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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Leibniz_and_Newton"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Leibniz and Newton</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Leibniz_and_Newton-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mach" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mach"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Mach</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mach-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Einstein" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Einstein"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Einstein</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Einstein-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conventionalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conventionalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Conventionalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conventionalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Structure_of_space-time" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structure_of_space-time"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Structure of space-time</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Structure_of_space-time-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Structure of space-time subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Structure_of_space-time-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Relativity_of_simultaneity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relativity_of_simultaneity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Relativity of simultaneity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relativity_of_simultaneity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historical_frameworks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_frameworks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Historical frameworks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_frameworks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Holes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Holes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Holes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Holes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Direction_of_time" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Direction_of_time"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Direction of time</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Direction_of_time-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Direction of time subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Direction_of_time-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Causation_solution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Causation_solution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Causation solution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Causation_solution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thermodynamics_solution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thermodynamics_solution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Thermodynamics solution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thermodynamics_solution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Laws_solution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Laws_solution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Laws solution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Laws_solution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Flow_of_time" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Flow_of_time"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Flow of time</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Flow_of_time-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dualities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dualities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Dualities</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dualities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Presentism_and_eternalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Presentism_and_eternalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Presentism and eternalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Presentism_and_eternalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Endurantism_and_perdurantism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Endurantism_and_perdurantism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Endurantism and perdurantism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Endurantism_and_perdurantism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span 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Available in 21 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-21" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">21 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B2%D9%85%D9%86_%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%83%D8%A7%D9%86" title="فلسفة الزمن والمكان – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فلسفة الزمن والمكان" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaman%C4%B1n_v%C9%99_m%C9%99kan%C4%B1n_f%C9%99ls%C9%99f%C9%99si" title="Zamanın və məkanın fəlsəfəsi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Zamanın və məkanın fəlsəfəsi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%C3%A7%D0%BB%C4%83%D1%85_%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%B2%C4%83%D1%85%C4%83%D1%82_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B9%C4%95" title="Уçлăх тата вăхăт философийĕ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Уçлăх тата вăхăт философийĕ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie_der_Zeit" title="Philosophie der Zeit – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Philosophie der Zeit" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajafilosoofia" title="Ajafilosoofia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Ajafilosoofia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa_del_espacio_y_el_tiempo" title="Filosofía del espacio y el tiempo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Filosofía del espacio y el tiempo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87_%D9%81%D8%B6%D8%A7_%D9%88_%D8%B2%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86" title="فلسفه فضا و زمان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فلسفه فضا و زمان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie_de_l%27espace_et_du_temps" title="Philosophie de l'espace et du temps – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Philosophie de l'espace et du temps" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feals%C3%BAnacht_an_sp%C3%A1is_agus_an_ama" title="Fealsúnacht an spáis agus an ama – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Fealsúnacht an spáis agus an ama" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%9C%EA%B0%84%EA%B3%BC_%EA%B3%B5%EA%B0%84%EC%9D%98_%EC%B2%A0%ED%95%99" title="시간과 공간의 철학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="시간과 공간의 철학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concezione_del_tempo" title="Concezione del tempo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Concezione del tempo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophia_spatii_et_temporis" title="Philosophia spatii et temporis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Philosophia spatii et temporis" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A5%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%86_%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="സ്ഥലകാലത്തിന്റെ തത്വശാസ്ത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സ്ഥലകാലത്തിന്റെ തത്വശാസ്ത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%99%82%E7%A9%BA%E3%81%AE%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="時空の哲学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="時空の哲学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zamon" title="Zamon – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Zamon" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia_do_tempo" title="Filosofia do tempo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Filosofia do tempo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofia_spa%C8%9Biului_%C8%99i_timpului" title="Filozofia spațiului și timpului – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Filozofia spațiului și timpului" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%B8_%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Философия пространства и времени – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Философия пространства и времени" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajan_ja_avaruuden_filosofia" title="Ajan ja avaruuden filosofia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Ajan ja avaruuden filosofia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzay_ve_zaman%C4%B1n_felsefesi" title="Uzay ve zamanın felsefesi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Uzay ve zamanın felsefesi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%97%B6%E7%A9%BA%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="时空哲学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="时空哲学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span 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data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Branch of philosophy relating to spatiality and temporality</div> <p><b>Philosophy of space and time</b> is the branch of <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> concerned with the issues surrounding the <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a> of <a href="/wiki/Space" title="Space">space</a> and <a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">time</a>. While such ideas have been central to philosophy from its inception, the philosophy of space and time was both an inspiration for and a central aspect of early <a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">analytic philosophy</a>. The subject focuses on a number of basic issues, including whether time and space exist independently of the mind, whether they exist independently of one another, what accounts for time's apparently unidirectional flow, whether times other than the present moment exist, and questions about the nature of identity (particularly the nature of identity over time). </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ancient_and_medieval_views">Ancient and medieval views</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_space_and_time&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Ancient and medieval views"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The earliest recorded philosophy of <a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">time</a> was expounded by the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egyptian</a> thinker <a href="/wiki/Ptahhotep" title="Ptahhotep">Ptahhotep</a> (c. 2650–2600 BC) who said: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Follow your desire as long as you live, and do not perform more than is ordered, do not lessen the time of the following desire, for the wasting of time is an abomination to the spirit... </p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><i>11th <a href="/wiki/Maxim_(philosophy)" title="Maxim (philosophy)">maxim</a> of Ptahhotep</i> <sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a></i>, the earliest texts on <a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu philosophy</a>, dating back to the late <a href="/wiki/2nd_millennium_BC" title="2nd millennium BC">2nd millennium BC</a>, describe ancient <a href="/wiki/Hindu_cosmology" title="Hindu cosmology">Hindu cosmology</a>, in which the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a> goes through repeated cycles of creation, destruction, and rebirth, with each cycle lasting 4,320,000,000 years.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a> <a href="/wiki/Greek_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek philosophy">Greek philosophers</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a>, wrote essays on the nature of time.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Incas" class="mw-redirect" title="Incas">Incas</a> regarded space and time as a single concept, named <b><a href="/wiki/Pacha_(Inca_mythology)" title="Pacha (Inca mythology)">pacha</a></b> (<a href="/wiki/Quechua_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Quechua language">Quechua</a>: <i lang="qu">pacha</i>, <a href="/wiki/Aymara_language" title="Aymara language">Aymara</a>: <i lang="ay">pacha</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, in the <i><a href="/wiki/Timaeus_(dialogue)" title="Timaeus (dialogue)">Timaeus</a></i>, identified time with the period of motion of the heavenly bodies, and space as that in which things come to be. <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, in Book IV of his <i><a href="/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)" title="Physics (Aristotle)">Physics</a></i>, defined time as the number of changes with respect to before and after, and the place of an object as the innermost motionless boundary of that which surrounds it. </p><p>In Book 11 of <a href="/wiki/St._Augustine_of_Hippo" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Augustine of Hippo">St. Augustine's</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Confessions_(St._Augustine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Confessions (St. Augustine)">Confessions</a></i>, he reflects on the nature of time, asking, "What then is time? If no one asks me, I know: if I wish to explain it to one who asks, I know not." He goes on to comment on the difficulty of thinking about time, pointing out the inaccuracy of common speech: "For but few things are there of which we speak properly; of most things we speak improperly, still, the things intended are understood."<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But Augustine presented the first philosophical argument for the reality of Creation (against Aristotle) in the context of his discussion of time, saying that knowledge of time depends on the knowledge of the movement of things, and therefore time cannot be where there are no creatures to measure its passing (<i>Confessions</i> Book XI ¶30; <a href="/wiki/The_City_of_God" title="The City of God"><i>City of God</i></a> Book XI ch.6). </p><p>In contrast to ancient Greek philosophers who believed that the universe had an infinite past with no beginning, <a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">medieval philosophers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theologians</a> developed the concept of the universe having a finite past with a beginning, now known as <a href="/wiki/Temporal_finitism" title="Temporal finitism">temporal finitism</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosopher</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Philoponus" title="John Philoponus">John Philoponus</a> presented early arguments, adopted by later Christian philosophers and theologians of the form "argument from the impossibility of the existence of an actual infinite", which states:<sup id="cite_ref-Craig_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Craig-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd>"An actual infinite cannot exist."</dd> <dd>"An infinite temporal regress of events is an actual infinite."</dd> <dd>"∴ An infinite temporal regress of events cannot exist."</dd></dl> <p>In the early 11th century, the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic physics">Muslim physicist</a> <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" title="Ibn al-Haytham">Ibn al-Haytham</a> (Alhacen or Alhazen) discussed <a href="/wiki/Depth_perception" title="Depth perception">space perception</a> and its <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemological</a> implications in his <i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Optics" title="Book of Optics">Book of Optics</a></i> (1021). He also rejected Aristotle's definition of <i>topos</i> (<i>Physics</i> IV) by way of geometric demonstrations and defined place as a mathematical spatial extension.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His <a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">experimental</a> disproof of the extramission<sup id="cite_ref-alhacen_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-alhacen-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> hypothesis of vision led to changes in the understanding of the <a href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">visual perception</a> of space, contrary to the previous <a href="/wiki/Emission_theory_(vision)" title="Emission theory (vision)">emission theory of vision</a> supported by <a href="/wiki/Euclid" title="Euclid">Euclid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>. In "tying the visual perception of space to prior bodily experience, Alhacen unequivocally rejected the intuitiveness of spatial perception and, therefore, the autonomy of vision. Without tangible notions of distance and size for correlation, sight can tell us next to nothing about such things."<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Realism_and_anti-realism">Realism and anti-realism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_space_and_time&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Realism and anti-realism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A traditional <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">realist</a> position in <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontology</a> is that time and space have existence apart from the human mind. <a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealists</a>, by contrast, deny or doubt the existence of objects independent of the mind. Some <a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">anti-realists</a>, whose ontological position is that objects outside the mind do exist, nevertheless doubt the independent existence of time and space. </p><p>In 1781, <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> published the <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i>, one of the most influential works in the history of the philosophy of space and time. He describes time as an <i><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori">a priori</a></i> notion that, together with other <i>a priori</i> notions such as <a href="/wiki/Space" title="Space">space</a>, allows us to comprehend <a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">sense experience</a>. Kant holds that neither space nor time are <a href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">substance</a>, entities in themselves, or learned by experience; he holds, rather, that both are elements of a systematic framework we use to structure our experience. Spatial <a href="/wiki/Measurement" title="Measurement">measurements</a> are used to <a href="/wiki/Quantity" title="Quantity">quantify</a> how far apart <a href="/wiki/Physical_body" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical body">objects</a> are, and temporal measurements are used to quantitatively compare the interval between (or duration of) <a href="/wiki/Spacetime#Basic_concepts" title="Spacetime">events</a>. Although space and time are held to be <i>transcendentally ideal</i> in this sense—that is, mind-dependent—they are also <i>empirically real</i>—that is, according to Kant's definitions, a priori features of experience, and therefore not simply "subjective," variable, or accidental perceptions in a given consciousness.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some idealist writers, such as <a href="/wiki/J._M._E._McTaggart" title="J. M. E. McTaggart">J. M. E. McTaggart</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Unreality_of_Time" title="The Unreality of Time">The Unreality of Time</a></i>, have argued that time is an illusion (see also <a href="#The_flow_of_time">The flow of time</a>, below). </p><p>The writers discussed here are for the most part realists in this regard; for instance, <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Gottfried Leibniz</a> held that his <a href="/wiki/Monadology" title="Monadology">monads</a> existed, at least independently of the mind of the observer. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Absolutism_and_relationalism">Absolutism and relationalism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_space_and_time&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Absolutism and relationalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Leibniz_and_Newton">Leibniz and Newton</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_space_and_time&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Leibniz and Newton"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The great debate between defining notions of space and time as real objects themselves (absolute), or mere orderings upon actual objects (<a href="/wiki/Relationalism" title="Relationalism">relational</a>), began between physicists <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> (via his spokesman, Samuel Clarke) and <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Leibniz</a> in the papers of the <a href="/wiki/Leibniz%E2%80%93Clarke_correspondence" title="Leibniz–Clarke correspondence">Leibniz–Clarke correspondence</a>. </p><p>Arguing against the absolutist position, Leibniz offers a number of <a href="/wiki/Thought_experiment" title="Thought experiment">thought experiments</a> with the purpose of showing that there is contradiction in assuming the existence of facts such as absolute location and velocity. These arguments trade heavily on two principles central to his philosophy: the <a href="/wiki/Principle_of_sufficient_reason" title="Principle of sufficient reason">principle of sufficient reason</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Identity_of_indiscernibles" title="Identity of indiscernibles">identity of indiscernibles</a>. The principle of sufficient reason holds that for every fact, there is a reason that is sufficient to explain what and why it is the way it is and not otherwise. The identity of indiscernibles states that if there is no way of telling two entities apart, then they are one and the same thing. </p><p>The example Leibniz uses involves two proposed universes situated in absolute space. The only discernible difference between them is that the latter is positioned five feet to the left of the first. The example is only possible if such a thing as absolute space exists. Such a situation, however, is not possible, according to Leibniz, for if it were, a universe's position in absolute space would have no sufficient reason, as it might very well have been anywhere else. Therefore, it contradicts the principle of sufficient reason, and there could exist two distinct universes that were in all ways indiscernible, thus contradicting the identity of indiscernibles. </p><p>Standing out in Clarke's (and Newton's) response to Leibniz's arguments is the <a href="/wiki/Bucket_argument" title="Bucket argument">bucket argument</a>: Water in a bucket, hung from a rope and set to spin, will start with a flat surface. As the water begins to spin in the bucket, the surface of the water will become concave. If the bucket is stopped, the water will continue to spin, and while the spin continues, the surface will remain concave. The concave surface is apparently not the result of the interaction of the bucket and the water, since the surface is flat when the bucket first starts to spin, it becomes concave as the water starts to spin, and it remains concave as the bucket stops. </p><p>In this response, Clarke argues for the necessity of the existence of <a href="/wiki/Absolute_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Absolute space">absolute space</a> to account for phenomena like rotation and acceleration that cannot be accounted for on a purely <a href="/wiki/Relationalism" title="Relationalism">relationalist account</a>. Clarke argues that since the curvature of the water occurs in the rotating bucket as well as in the stationary bucket containing spinning water, it can only be explained by stating that the water is rotating in relation to the presence of some third thing—absolute space. </p><p>Leibniz describes a space that exists only as a relation between objects, and which has no existence apart from the existence of those objects. Motion exists only as a relation between those objects. Newtonian space provided the absolute frame of reference within which objects can have motion. In Newton's system, the frame of reference exists independently of the objects contained within it. These objects can be described as moving in relation to space itself. For almost two centuries, the evidence of a concave water surface held authority. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mach">Mach</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_space_and_time&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Mach"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another important figure in this debate is 19th-century physicist <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">Ernst Mach</a>. While he did not deny the existence of phenomena like that seen in the bucket argument, he still denied the absolutist conclusion by offering a different answer as to what the bucket was rotating in relation to: the <a href="/wiki/Fixed_stars" title="Fixed stars">fixed stars</a>. </p><p>Mach suggested that thought experiments like the bucket argument are problematic. If we were to imagine a universe that only contains a bucket, on Newton's account, this bucket could be set to spin relative to absolute space, and the water it contained would form the characteristic concave surface. But in the absence of anything else in the universe, it would be difficult to confirm that the bucket was indeed spinning. It seems equally possible that the surface of the water in the bucket would remain flat. </p><p>Mach argued that, in effect, the water experiment in an otherwise empty universe would remain flat. But if another object were introduced into this universe, perhaps a distant star, there would now be something relative to which the bucket could be seen as rotating. The water inside the bucket could possibly have a slight curve. To account for the curve that we observe, an increase in the number of objects in the universe also increases the curvature in the water. Mach argued that the momentum of an object, whether angular or linear, exists as a result of the sum of the effects of other objects in the universe (<a href="/wiki/Mach%27s_Principle" class="mw-redirect" title="Mach's Principle">Mach's Principle</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Einstein">Einstein</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_space_and_time&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Einstein"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> proposed that the laws of physics should be based on the <a href="/wiki/Principle_of_relativity" title="Principle of relativity">principle of relativity</a>. This principle holds that the rules of physics must be the same for all observers, regardless of the frame of reference that is used, and that light propagates at the same speed in all reference frames. This theory was motivated by <a href="/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equations" title="Maxwell's equations">Maxwell's equations</a>, which show that electromagnetic waves propagate in a vacuum at the <a href="/wiki/Speed_of_light" title="Speed of light">speed of light</a>. However, Maxwell's equations give no indication of what this speed is relative to. Prior to Einstein, it was thought that this speed was relative to a fixed medium, called the <a href="/wiki/Luminiferous_ether" class="mw-redirect" title="Luminiferous ether">luminiferous ether</a>. In contrast, the theory of special relativity postulates that light propagates at the speed of light in all inertial frames, and examines the implications of this postulate. </p><p>All attempts to measure any speed relative to this ether failed, which can be seen as a confirmation of Einstein's postulate that light propagates at the same speed in all reference frames. <a href="/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">Special relativity</a> is a formalization of the principle of relativity that does not contain a privileged inertial frame of reference, such as the luminiferous ether or absolute space, from which Einstein inferred that no such frame exists. </p><p>Einstein generalized relativity to frames of reference that were non-inertial. He achieved this by positing the <a href="/wiki/Equivalence_principle" title="Equivalence principle">Equivalence Principle</a>, which states that the force felt by an observer in a given gravitational field and that felt by an observer in an accelerating frame of reference are indistinguishable. This led to the conclusion that the mass of an object warps the geometry of the space-time surrounding it, as described in <a href="/wiki/Einstein%27s_field_equation" class="mw-redirect" title="Einstein's field equation">Einstein's field equations</a>. </p><p>In classical physics, an inertial reference frame is one in which an object that experiences no forces does not accelerate. In general relativity, an inertial frame of reference is one that is following a <a href="/wiki/Geodesic_(general_relativity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Geodesic (general relativity)">geodesic</a> of space-time. An object that moves against a geodesic experiences a force. An object in <a href="/wiki/Free_fall" title="Free fall">free fall</a> does not experience a force, because it is following a geodesic. An object standing on the earth, however, will experience a force, as it is being held against the geodesic by the surface of the planet. </p><p>Einstein partially advocates <a href="/wiki/Mach%27s_principle" title="Mach's principle">Mach's principle</a> in that distant stars explain inertia because they provide the gravitational field against which acceleration and inertia occur. But contrary to Leibniz's account, this warped space-time is as integral a part of an object as are its other defining characteristics, such as volume and mass. If one holds, contrary to idealist beliefs, that objects exist independently of the mind, it seems that relativistics commits one to also hold the idea that space and temporality have exactly the same type of independent existence. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conventionalism">Conventionalism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_space_and_time&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Conventionalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The position of <a href="/wiki/Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">conventionalism</a> states that there is no fact of the matter as to the geometry of space and time, but that it is decided by convention. The first proponent of such a view, <a href="/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Henri Poincaré">Henri Poincaré</a>, reacting to the creation of the new <a href="/wiki/Non-Euclidean_geometry" title="Non-Euclidean geometry">non-Euclidean geometry</a>, argued that which geometry applied to a space was decided by convention, since different geometries will describe a set of objects equally well, based on considerations from his <a href="/wiki/Sphere-world" title="Sphere-world">sphere-world</a>. </p><p>This view was developed and updated to include considerations from relativistic physics by <a href="/wiki/Hans_Reichenbach" title="Hans Reichenbach">Hans Reichenbach</a>. Reichenbach's conventionalism, applying to space and time, focuses around the idea of <a href="/wiki/Coordinative_definition" title="Coordinative definition">coordinative definition</a>. </p><p>Coordinative definition has two major features. The first has to do with coordinating units of length with certain physical objects. This is motivated by the fact that we can never directly apprehend length. Instead we must choose some physical object, say the Standard Metre at the <a href="/wiki/Bureau_International_des_Poids_et_Mesures" class="mw-redirect" title="Bureau International des Poids et Mesures">Bureau International des Poids et Mesures</a> (International Bureau of Weights and Measures), or the <a href="/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength">wavelength</a> of <a href="/wiki/Cadmium" title="Cadmium">cadmium</a> to stand in as our unit of length. The second feature deals with separated objects. Although we can, presumably, directly test the equality of length of two measuring rods when they are next to one another, we can not find out as much for two rods distant from one another. Even supposing that two rods, whenever brought near to one another are seen to be equal in length, we are not justified in stating that they are always equal in length. This impossibility undermines our ability to decide the equality of length of two distant objects. Sameness of length, to the contrary, must be set by definition. </p><p>Such a use of coordinative definition is in effect, on Reichenbach's conventionalism, in the General Theory of Relativity where light is assumed, i.e. not discovered, to mark out equal distances in equal times. After this setting of coordinative definition, however, the geometry of spacetime is set. </p><p>As in the absolutism/relationalism debate, contemporary philosophy is still in disagreement as to the correctness of the conventionalist doctrine. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure_of_space-time">Structure of space-time</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_space_and_time&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Structure of space-time"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Special:EditPage/Philosophy of space and time">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2018</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Building from a mix of insights from the historical debates of absolutism and conventionalism as well as reflecting on the import of the technical apparatus of the General Theory of Relativity, details as to the structure of <a href="/wiki/Spacetime" title="Spacetime">space-time</a> have made up a large proportion of discussion within the philosophy of space and time, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">philosophy of physics</a>. The following is a short list of topics. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relativity_of_simultaneity">Relativity of simultaneity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_space_and_time&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Relativity of simultaneity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to <a href="/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">special relativity</a> each point in the universe can have a different set of events that compose its present instant. This has been used in the <a href="/wiki/Rietdijk%E2%80%93Putnam_argument" title="Rietdijk–Putnam argument">Rietdijk–Putnam argument</a> to demonstrate that relativity predicts a <a href="/wiki/Eternalism_(philosophy_of_time)" title="Eternalism (philosophy of time)">block universe</a> in which events are fixed in four dimensions.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag needs further explanation. (August 2021)">further explanation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_frameworks">Historical frameworks</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_space_and_time&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Historical frameworks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A further application of the modern mathematical methods, in league with the idea of invariance and covariance groups, is to try to interpret historical views of space and time in modern, mathematical language. </p><p>In these translations, a theory of space and time is seen as a <a href="/wiki/Manifold" title="Manifold">manifold</a> paired with <a href="/wiki/Vector_spaces" class="mw-redirect" title="Vector spaces">vector spaces</a>, the more vector spaces the more facts there are about objects in that theory. The historical development of spacetime theories is generally seen to start from a position where many facts about objects are incorporated in that theory, and as history progresses, more and more structure is removed. </p><p>For example, Aristotelian space and time has both absolute position and special places, such as the center of the cosmos, and the circumference. Newtonian space and time has absolute position and is <a href="/wiki/Galilean_invariance" title="Galilean invariance">Galilean invariant</a>, but does not have special positions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Holes">Holes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_space_and_time&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Holes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>With the general theory of relativity, the traditional debate between absolutism and relationalism has been shifted to whether spacetime is a substance, since the general theory of relativity largely rules out the existence of, e.g., absolute positions. One powerful argument against spacetime <a href="/w/index.php?title=Substantivalism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Substantivalism (page does not exist)">substantivalism</a>, offered by <a href="/wiki/John_Earman" title="John Earman">John Earman</a> is known as the "<a href="/wiki/Hole_argument" title="Hole argument">hole argument</a>". </p><p>This is a technical mathematical argument but can be paraphrased as follows: </p><p>Define a function <i>d</i> as the <a href="/wiki/Identity_function" title="Identity function">identity function</a> over all elements over the manifold M, excepting a small <a href="/wiki/Neighbourhood_(mathematics)" title="Neighbourhood (mathematics)">neighbourhood</a> H belonging to M. Over H <i>d</i> comes to differ from identity by a <a href="/wiki/Smooth_function" class="mw-redirect" title="Smooth function">smooth function</a>. </p><p>With use of this function <i>d</i> we can construct two <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_model" title="Mathematical model">mathematical models</a>, where the second is generated by applying <i>d</i> to proper elements of the first, such that the two models are identical prior to the time <i>t</i>=0, where <i>t</i> is a time function created by a <a href="/wiki/Foliation" title="Foliation">foliation</a> of spacetime, but differ after <i>t</i>=0. </p><p>These considerations show that, since substantivalism allows the construction of holes, that the universe must, on that view, be indeterministic. Which, Earman argues, is a case against substantivalism, as the case between determinism or indeterminism should be a question of physics, not of our commitment to substantivalism. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Direction_of_time">Direction of time</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_space_and_time&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Direction of time"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The problem of the <a href="/wiki/Arrow_of_time" title="Arrow of time">direction of time</a> arises directly from two contradictory facts. Firstly, the fundamental physical laws are time-reversal <a href="/wiki/Invariant_(physics)" title="Invariant (physics)">invariant</a>; if a cinematographic film were taken of any process describable by means of the aforementioned laws and then played backwards, it would still portray a physically possible process. Secondly, our experience of time, at the <a href="/wiki/Macroscopic" class="mw-redirect" title="Macroscopic">macroscopic</a> level, is <i>not</i> time-reversal invariant.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Glasses can fall and break, but shards of glass cannot reassemble and fly up onto tables. We have memories of the past, and none of the future. We feel we can't change the past but can influence the future. There is no future without our past. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Causation_solution">Causation solution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_space_and_time&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Causation solution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One solution to this problem takes a <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysical</a> view, in which the direction of time follows from an asymmetry of <a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">causation</a>. We know more about the past because the elements of the past are causes for the effects that compose our perception. We cannot affect the past, but we can affect the outcomes of the future. </p><p>There are two main objections to this view. First is the problem of distinguishing the cause from the effect in a non-arbitrary way. The use of causation in constructing a temporal ordering could easily become circular. The second problem with this view is its explanatory power. While the causation account, if successful, may account for some time-asymmetric phenomena like perception and action, it does not account for many others. </p><p>However, asymmetry of causation can be observed in a non-arbitrary way which is not metaphysical in the case of a human hand dropping a cup of water which smashes into fragments on a hard floor, spilling the liquid. In this order, the causes of the resultant pattern of cup fragments and water spill is easily attributable in terms of the trajectory of the cup, irregularities in its structure, angle of its impact on the floor, etc. However, applying the same event in reverse, it is difficult to explain why the various pieces of the cup should fly up into the human hand and reassemble precisely into the shape of a cup, or why the water should position itself entirely within the cup. The causes of the resultant structure and shape of the cup and the encapsulation of the water by the hand within the cup are not easily attributable, as neither hand nor floor can achieve such formations of the cup or water. This asymmetry is perceivable on account of two features: i) the relationship between the agent capacities of the human hand (i.e., what it is and is not capable of and what it is for) and non-animal agency (i.e., what floors are and are not capable of and what they are for) and ii) that the pieces of cup came to possess exactly the nature and number of those of a cup before assembling. In short, such asymmetry is attributable to the relationship between i) temporal direction and ii) the implications of form and functional capacity. </p><p>The application of these ideas of form and functional capacity only dictates temporal direction in relation to complex scenarios involving specific, non-metaphysical agency which is not merely dependent on human perception of time. However, this last observation in itself is not sufficient to invalidate the implications of the example for the progressive nature of time in general. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thermodynamics_solution">Thermodynamics solution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_space_and_time&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Thermodynamics solution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The second major family of solutions to this problem, and by far the one that has generated the most literature, finds the existence of the direction of time as relating to the nature of thermodynamics. </p><p>The answer from classical <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a> states that while our basic physical theory is, in fact, time-reversal symmetric, thermodynamics is not. In particular, the <a href="/wiki/Second_law_of_thermodynamics" title="Second law of thermodynamics">second law of thermodynamics</a> states that the net <a href="/wiki/Entropy" title="Entropy">entropy</a> of a closed system never decreases, and this explains why we often see glass breaking, but not coming back together. </p><p>But in <a href="/wiki/Statistical_mechanics" title="Statistical mechanics">statistical mechanics</a> things become more complicated. On one hand, statistical mechanics is far superior to classical thermodynamics, in that thermodynamic behavior, such as glass breaking, can be explained by the fundamental laws of physics paired with a <a href="/wiki/Statistical" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical">statistical</a> postulate. But statistical mechanics, unlike classical thermodynamics, is time-reversal symmetric. The second law of thermodynamics, as it arises in statistical mechanics, merely states that it is <i>overwhelmingly</i> likely that net entropy will increase, but it is not an absolute law. </p><p>Current thermodynamic solutions to the problem of the direction of time aim to find some further fact, or feature of the laws of nature to account for this discrepancy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Laws_solution">Laws solution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_space_and_time&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Laws solution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A third type of solution to the problem of the direction of time, although much less represented, argues that the laws are not time-reversal symmetric. For example, certain processes in <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a>, relating to the <a href="/wiki/Weak_nuclear_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak nuclear force">weak nuclear force</a>, are not time-reversible, keeping in mind that when dealing with quantum mechanics time-reversibility comprises a more complex definition. But this type of solution is insufficient because 1) the time-asymmetric phenomena in quantum mechanics are too few to account for the uniformity of macroscopic time-asymmetry and 2) it relies on the assumption that quantum mechanics is the final or correct description of physical processes.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>One recent proponent of the laws solution is <a href="/wiki/Tim_Maudlin" title="Tim Maudlin">Tim Maudlin</a> who argues that the fundamental laws of physics are laws of temporal evolution (see Maudlin [2007]). However, elsewhere Maudlin argues: "[the] passage of time is an intrinsic asymmetry in the temporal structure of the world... It is the asymmetry that grounds the distinction between sequences that runs from past to future and sequences which run from future to past" [ibid, 2010 edition, p. 108]. Thus it is arguably difficult to assess whether Maudlin is suggesting that the direction of time is a consequence of the laws or is itself primitive. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Flow_of_time">Flow of time</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_space_and_time&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Flow of time"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The problem of the flow of time, as it has been treated in analytic philosophy, owes its beginning to a paper written by <a href="/wiki/J._M._E._McTaggart" title="J. M. E. McTaggart">J. M. E. McTaggart</a>, in which he proposes two "temporal series". The first series, which means to account for our intuitions about temporal becoming, or the moving Now, is called the <a href="/wiki/A-series_and_B-series" class="mw-redirect" title="A-series and B-series">A-series</a>. The A-series orders events according to their being in the past, present or future, <i>simpliciter</i> and in comparison to each other. The <a href="/wiki/A-series_and_B-series" class="mw-redirect" title="A-series and B-series">B-series</a> eliminates all reference to the present, and the associated temporal modalities of past and future, and orders all events by the temporal relations <i>earlier than</i> and <i>later than</i>. In many ways, the debate between proponents of these two views can be seen as a continuation of the early modern debate between the view that there is <a href="/wiki/Absolute_space_and_time" title="Absolute space and time">absolute time</a> (defended by <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>) and the view that there is only merely <a href="/wiki/Absolute_space_and_time" title="Absolute space and time">relative time</a> (defended by <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Gottfried Leibniz</a>). </p><p>McTaggart, in his paper "<a href="/wiki/The_Unreality_of_Time" title="The Unreality of Time">The Unreality of Time</a>", argues that time is unreal since a) the A-series is inconsistent and b) the B-series alone cannot account for the nature of time as the A-series describes an essential feature of it. </p><p>Building from this framework, two camps of solution have been offered. The first, the A-theorist solution, takes becoming as the central feature of time, and tries to construct the B-series from the A-series by offering an account of how B-facts come to be out of A-facts. The second camp, the B-theorist solution, takes as decisive McTaggart's arguments against the A-series and tries to construct the A-series out of the B-series, for example, by temporal indexicals. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dualities">Dualities</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_space_and_time&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Dualities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_space_and_time&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2016</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Quantum_field_theory" title="Quantum field theory">Quantum field theory</a> models have shown that it is possible for theories in two different space-time backgrounds, like <a href="/wiki/AdS/CFT" class="mw-redirect" title="AdS/CFT">AdS/CFT</a> or <a href="/wiki/T-duality" title="T-duality">T-duality</a>, to be equivalent. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Presentism_and_eternalism">Presentism and eternalism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_space_and_time&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Presentism and eternalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Presentism_(philosophy_of_time)" class="mw-redirect" title="Presentism (philosophy of time)">Presentism (philosophy of time)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eternalism_(philosophy_of_time)" title="Eternalism (philosophy of time)">Eternalism (philosophy of time)</a></div> <p>According to <a href="/wiki/Presentism_(philosophy_of_time)" class="mw-redirect" title="Presentism (philosophy of time)">Presentism</a>, time is an ordering of various <a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">realities</a>. At a certain time, some things exist and others do not. This is the only reality we can deal with. We cannot, for example, say that <a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a> exists because at the present time he does not. An <a href="/wiki/Eternalism_(philosophy_of_time)" title="Eternalism (philosophy of time)">Eternalist</a>, on the other hand, holds that time is a dimension of reality on a par with the three spatial dimensions, and hence that all things—past, present and future—can be said to be just as real as things in the present. According to this theory, then, Homer really <i>does</i> exist, though we must still use special language when talking about somebody who exists at a distant time—just as we would use special language when talking about something far away (the very words <i>near</i>, <i>far</i>, <i>above</i>, <i>below</i>, and such are directly comparable to phrases such as <i>in the past</i>, <i>a minute ago</i>, and so on). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Endurantism_and_perdurantism">Endurantism and perdurantism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_space_and_time&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Endurantism and perdurantism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Endurantism" title="Endurantism">Endurantism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Perdurantism" title="Perdurantism">Perdurantism</a></div> <p>The positions on the persistence of objects are somewhat similar. An <a href="/wiki/Endurantism" title="Endurantism">endurantist</a> holds that for an object to persist through time is for it to exist completely at different times (each instance of existence we can regard as somehow separate from previous and future instances, though still numerically identical with them). A <a href="/wiki/Perdurantism" title="Perdurantism">perdurantist</a> on the other hand holds that for a thing to exist through time is for it to exist as a continuous reality, and that when we consider the thing as a whole we must consider an aggregate of all its "<a href="/wiki/Temporal_part" class="mw-redirect" title="Temporal part">temporal parts</a>" or instances of existing. Endurantism is seen as the conventional view and flows out of our pre-philosophical ideas (when I talk to somebody I think I am talking to that person as a complete object, and not just a part of a cross-temporal being), but perdurantists such as <a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis</a> have attacked this position. They argue that perdurantism is the superior view for its ability to take account of change in objects. </p><p>On the whole, <a href="/wiki/Presentism_(philosophy_of_time)" class="mw-redirect" title="Presentism (philosophy of time)">Presentists</a> are also endurantists and <a href="/wiki/Eternalism_(philosophy_of_time)" title="Eternalism (philosophy of time)">Eternalists</a> are also perdurantists (and vice versa), but this is not a necessary relation and it is possible to claim, for instance, that time's passage indicates a series of ordered realities, but that objects within these realities somehow exist outside of the reality as a whole, even though the realities as wholes are not related. However, such positions are rarely adopted. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_space_and_time&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arrow_of_time" title="Arrow of time">Arrow of time</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Being_and_Time" title="Being and Time">Being and Time</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronometry" title="Chronometry">Chronometry</a></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_pure_Reason&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Critique of pure Reason (page does not exist)">Critique of pure Reason</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Einstein%27s_thought_experiments" title="Einstein's thought experiments">Einstein's thought experiments</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_End_of_Time_(book)" title="The End of Time (book)">The End of Time</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eternal_return" title="Eternal return">Eternal return</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Measure_problem_(cosmology)" title="Measure problem (cosmology)">Measure problem (cosmology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mili%C4%8D_%C4%8Capek" title="Milič Čapek">Milič Čapek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presentism_(philosophy_of_time)" class="mw-redirect" title="Presentism (philosophy of time)">Presentism (philosophy of time)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Process_and_Reality" title="Process and Reality">Process and Reality</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spacetime" title="Spacetime">Spacetime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporality" title="Temporality">Temporality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporal_parts" title="Temporal parts">Temporal parts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_geography" title="Time geography">Time geography</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Time_Reborn" title="Time Reborn">Time Reborn</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_travel" title="Time travel">Time travel</a> in science and <a href="/wiki/Time_travel_in_fiction" title="Time travel in fiction">time travel in fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quentin_Smith" title="Quentin Smith">Quentin Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeno%27s_paradoxes" title="Zeno's paradoxes">Zeno's paradoxes</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_space_and_time&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/John_Bartlett_(publisher)" title="John Bartlett (publisher)">John Bartlett</a> - <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9IhVDgAAQBAJ&pg">Bartlett's Familiar Quotations</a> - <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9IhVDgAAQBAJ&pg=PP130">(page locatable by contents)</a> Hachette UK, 2 December 2014 <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/031625018X" title="Special:BookSources/031625018X">031625018X</a> Accessed December 13th, 2017</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson2007" class="citation book cs1">Thompson, Richard L. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3TZmDSr-1msC"><i>The Cosmology of the Bhagavata Purana: Mysteries of the Sacred Universe</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Motilal_Banarsidass" title="Motilal Banarsidass">Motilal Banarsidass</a>. p. 225. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1919-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1919-1"><bdi>978-81-208-1919-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cosmology+of+the+Bhagavata+Purana%3A+Mysteries+of+the+Sacred+Universe&rft.pages=225&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-81-208-1919-1&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=Richard+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3TZmDSr-1msC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+space+and+time" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3TZmDSr-1msC&pg=PA225">Extract of page 225</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dagobert Runes, <i>Dictionary of Philosophy</i>, p. 318.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Atuq Eusebio Manga Qespi, Instituto de lingüística y Cultura Amerindia de la Universidad de Valencia. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://revistas.ucm.es/ghi/05566533/articulos/REAA9494110155A.PDF"><i>Pacha: un concepto andino de espacio y tiempo</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101105152313/http://revistas.ucm.es/ghi/05566533/articulos/REAA9494110155A.PDF">Archived</a> 2010-11-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Revísta española de Antropología Americana, 24, pp. 155–189. Edit. Complutense, Madrid. 1994</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephen Hart, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucl.ac.uk/spanish-latinamerican/Resources/Peru_cult">Peruvian Cultural Studies:Work in Progress</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul Richard Steele, Catherine J. Allen, <i>Handbook of Inca mythology</i>, p. 86, (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57607-354-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-57607-354-8">1-57607-354-8</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">St. Augustine, <i>Confessions</i>, Book 11. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.sacred-texts.com/chr/augconf/aug11.htm">http://www.sacred-texts.com/chr/augconf/aug11.htm</a> (Accessed 19/5/14).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Craig-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Craig_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCraig1979" class="citation journal cs1">Craig, William Lane (June 1979). "Whitrow and Popper on the Impossibility of an Infinite Past". <i>The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science</i>. <b>30</b> (2): 165–170 [165–6]. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fbjps%2F30.2.165">10.1093/bjps/30.2.165</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+British+Journal+for+the+Philosophy+of+Science&rft.atitle=Whitrow+and+Popper+on+the+Impossibility+of+an+Infinite+Past&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=165-170+165-6&rft.date=1979-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fbjps%2F30.2.165&rft.aulast=Craig&rft.aufirst=William+Lane&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+space+and+time" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Nader_El-Bizri" title="Nader El-Bizri">Nader El-Bizri</a>, 'In Defence of the Sovereignty of Philosophy: al-Baghdadi's Critique of Ibn al-Haytham's Geometrisation of Place', <i>Arabic Sciences and Philosophy</i> 17 (2007), 57–80</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-alhacen-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-alhacen_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">[6.54] And it has already been shown that forms of light and color continually generated in air and in all [other] transparent bodies, and forms continually extend through the air, as well as through [other] transparent bodies, in various directions," ... "hence the extramission of [visual] rays is superfluous and useless".—<a href="/wiki/Alhacen" class="mw-redirect" title="Alhacen">Alhacen</a> (11th c.) as translated by A.Mark Smith p.372 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/3657357.pdf">(2001) Alhacen's Theory of Visual Perception: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of the First Three Books of Alhacen's "De aspectibus", the Medieval Latin Version of Ibn al-Haytham's "Kitāb al-Manāẓir": Volume Two</a> <i>Transactions of the American Philosophical Society</i>, New Series, <b>Vol. 91</b>, No. 5 (2001), pp. 339-819</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2005" class="citation journal cs1">Smith, A. Mark (2005). "The Alhacenian Account Of Spatial Perception And Its Epistemological Implications". <i>Arabic Sciences and Philosophy</i>. <b>15</b> (2). <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>: <span class="nowrap">219–</span>40. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0957423905000184">10.1017/S0957423905000184</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:171003284">171003284</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Arabic+Sciences+and+Philosophy&rft.atitle=The+Alhacenian+Account+Of+Spatial+Perception+And+Its+Epistemological+Implications&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E219-%3C%2Fspan%3E40&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0957423905000184&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A171003284%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=A.+Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+space+and+time" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, I ["The Elements of Transcendentalism"], Part I ["The Transcendental Aesthetic"], Sections I and II ["Of Space" and "Of Time"])</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Borchert, D.M. (2006) Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2nd Ed. Vol. 9. MI: Cengage Learning. P. 468.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_space_and_time&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>Albert, David (2000) <i>Time and Chance</i>. Harvard Univ. Press.</li> <li>Dainton, Barry (2010) <i>Time and Space, Second Edition</i>. McGill-Queens University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7735-3747-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7735-3747-7">978-0-7735-3747-7</a></li> <li>Earman, John (1989) <i>World Enough and Space-Time</i>. MIT Press.</li> <li>Friedman, Michael (1983) <i>Foundations of Space-Time Theories</i>. Princeton Univ. Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Gr%C3%BCnbaum" title="Adolf Grünbaum">Grünbaum, Adolf</a> (1974) <i>Philosophical Problems of Space and Time</i>, 2nd ed. Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science. Vol XII. D. Reidel Publishing</li> <li>Horwich, Paul (1987) <i>Asymmetries in Time</i>. MIT Press.</li> <li>Ialenti, Vincent (2020) <i>Deep Time Reckoning</i>. MIT Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Lockwood_(philosopher)" title="Michael Lockwood (philosopher)">Lookwood, Michael</a> <i>The Labyrinth of Time</i>, Oxford University Press, 2005, ISBN 9780199249954.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lucas_(philosopher)" title="John Lucas (philosopher)">Lucas, John Randolph</a>, 1973. <i>A Treatise on Time and Space</i>. London: Methuen.</li> <li>Mellor, D.H. (1998) <i>Real Time II</i>. Routledge.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laura_Mersini-Houghton" title="Laura Mersini-Houghton">Laura Mersini-Houghton</a>; Rudy Vaas (eds.) (2012) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>The Arrows of Time. A Debate in Cosmology</i>. Springer. 22 June 2012. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3642232589" title="Special:BookSources/978-3642232589"><bdi>978-3642232589</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Arrows+of+Time.+A+Debate+in+Cosmology&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2012-06-22&rft.isbn=978-3642232589&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+space+and+time" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graham_Nerlich" title="Graham Nerlich">Graham Nerlich</a> (1976/2009) <i>The Shape of Space</i>. Cambridge University Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Reichenbach" title="Hans Reichenbach">Hans Reichenbach</a> (1958) <i>The Philosophy of Space and Time</i>. Dover</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Reichenbach" title="Hans Reichenbach">Hans Reichenbach</a> (1991) <i>The Direction of Time</i>. University of California Press.</li> <li>Rochelle, Gerald (1998) Behind Time. Ashgate.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Sklar" title="Lawrence Sklar">Lawrence Sklar</a> (1976) <i>Space, Time, and Spacetime</i>. University of California Press.</li> <li>Turetzky, Philip (1998) <i>Time</i>. Routledge.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bas_van_Fraassen" title="Bas van Fraassen">Bas van Fraassen</a>, 1970. <i>An Introduction to the Philosophy of Space and Time</i>. Random House.</li> <li>Gal-Or, Benjamin "Cosmology, Physics and Philosophy". Springer-Verlag, New York, 1981, 1983, 1987 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-387-90581-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-387-90581-2">0-387-90581-2</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAhmad1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Manzoor_Ahmad" title="Manzoor Ahmad">Ahmad, Manzoor</a> (May 28, 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mPEbPaIibfEC&q=THE+NOTION+OF+EXISTENCE+Ahmad&pg=PA245">"XV: The Notion of Existence"</a>. In Naeem Ahmad; George F McClean (eds.). <i>Philosophy in Pakistan</i>. Department of Philosophy, University of Punjab, Lahore, Punjab Province of Pakistan: Punjab University press. pp. <span class="nowrap">245–</span>250. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56518-108-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-56518-108-5"><bdi>1-56518-108-5</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 July</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=XV%3A+The+Notion+of+Existence&rft.btitle=Philosophy+in+Pakistan&rft.place=Department+of+Philosophy%2C+University+of+Punjab%2C+Lahore%2C+Punjab+Province+of+Pakistan&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E245-%3C%2Fspan%3E250&rft.pub=Punjab+University+press&rft.date=1998-05-28&rft.isbn=1-56518-108-5&rft.aulast=Ahmad&rft.aufirst=Manzoor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmPEbPaIibfEC%26q%3DTHE%2BNOTION%2BOF%2BEXISTENCE%2BAhmad%26pg%3DPA245&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhilosophy+of+space+and+time" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_space_and_time&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; 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C., "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100603083234/http://www.nd.edu/~mrea/papers/Four%20Dimensionalism.pdf">Four Dimensionalism</a>" in <i>The Oxford Handbook for Metaphysics</i>. Oxford Univ. Press. Describes <a href="/wiki/Presentism_(philosophy_of_time)" class="mw-redirect" title="Presentism (philosophy of time)">presentism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Four-dimensionalism" title="Four-dimensionalism">four-dimensionalism</a>.</li> <li>CEITT - Time and Temporality Research Center. 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template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Time758" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">Time</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Key concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Past" title="Past">Past</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Present" title="Present">Present</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future" title="Future">Future</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eternity" title="Eternity">Eternity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Horology" class="mw-redirect" title="Horology">Measurement</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Time_standard" title="Time standard">standards</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Chronometry" title="Chronometry">Chronometry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coordinated_Universal_Time" title="Coordinated Universal Time">UTC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Time" title="Universal Time">UT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Atomic_Time" title="International Atomic Time">TAI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_of_time" title="Unit of time">Unit of time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_(time)" title="Orders of magnitude (time)">Orders of magnitude (time)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/System_of_measurement" class="mw-redirect" title="System of measurement">Measurement<br />systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_six-hour_clock" title="Italian six-hour clock">Italian six-hour clock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_six-hour_clock" title="Thai six-hour clock">Thai six-hour clock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/12-hour_clock" title="12-hour clock">12-hour clock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/24-hour_clock" title="24-hour clock">24-hour clock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_hour" title="Relative hour">Relative hour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daylight_saving_time" title="Daylight saving time">Daylight saving time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_timekeeping" title="Traditional Chinese timekeeping">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decimal_time" title="Decimal time">Decimal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hexadecimal_time" title="Hexadecimal time">Hexadecimal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_units_of_time" title="Hindu units of time">Hindu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metric_time" title="Metric time">Metric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_timekeeping" title="Roman timekeeping">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidereal_time" title="Sidereal time">Sidereal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_time" title="Solar time">Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_zone" title="Time zone">Time zone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Calendar" title="Calendar">Calendars</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calendar#Systems" title="Calendar">Main types</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_calendar" title="Solar calendar">Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_calendar" title="Lunar calendar">Lunar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunisolar_calendar" title="Lunisolar calendar">Lunisolar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregorian_calendar" title="Gregorian calendar">Gregorian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_calendar" title="Julian calendar">Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_calendar" title="Hebrew calendar">Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calendar" title="Islamic calendar">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_Hijri_calendar" title="Solar Hijri calendar">Solar Hijri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_calendar" title="Chinese calendar">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_calendar" title="Hindu calendar">Hindu Panchang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_calendar" title="Maya calendar">Maya</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_calendars" title="List of calendars">List</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Clock" title="Clock">Clocks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clock#Types" title="Clock">Main types</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astronomical_clock" title="Astronomical clock">astronomical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrarium" title="Astrarium">astrarium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_clock" title="Atomic clock">atomic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_clock" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum clock">quantum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hourglass" title="Hourglass">hourglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_chronometer" title="Marine chronometer">marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sundial" title="Sundial">sundial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watch" title="Watch">watch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_watch" title="Mechanical watch">mechanical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stopwatch" title="Stopwatch">stopwatch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_clock" title="Water clock">water-based</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuckoo_clock" title="Cuckoo clock">Cuckoo clock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_clock" title="Digital clock">Digital clock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grandfather_clock" title="Grandfather clock">Grandfather clock</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_timekeeping_devices" title="History of timekeeping devices">History</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_time_measurement_inventions" title="Timeline of time measurement inventions">Timeline</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronology" title="Chronology">Chronology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astronomical_chronology" title="Astronomical chronology">Astronomical chronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_History" title="Big History">Big History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calendar_era" title="Calendar era">Calendar era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_time" title="Deep time">Deep time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodization" title="Periodization">Periodization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regnal_year" title="Regnal year">Regnal year</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline" title="Timeline">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Philosophy of time</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A_series_and_B_series" title="A series and B series">A series and B series</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B-theory_of_time" title="B-theory of time">B-theory of time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronocentrism" title="Chronocentrism">Chronocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duration_(philosophy)" title="Duration (philosophy)">Duration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endurantism" title="Endurantism">Endurantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eternal_return" title="Eternal return">Eternal return</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eternalism_(philosophy_of_time)" title="Eternalism (philosophy of time)">Eternalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perdurantism" title="Perdurantism">Perdurantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_presentism" title="Philosophical presentism">Presentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporal_finitism" title="Temporal finitism">Temporal finitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporal_parts" title="Temporal parts">Temporal parts</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Unreality_of_Time" title="The Unreality of Time">The Unreality of Time</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Time_in_religion" title="Category:Time in religion">Religion</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Time_in_religion_and_mythology" title="Template:Time in religion and mythology">Mythology</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ages_of_Man" title="Ages of Man">Ages of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destiny" title="Destiny">Destiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immortality" title="Immortality">Immortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Dreaming" title="The Dreaming">Dreamtime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C4%81la" title="Kāla">Kāla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_and_fate_deities" title="Time and fate deities">Time and fate deities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Father_Time" title="Father Time">Father Time</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wheel_of_time" title="Wheel of time">Wheel of time</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kalachakra" title="Kalachakra">Kalachakra</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Time_perception" title="Time perception">Human experience</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Time-use_research" title="Time-use research">use of time</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronemics" title="Chronemics">Chronemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generation_time" title="Generation time">Generation time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_chronometry" title="Mental chronometry">Mental chronometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duration_(music)" title="Duration (music)">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tempo" title="Tempo">tempo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_signature" title="Time signature">time signature</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosy_retrospection" title="Rosy retrospection">Rosy retrospection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tense%E2%80%93aspect%E2%80%93mood" title="Tense–aspect–mood">Tense–aspect–mood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_management" title="Time management">Time management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yesterday_(time)" title="Yesterday (time)">Yesterday</a> – <a href="/wiki/Present" title="Present">Today</a> – <a href="/wiki/Tomorrow_(time)" title="Tomorrow (time)">Tomorrow</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Time in <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale" title="Geologic time scale">Geological time</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Age (geology)">age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronozone" title="Chronozone">chron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eon_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Eon (geology)">eon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epoch_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Epoch (geology)">epoch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Era_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Era (geology)">era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geological_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Geological period">period</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology" title="Geochronology">Geochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_Earth" title="Geological history of Earth">Geological history of Earth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Time_in_physics" title="Time in physics">Physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_space_and_time" title="Absolute space and time">Absolute space and time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrow_of_time" title="Arrow of time">Arrow of time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronon" title="Chronon">Chronon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coordinate_time" title="Coordinate time">Coordinate time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instant" title="Instant">Instant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proper_time" title="Proper time">Proper time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spacetime" title="Spacetime">Spacetime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_relativity" title="Theory of relativity">Theory of relativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_domain" title="Time domain">Time domain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_translation_symmetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Time translation symmetry">Time translation symmetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T-symmetry" title="T-symmetry">Time reversal symmetry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">Other fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronological_dating" title="Chronological dating">Chronological dating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronobiology" title="Chronobiology">Chronobiology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circadian_rhythm" title="Circadian rhythm">Circadian rhythms</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_clock" title="Chemical clock">Clock reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glottochronology" title="Glottochronology">Glottochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_geography" title="Time geography">Time geography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leap_year" title="Leap year">Leap year</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory" title="Memory">Memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moment_(unit)" title="Moment (unit)">Moment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space" title="Space">Space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/System_time" title="System time">System time</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tempus_fugit" title="Tempus fugit">Tempus fugit</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_capsule" title="Time capsule">Time capsule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_immemorial" title="Time immemorial">Time immemorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_travel" title="Time travel">Time travel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Time" title="Category:Time">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Time" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Time">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_time99" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_time" title="Template:Philosophy of time"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_time" title="Template talk:Philosophy of time"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_time" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of time"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy_of_time99" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Philosophy of time</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts in time</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori">A priori and a posteriori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_series_and_B_series" title="A series and B series">A series and B series</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_(philosophy)" title="Action (philosophy)">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duration_(philosophy)" title="Duration (philosophy)">Duration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eternal_return" title="Eternal return">Eternal return</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eternity" title="Eternity">Eternity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aevum" title="Aevum">Eviternity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imaginary_time" title="Imaginary time">Imaginary time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_time_dimensions" title="Multiple time dimensions">Multiple time dimensions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporal_parts" title="Temporal parts">Temporal parts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporality" title="Temporality">Temporality</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories of time</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A-theory_of_time" class="mw-redirect" title="A-theory of time">A-theory of time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B-theory_of_time" title="B-theory of time">B-theory of time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endurantism" title="Endurantism">Endurantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eternalism_(philosophy_of_time)" title="Eternalism (philosophy of time)">Eternalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four-dimensionalism" title="Four-dimensionalism">Four-dimensionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatalism" title="Fatalism">Fatalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporal_finitism" title="Temporal finitism">Finitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Growing_block_universe" title="Growing block universe">Growing block universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perdurantism" title="Perdurantism">Perdurantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_presentism" title="Philosophical presentism">Presentism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Etiology" title="Etiology">Etiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post_hoc_ergo_propter_hoc" title="Post hoc ergo propter hoc">Post hoc ergo propter hoc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">Teleology</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Unreality_of_Time" title="The Unreality of Time">The Unreality of Time</a>"</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Singular_Universe_and_the_Reality_of_Time" title="The Singular Universe and the Reality of Time">The Singular Universe and the Reality of Time</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/An_Experiment_with_Time" title="An Experiment with Time">An Experiment with Time</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Metaphysics343" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Metaphysics" title="Template:Metaphysics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Metaphysics" title="Template talk:Metaphysics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Metaphysics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Metaphysics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Metaphysics343" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_object_theory" title="Abstract object theory">Abstract object theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enactivism" title="Enactivism">Enactivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essentialism" title="Essentialism">Essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_of_life" title="Meaning of life">Meaning of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(philosophy)" title="Spiritualism (philosophy)">Spiritualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">Substance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_forms" title="Theory of forms">Theory of forms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truthmaker_theory" title="Truthmaker theory">Truthmaker theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_theory" title="Type theory">Type theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and concrete">Abstract object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anima_mundi" title="Anima mundi">Anima mundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category_of_being" class="mw-redirect" title="Category of being">Category of being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causal_closure" title="Causal closure">Causal closure</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cogito,_ergo_sum" title="Cogito, ergo sum">Cogito, ergo sum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embodied_cognition" title="Embodied cognition">Embodied cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entity" title="Entity">Entity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">Essence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">Existence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">Experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_abstraction" title="Hypostatic abstraction">Hypostatic abstraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Idea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity (philosophy)">Identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">Information</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Data" title="Data">Data</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insight" title="Insight">Insight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intention" title="Intention">Intention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_modality" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic modality">Linguistic modality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_matter" title="Philosophy of matter">Matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_(existential)" title="Meaning (existential)">Meaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">Mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motion" title="Motion">Motion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_necessity" title="Metaphysical necessity">Necessity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Object (philosophy)">Object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pattern" title="Pattern">Pattern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_object" title="Physical object">Physical object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle" title="Principle">Principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">Qualia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quality_(philosophy)" title="Quality (philosophy)">Quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relations_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Relations (philosophy)">Relation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self" title="Self">Self</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subject_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject (philosophy)">Subject</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substantial_form" title="Substantial form">Substantial form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thought" title="Thought">Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type%E2%80%93token_distinction" title="Type–token distinction">Type–token distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_(metaphysics)" title="Universal (metaphysics)">Universal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unobservable" title="Unobservable">Unobservable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" title="Value (ethics)">Value</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_metaphysics_articles" title="Index of metaphysics articles">more ...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">Metaphysicians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclus" title="Proclus">Proclus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Scotus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Malebranche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Wolff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Reid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Bolzano" title="Bernard Bolzano">Bolzano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Lotze" title="Hermann Lotze">Lotze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Peirce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexius_Meinong" title="Alexius Meinong">Meinong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Bergson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Whitehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">Collingwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">Strawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Dummett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Parfit</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">more ...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Notable works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Sophist_(dialogue)" title="Sophist (dialogue)">Sophist</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Timaeus_(dialogue)" title="Timaeus (dialogue)">Timaeus</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ny%C4%81ya_S%C5%ABtras" title="Nyāya Sūtras">Nyāya Sūtras</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 200 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_rerum_natura" title="De rerum natura">De rerum natura</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 80 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_(Aristotle)" title="Metaphysics (Aristotle)">Metaphysics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 50)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Enneads" title="Enneads">Enneads</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 270)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Daneshnameh-ye_Alai" class="mw-redirect" title="Daneshnameh-ye Alai">Daneshnameh-ye Alai</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 1000)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Meditations_on_First_Philosophy" title="Meditations on First Philosophy">Meditations on First Philosophy</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1641)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics (Spinoza book)">Ethics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1677)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_Concerning_the_Principles_of_Human_Knowledge" title="A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge">A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1710)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monadology" title="Monadology">Monadology</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1714)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1781)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Prolegomena_to_Any_Future_Metaphysics" title="Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics">Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1783)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Phenomenology_of_Spirit" title="The Phenomenology of Spirit">The Phenomenology of Spirit</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1807)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_World_as_Will_and_Representation" title="The World as Will and Representation">The World as Will and Representation</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1818)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Concluding_Unscientific_Postscript_to_Philosophical_Fragments" title="Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments">Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1846)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Being_and_Time" title="Being and Time">Being and Time</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1927)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Being_and_Nothingness" title="Being and Nothingness">Being and Nothingness</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1943)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Simulacra_and_Simulation" title="Simulacra and Simulation">Simulacra and Simulation</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1981)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">Cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_metaphysics" title="Feminist metaphysics">Feminist metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpretations_of_quantum_mechanics" title="Interpretations of quantum mechanics">Interpretations of quantum mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mereology" title="Mereology">Mereology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta_(prefix)" title="Meta (prefix)">Meta-</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Philosophy of psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_self" title="Philosophy of self">Philosophy of self</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Philosophy of space and time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">Teleology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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href="/wiki/Dependent_and_independent_variables" title="Dependent and independent variables">dependent and independent</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_science_articles" title="Index of philosophy of science articles">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_empiricism" title="Constructive empiricism">Constructive empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_realism" title="Constructive realism">Constructive realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivist epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">Conventionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model" title="Deductive-nomological model">Deductive-nomological model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological anarchism">Epistemological anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionism" title="Evolutionism">Evolutionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothetico-deductive_model" title="Hypothetico-deductive model">Hypothetico-deductive model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductionism" title="Inductionism">Inductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model-dependent_realism" title="Model-dependent realism">Model-dependent realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Received_view_of_theories" title="Received view of theories">Received view</a> / <a href="/wiki/Semantic_view_of_theories" title="Semantic view of theories">Semantic view of theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_essentialism" title="Scientific essentialism">Scientific essentialism</a></li> <li><a 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style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_chemistry" title="Philosophy of chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Physics</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Space and time</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Social science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_archaeology" title="Philosophy of archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of economics">Economics‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_linguistics" title="Philosophy of linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Psychology</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_research" title="Descriptive research">Descriptive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exact_sciences" title="Exact sciences">Exact sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard_and_soft_science" title="Hard and soft science">Hard and soft science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-science" title="Non-science">Non-science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_science" title="Normative science">Normative science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protoscience" title="Protoscience">Protoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Questionable_cause" title="Questionable cause">Questionable cause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">Rhetoric of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance" title="Sociology of scientific ignorance">Sociology of scientific ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Sociology of scientific knowledge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_science" title="List of philosophers of science">Philosophers of science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Precursors10" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Precursors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Henri Poincaré">Henri Poincaré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Duhem" title="Pierre Duhem">Pierre Duhem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Steiner" title="Rudolf Steiner">Rudolf Steiner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Pearson" title="Karl Pearson">Karl Pearson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Windelband" title="Wilhelm Windelband">Wilhelm Windelband</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">C. D. Broad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi">Michael Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Reichenbach" title="Hans Reichenbach">Hans Reichenbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Hempel" title="Carl Gustav Hempel">Carl Gustav Hempel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos">Imre Lakatos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Hacking" title="Ian Hacking">Ian Hacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bas_van_Fraassen" title="Bas van Fraassen">Bas van Fraassen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Laudan" title="Larry Laudan">Larry Laudan</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_science" title="Category:Philosophy of science">Category</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, 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religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_philosophy" title="Practical philosophy">Practical philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_philosophy" title="Theoretical philosophy">Theoretical philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_theory_of_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional theory of art">Institutionalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_particularism" title="Epistemological particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology">Deontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_determinism" title="Hard determinism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incompatibilism" title="Incompatibilism">Incompatibilism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_incompatibilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard incompatibilism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_era269" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By era</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Roman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_Skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic Skepticism">Academic Skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_the_Sextii" title="School of the Sextii">School of the Sextii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sy%C4%81dv%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Syādvāda">Syādvāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivadā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">Pudgalavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svatantrika%E2%80%93Prasa%E1%B9%85gika_distinction" title="Svatantrika–Prasaṅgika distinction">Svatantrika and Prasangika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdakism" title="Mazdakism">Mazdakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">ʿIlm al-Kalām</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Realism" title="Classical Realism">Classical Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edo_neo-Confucianism" title="Edo neo-Confucianism">Edo neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Anti-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li> <li><a 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title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaardianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krausism" title="Krausism">Krausism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtonianism" title="Newtonianism">Newtonianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzscheanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transactionalism" title="Transactionalism">Transactionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Developments_in_the_20th_century" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_historicism" title="New historicism">New Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posthumanism" title="Posthumanism">Posthumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcritique" title="Postcritique">Postcritique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" 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href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africana_philosophy" title="Africana philosophy">Africana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a 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