dan penaklukan Mongol" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D1%8D%D0%B7%D1%8D%D0%B3%D0%BD%D1%8D%D0%BB" title="Монголын эзэгнэл – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Монголын эзэгнэл" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_mongolske_invasjoner" title="De mongolske invasjoner – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="De mongolske invasjoner" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mo%CA%BBg%CA%BBullar_istilosi" title="Moʻgʻullar istilosi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Moʻgʻullar istilosi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%86%DA%AF%D9%88%D9%84_%D8%AD%D9%85%D9%84%DB%92_%D8%AA%DB%92_%D9%81%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="منگول حملے تے فتوحات – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="منگول حملے تے فتوحات" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Podboje_Mongo%C5%82%C3%B3w" title="Podboje Mongołów – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Podboje Mongołów" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conquistas_e_invas%C3%B5es_mong%C3%B3is" title="Conquistas e invasões mongóis – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Conquistas e invasões mongóis" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invaziile_mongole" title="Invaziile mongole – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Invaziile mongole" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Монгольские завоевания – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Монгольские завоевания" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pushtimet_Mongole" title="Pushtimet Mongole – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Pushtimet Mongole" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B5_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%B5" title="Монголско-татарске најезде – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Монголско-татарске најезде" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongolivalloitukset" title="Mongolivalloitukset – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Mongolivalloitukset" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongolv%C3%A4ldets_invasioner_och_er%C3%B6vringar" title="Mongolväldets invasioner och erövringar – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Mongolväldets invasioner och erövringar" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Series of military campaigns by the Mongol Empire</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r963460841">@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}</style><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Mongol invasions and conquests</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Mongol_Empire_map.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Mongol_Empire_map.gif/220px-Mongol_Empire_map.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Mongol_Empire_map.gif/330px-Mongol_Empire_map.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Mongol_Empire_map.gif/440px-Mongol_Empire_map.gif 2x" data-file-width="752" data-file-height="591" /></a></span><br />The Mongol Empire at its greatest extent (1206–1294)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td>1206–1368 (162 years)</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location"><a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasia</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist 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style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Mongol_invasions_and_conquests" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Mongol invasions and conquests"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Mongol_invasions_andconquests" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mongol invasions and<br />conquests</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><table class="infobox" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:lightsteelblue;">Asia</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:#d4dfed;text-align:right;font-weight:normal; line-height:130%; padding:0.2em; width:5em; border-bottom:1px #fafafa solid;"><a href="/wiki/Mongol_campaigns_in_Central_Asia" title="Mongol campaigns in Central Asia">Central Asia</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_the_Qara_Khitai" title="Mongol conquest of the Qara Khitai">Qara Khitai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_the_Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Mongol invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarezm</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:#d4dfed;text-align:right;font-weight:normal; line-height:130%; padding:0.2em; width:5em; border-bottom:1px #fafafa solid;"><a href="/wiki/West_Asia" title="West Asia">West Asia</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Georgia" title="Mongol invasions of Georgia">Caucassus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_Anatolia" title="Mongol conquest of Anatolia">Anatolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Persia_and_Mesopotamia" title="Mongol invasion of Persia and Mesopotamia">Persia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_campaign_against_the_Nizaris" title="Mongol campaign against the Nizaris">Nizari state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Baghdad" title="Siege of Baghdad">Baghdad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_the_Levant" title="Mongol invasions of the Levant">Levant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_raids_into_Palestine" title="Mongol raids into Palestine">Palestine</a></li></ul></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:#d4dfed;text-align:right;font-weight:normal; line-height:130%; padding:0.2em; width:5em; border-bottom:1px #fafafa solid;"><a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asia</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_China" title="Mongol conquest of China">China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_Western_Xia" title="Mongol conquest of Western Xia">Western Xia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_the_Jin_dynasty" title="Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty">Jin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_Eastern_Xia" title="Mongol conquest of Eastern Xia">Eastern Xia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty">Song</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Tibet" title="Mongol invasions of Tibet">Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Korea" title="Mongol invasions of Korea">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Sakhalin" title="Mongol invasions of Sakhalin">Sakhalin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Japan" title="Mongol invasions of Japan">Japan</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:#d4dfed;text-align:right;font-weight:normal; line-height:130%; padding:0.2em; width:5em; border-bottom:1px #fafafa solid;"><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Vietnam" title="Mongol invasions of Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li>Burma (<a href="/wiki/First_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma" title="First Mongol invasion of Burma">First</a>, <a href="/wiki/Second_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma" title="Second Mongol invasion of Burma">Second</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Java" title="Mongol invasion of Java">Java</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:#d4dfed;text-align:right;font-weight:normal; line-height:130%; padding:0.2em; width:5em; border-bottom:1px #fafafa solid;">Other invasions</th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_India" title="Mongol invasions of India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_campaigns_in_Siberia" title="Mongol campaigns in Siberia">Siberia</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:lightsteelblue;"><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Europe</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Volga_Bulgaria" title="Mongol invasion of Volga Bulgaria">Volga Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cumans#Mongol_invasions" title="Cumans">Cumania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Durdzuketi" title="Mongol invasions of Durdzuketi">Durdzuketi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Circassia" title="Mongol invasion of Circassia">Circassia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alania#Mongol_conquest_and_aftermath_(13th–14th_centuries)" title="Alania">Alania</a></li> <li>Poland and Bohemia (<a href="/wiki/First_Mongol_invasion_of_Poland" title="First Mongol invasion of Poland">First</a>, <a href="/wiki/Second_Mongol_invasion_of_Poland" title="Second Mongol invasion of Poland">Second</a>, <a href="/wiki/Third_Mongol_invasion_of_Poland" title="Third Mongol invasion of Poland">Third</a>)</li> <li>Hungary and Croatia (<a href="/wiki/First_Mongol_invasion_of_Hungary" title="First Mongol invasion of Hungary">First</a>, <a href="/wiki/Second_Mongol_invasion_of_Hungary" title="Second Mongol invasion of Hungary">Second</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_incursions_in_the_Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Mongol incursions in the Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Bulgaria_and_Serbia" title="Mongol invasion of Bulgaria and Serbia">Bulgaria and Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_the_Latin_Empire" title="Mongol invasion of the Latin Empire">Latin Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Lithuania" title="Mongol invasions of Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Byzantine_Thrace" title="Mongol invasion of Byzantine Thrace">Byzantine Thrace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_conflict_with_the_Nogai_Horde" title="Serbian conflict with the Nogai Horde">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genoese%E2%80%93Mongol_Wars" title="Genoese–Mongol Wars">Gazaria</a></li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p>The <b>Mongol invasions and conquests</b> took place during the 13th and 14th centuries, creating history's largest contiguous empire, the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a> (<a href="/wiki/1206" title="1206">1206</a>–<a href="/wiki/1368" title="1368">1368</a>), which by 1260 covered large parts of <a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasia</a>. Historians regard the <a href="/wiki/Destruction_under_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Destruction under the Mongol Empire">Mongol devastation</a> as one of the deadliest episodes in history.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mongol_invasions_and_conquests&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Mongol Empire developed in the course of the 13th century through a series of victorious campaigns throughout Eurasia. At its height, it stretched from the <a href="/wiki/Pacific" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific">Pacific</a> to <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central Europe</a>. In contrast with later <a href="/wiki/Thalassocracy" title="Thalassocracy">"empires of the sea"</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/History_of_colonialism" title="History of colonialism">European colonial powers</a>, the Mongol Empire was a <a href="/wiki/Tellurocracy" title="Tellurocracy">land power</a>, fueled by the grass-foraging Mongol cavalry and cattle.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus most Mongol conquest and plundering took place during the warmer seasons, when there was sufficient grazing for their herds.<sup id="cite_ref-newyorker_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-newyorker-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rise of the Mongols was preceded by 15 years of wet and warm weather conditions from 1211 to 1225 that allowed favourable conditions for the breeding of horses, which greatly assisted their expansion.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the Mongol Empire began to <a href="/wiki/Division_of_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Division of the Mongol Empire">fragment</a> from 1260, <a href="/wiki/List_of_conflicts_in_Eastern_Europe_during_Turco-Mongol_rule" class="mw-redirect" title="List of conflicts in Eastern Europe during Turco-Mongol rule">conflict between the Mongols and Eastern European polities</a> continued for centuries. Mongols continued to rule <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> into the 14th century under the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a>, while Mongol rule in <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Persia</a> persisted into the 15th century under the <a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid Empire</a>. In <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, the later <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a> survived into the 19th century. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_and_outcomes">History and outcomes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mongol_invasions_and_conquests&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History and outcomes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Central_Asia">Central Asia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mongol_invasions_and_conquests&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Central Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_Central_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol conquest of Central Asia">Mongol conquest of Central Asia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bataille_de_v%C3%A2liy%C3%A2n_(1221).jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Bataille_de_v%C3%A2liy%C3%A2n_%281221%29.jpeg/220px-Bataille_de_v%C3%A2liy%C3%A2n_%281221%29.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Bataille_de_v%C3%A2liy%C3%A2n_%281221%29.jpeg/330px-Bataille_de_v%C3%A2liy%C3%A2n_%281221%29.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Bataille_de_v%C3%A2liy%C3%A2n_%281221%29.jpeg/440px-Bataille_de_v%C3%A2liy%C3%A2n_%281221%29.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="3188" data-file-height="2080" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_V%C3%A2liy%C3%A2n" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Vâliyân">Battle of Vâliyân</a> (spring of 1221) during the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_the_Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Mongol invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire">invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan">Genghis Khan</a> forged the initial <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a> in <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>, starting with the unification of the nomadic tribes of the <a href="/wiki/Merkit" title="Merkit">Merkits</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tatars" title="Tatars">Tatars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Keraites" title="Keraites">Keraites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Turks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Naimans" title="Naimans">Naimans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongols</a>. The Buddhist <a href="/wiki/Uighurs" class="mw-redirect" title="Uighurs">Uighurs</a> of <a href="/wiki/Qocho" title="Qocho">Qocho</a> surrendered and joined the empire. He then continued expansion via <a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_the_Qara_Khitai" title="Mongol conquest of the Qara Khitai">conquest of the Qara Khitai</a><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_the_Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Mongol invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire">of the Khwarazmian Empire</a>. </p><p>Large areas of <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Central_Asia" title="Islam in Central Asia">Islamic Central Asia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Khorasan_province" title="Khorasan province">northeastern Persia</a> were seriously depopulated,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as every city or town that resisted the Mongols was destroyed. Each soldier was given a quota of enemies to execute according to circumstances. For example, after the conquest of <a href="/wiki/Konye-Urgench" title="Konye-Urgench">Urgench</a>, each Mongol warrior – in an army of perhaps two <a href="/wiki/Tumen_(unit)" title="Tumen (unit)">tumens</a> (20,000 troops) – was required to execute 24 people, or nearly half a million people per said army.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Against the <a href="/wiki/Alans" title="Alans">Alans</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Cumans" title="Cumans">Cumans</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kipchaks" title="Kipchaks">Kipchaks</a>), the Mongols used divide-and-conquer tactics by first warning the Cumans to end their support of the Alans, whom they then defeated,<sup id="cite_ref-Halperin2000_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Halperin2000-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> before rounding on the Cumans.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Alans were recruited into the Mongol forces and known as the <a href="/wiki/Asud" title="Asud">Asud</a>, with one unit called "Right Alan Guard" that was combined with "recently surrendered" soldiers. Mongols and Chinese soldiers stationed in the area of the former state of Qocho and in Besh Balikh established a Chinese military colony led by <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_China_before_1911" class="mw-redirect" title="Military history of China before 1911">Chinese general Qi Kongzhi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Rossabi1983_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rossabi1983-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_the_Levant" title="Mongol invasions of the Levant">Mongol attack on the Middle East</a> ruled by the <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate" title="Mamluk Sultanate">Mamluk Sultanate</a>, most of the Mamluk military was composed of Kipchaks and the Golden Horde's supply of Kipchak fighters replenished the Mamluk armies and helped them fight off the Mongols.<sup id="cite_ref-Halperin2000_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Halperin2000-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Hungary became a refuge for fleeing Cumans.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The decentralized, stateless Kipchaks only converted to Islam after the Mongol conquest, unlike the centralized Karakhanid entity comprising the Yaghma, Qarluqs, and Oghuz who converted earlier to world religions.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Mongol conquest of the Kipchaks led to a merged society with a Mongol ruling class over a Kipchak-speaking populace which came to be known as Tatar, and which eventually absorbed <a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italians" title="Italians">Italians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greeks</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Goths" title="Crimean Goths">Crimean Goths</a> in <a href="/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Crimea</a>, the origin of the current <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Tatars" title="Crimean Tatars">Crimean Tatars</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="West_Asia">West Asia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mongol_invasions_and_conquests&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: West Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bagdad1258.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Bagdad1258.jpg/220px-Bagdad1258.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Bagdad1258.jpg/330px-Bagdad1258.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Bagdad1258.jpg/440px-Bagdad1258.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1969" data-file-height="1478" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Baghdad_(1258)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Baghdad (1258)">Siege of Baghdad</a> in 1258.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_the_Levant" title="Mongol invasions of the Levant">Mongol invasions of the Levant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Anatolia" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol invasions of Anatolia">Anatolia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_the_Khwarazmian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol conquest of the Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarezmian Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Georgia" title="Mongol invasions of Georgia">Georgia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mongol_campaign_against_the_Nizaris" title="Mongol campaign against the Nizaris">the Nizaris of Alamut</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Baghdad_(1258)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Baghdad (1258)">Siege of Baghdad (1258)</a></div> <p>The Mongols conquered, by battle or voluntary surrender, the areas of present-day Iran, Iraq, the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a>, and parts of <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>, with further Mongol raids reaching southwards into <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a> as far as <a href="/wiki/Gaza_City" title="Gaza City">Gaza</a> in 1260 and 1300. The major battles were the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Baghdad_(1258)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Baghdad (1258)">siege of Baghdad</a>, when the Mongols sacked the city which had been the center of Islamic power for 500 years, and the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ain_Jalut" title="Battle of Ain Jalut">Battle of Ain Jalut</a> in 1260 in south-eastern <a href="/wiki/Galilee" title="Galilee">Galilee</a>, when the Muslim <a href="/wiki/Bahri_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahri dynasty">Bahri Mamluks</a> were able to defeat the Mongols and decisively halt their advance for the first time. One thousand northern Chinese engineer squads accompanied the Mongol <a href="/wiki/Hulagu_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Hulagu Khan">Hulagu Khan</a> during his conquest of the Middle East.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="East_Asia">East Asia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mongol_invasions_and_conquests&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: East Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Korea" title="Mongol invasions of Korea">Mongol invasions of Korea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_China" title="Mongol conquest of China">China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Japan" title="Mongol invasions of Japan">Japan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Tibet" title="Mongol invasions of Tibet">Mongol invasions of Tibet</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bataille_entre_mongols_%26_chinois_(1211).jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Bataille_entre_mongols_%26_chinois_%281211%29.jpeg/220px-Bataille_entre_mongols_%26_chinois_%281211%29.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Bataille_entre_mongols_%26_chinois_%281211%29.jpeg/330px-Bataille_entre_mongols_%26_chinois_%281211%29.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Bataille_entre_mongols_%26_chinois_%281211%29.jpeg/440px-Bataille_entre_mongols_%26_chinois_%281211%29.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1925" data-file-height="1181" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Yehuling" title="Battle of Yehuling">Battle of Yehuling</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin dynasty</a>.</figcaption></figure><p>Genghis Khan and his descendants launched progressive <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol invasion of China">invasions of China</a>, subjugating the <a href="/wiki/Western_Xia" title="Western Xia">Western Xia</a> in 1209 before destroying them in 1227, defeating the <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin dynasty</a> in 1234 and defeating the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> in 1279. They made the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Dali" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Dali">Kingdom of Dali</a> into a vassal state in 1253 after the Dali King Duan Xingzhi defected to the Mongols and helped them conquer the rest of Yunnan, forced Korea to capitulate through nine <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Korea" title="Mongol invasions of Korea">invasions</a>, but failed in their attempts to <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Japan" title="Mongol invasions of Japan">invade Japan</a>, their fleets scattered by <i><a href="/wiki/Kamikaze_(typhoon)" title="Kamikaze (typhoon)">kamikaze</a></i> storms. </p><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mongol_Invasion_of_China.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Mongol_Invasion_of_China.png/220px-Mongol_Invasion_of_China.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Mongol_Invasion_of_China.png/330px-Mongol_Invasion_of_China.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Mongol_Invasion_of_China.png/440px-Mongol_Invasion_of_China.png 2x" data-file-width="1061" data-file-height="739" /></a><figcaption>Mongol Empire's conquest of Chinese regimes including Western Liao, Jurchen Jin, Song, Western Xia and Dali kingdoms.</figcaption></figure><p>The Mongols' greatest triumph was when <a href="/wiki/Kublai_Khan" title="Kublai Khan">Kublai Khan</a> established the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a> in China in 1271. The dynasty created a "Han Army" (漢軍) out of defected Jin troops and an army of defected Song troops called the "Newly Submitted Army" (新附軍).<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Mongol force which invaded southern China was far greater than the force they sent to invade the Middle East in 1256.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Yuan dynasty established the top-level government agency <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Buddhist_and_Tibetan_Affairs" title="Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs">Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs</a> to govern <a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a>, which was <a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_Tibet" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol conquest of Tibet">conquered by the Mongols</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tibet_under_Yuan_rule" title="Tibet under Yuan rule">put under Yuan rule</a>. The Mongols also <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Sakhalin" title="Mongol invasions of Sakhalin">invaded Sakhalin Island</a> between 1264 and 1308. Likewise, Korea (<a href="/wiki/Goryeo" title="Goryeo">Goryeo</a>) became a <a href="/wiki/Korea_under_Yuan_rule" class="mw-redirect" title="Korea under Yuan rule">semi-autonomous vassal state</a> of the Yuan dynasty for about 80 years. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="North_Asia">North Asia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mongol_invasions_and_conquests&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: North Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_Siberia" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol conquest of Siberia">Mongol conquest of Siberia</a></div> <p>By 1206, <a href="/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan">Genghis Khan</a> had conquered all Mongol and Turkic tribes in <a href="/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a> and southern Siberia. In 1207 his eldest son <a href="/wiki/Jochi" title="Jochi">Jochi</a> subjugated the Siberian forest people, the Uriankhai, the <a href="/wiki/Oirats" title="Oirats">Oirats</a>, Barga, <a href="/wiki/Khakas_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Khakas people">Khakas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buryats" title="Buryats">Buryats</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tuvans" title="Tuvans">Tuvans</a>, Khori-Tumed, and <a href="/wiki/Yenisei_Kyrgyz" title="Yenisei Kyrgyz">Yenisei Kyrgyz</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He then organized the Siberians into three <a href="/wiki/Tumen_(unit)" title="Tumen (unit)">tumens</a>. Genghis Khan gave the <a href="/wiki/Telengit" class="mw-redirect" title="Telengit">Telengit</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tolos" title="Tolos">Tolos</a> along the <a href="/wiki/Irtysh_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Irtysh River">Irtysh River</a> to an old companion, Qorchi. While the Barga, Tumed, Buriats, Khori, Keshmiti, and <a href="/wiki/Bashkirs" title="Bashkirs">Bashkirs</a> were organized in separate thousands, the Telengit, Tolos, Oirats and Yenisei Kirghiz were numbered into the regular tumens<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Genghis created a settlement of Chinese craftsmen and farmers at Kem-kemchik after the first phase of the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_the_Jin_dynasty" title="Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty">Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Khagan" title="Khagan">Great Khans</a> favored <a href="/wiki/Gyrfalcon" title="Gyrfalcon">gyrfalcons</a>, furs, women, and Kyrgyz horses for tribute. </p><p>Western Siberia came under the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The descendants of <a href="/wiki/Orda_Khan" title="Orda Khan">Orda Khan</a>, the eldest son of Jochi, directly ruled the area. In the swamps of western Siberia, <a href="/wiki/Dog_sled" title="Dog sled">dog sled</a> <a href="/wiki/Yam_(route)" title="Yam (route)">Yam</a> stations were set up to facilitate collection of tribute. </p><p>In 1270, <a href="/wiki/Kublai_Khan" title="Kublai Khan">Kublai Khan</a> sent a Chinese official, with a new batch of settlers, to serve as judge of the Kyrgyz and Tuvan basin areas (<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9B%8A%E8%98%AD%E5%B7%9E" class="extiw" title="zh:益蘭州">益蘭州</a> and <a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AC%99%E5%B7%9E" class="extiw" title="zh:謙州">謙州</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ogedei's grandson <a href="/wiki/Kaidu" title="Kaidu">Kaidu</a> occupied portions of Central Siberia from 1275 on. The <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a> army under Kublai's <a href="/wiki/Kipchak_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Kipchak people">Kipchak</a> general Tutugh reoccupied the Kyrgyz lands in 1293. From then on the Yuan dynasty controlled large portions of Central and Eastern Siberia.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eastern_and_Central_Europe">Eastern and Central Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mongol_invasions_and_conquests&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Eastern and Central Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion of Europe</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bitwa_pod_Legnic%C4%85.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Bitwa_pod_Legnic%C4%85.jpg/220px-Bitwa_pod_Legnic%C4%85.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Bitwa_pod_Legnic%C4%85.jpg/330px-Bitwa_pod_Legnic%C4%85.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Bitwa_pod_Legnic%C4%85.jpg/440px-Bitwa_pod_Legnic%C4%85.jpg 2x" data-file-width="614" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Legnica" title="Battle of Legnica">Battle of Legnica</a> took place during the <a href="/wiki/First_Mongol_invasion_of_Poland" title="First Mongol invasion of Poland">first Mongol invasion of Poland</a>.</figcaption></figure><figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spisska_nova_ves...castle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Spisska_nova_ves...castle.jpg/200px-Spisska_nova_ves...castle.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Spisska_nova_ves...castle.jpg/300px-Spisska_nova_ves...castle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Spisska_nova_ves...castle.jpg/400px-Spisska_nova_ves...castle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="599" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion in the 13th century</a> led to construction of mighty stone castles, such as <a href="/wiki/Spi%C5%A1_Castle" title="Spiš Castle">Spiš Castle</a> in <a href="/wiki/Slovakia" title="Slovakia">Slovakia</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Mongols invaded and destroyed <a href="/wiki/Volga_Bulgaria" title="Volga Bulgaria">Volga Bulgaria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a>, before <a href="/wiki/First_Mongol_invasion_of_Poland" title="First Mongol invasion of Poland">invading Poland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary" title="Kingdom of Hungary">Hungary</a>, <a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Bulgaria</a>, and other territories. Over the course of three years (1237–1240), the Mongols razed all the major cities of Russia with the exceptions of <a href="/wiki/Novgorod" class="mw-redirect" title="Novgorod">Novgorod</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pskov" title="Pskov">Pskov</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-BBC,_Russia_Timeline_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBC,_Russia_Timeline-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <p><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_da_Pian_del_Carpine" title="Giovanni da Pian del Carpine">Giovanni da Pian del Carpine</a>, the Pope's envoy to the Mongol Great Khan, traveled through <a href="/wiki/Kiev" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiev">Kiev</a> in February 1246 and wrote:<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>They [the Mongols] attacked Russia, where they made great havoc, destroying cities and fortresses and slaughtering men; and they laid siege to Kiev, the capital of Russia; after they had besieged the city for a long time, they took it and put the inhabitants to death. When we were journeying through that land we came across countless skulls and bones of dead men lying about on the ground. Kiev had been a very large and thickly populated town, but now it has been reduced almost to nothing, for there are at the present time scarce two hundred houses there and the inhabitants are kept in complete slavery.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The Mongol invasions displaced populations on a scale never seen before in central Asia or eastern Europe. Word of the Mongol hordes' approach spread terror and panic.<sup id="cite_ref-Diana_Lary_2012_49_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diana_Lary_2012_49-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The violent character of the invasions acted as a catalyst for further violence between Europe's elites and sparked additional conflicts. The increase in violence in the affected eastern European regions correlates with a decrease in the elite's <a href="/wiki/Numeracy" title="Numeracy">numerical skills</a>, and has been postulated as a root of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_Asia">South Asia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mongol_invasions_and_conquests&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: South Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_India" title="Mongol invasions of India">Mongol invasions of India</a></div> <p>From 1221 to 1327, the Mongol Empire launched several invasions into the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>. The Mongols occupied parts of NW South Asia for decades. However, they failed to penetrate past the outskirts of Delhi and were repelled from the interior of India. Centuries later, the <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughals</a>, whose founder <a href="/wiki/Babur" title="Babur">Babur</a> had Mongol roots, established their own empire in India. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Southeast_Asia">Southeast Asia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mongol_invasions_and_conquests&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Southeast Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/First_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma" title="First Mongol invasion of Burma">First</a>, <a href="/wiki/Second_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma" title="Second Mongol invasion of Burma">Second Mongol invasion of Burma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Vietnam" title="Mongol invasions of Vietnam">Mongol invasions of Vietnam</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Java" title="Mongol invasion of Java">Mongol invasions of Java</a></div> <p>Kublai Khan's Yuan dynasty <a href="/wiki/First_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma" title="First Mongol invasion of Burma">invaded Burma between 1277 and 1287</a>, resulting in the capitulation and disintegration of the <a href="/wiki/Pagan_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagan Kingdom">Pagan Kingdom</a>. However, <a href="/wiki/Second_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma" title="Second Mongol invasion of Burma">the invasion of 1301</a> was repulsed by the Burmese <a href="/wiki/Myinsaing_Kingdom" title="Myinsaing Kingdom">Myinsaing Kingdom</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Vietnam" title="Mongol invasions of Vietnam">Mongol invasions of Vietnam</a> (<a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Đại Việt</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Java" title="Mongol invasion of Java">Java</a> resulted in defeat for the Mongols, although much of <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a> agreed to pay tribute to avoid further bloodshed.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-books.google.com_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-books.google.com-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gunn_2011_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gunn_2011-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Embree_&_Lewis_1988_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Embree_&_Lewis_1988-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Woodside_1971_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Woodside_1971-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Mongol invasions played an indirect role in the establishment of major Tai states in the region by recently migrated Tais, who originally came from Southern China, in the early centuries of the second millennium.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Major Tai states such as <a href="/wiki/Lan_Na" title="Lan Na">Lan Na</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sukhothai_Kingdom" title="Sukhothai Kingdom">Sukhothai</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lan_Xang" title="Lan Xang">Lan Xang</a> appeared around this time. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Death_toll">Death toll</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mongol_invasions_and_conquests&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Death toll"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Destruction_under_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Destruction under the Mongol Empire">Destruction under the Mongol Empire</a></div> <p>Due to the lack of contemporary records, estimates of the violence associated with the Mongol conquests vary considerably.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Not including the mortality from <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">the Plague</a> in Europe, West Asia, or China<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it is possible that between 20 and 57 million people were killed between 1206 and 1405 during the various campaigns of Genghis Khan, Kublai Khan, and Timur.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The havoc included battles, sieges,<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> early biological warfare,<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and massacres.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mongol_invasions_and_conquests&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Destruction_under_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Destruction under the Mongol Empire">Destruction under the Mongol Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_trade_in_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Slave trade in the Mongol Empire">Slave trade in the Mongol Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Division_of_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Division of the Mongol Empire">Division of the Mongol Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_by_death_toll" title="List of wars by death toll">List of wars by death toll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_battles_of_the_Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Lists of battles of the Mongol invasion of Europe">Lists of battles of the Mongol invasion of Europe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_battles_of_the_Mongol_invasion_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="List of battles of the Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'">List of battles of the Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_military_tactics_and_organization" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol military tactics and organization">Mongol military tactics and organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_divisions_and_vassals_of_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Political divisions and vassals of the Mongol Empire">Political divisions and vassals of the Mongol Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Timeline of the Mongol Empire">Timeline of the Mongol Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Golden_Horde" title="Timeline of the Golden Horde">Timeline of the Golden Horde</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Mongol_Invasion_(trilogy)" title="The Mongol Invasion (trilogy)">The Mongol Invasion (trilogy)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mongol_invasions_and_conquests&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mongol_invasions_and_conquests&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Of necessity, the Mongols did most of their conquering and plundering during the warmer seasons, when there was sufficient grass for their herds. [...] Fuelled by grass, the Mongol empire could be described as solar-powered; it was an empire of the land. Later empires, such as the British, moved by ship and were wind-powered, empires of the sea. The American empire, if it is an empire, runs on oil and is an empire of the air."<sup id="cite_ref-newyorker_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-newyorker-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"This called for the employment of engineers to engaged in mining operations, to build siege engines and artillery, and to concoct and use incendiary and explosive devices. For instance, Hulagu, who led Mongol forces into the Middle East during the second wave of the invasions in 1250, had with him a thousand squads of engineers, evidently of north Chinese (or perhaps Khitan) provenance."<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="References_2">References</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mongol_invasions_and_conquests&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/deadliest-war.html">"What Was the Deadliest War in History?"</a>. <i>WorldAtlas</i>. 10 September 2018. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191009131427/https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/deadliest-war.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-10-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-02-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=WorldAtlas&rft.atitle=What+Was+the+Deadliest+War+in+History%3F&rft.date=2018-09-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldatlas.com%2Farticles%2Fdeadliest-war.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMongol+invasions+and+conquests" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">White, M. (2011). <i>Atrocities: The 100 deadliest episodes in human history</i>. WW Norton & Company. p270.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-newyorker-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-newyorker_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-newyorker_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2005/04/25/invaders-3">"Invaders"</a>. <i>The New Yorker</i>. 18 April 2005. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180612220230/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2005/04/25/invaders-3">Archived</a> from the original on 12 June 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+Yorker&rft.atitle=Invaders&rft.date=2005-04-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newyorker.com%2Fmagazine%2F2005%2F04%2F25%2Finvaders-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMongol+invasions+and+conquests" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPedersonHesslBaatarbilegAnchukaitis2014" class="citation journal cs1">Pederson, Neil; Hessl, Amy E.; Baatarbileg, Nachin; Anchukaitis, Kevin J.; Di Cosmo, Nicola (25 March 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3970536">"Pluvials, droughts, the Mongol Empire, and modern Mongolia"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</i>. <b>111</b> (12): 4375–4379. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014PNAS..111.4375P">2014PNAS..111.4375P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1318677111">10.1073/pnas.1318677111</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3970536">3970536</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24616521">24616521</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=Pluvials%2C+droughts%2C+the+Mongol+Empire%2C+and+modern+Mongolia&rft.volume=111&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=4375-4379&rft.date=2014-03-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3970536%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24616521&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1318677111&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014PNAS..111.4375P&rft.aulast=Pederson&rft.aufirst=Neil&rft.au=Hessl%2C+Amy+E.&rft.au=Baatarbileg%2C+Nachin&rft.au=Anchukaitis%2C+Kevin+J.&rft.au=Di+Cosmo%2C+Nicola&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3970536&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMongol+invasions+and+conquests" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSinor1995" class="citation journal cs1">Sinor, Denis (April 1995). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-11-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Islamic+Civilization%3A+An+Encyclopedia%2C+Vol.+II%2C+L%E2%80%93Z%2C+index&rft.pages=510&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-415-96690-0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLaV-IGZ8VKIC%26q%3Dmongol%2Binvasion%2Bhungary%2Bchinese%2Bgunpowder%26pg%3DPA510&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMongol+invasions+and+conquests" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8hOgAAAAIAAJ&dq=han+tumen+khitan&pg=PA66">Hucker 1985</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150910174259/https://books.google.com/books?id=8hOgAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA66&dq=han+tumen+khitan&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Ij8sVefWHaXIsATnqID4AQ&ved=0CEwQ6AEwBw">Archived</a> 2015-09-10 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, p. 66.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1998" class="citation journal cs1">Smith, John Masson (1998). "Nomads on Ponies vs. Slaves on Horses". <i>Journal of the American Oriental Society</i>. <b>118</b> (1): 54–62. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F606298">10.2307/606298</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/606298">606298</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Oriental+Society&rft.atitle=Nomads+on+Ponies+vs.+Slaves+on+Horses&rft.volume=118&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=54-62&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F606298&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F606298%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=John+Masson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMongol+invasions+and+conquests" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/The_Secret_History_of_the_Mongols" class="mw-redirect" title="The Secret History of the Mongols">The Secret History of the Mongols</a>, ch.V</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">C.P.Atwood-Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, p. 502</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nagendra Kr Singh, Nagendra Kumar – International Encyclopaedia of Islamic Dynasties, p.271</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Yuan" title="History of Yuan">History of Yuan</a> 《元史》，</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">C.P.Atwood-Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, p.503</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BBC,_Russia_Timeline-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BBC,_Russia_Timeline_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/1113655.stm">"BBC Russia Timeline"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. 2012-03-06. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180318035844/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/1113655.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-03-18<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-03-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=BBC+Russia+Timeline&rft.date=2012-03-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Feurope%2Fcountry_profiles%2F1113655.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMongol+invasions+and+conquests" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/citd/RussianHeritage/4.PEAS/4.L/12.III.5.html">The Destruction of Kiev</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110427075859/https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/citd/RussianHeritage/4.PEAS/4.L/12.III.5.html">Archived</a> 2011-04-27 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Diana_Lary_2012_49-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Diana_Lary_2012_49_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiana_Lary2012" class="citation book cs1">Diana Lary (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=w_FDAXMsq1QC&pg=PT49"><i>Chinese Migrations: The Movement of People, Goods, and Ideas over Four Millennia</i></a>. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 49. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780742567658" title="Special:BookSources/9780742567658"><bdi>9780742567658</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230729092658/https://books.google.com/books?id=w_FDAXMsq1QC&pg=PT49">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-07-29<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-06-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+Migrations%3A+The+Movement+of+People%2C+Goods%2C+and+Ideas+over+Four+Millennia&rft.pages=49&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9780742567658&rft.au=Diana+Lary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dw_FDAXMsq1QC%26pg%3DPT49&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMongol+invasions+and+conquests" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeywoodBaten2021" class="citation journal cs1">Keywood, Thomas; Baten, Jörg (1 May 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11698-020-00206-1">"Elite violence and elite numeracy in Europe from 500 to 1900 CE: roots of the divergence"</a>. <i>Cliometrica</i>. <b>15</b> (2): 319–389. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11698-020-00206-1">10.1007/s11698-020-00206-1</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10419%2F289019">10419/289019</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:219040903">219040903</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cliometrica&rft.atitle=Elite+violence+and+elite+numeracy+in+Europe+from+500+to+1900+CE%3A+roots+of+the+divergence&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=319-389&rft.date=2021-05-01&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10419%2F289019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A219040903%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11698-020-00206-1&rft.aulast=Keywood&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft.au=Baten%2C+J%C3%B6rg&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252Fs11698-020-00206-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMongol+invasions+and+conquests" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6UHi9JXNokEC&dq=tran+fujian&pg=PA120">Taylor 2013</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230413014840/https://books.google.com/books?id=6UHi9JXNokEC&dq=tran+fujian&pg=PA120">Archived</a> 2023-04-13 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, pp. 103, 120.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gyPjBevBHxcC&dq=tran+fujian&pg=PA159">ed. Hall 2008</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20161022121639/https://books.google.de/books?id=gyPjBevBHxcC&pg=PA159&dq=tran+fujian&hl=en&sa=X&ei=XiPNVPrfH4WgNsWpgagC&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=tran%20fujian&f=false">Archived</a> 2016-10-22 at <a href="/wiki/Archive.today" title="Archive.today">archive.today</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nZaaAAAAQBAJ&dq=tran+fujian&pg=PA159">p. 159</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230406115436/https://books.google.com/books?id=nZaaAAAAQBAJ&dq=tran+fujian&pg=PA159">Archived</a> 2023-04-06 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-books.google.com-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-books.google.com_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWernerWhitmoreDutton2012" class="citation book cs1">Werner, Jayne; Whitmore, John K.; Dutton, George (21 August 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZHD4Asj0FagC&q=Tran%20Chen%20Fujian&pg=PT90"><i>Sources of Vietnamese Tradition</i></a>. Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780231511100" title="Special:BookSources/9780231511100"><bdi>9780231511100</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240101080052/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZHD4Asj0FagC&q=Tran%20Chen%20Fujian&pg=PT90#v=snippet&q=Tran%20Chen%20Fujian&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 1 January 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 November</span> 2020</span> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sources+of+Vietnamese+Tradition&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2012-08-21&rft.isbn=9780231511100&rft.aulast=Werner&rft.aufirst=Jayne&rft.au=Whitmore%2C+John+K.&rft.au=Dutton%2C+George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZHD4Asj0FagC%26q%3DTran%2520Chen%2520Fujian%26pg%3DPT90&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMongol+invasions+and+conquests" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gunn_2011-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gunn_2011_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E10tnvapZt0C&dq=tran+fujian&pg=PA112">Gunn 2011</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230406115435/https://books.google.com/books?id=E10tnvapZt0C&dq=tran+fujian&pg=PA112">Archived</a> 2023-04-06 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, p. 112.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Embree_&_Lewis_1988-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Embree_&_Lewis_1988_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEmbreeLewis1988" class="citation book cs1">Embree, Ainslie Thomas; Lewis, Robin Jeanne (1 January 1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cNwpAQAAMAAJ&q=tran%20fujian"><i>Encyclopedia of Asian history</i></a>. Scribner. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780684189017" title="Special:BookSources/9780684189017"><bdi>9780684189017</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240101080053/https://books.google.com/books?id=cNwpAQAAMAAJ&q=tran%20fujian">Archived</a> from the original on 1 January 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 June</span> 2020</span> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Asian+history&rft.pub=Scribner&rft.date=1988-01-01&rft.isbn=9780684189017&rft.aulast=Embree&rft.aufirst=Ainslie+Thomas&rft.au=Lewis%2C+Robin+Jeanne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcNwpAQAAMAAJ%26q%3Dtran%2520fujian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMongol+invasions+and+conquests" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Woodside_1971-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Woodside_1971_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0LgSI9UQNpwC&dq=tran+fukien&pg=PA8">Woodside 1971</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230405181634/https://books.google.com/books?id=0LgSI9UQNpwC&dq=tran+fukien&pg=PA8">Archived</a> 2023-04-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, p. 8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLieberman2003" class="citation book cs1">Lieberman, Victor (2003). <i>Strange Parallels: Volume 1, Integration on the Mainland: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c.800–1830 (Studies in Comparative World History)</i> (Kindle ed.). Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521800860" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521800860"><bdi>978-0521800860</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Strange+Parallels%3A+Volume+1%2C+Integration+on+the+Mainland%3A+Southeast+Asia+in+Global+Context%2C+c.800%E2%80%931830+%28Studies+in+Comparative+World+History%29&rft.edition=Kindle&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0521800860&rft.aulast=Lieberman&rft.aufirst=Victor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMongol+invasions+and+conquests" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://necrometrics.com/pre1700a.htm#Mongol">"Twentieth Century Atlas – Historical Body Count"</a>. <i>necrometrics.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220120222717/http://necrometrics.com/pre1700a.htm#Mongol">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-01-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-02-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=necrometrics.com&rft.atitle=Twentieth+Century+Atlas+%E2%80%93+Historical+Body+Count&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnecrometrics.com%2Fpre1700a.htm%23Mongol&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMongol+invasions+and+conquests" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaddison2007" class="citation book cs1">Maddison, Angus (2007). <i>Chinese Economic Performance in the Long Run</i>. Development Centre Studies. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1787%2F9789264037632-en">10.1787/9789264037632-en</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-64-03763-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-64-03763-2"><bdi>978-92-64-03763-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+Economic+Performance+in+the+Long+Run&rft.series=Development+Centre+Studies&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1787%2F9789264037632-en&rft.isbn=978-92-64-03763-2&rft.aulast=Maddison&rft.aufirst=Angus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMongol+invasions+and+conquests" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (February 2022)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHo1970" class="citation book cs1">Ho, Ping-Ti (1970). "An estimate of the total population of Sung-Chin China". <i>Histoire et institutions, 1</i>. pp. 33–54. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783111542737-007">10.1515/9783111542737-007</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-154273-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-154273-7"><bdi>978-3-11-154273-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/8159945824">8159945824</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=An+estimate+of+the+total+population+of+Sung-Chin+China&rft.btitle=Histoire+et+institutions%2C+1&rft.pages=33-54&rft.date=1970&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F8159945824&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9783111542737-007&rft.isbn=978-3-11-154273-7&rft.aulast=Ho&rft.aufirst=Ping-Ti&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMongol+invasions+and+conquests" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McEvedy, Colin; Jones, Richard M. (1978). <i>Atlas of World Population History</i>. New York, NY: Puffin. p. 172. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780140510768" title="Special:BookSources/9780140510768">9780140510768</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Graziella Caselli, Gillaume Wunsch, Jacques Vallin (2005). "<i>Demography: Analysis and Synthesis, Four Volume Set: A Treatise in Population</i>". Academic Press. p.34. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-12-765660-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-12-765660-X">0-12-765660-X</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Mongol-Siege-of-Kaifeng">"Mongol Siege of Kaifeng | Summary"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220114200309/https://www.britannica.com/event/Mongol-Siege-of-Kaifeng">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-01-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-02-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Mongol+Siege+of+Kaifeng+%7C+Summary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fevent%2FMongol-Siege-of-Kaifeng&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMongol+invasions+and+conquests" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWheelis2002" class="citation journal cs1">Wheelis, Mark (September 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2732530">"Biological Warfare at the 1346 Siege of Caffa"</a>. <i>Emerging Infectious Diseases</i>. <b>8</b> (9): 971–975. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3201%2Feid0809.010536">10.3201/eid0809.010536</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2732530">2732530</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12194776">12194776</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Emerging+Infectious+Diseases&rft.atitle=Biological+Warfare+at+the+1346+Siege+of+Caffa&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=971-975&rft.date=2002-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2732530%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12194776&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3201%2Feid0809.010536&rft.aulast=Wheelis&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2732530&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMongol+invasions+and+conquests" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorgan1979" class="citation journal cs1">Morgan, D. O. (1979). "The Mongol Armies in Persia". <i>Der Islam</i>. <b>56</b> (1): 81–96. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fislm.1979.56.1.81">10.1515/islm.1979.56.1.81</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161610216">161610216</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ProQuest" title="ProQuest">ProQuest</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.proquest.com/docview/1308651973">1308651973</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Der+Islam&rft.atitle=The+Mongol+Armies+in+Persia&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=81-96&rft.date=1979&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fislm.1979.56.1.81&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161610216%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Morgan&rft.aufirst=D.+O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMongol+invasions+and+conquests" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Halperin, C. J. (1987). <i>Russia and the Golden Horde: the Mongol impact on medieval Russian history</i> (Vol. 445). Indiana University Press.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mongol_invasions_and_conquests&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Boyle, John Andrew <i>The Mongol World Enterprise, 1206–1370</i> (London 1977) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0860780023" title="Special:BookSources/0860780023">0860780023</a></li> <li>Hildinger, Erik. <i>Warriors of the Steppe: A Military History of Central Asia, 500 B.C. to A.D. 1700 </i></li> <li>May, Timothy. <i>The Mongol Conquests in World History</i> (London: Reaktion Books, 2011) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=36345">online review</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Mongol-Conquests-World-History-Reaktion/dp/1861898673/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Morgan, David. <i>The Mongols</i> (2nd ed. 2007)</li> <li>Rossabi, Morris. <i>The Mongols: A Very Short Introduction</i> (Oxford University Press, 2012)</li> <li>Saunders, J. J. <i>The History of the Mongol Conquests</i> (2001) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/History-Mongol-Conquests-J-Saunders/dp/0812217667/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Srodecki, Paul. <i>Fighting the ‘Eastern Plague'. Anti-Mongol Crusade Ventures in the Thirteenth Century</i>. In: The Expansion of the Faith. Crusading on the Frontiers of Latin Christendom in the High Middle Ages, ed. Paul Srodecki and Norbert Kersken (Turnhout: Brepols 2022), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-503-58880-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-503-58880-3">978-2-503-58880-3</a>, pp. 303–327.</li> <li>Turnbull, Stephen. <i>Genghis Khan and the Mongol Conquests 1190–1400</i> (2003) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Genghis-Conquests-1190-1400-Essential-Histories/dp/0415968623/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Bayarsaikhan Dashdondog. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HrqqhduBapQC">The Mongols and the Armenians (1220–1335)</a>. BRILL (2010)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mongol_invasions_and_conquests&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Primary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Rossabi, Morris. <i>The Mongols and Global History: A Norton Documents Reader</i> (2011)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mongol_invasions_and_conquests&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Mongol_conquests" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Mongol conquests">Mongol conquests</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://necrometrics.com/pre1700a.htm">Worldwide death toll</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110427075859/https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/citd/RussianHeritage/4.PEAS/4.L/12.III.5.html">The Destruction of Kiev</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080423014420/http://www.sfusd.k12.ca.us/schwww/sch618/Ibn_Battuta/Battuta%27s_Trip_Three.html">Battuta's Travels: Part Three – Persia and Iraq</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://faculty.washington.edu/modelski/CAWC.htm">Central Asian world cities?</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120118054002/https://faculty.washington.edu/modelski/CAWC.htm">Archived</a> 2012-01-18 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://countrystudies.us/vietnam/9.htm">The Tran Dynasty and the Defeat of the Mongols</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Mongol_Empire" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Mongol_Empire" title="Template:Mongol Empire"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Mongol_Empire" title="Template talk:Mongol Empire"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Mongol_Empire" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Mongol Empire"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Mongol_Empire" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Terminology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Terminology</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_nobility" title="Mongolian nobility">Titles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khagan" title="Khagan">Khagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khan_(title)" title="Khan (title)">Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khatun" title="Khatun">Khatun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khanum" title="Khanum">Khanum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jinong" title="Jinong">Jinong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khong_Tayiji" title="Khong Tayiji">Khong Tayiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noyan" title="Noyan">Noyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarkhan" title="Tarkhan">Tarkhan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Political</li><li>Military</li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jarlig" title="Jarlig">Jarlig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yam_(route)" title="Yam (route)">Örtöö</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orda_(organization)" title="Orda (organization)">Orda</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pax_Mongolica" title="Pax Mongolica">Pax Mongolica</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yassa" title="Yassa">Yassa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurultai" title="Kurultai">Kurultai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paiza" title="Paiza">Paiza / Gerege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manghud" title="Manghud">Manghit / Mangudai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tumen_(unit)" title="Tumen (unit)">Tümen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kheshig" title="Kheshig">Kheshig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darughachi" title="Darughachi">Darughachi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="PoliticsOrganizationLife" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Politics</li><li>Organization</li><li>Life</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_divisions_and_vassals_of_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Political divisions and vassals of the Mongol Empire">Administrative divisions and vassals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tug_(banner)" title="Tug (banner)">Banner/Bunchuk/Tug</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Invasions and conquests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destruction_under_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Destruction under the Mongol Empire">Destructiveness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Seal_of_the_Mongols" title="Imperial Seal of the Mongols">Imperial Seal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Military of the Mongol Empire">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Religion in the Mongol Empire">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Society of the Mongol Empire">Society and economy</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Borjigin" title="Borjigin">House of Borjigin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_%C3%96gedei" title="House of Ögedei">House of Ögedei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Armenia" title="Mongol Armenia">Mongol Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Mongol_Alliance" title="Byzantine–Mongol Alliance">Byzantine–Mongol Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Mongol_alliance" title="Franco-Mongol alliance">Franco-Mongol alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_battles_of_the_Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Lists of battles of the Mongol invasion of Europe">Lists of battles of the Mongol invasion of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_battles_of_the_Mongol_invasion_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="List of battles of the Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'">List of battles of the Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mongol_states" title="List of Mongol states">Khanates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Yuan" title="Northern Yuan">Northern Yuan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_%C3%96gedei" title="House of Ögedei">House of Ögedei</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wings_of_the_Golden_Horde" title="Wings of the Golden Horde">Wings</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Almaliq,_Xinjiang" title="Almaliq, Xinjiang">Almalik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avarga" title="Avarga">Avarga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azov" title="Azov">Azov (Azaq)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukhara" title="Bukhara">Bukhara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolghar" title="Bolghar">Bolghar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karakorum" title="Karakorum">Karakorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khanbaliq" title="Khanbaliq">Dadu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majar_(Golden_Horde)" title="Majar (Golden Horde)">Majar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maragheh" title="Maragheh">Maragheh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qarshi" title="Qarshi">Qarshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samarkand" title="Samarkand">Samarkand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarai_(city)" title="Sarai (city)">Sarai Batu/Berke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saray-J%C3%BCk" title="Saray-Jük">Saray-Jük</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shangdu" title="Shangdu">Shangdu (Xanadu)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soltaniyeh" title="Soltaniyeh">Soltaniyeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabriz" title="Tabriz">Tabriz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukek" title="Ukek">Ukek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xacitarxan" title="Xacitarxan">Xacitarxan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="CampaignsBattles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Campaigns</li><li>Battles</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Asia" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Central_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol invasion of Central Asia">Central</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_campaigns_in_Siberia" title="Mongol campaigns in Siberia">Siberia <span style="font-size:85%;">(1207-1308)</span></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Sakhalin" title="Mongol invasions of Sakhalin">Sakhalin <span style="font-size:85%;">(1264–1308)</span></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_the_Qara_Khitai" title="Mongol conquest of the Qara Khitai">Qara Khitai <span style="font-size:85%;">(1216–18)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_the_Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Mongol invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarazmian Empire <span style="font-size:85%;">(1219–1221)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Persia_and_Mesopotamia" title="Mongol invasion of Persia and Mesopotamia">Persia <span style="font-size:85%;">(1219–1256)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#East_Asia">East</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_Western_Xia" title="Mongol conquest of Western Xia"><span class="wrap">Western Xia <span style="font-size:85%;">(1205 / 1207 / 1209–10 / 1225–27)</span></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_the_Jin_dynasty" title="Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty">Northern China <span style="font-size:85%;">(1211–34)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Korea" title="Mongol invasions of Korea">Korea <span style="font-size:85%;">(1231–60)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty">Southern China <span style="font-size:85%;">(1235–79)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Tibet" title="Mongol invasions of Tibet"><span class="wrap">Tibet <span style="font-size:85%;">(1236 / 1240 / 1252)</span></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_China#Conquest_of_Yunnan" title="Mongol conquest of China">Yunnan <span style="font-size:85%;">(1253–56)</span></a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Japan" title="Mongol invasions of Japan">Japan <span style="font-size:85%;">(1274 / 1281)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Southeast_Asian_and_Korean_vassals">Southeast</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma" title="First Mongol invasion of Burma"><span class="wrap">Burma <span style="font-size:85%;">(1277 / 1283 / 1287)</span></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Java" title="Mongol invasion of Java">Java <span style="font-size:85%;">(1293)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Vietnam" title="Mongol invasions of Vietnam">Vietnam <span style="font-size:85%;">(1257 / 1284–88)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma" title="Second Mongol invasion of Burma">Burma <span style="font-size:85%;">(1300–02)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">South</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_India" title="Mongol invasions of India">India <span style="font-size:85%;">(1221–1327)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Europe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Georgia" title="Mongol invasions of Georgia"><span class="wrap">Georgia <span style="font-size:85%;">(1220–22 / 1226–31 / 1237–64)</span></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Circassia" title="Mongol invasion of Circassia">Circassia <span style="font-size:85%;">(1237–1300s)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Durdzuketi" title="Mongol invasions of Durdzuketi">Chechnya <span style="font-size:85%;">(1237–1300s)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Volga_Bulgaria" title="Mongol invasion of Volga Bulgaria">Volga Bulgaria <span style="font-size:85%;">(1229–36)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mongol_invasion_of_Alania&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mongol invasion of Alania (page does not exist)">Alania <span style="font-size:85%;">(1238–1239)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus' <span style="font-size:85%;">(1223 / 1236–40)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Mongol_invasion_of_Poland" title="First Mongol invasion of Poland">Poland and Bohemia <span style="font-size:85%;">(1240–41)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Mongol_invasion_of_Hungary" title="First Mongol invasion of Hungary">Hungary <span style="font-size:85%;">(1241–42)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_incursions_in_the_Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Mongol incursions in the Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire <span style="font-size:85%;">(1241–42)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Bulgaria_and_Serbia" title="Mongol invasion of Bulgaria and Serbia">Serbia and Bulgaria <span style="font-size:85%;">(1242)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_the_Latin_Empire" title="Mongol invasion of the Latin Empire">Latin Empire <span style="font-size:85%;">(1242)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Lithuania" title="Mongol invasions of Lithuania">Lithuania <span style="font-size:85%;">(1258–59)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mongol_invasion_of_Poland" title="Second Mongol invasion of Poland">Poland <span style="font-size:85%;">(1259–60)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Byzantine_Thrace" title="Mongol invasion of Byzantine Thrace">Thrace <span style="font-size:85%;">(1264–65)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mongol_invasion_of_Hungary" title="Second Mongol invasion of Hungary">Hungary <span style="font-size:85%;">(1285–86)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Mongol_invasion_of_Poland" title="Third Mongol invasion of Poland">Poland <span style="font-size:85%;">(1287–88)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_conflict_with_the_Nogai_Horde" title="Serbian conflict with the Nogai Horde">Serbia <span style="font-size:85%;">(1291)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle East</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_Anatolia" title="Mongol conquest of Anatolia">Anatolia <span style="font-size:85%;">(1241–43)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_campaign_against_the_Nizaris" title="Mongol campaign against the Nizaris">Alamut <span style="font-size:85%;">(1253–1256)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Baghdad" title="Siege of Baghdad">Baghdad <span style="font-size:85%;">(1258)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_the_Levant" title="Mongol invasions of the Levant">Syria <span style="font-size:85%;">(1260–1323)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_raids_into_Palestine" title="Mongol raids into Palestine">Palestine <span style="font-size:85%;">(1260 / 1301)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Civil wars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Division_of_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Division of the Mongol Empire">Division of the Mongol Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toluid_Civil_War" title="Toluid Civil War">Toluid Civil War <span style="font-size:85%;">(1260–64)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berke%E2%80%93Hulagu_war" title="Berke–Hulagu war">Berke–Hulagu war <span style="font-size:85%;">(1262)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaidu%E2%80%93Kublai_war" title="Kaidu–Kublai war">Kaidu–Kublai war <span style="font-size:85%;">(1268–1301)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esen_Buqa%E2%80%93Ayurbarwada_war" title="Esen Buqa–Ayurbarwada war">Esen Buqa–Ayurbarwada war <span style="font-size:85%;">(1314–1318)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="People" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">People</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mongol_rulers" title="List of Mongol rulers">Great Khans</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan">Genghis Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolui" title="Tolui">Tolui <span style="font-size:85%;">(regent)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%96gedei_Khan" title="Ögedei Khan">Ögedei Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%B6regene_Khatun" title="Töregene Khatun">Töregene Khatun <span style="font-size:85%;">(regent)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%BCy%C3%BCk_Khan" title="Güyük Khan">Güyük Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oghul_Qaimish" title="Oghul Qaimish">Oghul Qaimish <span style="font-size:85%;">(regent)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%B6ngke_Khan" title="Möngke Khan">Möngke Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kublai_Khan" title="Kublai Khan">Kublai Khan</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Yuan_emperors" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Yuan emperors">Khagans of the Yuan</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Khans</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jochi" title="Jochi">Jochi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batu_Khan" title="Batu Khan">Batu Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sartaq_Khan" title="Sartaq Khan">Sartaq Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orda_Khan" title="Orda Khan">Orda Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berke" title="Berke">Berke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toqta" title="Toqta">Toqta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%96zbeg_Khan" title="Özbeg Khan">Özbeg Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khan" title="Chagatai Khan">Chagatai Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duwa" title="Duwa">Duwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kebek" title="Kebek">Kebek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hulegu_Khan" title="Hulegu Khan">Hulegu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abaqa_Khan" title="Abaqa Khan">Abaqa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arghun" title="Arghun">Arghun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghazan" title="Ghazan">Ghazan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Subutai" title="Subutai">Subutai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jebe" title="Jebe">Jebe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muqali" title="Muqali">Muqali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negudar" title="Negudar">Negudar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bo%27orchu" title="Bo'orchu">Bo'orchu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guo_Kan" title="Guo Kan">Guo Kan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boroqul" title="Boroqul">Boroqul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jelme" title="Jelme">Jelme</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khubilai_Noyon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Khubilai Noyon (page does not exist)">Khubilai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aju" title="Aju">Aju</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayan_of_the_Baarin" title="Bayan of the Baarin">Bayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kadan" title="Kadan">Kadan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boroldai" title="Boroldai">Boroldai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nogai_Khan" title="Nogai Khan">Nogai Khan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Timeline of the Mongol Empire">Timeline of the Mongol Empire</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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