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class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle By country subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-By_country-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Canada</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Television" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Television"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Television</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Television-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radio" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radio"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>Radio</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radio-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mexico" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mexico"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Mexico</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mexico-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Television_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Television_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Television</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Television_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radio_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radio_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Radio</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radio_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Radio_3" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radio_3"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Radio</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radio_3-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Television_3" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Television_3"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2</span> <span>Television</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Television_3-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Digital_transition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Digital_transition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2.1</span> <span>Digital transition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Digital_transition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Controversy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Controversy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.3</span> <span>Controversy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Controversy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-2003_translator_boom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#2003_translator_boom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.3.1</span> <span>2003 translator boom</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-2003_translator_boom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Australia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Australia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Australia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Australia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Radio_4" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radio_4"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.1</span> <span>Radio</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radio_4-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Television_4" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Television_4"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.2</span> <span>Television</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Television_4-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Asia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" 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href="/w/index.php?title=FM_translator&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="FM translator">FM translator</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Repeater transmitter</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Relay transmitter" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Relay_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Relay (disambiguation)">Relay (disambiguation)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Repeater_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Repeater (disambiguation)">Repeater (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Iwakuni_Digital_TV_Repeater.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Small, fenced building with antennas on a wooded hillside" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Iwakuni_Digital_TV_Repeater.JPG/220px-Iwakuni_Digital_TV_Repeater.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Iwakuni_Digital_TV_Repeater.JPG/330px-Iwakuni_Digital_TV_Repeater.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Iwakuni_Digital_TV_Repeater.JPG/440px-Iwakuni_Digital_TV_Repeater.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1778" data-file-height="2371" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/NHK" title="NHK">NHK</a> <a href="/wiki/Digital_television" title="Digital television">digital television</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yamaguchi_Broadcasting" title="Yamaguchi Broadcasting">KRY</a>, <a href="/wiki/Television_Yamaguchi_Broadcasting_Systems" title="Television Yamaguchi Broadcasting Systems">TYS</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yamaguchi_Asahi_Broadcasting" title="Yamaguchi Asahi Broadcasting">YAB</a> transmitter in <a href="/wiki/Iwakuni" title="Iwakuni">Iwakuni</a></figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>broadcast relay station</b>, also known as a <b>satellite station</b>, <b>relay transmitter</b>, <b>broadcast translator</b> (U.S.), <b>re-broadcaster</b> (Canada), <b><a href="/wiki/Repeater" title="Repeater">repeater</a></b> (<a href="/wiki/Two-way_radio" title="Two-way radio">two-way radio</a>) or <b>complementary station</b> (Mexico), is a broadcast transmitter which repeats (or <a href="/wiki/Transponder" title="Transponder">transponds</a>) the signal of a radio or television station to an area not covered by the originating station. </p><p>These expand the <a href="/wiki/Broadcast_range" title="Broadcast range">broadcast range</a> of a television or radio station beyond the primary signal's original coverage or improves service in the original coverage area. The stations may be (but are not usually) used to create a <a href="/wiki/Single-frequency_network" title="Single-frequency network">single-frequency network</a>. They may also be used by an AM or FM radio station to establish a presence on the other band. </p><p>Relay stations are most commonly established and operated by the same organisations responsible for the originating stations they repeat. Depending on technical and regulatory restrictions, relays may also be set up by unrelated organisations. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Broadcast_relay_station&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Translators">Translators</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Broadcast_relay_station&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Translators"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In its simplest form, a broadcast translator is a facility created to receive a terrestrial broadcast over the air on one frequency and rebroadcast the same (or substantially identical) signal on another frequency. These stations are used in television and radio to cover areas (such as valleys or rural villages) which are not adequately covered by a station's main signal. They can also be used to expand market coverage by duplicating programming on another band. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Boosters_and_distributed_transmitters">Boosters and distributed transmitters</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Broadcast_relay_station&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Boosters and distributed transmitters"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Relays which broadcast within (or near) the parent station's coverage area on the same channel (or frequency) are known in the U.S. as booster stations. Signals from the stations may interfere with each other without careful antenna design. <a href="/wiki/Co-channel_interference" title="Co-channel interference">Radio interference</a> can be avoided by using <a href="/wiki/Atomic_time" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic time">atomic time</a>, obtained from <a href="/wiki/Global_positioning_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Global positioning system">GPS</a> <a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">satellites</a>, to synchronize co-channel stations in a <a href="/wiki/Single-frequency_network" title="Single-frequency network">single-frequency network</a>. </p><p>Analog television stations cannot have same-channel boosters unless opposite (<a href="/wiki/Perpendicular" title="Perpendicular">perpendicular</a>) <a href="/wiki/Polarization_(waves)" title="Polarization (waves)">polarization</a> is used, due to video <a href="/wiki/Synchronization" title="Synchronization">synchronization</a> issues such as <a href="/wiki/Ghosting_(television)" title="Ghosting (television)">ghosting</a>. In the U.S., no new on-channel UHF signal boosters have been authorized since July 11, 1975.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Distributed_transmission_system" title="Distributed transmission system">distributed transmission system</a> (DTS or DTx) uses several medium-power stations (usually digital) on the same frequency to cover a broadcast area, rather than one high-power station with repeaters on a different frequency. Although digital television stations are technically capable of sharing a channel, this is more difficult with the <a href="/wiki/8VSB" title="8VSB">8VSB</a> <a href="/wiki/Modulation" title="Modulation">modulation</a> and unvariable <a href="/wiki/Guard_interval" title="Guard interval">guard interval</a> used in <a href="/wiki/ATSC_standards" title="ATSC standards">ATSC standards</a> than with the <a href="/wiki/Orthogonal_frequency-division_multiplexing" title="Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing">orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing</a> (OFDM) used in the European and Australian <a href="/wiki/DVB-T" title="DVB-T">DVB-T</a> standard. A <a href="/wiki/Distributed_transmission_system" title="Distributed transmission system">distributed transmission system</a> would have stringent synchronization requirements, requiring each transmitter to receive its signal from a central source for broadcast at a GPS-synchronized time. A DTS does not use broadcast repeaters in the conventional sense, since they cannot receive a signal from a main terrestrial broadcast transmitter for rebroadcast; to do so would introduce a re-transmission delay destroying the required synchronization, causing interference between transmitters. </p><p>The use of <a href="/wiki/Virtual_channel" title="Virtual channel">virtual channels</a> is another alternative, although this may cause the same channel to appear several times in a receiver – once for each relay station – and require the user to tune to the best one (which may change due to <a href="/wiki/Radio_propagation" title="Radio propagation">propagation</a> issues such as weather). Although boosters or DTS cause all relay stations to appear as one signal, they require careful <a href="/wiki/Broadcast_engineering" title="Broadcast engineering">engineering</a> to avoid interference. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Satellite_stations">Satellite stations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Broadcast_relay_station&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Satellite stations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some licensed stations <a href="/wiki/Simulcast" title="Simulcast">simulcast</a> another station. Relay stations in name only, they are generally licensed like any other station. Although this is unregulated in the U.S. and widely permitted in <a href="/wiki/History_of_broadcasting_in_Canada" title="History of broadcasting in Canada">Canada</a>, the U.S. <a href="/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission" title="Federal Communications Commission">Federal Communications Commission</a> (FCC) regulates <a href="/wiki/Radio_format" title="Radio format">radio formats</a> to ensure diversity in programming. </p><p>U.S. satellite stations may request an FCC exemption from requirements for a properly staffed <a href="/wiki/Television_studio" title="Television studio">broadcast studio</a> in the <a href="/wiki/City_of_license" title="City of license">city of license</a>. The stations often cover large, sparsely populated regions or operate as statewide <a href="/wiki/Educational_television" title="Educational television">non-commercial educational</a> <a href="/wiki/NPR" title="NPR">radio</a> and <a href="/wiki/PBS" title="PBS">television</a> systems. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Semi-satellites">Semi-satellites</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Broadcast_relay_station&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Semi-satellites"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A television re-broadcaster often sells local (or regional) advertising for broadcast only on the local transmitter, and may air a limited amount of programming distinct from its parent station. Some "semi-satellites" broadcast local news or separate news segments during part of the <a href="/wiki/News_broadcasting" title="News broadcasting">newscast</a>. <a href="/wiki/CHEX-TV-2" class="mw-redirect" title="CHEX-TV-2">CHEX-TV-2</a> in <a href="/wiki/Oshawa" title="Oshawa">Oshawa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ontario" title="Ontario">Ontario</a>, aired daily late-afternoon and early-evening news and community programs separate from its parent station, <a href="/wiki/CHEX-DT" title="CHEX-DT">CHEX-TV</a> in <a href="/wiki/Peterborough,_Ontario" title="Peterborough, Ontario">Peterborough, Ontario</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The FCC prohibits this on U.S. FM translator stations, only permitting it on fully licensed stations. </p><p>In some cases, a semi-satellite is a formerly autonomous full-service station which is programmed remotely through <a href="/wiki/Centralcasting" title="Centralcasting">centralcasting</a> or <a href="/wiki/Broadcast_automation" title="Broadcast automation">broadcast automation</a> to avoid the cost of a local staff. <a href="/wiki/CBLFT-DT" title="CBLFT-DT">CBLFT</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Owned-and-operated_station" title="Owned-and-operated station">owned-and-operated station</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_French" title="Canadian French">French-language</a> network <a href="/wiki/Ici_Radio-Canada_T%C3%A9l%C3%A9" title="Ici Radio-Canada Télé">Ici Radio-Canada Télé</a> in <a href="/wiki/Toronto" title="Toronto">Toronto</a>, is a <i>de facto</i> semi-satellite of its stronger <a href="/wiki/Ottawa" title="Ottawa">Ottawa</a> sibling <a href="/wiki/CBOFT-DT" title="CBOFT-DT">CBOFT</a>; its programming has long been identical or differed only in local news and advertising. A financially weak privately owned broadcaster in a small market can become a <i>de facto</i> semi-satellite by gradually curtailing local production and relying on a commonly owned station in a larger city for programming; <a href="/wiki/WWTI" title="WWTI">WWTI</a> in <a href="/wiki/Watertown_(city),_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="Watertown (city), New York">Watertown, New York</a>, relies on <a href="/wiki/WSYR-TV" title="WSYR-TV">WSYR-TV</a> in this manner. Broadcast automation allows the substitution of <a href="/wiki/Broadcast_syndication" title="Broadcast syndication">syndicated programming</a> or <a href="/wiki/Digital_subchannel" title="Digital subchannel">digital subchannel</a> content which the broadcaster was unable to obtain for both cities. </p><p>Some defunct full-service stations (such as <a href="/wiki/CJSS-TV" title="CJSS-TV">CJSS-TV</a> in <a href="/wiki/Cornwall,_Ontario" title="Cornwall, Ontario">Cornwall, Ontario</a>, now <a href="/wiki/CJOH-DT" title="CJOH-DT">CJOH-TV-8</a>) have become full satellite stations and originate nothing. If programming from the parent station must be removed or substituted due to local <a href="/wiki/Blackout_(broadcasting)" title="Blackout (broadcasting)">sports blackouts</a>, the modified signal is that of a semi-satellite station. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="National_networks">National networks</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Broadcast_relay_station&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: National networks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most broadcasters outside North America, portions of South America, and Japan maintain a national network, and use relay transmitters to provide service to a region (or nation). Compared with other types of relays, the transmitter network is often created and maintained by an independent authority (funded with <a href="/wiki/Television_license" class="mw-redirect" title="Television license">television license</a> fees); several major broadcasters use the same transmitters. </p><p>In North America, a similar pattern of regional network broadcasting is sometimes used by state- or province-wide <a href="/wiki/Educational_television" title="Educational television">educational television</a> networks. A state or province establishes an educational station and extends it with several full-power transmitters to cover the entire jurisdiction, with no capability for local-programming origination. In the U.S., such regional networks are member stations of the national <a href="/wiki/PBS" title="PBS">Public Broadcasting Service</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="By_country">By country</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Broadcast_relay_station&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: By country"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Canada">Canada</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Broadcast_relay_station&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Canada"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Canada, "re-broadcaster" or "re-broadcasting transmitter" are the terms most commonly used by the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Radio-television_and_Telecommunications_Commission" title="Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission">Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission</a> (CRTC). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Television">Television</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Broadcast_relay_station&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Television"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A television re-broadcaster may sell local or regional advertising for broadcast only on the local transmitter. Rarely, they may air limited programming distinct from their parent station. Some "semi-satellites" broadcast local newscasts or separate news segments in part of a newscast. </p><p>There is no strict rule for the <a href="/wiki/Call_sign" title="Call sign">call sign</a> of a television re-broadcaster. Some transmitters have call signs different from the parent station (<a href="/wiki/CFGC-TV" class="mw-redirect" title="CFGC-TV">CFGC</a> in <a href="/wiki/Greater_Sudbury" title="Greater Sudbury">Sudbury</a> is a re-broadcaster of <a href="/wiki/CIII-DT" title="CIII-DT">CIII</a>), and others use the call sign of the originating station followed by a number (such as the former <a href="/wiki/CBLFT-DT" title="CBLFT-DT">CBLFT-17</a> in <a href="/wiki/Sarnia" title="Sarnia">Sarnia</a>, Ontario). The latter type officially includes the television station's -TV suffix between the call sign and the number, although it is often omitted from media directories. </p><p>The numbers are usually applied sequentially, beginning with "1", and denote the chronological order in which the station's rebroadcast transmitters began operation. Some broadcasters may use a system in which the number is the transmitter's broadcast channel, such as <a href="/wiki/CJOH-DT" title="CJOH-DT">CJOH-TV-47</a> in <a href="/wiki/Pembroke,_Ontario" title="Pembroke, Ontario">Pembroke, Ontario</a>. A broadcaster cannot mix the numbering systems under a single call sign; the transmitters are numbered sequentially or by their analogue channel. If sequential numbering reaches 99 (such as <a href="/wiki/TVOntario" class="mw-redirect" title="TVOntario">TVOntario</a>'s former broadcast transmitters), the next transmitter is assigned a new call sign and numbered "1". Translators which share a frequency (such as <a href="/wiki/CBLT-DT" title="CBLT-DT">CBLT</a>'s former repeaters CBLET, CBLHT, CBLAT-2 and CH4113 on channel 12) are given distinct call signs. </p><p>Digital re-broadcasters may be numbered by the TV channel number of the analogue signal they replaced. TVOntario's CICO-DT-53 (digital UHF 26, <a href="/wiki/Belleville,_Ontario" title="Belleville, Ontario">Belleville</a>) is an example; the station was converted in 2011 to vacate an out-of-core analogue channel (UHF 53), and retains CICO-TV-53's former analogue UHF television call-sign numbering as a surviving TVO repeater. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Low-power_broadcasting" title="Low-power broadcasting">Low-power</a> re-broadcasters may have a call sign consisting of the letters CH followed by four numbers; for example, <a href="/wiki/CH2649" class="mw-redirect" title="CH2649">CH2649</a> in <a href="/wiki/Valemount" title="Valemount">Valemount</a>, <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a>, is a re-broadcaster of <a href="/wiki/Vancouver" title="Vancouver">Vancouver</a>'s <a href="/wiki/CHAN-DT" title="CHAN-DT">CHAN</a>. Re-broadcasters of this type are numbered sequentially in the order they were licensed by the CRTC, and their call signs are unrelated to the parent station or other re-broadcasters. Although the next number in the sequence (CH2650 in <a href="/wiki/Anzac,_Alberta" title="Anzac, Alberta">Anzac, Alberta</a>) is a re-broadcaster of CHAN, this is because CH2649 and CH2650 were licensed simultaneously; the following number, CH2651, is a re-broadcaster (also in Anzac) of <a href="/wiki/Edmonton" title="Edmonton">Edmonton</a>'s <a href="/wiki/CITV-DT" title="CITV-DT">CITV</a>. A station's re-broadcasters are not necessarily named in the same manner; <a href="/wiki/CBLT-DT" title="CBLT-DT">CBLT</a> had re-transmitters with their own call signs (some used CBLT followed by a number, and some used CH numbers). </p><p>CBC and Radio-Canada owned-and-operated re-transmitters were shut down on August 1, 2012, along with most TVOntario transmitters (which often were located at Radio-Canada sites) and some <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Peoples_Television_Network" title="Aboriginal Peoples Television Network">Aboriginal Peoples Television Network</a> (APTN) transmitters in the far north. Private commercial broadcasters operate full-power re-broadcasters to obtain "must carry" status on <a href="/wiki/Cable_television" title="Cable television">cable television</a> systems. </p><p>Transmitters in small markets with one (or no) originating stations were, in most cases, not required to convert to digital even if operating at full power. Transmitters broadcasting on UHF channels 52–69 were required to vacate the channels by August 31, 2011; some (such as a <a href="/wiki/CKWS-DT" title="CKWS-DT">CKWS-TV</a> re-transmitter in <a href="/wiki/Brighton,_Ontario" title="Brighton, Ontario">Brighton, Ontario</a>, and three TVOntario sites) went digital as part of a move to a lower frequency but do not provide <a href="/wiki/High-definition_television" title="High-definition television">high-definition television</a>, <a href="/wiki/Digital_subchannel" title="Digital subchannel">digital subchannels</a> or any functions beyond that of the original analogue site. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Radio">Radio</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Broadcast_relay_station&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Radio"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Like a TV station, a radio re-broadcaster may have a distinct call sign or use the call sign of the originating station followed by a numeric suffix. The numeric suffix is always sequential. </p><p>For a re-broadcaster of an <a href="/wiki/FM_radio" class="mw-redirect" title="FM radio">FM</a> station, the numeric suffix is appended to the FM suffix; re-broadcasters of <a href="/wiki/CJBC-FM" title="CJBC-FM">CJBC-FM</a> in Toronto are numbered CJBC-FM-1, CJBC-FM-2, etc. If an <a href="/wiki/AM_radio" class="mw-redirect" title="AM radio">AM</a> station has a re-broadcaster on the FM band, the numeric suffix falls between the four-letter call sign and the FM suffix; CKSB-1-FM is an FM re-broadcaster of the AM station <a href="/wiki/CKSB_(AM)" class="mw-redirect" title="CKSB (AM)">CKSB</a>, and CKSB-FM-1 would be a re-broadcaster of <a href="/wiki/CKSB-FM" title="CKSB-FM">CKSB-FM</a>. </p><p>A broadcaster is limited to two stations on one band in a market, but a possible means to obtain a third FM signal in-market is to use a re-broadcaster of the AM station to move the signal to low-power FM.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Sarnia, <a href="/wiki/Blackburn_Radio" title="Blackburn Radio">Blackburn Radio</a> owns <a href="/wiki/CFGX-FM" title="CFGX-FM">CFGX-FM</a> (99.9) and <a href="/wiki/CHKS-FM" title="CHKS-FM">CHKS-FM</a> (106.3); its third Sarnia station, <a href="/wiki/CHOK" title="CHOK">CHOK</a> (1070 kHz), uses an FM repeater for city coverage as Country 103.9 FM (although the AM signal remains the station's official primary transmitter). </p><p>Low-power radio re-broadcasters may have a call sign consisting of VF followed by four numbers; a call sign of this type may also denote a low-power station which originates its own programming. Some stations licensed under the CRTC's experimental-broadcasting guidelines, a special class of short-term license (similar to <a href="/wiki/Special_temporary_authority" title="Special temporary authority">special temporary authority</a>) sometimes granted to newer <a href="/wiki/Campus_radio" title="Campus radio">campus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Community_radio" title="Community radio">community radio</a> operations, may have a call sign consisting of three letters from anywhere in Canada's <a href="/wiki/International_Telecommunication_Union" title="International Telecommunication Union">ITU</a>-prefix range followed by three digits (such as <a href="/wiki/CFU758" title="CFU758">CFU758</a> or VEK565). Other stations in this license class have been assigned conventional Cxxx call signs. Former re-broadcasters have occasionally been converted to originating stations, retaining their former call sign; examples include <a href="/wiki/CITE-FM-1" title="CITE-FM-1">CITE-FM-1</a> in <a href="/wiki/Sherbrooke" title="Sherbrooke">Sherbrooke</a>, <a href="/wiki/CBF-FM-8" title="CBF-FM-8">CBF-FM-8</a> in <a href="/wiki/Trois-Rivi%C3%A8res" title="Trois-Rivières">Trois-Rivières</a> and <a href="/wiki/CBAF-FM-15" title="CBAF-FM-15">CBAF-FM-15</a> in <a href="/wiki/Charlottetown" title="Charlottetown">Charlottetown</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mexico">Mexico</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Broadcast_relay_station&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Mexico"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>, translator and booster stations are given the call sign of the parent station. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Television_2">Television</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Broadcast_relay_station&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Television"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most television stations in Mexico are operated as repeaters of the networks they broadcast. Translator stations in Mexico are given call signs beginning with XE and XH. <a href="/wiki/Televisa" title="Televisa">Televisa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Azteca_(multimedia_conglomerate)" class="mw-redirect" title="Azteca (multimedia conglomerate)">Azteca</a> maintain two national networks apiece. Televisa's <a href="/wiki/Las_Estrellas" title="Las Estrellas">Las Estrellas</a> network includes 128 stations (the most in Mexico), and Azteca's networks have 88 and 91 stations.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The stations may insert local advertising. Azteca's stations in larger cities may include local news and a limited amount of regional content; <a href="/wiki/Televisa" title="Televisa">Televisa</a> prefers to use its non-national <a href="/wiki/Gala_TV_(Mexico)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gala TV (Mexico)">Gala TV</a> network and <a href="/wiki/Televisa_Regional" title="Televisa Regional">Televisa Regional</a> stations as outlets for local production. A number of translators also serve areas with little or no signal in their defined coverage area, known as <span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es">equipos complementarios de zona de sombra</i></span> ('shadow channels'). Most shadow channels air the same programming as their parent station. The northern and central regional network <a href="/wiki/Multimedios_Televisi%C3%B3n" class="mw-redirect" title="Multimedios Televisión">Multimedios Televisión</a> in <a href="/wiki/Monterrey" title="Monterrey">Monterrey</a> uses the same system to a smaller extent (its <a href="/wiki/XHSAW-TDT" title="XHSAW-TDT">XHSAW-TDT</a> is the shadow channel of main station <a href="/wiki/XHAW-TDT" title="XHAW-TDT">XHAW-TDT</a> in Monterrey), with regional output for local newscasts and advertising on a master schedule. </p><p>There are two main national networks of non-commercial TV stations in Mexico. One is the <a href="/wiki/Canal_Once_(Mexico)" class="mw-redirect" title="Canal Once (Mexico)">Canal Once</a> (or XEIPN-TDT) network, operated by the <a href="/wiki/Instituto_Polit%C3%A9cnico_Nacional" title="Instituto Politécnico Nacional">Instituto Politécnico Nacional</a> (IPN). Operating 13 transmitters, it airs its programs under a contract with the <a href="/wiki/Sistema_Quintanarroense_de_Comunicaci%C3%B3n_Social" title="Sistema Quintanarroense de Comunicación Social">Quintana Roo state network</a>. The other network, operated by the <a href="/wiki/Sistema_P%C3%BAblico_de_Radiodifusi%C3%B3n_del_Estado_Mexicano" title="Sistema Público de Radiodifusión del Estado Mexicano">Sistema Público de Radiodifusión del Estado Mexicano</a> (SPR), has 26 stations (16 operational); most are digital. The SPR transmitters are almost exclusively in cities where the IPN never built stations, and carry Canal Once as one of the five educational networks in the <a href="/wiki/Multiplex_(television)" title="Multiplex (television)">multiplex</a> of the digital station. </p><p>Twenty-six of Mexico's 32 states also own and operate television services, and 16 use more than one transmitter. The largest (by number of stations) is <a href="/wiki/Telemax_(television_network)" class="mw-redirect" title="Telemax (television network)">Telemax</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sonora" title="Sonora">Sonora</a>'s state network, with 59 transmitters. Many state-network transmitters broadcast at a low <a href="/wiki/Effective_radiated_power" title="Effective radiated power">effective radiated power</a> (ERP). A few stations are owned by municipalities or translator associations. Like state networks, they transmit at very low power. </p><p>Transmitters re-broadcasting Mexico City stations to <a href="/wiki/Baja_California" title="Baja California">Baja California</a> and other communities along the Pacific coast normally operate on a two-hour delay behind the originating station; there is a one-hour delay in <a href="/wiki/Sonora" title="Sonora">Sonora</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Quintana_Roo" title="Quintana Roo">Quintana Roo</a> (one hour ahead of central Mexico in 2015) receives programs one hour later than they are broadcast to most of the rest of Mexico. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Radio_2">Radio</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Broadcast_relay_station&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Radio"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ten to 15 FM shadow channels exist, and they are required to be co-channel with the stations they re-transmit. Quintana Roo has the most FM shadow channels (seven), about half the national total.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Three more FM shadows are authorized: <a href="/wiki/XETIA-FM" title="XETIA-FM">XETIA-FM</a>/<a href="/wiki/XEAD-FM" title="XEAD-FM">XEAD-FM</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ajijic" title="Ajijic">Ajijic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jalisco" title="Jalisco">Jalisco</a>) and <a href="/wiki/XHRRR-FM_(Veracruz)" title="XHRRR-FM (Veracruz)">XHRRR-FM</a> (Tecolula, <a href="/wiki/Veracruz_(city)" title="Veracruz (city)">Veracruz</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Broadcast_relay_station&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Radio_3">Radio</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Broadcast_relay_station&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Radio"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In July 2009, the basic FCC regulations concerning translators were:<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>FM translators may be used for cross-band translation; this removed the restriction preventing FM translators from re-transmitting AM signals.</li> <li>No translator (or booster) may transmit anything other than the <a href="/wiki/Simulcast" title="Simulcast">simulcast</a> of its licensed parent station, except for emergency warnings (such as <a href="/wiki/Emergency_Alert_System" title="Emergency Alert System">EAS</a>) and 30 seconds per hour of fundraising.</li> <li>The parent station must <a href="/wiki/Station_identification" title="Station identification">identify</a> all its translators and boosters between 7 and 9<span class="nowrap"> </span>a.m., 12:55 and 1:05 p.m., and 4 and 6<span class="nowrap"> </span>p.m. each broadcast day, or each must be equipped with an automated <a href="/wiki/Information_appliance" title="Information appliance">device</a> (audio or <a href="/wiki/Frequency-shift_keying" title="Frequency-shift keying">FSK</a>) for hourly identification.</li> <li>Maximum power is 250 watts ERP for a translator, and 20 percent of the maximum allowable ERP for the primary station's class for a booster. There is no limit on <a href="/wiki/HAAT" class="mw-redirect" title="HAAT">height</a> for fill-in translators within the <a href="/wiki/Service_contour" title="Service contour">service contour</a> of the primary station.</li> <li>A translator (or booster) must stop transmitting if the parent station's signal is lost; this helps prevent unauthorized re-transmission of other stations.</li></ul> <p>There is one way programming may differ between a main station and an FM translator: an <a href="/wiki/HD_Radio" title="HD Radio">HD Radio</a> signal may contain <a href="/wiki/Digital_subchannel" title="Digital subchannel">digital subchannels</a> with different programming from the main analogue channel, and a translator may broadcast programming from the originating station's HD2 subchannel as the translator's main analogue signal.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/W237DE" class="mw-redirect" title="W237DE">W237DE</a> (95.3 MHz in <a href="/wiki/Harrisburg,_Pennsylvania" title="Harrisburg, Pennsylvania">Harrisburg, Pennsylvania</a>) broadcasts the format formerly carried by WTCY (1400 AM, now <a href="/wiki/WHGB" title="WHGB">WHGB</a>), receiving the signal from a <a href="/wiki/WNNK" class="mw-redirect" title="WNNK">WNNK</a> (104.1 FM) HD2 digital subchannel for analogue rebroadcast from the WNNK tower site on 95.3. It is legally an FM repeater of an FM station, although each signal would be heard with unique content by users with analogue <a href="/wiki/FM_radio" class="mw-redirect" title="FM radio">FM radio</a> receivers. </p><p>Commercial stations may own their translators (or boosters) when the translator (or booster) is in the parent station's primary service contour; they can only fill in where <a href="/wiki/Terrain" title="Terrain">terrain</a> blocks the signal. Boosters may only be owned by the primary station; translators outside a primary station's service contour cannot be owned by (or receive financial support from) the primary station. Most translators operate by receiving the main station's on-air signal with a directional antenna and sensitive receiver and re-transmitting the signal. They may not transmit in the FM <a href="/wiki/Reserved_band" class="mw-redirect" title="Reserved band">reserved band</a> from 88 to 92 <a href="/wiki/MHz" class="mw-redirect" title="MHz">MHz</a>, where only <a href="/wiki/Non-commercial_educational" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-commercial educational">non-commercial</a> stations are allowed. Non-commercial stations may broadcast in the commercial portion of the band. Unlike commercial stations, they can relay programming to translators via <a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">satellite</a> if the translators are in the reserved band. Translators in the commercial band may only be fed by a direct on-air signal from another FM station (or translator). Non-fill-in commercial-band translators may not be fed by satellite, according to FCC rule 74.1231(b).<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All stations may use any means to feed a booster. </p><p>All U.S. translator and booster stations are low-power and have a <a href="/wiki/List_of_broadcast_station_classes" class="mw-redirect" title="List of broadcast station classes">class D</a> license, making them secondary to other stations (including the parent); they must accept <a href="/wiki/Interference_(communication)" title="Interference (communication)">interference</a> from full-power (100 watts or more on FM) stations, while not causing any of their own. Boosters must not interfere with the parent station in the <a href="/wiki/Community_of_license" class="mw-redirect" title="Community of license">community of license</a>. Licenses are automatically renewed with that of the parent station and do not require separate applications, although the renewal may be challenged with a petition to deny. FM booster stations are given the full call sign (including an -FM <a href="/wiki/Suffix" title="Suffix">suffix</a>, even if there is none assigned) of the parent station plus a <a href="/wiki/Serial_number" title="Serial number">serial number</a> such as <a href="/wiki/WRIF" title="WRIF">WXYZ-FM</a>1, WXYZ-FM2, etc. </p><p>FM translator stations may use sequential numbered call signs consisting of K or W followed by a three-digit number (201 through 300, corresponding to 88.1 to 107.9 MHz), followed by a pair of sequentially-assigned letters. The format is similar to that used by numbered television translators, where the number refers to the permanent channel assignment. The largest terrestrial radio-translator system in the U.S. in October 2008 belonged to <a href="/wiki/KUER-FM" title="KUER-FM">KUER-FM</a>, the non-commercial radio outlet of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Utah" title="University of Utah">University of Utah</a>, with 33 translator stations ranging from <a href="/wiki/Idaho" title="Idaho">Idaho</a> to <a href="/wiki/New_Mexico" title="New Mexico">New Mexico</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arizona" title="Arizona">Arizona</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Television_3">Television</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Broadcast_relay_station&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Television"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Unlike FM radio, <a href="/wiki/Low-power_broadcasting" title="Low-power broadcasting">low-power</a> television stations may operate as translators or originate their own programming.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Translator stations are given call signs which begin with W (east of the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi River</a>) or K (west of the Mississippi, like regular stations) followed by a channel number and two <a href="/wiki/Serial_number" title="Serial number">serial letters</a> for each channel; the first stations on a channel are AA, AB, AC and so on). Television channels have two digits, from 02 to 36 (formerly 02 to 83; 02 to 69 and 02 to 51); FM radio channels are numbered from 200 (87.9 MHz) to 300 (107.9 MHz), one every 0.2 MHz (for example, W42BD or K263AF). An X after the number in these call signs does not indicate an experimental broadcasting license (as it may in other services), since all 26 letters are used in the sequence. When the sequence is exhausted, another letter is added. This has already happened for translator on channels 7 and 13 in K territory; what is now <a href="/wiki/KMNF-LD" title="KMNF-LD">KMNF-LD</a> was assigned callsign K13AAR-D in September 2018 and K07AAH-D in May 2019. </p><p>Numbered translator stations (a format such as W70ZZ) are typically low-power repeaters – often 100 watts (or less) on FM and 1,000 watts (or less) on television. The former translator band, <a href="/wiki/Ultra_high_frequency" title="Ultra high frequency">UHF</a> television channels <a href="/wiki/Channel_70" title="Channel 70">70</a> through <a href="/wiki/Channel_83" title="Channel 83">83</a>, was originally occupied primarily by low-powered translators. The combination of low power and high frequency limited broadcast range. The band was reallocated to <a href="/wiki/Cellular_telephone" class="mw-redirect" title="Cellular telephone">cellular telephone</a> services during the 1980s, with the handful of remaining transmitters moved to lower frequencies. </p><p>Full-power repeaters such as <a href="/wiki/WPBS-TV" title="WPBS-TV">WPBS-TV</a>'s identical-twin transmitter, <a href="/wiki/WNPI-TV" class="mw-redirect" title="WNPI-TV">WNPI-TV</a>, are normally assigned TV call signs like other full-power stations. These "satellite stations" do not have numbered call signs, and must operate in the same manner as other full-power broadcasters. This simulcasting is generally not regulated by the FCC, except when a station owner seeks an exemption from requirements such as restrictions on owning several full-service stations in the same market, limits on overlap in coverage area between commonly-owned stations, or requirements that each full-service station have a local studio and a skeleton staff capable of originating programming locally. These exemptions are normally justified on the basis of economic hardship, where a rural location unable to support a full-service originating station may be able to sustain a full-power re-broadcaster. Some stations (such as <a href="/wiki/KVRR" title="KVRR">KVRR</a> in <a href="/wiki/Fargo,_North_Dakota" title="Fargo, North Dakota">Fargo, North Dakota</a>) are chains of as many as four full-power transmitters, each with its own call sign and license, covering a large, sparsely-populated region. </p><p>LPTV stations may also choose a four-letter call sign with an -LP suffix (shared with <a href="/wiki/Low-power_FM" class="mw-redirect" title="Low-power FM">low-power FM</a>) for analog or -LD for digital; this is generally done only if the station originates programming. <a href="/wiki/Class_A_television_service" title="Class A television service">Class A television</a> stations are assigned calls with -CA and -CD suffixes. Digital stations which use numbers receive a -D suffix, such as W42BD-D. All are despite the fact that most of the full-power digital television stations had their -DT (originally -HD) suffixes dropped by the FCC before -D and -LD were implemented. Digital LPTV stations have their digital RF channel numbers as part of their digital call sign, which may differ from the <a href="/wiki/Virtual_channel" title="Virtual channel">virtual channel</a> (the analog number). </p><p>Numbered broadcast translators which are moved to another frequency are normally issued new call signs to reflect the updated channel assignment. This is not true of displaced translators using another frequency temporarily under a special technical authority. Although <a href="/wiki/K55KD" class="mw-redirect" title="K55KD">K55KD</a> could retain its call sign while it was displaced temporarily to channel 57 to resolve interference to <a href="/wiki/MediaFLO" title="MediaFLO">MediaFLO</a> users, W81AA received the new call sign <a href="/wiki/WNNE" title="WNNE">W65AM</a> when <a href="/wiki/Channel_81" title="Channel 81">channel 81</a> was deleted from the <a href="/wiki/Bandplan" class="mw-redirect" title="Bandplan">bandplan</a> and the translator was moved to channel 65. On the rare occasion that a station moves back to its original channel, it receives its old call sign (which is not reused by another station). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Digital_transition">Digital transition</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Broadcast_relay_station&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Digital transition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Low-power television stations are not required to simulcast a digital signal, nor were they required to cease analog operation in June 2009 like full-power stations. Full-power stations used for simulcasting another station were (like other full-service TV broadcasters) required to convert to digital in June 2009. The FCC defines "TV satellite stations" as "full-power broadcast stations authorized under Part 73 of the Commission's rules to re-transmit all or part of the programming of a parent station that is typically commonly owned". Since most satellite stations operate in small or sparsely-populated areas with an insufficient economic base to support full-service operations, many received FCC authorization on a case-by-case basis to <a href="/wiki/Flash_cut" title="Flash cut">flash cut</a> from analog to digital on the same channel instead of simulcasting in both formats during the <a href="/wiki/Digital_television_transition" title="Digital television transition">digital transition</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although no digital television mandates were forced on existing low-power television stations, Congress passed legislation in 2008 funding low-power stations which went digital by the conversion date or shortly thereafter. Some low-power stations were forced to change frequency to accommodate full-power stations which moved to UHF or operated digital companion channels on UHF during the transition period. By 2008, low- and full-power <a href="/wiki/Channel_55_virtual_TV_stations_in_the_United_States" title="Channel 55 virtual TV stations in the United States">channel 55</a> licensees were encouraged to relocate early to free spectrum for <a href="/wiki/Qualcomm" title="Qualcomm">Qualcomm</a>'s MediaFLO transmitters.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 2011, remaining LPTV broadcasters on UHF channels 52 through 69 were forced onto lower channels. Many transmitters on the original UHF 70–83 translator band had to move twice; channels 70–83 were lost to mobile phones in 1983, followed by channels 52–69 between 2009 and 2011.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many low-power translators were also directly affected by a parent station's conversion to digital television. Translators which received an analog over-the-air signal from a full-service television station for rebroadcast needed to convert their receiving equipment, like individual viewers used <a href="/wiki/Coupon-eligible_converter_box" title="Coupon-eligible converter box">digital converter boxes</a>. Although the signal transmitted by the repeater may have remained analog, the <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_link#Uplink" title="Telecommunications link">uplink</a> had to be changed. Twenty-three percent of the 4,000 licensed translators received a $1,000 federal-government subsidy<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for a portion of the additional equipment.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many other translators went <a href="/wiki/Dark_(broadcasting)" title="Dark (broadcasting)">dark</a> after the digital-transition deadline, or did not apply for new channels after UHF channels 52–69 were removed from the bandplan. </p><p>Some small translators operated by <a href="/wiki/Direct-conversion_receiver" title="Direct-conversion receiver">directly converting</a> a parent station's signal to another frequency for rebroadcast, without any other local signal processing or demodulation. <a href="/wiki/W07BA" class="mw-redirect" title="W07BA">W07BA</a> (a 16-watt repeater for <a href="/wiki/WSYR-TV" title="WSYR-TV">WSYR-TV</a> in <a href="/wiki/Syracuse,_New_York" title="Syracuse, New York">Syracuse, New York</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was a simple piece of broadcast apparatus, shifting the main station's signal from channel nine to channel seven to cover a small valley in <a href="/wiki/DeWitt,_New_York" title="DeWitt, New York">DeWitt</a>. Syracuse became a <a href="/wiki/UHF_television_broadcasting#UHF_islands" title="UHF television broadcasting">UHF island</a>, WSYR-TV's main <a href="/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company" title="American Broadcasting Company">ABC</a> signal became a 100 kW digital broadcast on channel 17, and there is no longer a channel 9 signal to feed the repeater.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Translators in remote locations with no <a href="/wiki/Electrical_power_distribution" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical power distribution">commercial power</a> were expected to have problems deploying equipment for a digital uplink.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although many translators continued analog broadcasts and a minority transitioned to digital, some rural communities expected to find all local translator signals gone as a result of the originating stations' transition.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Controversy">Controversy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Broadcast_relay_station&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Controversy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By law, full-service local broadcasters are the primary occupants of the FM broadcast band; LPFM and translators are secondary occupants, with theoretically-equal status. In practice, frequencies assigned to translators become unavailable to new LPFM stations or existing stations wishing to upgrade.<sup id="cite_ref-fybush-wavm_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fybush-wavm-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some distinctions place small, local LPFM operators at a disadvantage: </p> <ul><li>The maximum power for an LPFM station (10 or 100 watts, depending on station class) is less than that of the largest FM broadcast translators (250 watts), limiting the reach of the LPFM signal.</li> <li>Minimum spacing (in distance and frequency) between stations is less strict for translators than for LPFM applicants. Although translator spacing is based on <a href="/wiki/Signal_contour" class="mw-redirect" title="Signal contour">signal contour</a> levels (accounting for terrain and obstacles), LPFM stations have a more restrictive minimum-distance requirement.<sup id="cite_ref-FCC-05-75A1_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FCC-05-75A1-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>An LPFM broadcaster is required to generate local content; if there are several applicants for a frequency, those who agree to originate eight (or more) hours a day of local programming are favored. Translators are not required to originate anything locally.</li> <li>LPFM licenses are normally issued to non-commercial educational entities (such as schools or municipalities), and are subject to requirements precluding several commonly-owned stations; this is not true of translators. A non-commercial translator with no local or educational content can occupy space in the non-commercial segment (below 92 MHz) of the FM broadcast band. During the narrow FCC filing windows for new applicants, applications for broadcast translators from the same (or related) entities can request every locally-available frequency in several communities.<sup id="cite_ref-CJR_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CJR-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Broadcast translators for commercial stations are normally required to receive a signal from their parent full-service FM station <a href="/wiki/Wireless" title="Wireless">over the air</a> and re-transmit in the region covered by the main station, eliminating the need for a translator except where <a href="/wiki/Terrain_shielding" class="mw-redirect" title="Terrain shielding">terrain shielding</a> is a problem). This restriction does not apply to <a href="/wiki/Non-commercial_educational" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-commercial educational">non-commercial educational</a> stations. Any non-commercial station, even one with no local or educational content, can apply for an unlimited number of translators to be fed by any means (including satellite). All take spectrum from local LPFM stations or rebroadcasters of local full-service stations. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="2003_translator_boom"><span class="anchor" id="Great_Translator_Invasion_of_2003"></span>2003 translator boom</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Broadcast_relay_station&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: 2003 translator boom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A 2003 FCC licensing window for new translator applications resulted in over 13,000 applications.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to the number of license applications,<sup id="cite_ref-RECQuery_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RECQuery-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> LPFM advocates called it the Great Translator Invasion.<sup id="cite_ref-CJR_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CJR-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-lpfm-gti_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lpfm-gti-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some broadcasters have taken advantage of FM translator regulations allowing non-commercial stations to feed distant translators with <a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">satellite</a>-delivered programming hundreds (or thousands) of miles from the parent station's coverage area. The largest satellite-fed translator network was <a href="/wiki/CSN_International" title="CSN International">CSN International</a>. Other networks and individual churches affiliated with Calvary Chapel have also submitted multiple applications for translators.<sup id="cite_ref-RECQuery_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RECQuery-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Not all translators can be fed by satellites; only those in the non-commercial portion of the FM band (88.1 to 91.9 MHz) can be "satellators". All other translators must be directly fed off the air, except for "fill-in" facilities in a primary station's service contour. Translators may feed other translators, so it is possible to create small chains of translators fed from one distant station; if one translator failed, the network beyond the failed translator would go dark. The number of 2003 applications overwhelmed the FCC, which issued an emergency hold order on new translator applications<sup id="cite_ref-lpfm-gti_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lpfm-gti-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> until those already received were processed. The rules change sparked a series of lawsuits known as <i><a href="/wiki/Prometheus_Radio_Project_v._FCC" title="Prometheus Radio Project v. FCC">Prometheus Radio Project v. FCC</a></i>. </p><p>LPFM advocates allege that the proliferation of translators poses difficulties for non-translator station operators (particularly LPFM license applicants), who say that they cannot get stations on the air because translators occupy available channels in an area. </p><p>Since "satcasting" translators are only permitted on the non-commercial part of the spectrum (where LPFM stations do not exist), they do not threaten the ability of LPFM licensees to expand their facilities.<sup id="cite_ref-fybush-wavm_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fybush-wavm-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Non-satcasting translators may be a problem for LPFM stations; if an LPFM station is "bumped" from its channel by a new full-power station, there may be no available frequency to which to move.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Proposed rules would revise the procedures by which nonprofit groups may apply for translators (prohibiting more than a certain number of translator applications to be owned by any one entity), and the FCC modified its channel requirements for LPFM broadcasters to free channel space.<sup id="cite_ref-FCC-05-75A1_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FCC-05-75A1-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> REC Networks petitioned the FCC to prioritize LPFM stations.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Australia">Australia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Broadcast_relay_station&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Australia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Radio_4">Radio</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Broadcast_relay_station&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Radio"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Australia's national radio networks (<a href="/wiki/Radio_National" title="Radio National">Radio National</a>, <a href="/wiki/ABC_NewsRadio" title="ABC NewsRadio">ABC NewsRadio</a>, <a href="/wiki/Triple_J" title="Triple J">Triple J</a>, <a href="/wiki/ABC_Classic_FM" class="mw-redirect" title="ABC Classic FM">ABC Classic FM</a> and <a href="/wiki/SBS_Radio" title="SBS Radio">SBS Radio</a>) have relay transmitters which allow each service to be broadcast as widely as possible. The ABC and SBS allow community-based relay transmitters to rebroadcast radio or television in areas which would otherwise have no service.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Commercial radio broadcasters normally have relay transmitters only if local geography (such as mountains) prevents them from broadcasting to their entire market. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Television_4">Television</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Broadcast_relay_station&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Television"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since the early-1990s market aggregation, each television broadcaster uses multiple relays to provide consistent service throughout Australia's large markets. Although each market is subdivided due to the legacy of previous commercial broadcasters (<a href="/wiki/Southern_Cross_10" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Cross 10">Southern Cross 10</a> (formerly <a href="/wiki/Southern_Cross_Nine" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Cross Nine">Southern Cross Nine</a>) maintains two stations in the <a href="/wiki/Victoria_(Australia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Victoria (Australia)">Victoria</a> market: <a href="/wiki/GLV/BCV" title="GLV/BCV">GLV and BCV</a>), the only difference between these sub-markets in practice is news service and local advertising. Except in major cities, all major television broadcasters use the same network of transmitters (which may have dozens of relay stations in each market). As a result, some areas have had trouble beginning <a href="/wiki/Digital_terrestrial_television_in_Australia" title="Digital terrestrial television in Australia">digital</a> or <a href="/wiki/High-definition_television" title="High-definition television">HD</a> service due to problems with regional transmitters. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Europe">Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Broadcast_relay_station&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Because most radio and television systems in Europe are national networks, the radio or television system in some countries can be considered a collection of relay stations in which each broadcaster uses a transmitter network (developed by the public broadcaster or maintained through a government-funded authority) to provide broadcast service to the entire nation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Asia">Asia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Broadcast_relay_station&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In most parts of Asia, satellite is the preferred method of national signal coverage. Exceptions include Singapore (which bans civilian ownership of satellite receivers) and Malaysia, which only allows civilian ownership of receivers provided by <a href="/wiki/Astro_(television)" class="mw-redirect" title="Astro (television)">Astro</a>. Terrestrially, the scenario is similar to Europe's; the systems are considered national networks, and are a collection of relay stations maintained by a government-funded authority. In Japan and the Philippines, television stations are owned and operated by networks or are affiliates owned by other media companies. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Broadcast_relay_station&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airborne_radio_relay" title="Airborne radio relay">Airborne radio relay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amateur_radio_repeater" title="Amateur radio repeater">Amateur radio repeater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Call_signs_in_North_America" title="Call signs in North America">Call signs in North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">Communications satellite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_repeater" title="Cellular repeater">Cellular repeater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microwave_radio_relay" class="mw-redirect" title="Microwave radio relay">Microwave radio relay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repeater" title="Repeater">Repeater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_repeater" title="Radio repeater">Radio repeater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relay_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Relay (disambiguation)">Relay (disambiguation)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shortwave_relay_station" title="Shortwave relay station">Shortwave relay station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmitter_station" title="Transmitter station">Transmitter station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_transmitter" title="Television transmitter">Television transmitter</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Broadcast_relay_station&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 35em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a 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Ecfr.gpoaccess.gov. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=ecfr;sid=;rgn=div5;view=text;node=47%3A4.0.1.1.3;idno=47;cc=ecfr#47:4.0.1.1.3.7.3.12">the original</a> on March 5, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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broadcasting">Broadcasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cable_protection_system" title="Cable protection system">Cable protection system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cable_television" title="Cable television">Cable TV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite#History" title="Communications satellite">Communications satellite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_network#History" title="Computer network">Computer network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_compression" title="Data compression">Data compression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Audio_coding_format" title="Audio coding format">audio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrete_cosine_transform" title="Discrete cosine transform">DCT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Image_compression" title="Image compression">image</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_coding_format" title="Video coding format">video</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_media" title="Digital media">Digital media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet_video" title="Internet video">Internet video</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Online_video_platform" title="Online video platform">online video platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_media" title="Social media">social media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Streaming_media" title="Streaming media">streaming</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drums_in_communication" title="Drums in communication">Drums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edholm%27s_law" title="Edholm's law">Edholm's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_telegraph#History" title="Electrical telegraph">Electrical telegraph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fax#History" title="Fax">Fax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliograph#History" title="Heliograph">Heliographs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_telegraph#Greek_hydraulic_semaphore_system" title="Hydraulic telegraph">Hydraulic telegraph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Information revolution">Information revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Internet" title="History of the Internet">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media#History" title="Mass media">Mass media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_mobile_phones" title="History of mobile phones">Mobile phone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Smartphone" title="Smartphone">Smartphone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_communication" title="Optical communication">Optical telecommunication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_telegraph" title="Optical telegraph">Optical telegraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pager" title="Pager">Pager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photophone" title="Photophone">Photophone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_prepaid_mobile_phones" title="History of prepaid mobile phones">Prepaid mobile phone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_radio" title="History of radio">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiotelephone" title="Radiotelephone">Radiotelephone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">Satellite communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semaphore" title="Semaphore">Semaphore</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phryctoria" title="Phryctoria">Phryctoria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">Semiconductor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device" title="Semiconductor device">device</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_transistor" title="History of the transistor">transistor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoke_signal" title="Smoke signal">Smoke signals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_telecommunication" title="History of telecommunication">Telecommunications history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telautograph" title="Telautograph">Telautograph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telegraphy" title="Telegraphy">Telegraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleprinter" title="Teleprinter">Teleprinter</a> (teletype)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_telephone" title="History of the telephone">Telephone</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Telephone_Cases" title="The Telephone Cases">The Telephone Cases</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_television" title="History of television">Television</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_television" title="Digital television">digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Streaming_television" title="Streaming television">streaming</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_communications_cable#Early_history:_telegraph_and_coaxial_cables" title="Submarine communications cable">Undersea telegraph line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_videotelephony" title="History of videotelephony">Videotelephony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whistled_language" title="Whistled language">Whistled language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Wireless revolution">Wireless revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pioneers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nasir_Ahmed_(engineer)" title="Nasir Ahmed (engineer)">Nasir Ahmed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Howard_Armstrong" title="Edwin Howard Armstrong">Edwin Howard Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohamed_M._Atalla" title="Mohamed M. Atalla">Mohamed M. Atalla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Logie_Baird" title="John Logie Baird">John Logie Baird</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Baran" title="Paul Baran">Paul Baran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">John Bardeen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell" title="Alexander Graham Bell">Alexander Graham Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emile_Berliner" title="Emile Berliner">Emile Berliner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee" title="Tim Berners-Lee">Tim Berners-Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Blake_(inventor)" title="Francis Blake (inventor)">Francis Blake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jagadish_Chandra_Bose" title="Jagadish Chandra Bose">Jagadish Chandra Bose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Bourseul" title="Charles Bourseul">Charles Bourseul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Houser_Brattain" title="Walter Houser Brattain">Walter Houser Brattain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vint_Cerf" title="Vint Cerf">Vint Cerf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Chappe" title="Claude Chappe">Claude Chappe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogen_Dalal" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogen Dalal">Yogen Dalal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Davis_Jr." title="Daniel Davis Jr.">Daniel Davis Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davies" title="Donald Davies">Donald Davies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amos_Dolbear" title="Amos Dolbear">Amos Dolbear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Edison" title="Thomas Edison">Thomas Edison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_de_Forest" title="Lee de Forest">Lee de Forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo_Farnsworth" title="Philo Farnsworth">Philo Farnsworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reginald_Fessenden" title="Reginald Fessenden">Reginald Fessenden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elisha_Gray" title="Elisha Gray">Elisha Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Heaviside" title="Oliver Heaviside">Oliver Heaviside</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erna_Schneider_Hoover" title="Erna Schneider Hoover">Erna Schneider Hoover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Hopkins_(physicist)" title="Harold Hopkins (physicist)">Harold Hopkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gardiner_Greene_Hubbard" title="Gardiner Greene Hubbard">Gardiner Greene Hubbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Internet_pioneers" title="List of Internet pioneers">Internet pioneers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Kahn" class="mw-redirect" title="Bob Kahn">Bob Kahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawon_Kahng" title="Dawon Kahng">Dawon Kahng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_K._Kao" title="Charles K. Kao">Charles K. Kao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narinder_Singh_Kapany" title="Narinder Singh Kapany">Narinder Singh Kapany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hedy_Lamarr" title="Hedy Lamarr">Hedy Lamarr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roberto_Landell_de_Moura" title="Roberto Landell de Moura">Roberto Landell de Moura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innocenzo_Manzetti" title="Innocenzo Manzetti">Innocenzo Manzetti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Guglielmo Marconi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Metcalfe" title="Robert Metcalfe">Robert Metcalfe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Meucci" title="Antonio Meucci">Antonio Meucci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Morse" title="Samuel Morse">Samuel Morse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jun-ichi_Nishizawa" title="Jun-ichi Nishizawa">Jun-ichi Nishizawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Grafton_Page" title="Charles Grafton Page">Charles Grafton Page</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radia_Perlman" title="Radia Perlman">Radia Perlman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Stepanovich_Popov" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Stepanovich Popov">Alexander Stepanovich Popov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tivadar_Pusk%C3%A1s" title="Tivadar Puskás">Tivadar Puskás</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Philipp_Reis" title="Johann Philipp Reis">Johann Philipp Reis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Shannon" title="Claude Shannon">Claude Shannon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almon_Brown_Strowger" title="Almon Brown Strowger">Almon Brown Strowger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Sutton_(inventor)" title="Henry Sutton (inventor)">Henry Sutton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sumner_Tainter" title="Charles Sumner Tainter">Charles Sumner Tainter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikola_Tesla" title="Nikola Tesla">Nikola Tesla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camille_Tissot" title="Camille Tissot">Camille Tissot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Vail" title="Alfred Vail">Alfred Vail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_A._Watson" title="Thomas A. Watson">Thomas A. Watson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Wheatstone" title="Charles Wheatstone">Charles Wheatstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_K._Zworykin" title="Vladimir K. Zworykin">Vladimir K. Zworykin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Transmission_medium" title="Transmission medium">Transmission<br />media</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coaxial_cable" title="Coaxial cable">Coaxial cable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication" title="Fiber-optic communication">Fiber-optic communication</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">optical fiber</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-space_optical_communication" title="Free-space optical communication">Free-space optical communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_communication" title="Molecular communication">Molecular communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">Radio waves</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wireless" title="Wireless">wireless</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_line" title="Transmission line">Transmission line</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunication_circuit" title="Telecommunication circuit">telecommunication circuit</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Network_topology" title="Network topology">Network topology</a><br />and switching</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bandwidth_(computing)" title="Bandwidth (computing)">Bandwidth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_link" title="Telecommunications link">Links</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Node_(networking)" title="Node (networking)">Nodes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terminal_(telecommunication)" title="Terminal (telecommunication)">terminal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_switch" title="Network switch">Network switching</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circuit_switching" title="Circuit switching">circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Packet_switching" title="Packet switching">packet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telephone_exchange" title="Telephone exchange">Telephone exchange</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Multiplexing" title="Multiplexing">Multiplexing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space-division_multiple_access" title="Space-division multiple access">Space-division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frequency-division_multiplexing" title="Frequency-division multiplexing">Frequency-division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time-division_multiplexing" title="Time-division multiplexing">Time-division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polarization-division_multiplexing" title="Polarization-division multiplexing">Polarization-division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_angular_momentum_multiplexing" title="Orbital angular momentum multiplexing">Orbital angular-momentum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code-division_multiple_access" title="Code-division multiple access">Code-division</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communication_protocol" title="Communication protocol">Communication protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">Computer network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_communication" title="Data communication">Data transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Store_and_forward" title="Store and forward">Store and forward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_equipment" title="Telecommunications equipment">Telecommunications equipment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_network" title="Telecommunications network">Types of network</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_network" title="Cellular network">Cellular network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethernet" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_Services_Digital_Network" class="mw-redirect" title="Integrated Services Digital Network">ISDN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_area_network" title="Local area network">LAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_telephony" title="Mobile telephony">Mobile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Next-generation_network" title="Next-generation network">NGN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_switched_telephone_network" title="Public switched telephone network">Public Switched Telephone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_network" title="Radio network">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_broadcasting" class="mw-redirect" title="Television broadcasting">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telex" title="Telex">Telex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UUCP" title="UUCP">UUCP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wide_area_network" title="Wide area network">WAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_network" title="Wireless network">Wireless network</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_network" title="Telecommunications network">Notable networks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET">ARPANET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BITNET" title="BITNET">BITNET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CYCLADES" title="CYCLADES">CYCLADES</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FidoNet" title="FidoNet">FidoNet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet2" title="Internet2">Internet2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JANET" title="JANET">JANET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NPL_network" title="NPL network">NPL network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toasternet" title="Toasternet">Toasternet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usenet" title="Usenet">Usenet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Locations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_Africa" title="Category:Telecommunications in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li>Americas <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_North_America" title="Category:Telecommunications in North America">North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_South_America" title="Category:Telecommunications in South America">South</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Communications_in_Antarctica" title="Category:Communications in Antarctica">Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_Asia" title="Category:Telecommunications in Asia">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_Europe" title="Category:Telecommunications in Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_Oceania" title="Category:Telecommunications in Oceania">Oceania</a></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_telecommunications_regulatory_bodies" title="List of telecommunications regulatory bodies">Global telecommunications regulation bodies</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/16px-Telecom-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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