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class="pre-content heading-holder"> <div class="page-heading"> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Reaction mechanism</span></h1> <div class="tagline"></div> </div> <ul id="p-associated-pages" class="minerva__tab-container"> <li class="minerva__tab selected mw-list-item"> <a class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/Reaction_mechanism" rel="" data-event-name="tabs.main">Article</a> </li> <li class="minerva__tab mw-list-item"> <a class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/Talk:Reaction_mechanism" rel="discussion" data-event-name="tabs.talk">Talk</a> </li> </ul> <nav class="page-actions-menu"> <ul id="p-views" class="page-actions-menu__list"> <li id="language-selector" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" href="#p-lang" data-mw="interface" data-event-name="menu.languages" title="Language" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only 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class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>Edit</span> </a> </li> </ul> </nav>  <div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="content"> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><script>function mfTempOpenSection(id){var block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about general process analysis. For electron flow diagrams, see <a href="/wiki/Arrow_pushing" title="Arrow pushing">arrow pushing</a>.</div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, a <b>reaction mechanism</b> is the step by step <a href="/wiki/Sequence" title="Sequence">sequence</a> of <a href="/wiki/Elementary_reaction" title="Elementary reaction">elementary reactions</a> by which overall <a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">chemical reaction</a> occurs.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A chemical mechanism is a theoretical conjecture that tries to describe in detail what takes place at each stage of an overall chemical reaction. The detailed steps of a reaction are not observable in most cases. The conjectured mechanism is chosen because it is thermodynamically feasible and has experimental support in isolated intermediates (see next section) or other quantitative and qualitative characteristics of the reaction. It also describes each <a href="/wiki/Reactive_intermediate" title="Reactive intermediate">reactive intermediate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Activated_complex" title="Activated complex">activated complex</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Transition_state" title="Transition state">transition state</a>, which bonds are broken (and in what order), and which bonds are formed (and in what order). A complete mechanism must also explain the reason for the <a href="/wiki/Reactant" class="mw-redirect" title="Reactant">reactants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Catalyst" class="mw-redirect" title="Catalyst">catalyst</a> used, the <a href="/wiki/Stereochemistry" title="Stereochemistry">stereochemistry</a> observed in reactants and products, all <a href="/wiki/Product_(chemistry)" title="Product (chemistry)">products</a> formed and the amount of each. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BromoethaneSN2reaction-small.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/BromoethaneSN2reaction-small.png" decoding="async" width="500" height="124" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="124"></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/SN2_reaction" title="SN2 reaction">S<sub>N</sub>2 reaction</a> mechanism. Note the negatively charged <a href="/wiki/Transition_state" title="Transition state">transition state</a> in brackets in which the central <a href="/wiki/Carbon_atom" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon atom">carbon atom</a> in question shows five bonds, an unstable condition .</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Arrow_pushing" title="Arrow pushing">electron or arrow pushing</a> method is often used in illustrating a reaction mechanism; for example, see the illustration of the mechanism for <a href="/wiki/Benzoin_condensation" title="Benzoin condensation">benzoin condensation</a> in the following examples section. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Reaction_Mechanism_Acetone_and_Methanol.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Reaction_Mechanism_Acetone_and_Methanol.png/400px-Reaction_Mechanism_Acetone_and_Methanol.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Reaction_Mechanism_Acetone_and_Methanol.png/600px-Reaction_Mechanism_Acetone_and_Methanol.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Reaction_Mechanism_Acetone_and_Methanol.png 2x" data-file-width="616" data-file-height="231"></a><figcaption>A reaction mechanism shows how <a href="/wiki/Acetone" title="Acetone">acetone</a> reacts with <a href="/wiki/Methanol" title="Methanol">methanol</a> in acidic environment using curved arrow (electron or arrow pushing method)</figcaption></figure> <p>Mechanisms also are of interest in <a href="/wiki/Inorganic_chemistry" title="Inorganic chemistry">inorganic chemistry</a>. A often quoted mechanistic experiment involved the reaction of the labile hexaaquo chromous reductant with the exchange inert <a href="/wiki/Pentammine_cobalt(III)_chloride" class="mw-redirect" title="Pentammine cobalt(III) chloride">pentammine cobalt(III) chloride</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TaubeETexpCrCo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/TaubeETexpCrCo.svg/490px-TaubeETexpCrCo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="490" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/TaubeETexpCrCo.svg/735px-TaubeETexpCrCo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/TaubeETexpCrCo.svg/980px-TaubeETexpCrCo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="855" data-file-height="305"></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Henry_Taube" title="Henry Taube">Henry Taube</a>'s experiment establishing the role of a <a href="/wiki/Bridging_ligand" title="Bridging ligand">bridging ligand</a> in <a href="/wiki/Inner_sphere_electron_transfer" title="Inner sphere electron transfer">inner sphere electron transfer</a>.</figcaption></figure> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Reaction_intermediates"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Reaction intermediates</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Chemical_kinetics"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Chemical kinetics</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Other_experimental_methods_to_determine_mechanism"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Other experimental methods to determine mechanism</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Theoretical_modeling"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Theoretical modeling</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Molecularity"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Molecularity</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Reaction_intermediates">Reaction intermediates</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Reaction_mechanism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Reaction intermediates" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <p>Reaction intermediates are chemical species, often unstable and short-lived. They can, however, sometimes be isolated. They are neither reactants nor products of the overall chemical reaction, but temporary products and/or reactants in the mechanism's reaction steps. Reaction intermediates are often confused with the <a href="/wiki/Transition_state" title="Transition state">transition state</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Transition_state" title="Transition state">transition states</a> are, in contrast, fleeting, high-energy species that cannot be isolated. The kinetics (relative rates of the reaction steps and the <a href="/wiki/Rate_equation" title="Rate equation">rate equation</a> for the overall reaction) are discussed in terms of the energy required for the conversion of the reactants to the proposed transition states (molecular states that correspond to maxima on the <a href="/wiki/Reaction_coordinate" title="Reaction coordinate">reaction coordinates</a>, and to <a href="/wiki/Saddle_point" title="Saddle point">saddle points</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Potential_energy_surface" title="Potential energy surface">potential energy surface</a> for the reaction). </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Chemical_kinetics">Chemical kinetics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Reaction_mechanism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Chemical kinetics" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <p>Information about the mechanism of a reaction is often provided by analyzing <a href="/wiki/Chemical_kinetics" title="Chemical kinetics">chemical kinetics</a> to determine the <a href="/wiki/Reaction_order" class="mw-redirect" title="Reaction order">reaction order</a> in each reactant.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Illustrative is the oxidation of carbon monoxide by nitrogen dioxide: </p> <dl><dd>CO + NO<sub>2</sub> → CO<sub>2</sub> + NO</dd></dl> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Rate_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Rate law">rate law</a> for this reaction is: <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle r=k[NO_{2}]^{2}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>r</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>k</mi> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <mi>N</mi> <msub> <mi>O</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle r=k[NO_{2}]^{2}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7c34576960b3342cceed6c0b51b1764beb2dfcf4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:12.597ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle r=k[NO_{2}]^{2}}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 12.597ex;height: 3.176ex;vertical-align: -0.838ex;" data-mw-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7c34576960b3342cceed6c0b51b1764beb2dfcf4" data-alt="{\displaystyle r=k[NO_{2}]^{2}}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </span></span> This form shows that the <a href="/wiki/Rate-determining_step" title="Rate-determining step">rate-determining step</a> does not involve CO. Instead, the slow step involves two molecules of NO<sub>2</sub>. A possible mechanism for the overall reaction that explains the rate law is: </p> <dl><dd>2 NO<sub>2</sub> → NO<sub>3</sub> + NO (slow)</dd> <dd>NO<sub>3</sub> + CO → NO<sub>2</sub> + CO<sub>2</sub> (fast)</dd></dl> <p>Each step is called an elementary step, and each has its own <a href="/wiki/Rate_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Rate law">rate law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Molecularity" title="Molecularity">molecularity</a>. The sum of the elementary steps gives the net reaction. </p><p>When determining the overall rate law for a reaction, the slowest step is the step that determines the reaction rate. Because the first step (in the above reaction) is the slowest step, it is the <a href="/wiki/Rate-determining_step" title="Rate-determining step">rate-determining step</a>. Because it involves the collision of two NO<sub>2</sub> molecules, it is a bimolecular reaction with a rate <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle r}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>r</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle r}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0d1ecb613aa2984f0576f70f86650b7c2a132538" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.049ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle r}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 1.049ex;height: 1.676ex;vertical-align: -0.338ex;" data-mw-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0d1ecb613aa2984f0576f70f86650b7c2a132538" data-alt="{\displaystyle r}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </span></span> which obeys the rate law <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle r=k[NO_{2}(t)]^{2}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>r</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>k</mi> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <mi>N</mi> <msub> <mi>O</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle r=k[NO_{2}(t)]^{2}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/581dd3ba310fe8d53ab10b6a2ed319f4d67ed40a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:15.246ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle r=k[NO_{2}(t)]^{2}}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 15.246ex;height: 3.176ex;vertical-align: -0.838ex;" data-mw-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/581dd3ba310fe8d53ab10b6a2ed319f4d67ed40a" data-alt="{\displaystyle r=k[NO_{2}(t)]^{2}}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </span></span>. </p><p>Other reactions may have mechanisms of several consecutive steps. In <a href="/wiki/Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry">organic chemistry</a>, the reaction mechanism for the <a href="/wiki/Benzoin_condensation" title="Benzoin condensation">benzoin condensation</a>, put forward in 1903 by <a href="/wiki/A._J._Lapworth" class="mw-redirect" title="A. J. Lapworth">A. J. Lapworth</a>, was one of the first proposed reaction mechanisms. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Benzoin_condensation2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Benzoin_condensation2.svg/700px-Benzoin_condensation2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="700" height="254" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="186"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 700px;height: 254px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Benzoin_condensation2.svg/700px-Benzoin_condensation2.svg.png" data-width="700" data-height="254" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Benzoin_condensation2.svg/1050px-Benzoin_condensation2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Benzoin_condensation2.svg/1400px-Benzoin_condensation2.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Benzoin_condensation" title="Benzoin condensation">Benzoin condensation</a> <b>reaction mechanism</b>. <a href="/wiki/Cyanide" title="Cyanide">Cyanide</a> ion (CN<sup>−</sup>) acts as a <a href="/wiki/Catalyst" class="mw-redirect" title="Catalyst">catalyst</a> here, entering at the first step and leaving in the last step. Proton (H<sup>+</sup>) transfers occur at (i) and (ii). The <a href="/wiki/Arrow_pushing" title="Arrow pushing">arrow pushing</a> method is used in some of the steps to show where electron pairs go.</figcaption></figure> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Chain_reaction#Chemical_chain_reactions" title="Chain reaction">chain reaction</a> is an example of a complex mechanism, in which the <a href="/wiki/Chain_propagation" title="Chain propagation">propagation</a> steps form a closed cycle. In a chain reaction, the intermediate produced in one step generates an intermediate in another step. Intermediates are called chain carriers. Sometimes, the chain carriers are radicals, they can be ions as well. In nuclear fission they are neutrons. </p><p>Chain reactions have several steps, which may include:<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>Chain initiation: this can be by <a href="/wiki/Thermolysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermolysis">thermolysis</a> (heating the molecules) or <a href="/wiki/Photolysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Photolysis">photolysis</a> (absorption of light) leading to the breakage of a bond.</li> <li>Propagation: a chain carrier makes another carrier.</li> <li>Branching: one carrier makes more than one carrier.</li> <li>Retardation: a chain carrier may react with a product reducing the rate of formation of the product. It makes another chain carrier, but the product concentration is reduced.</li> <li>Chain termination: radicals combine and the chain carriers are lost.</li> <li>Inhibition: chain carriers are removed by processes other than termination, such as by forming radicals.</li></ol> <p>Even though all these steps can appear in one chain reaction, the minimum necessary ones are Initiation, propagation, and termination. </p><p>An example of a simple chain reaction is the thermal decomposition of <a href="/wiki/Acetaldehyde" title="Acetaldehyde">acetaldehyde</a> (CH<sub>3</sub>CHO) to <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a> (CH<sub>4</sub>) and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a> (CO). The experimental reaction order is 3/2,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which can be explained by a <i>Rice-Herzfeld mechanism</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This reaction mechanism for acetaldehyde has 4 steps with rate equations for each step : </p> <ol><li>Initiation : CH<sub>3</sub>CHO → •CH<sub>3</sub> + •CHO (Rate=k<sub>1</sub> [CH<sub>3</sub>CHO])</li> <li>Propagation: CH<sub>3</sub>CHO + •CH<sub>3</sub> → CH<sub>4</sub> + CH<sub>3</sub>CO• (Rate=k<sub>2</sub> [CH<sub>3</sub>CHO][•CH<sub>3</sub>])</li> <li>Propagation: CH<sub>3</sub>CO• → •CH<sub>3</sub> + CO (Rate=k<sub>3</sub> [CH<sub>3</sub>CO•])</li> <li>Termination: •CH<sub>3</sub> + •CH<sub>3</sub> → CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>3</sub> (Rate=k<sub>4</sub> [•CH<sub>3</sub>]<sup>2</sup>)</li></ol> <p>For the overall reaction, the rates of change of the concentration of the intermediates •CH<sub>3</sub> and CH<sub>3</sub>CO• are zero, according to the <a href="/wiki/Steady_state_(chemistry)" title="Steady state (chemistry)">steady-state approximation</a>, which is used to account for the rate laws of chain reactions.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>d[•CH<sub>3</sub>]/dt = k<sub>1</sub>[CH<sub>3</sub>CHO] – k<sub>2</sub>[•CH<sub>3</sub>][CH<sub>3</sub>CHO] + k<sub>3</sub>[CH<sub>3</sub>CO•] - 2k<sub>4</sub>[•CH<sub>3</sub>]<sup>2</sup> = 0 </p><p>and d[CH<sub>3</sub>CO•]/dt = k<sub>2</sub>[•CH<sub>3</sub>][CH<sub>3</sub>CHO] – k<sub>3</sub>[CH<sub>3</sub>CO•] = 0 </p><p>The sum of these two equations is k<sub>1</sub>[CH<sub>3</sub>CHO] – 2 k<sub>4</sub>[•CH<sub>3</sub>]<sup>2</sup> = 0. This may be solved to find the steady-state concentration of •CH<sub>3</sub> radicals as [•CH<sub>3</sub>] = (k<sub>1</sub> / 2k<sub>4</sub>)<sup>1/2</sup> [CH<sub>3</sub>CHO]<sup>1/2</sup>. </p><p>It follows that the rate of formation of CH<sub>4</sub> is d[CH<sub>4</sub>]/dt = k<sub>2</sub>[•CH<sub>3</sub>][CH<sub>3</sub>CHO] = k<sub>2</sub> (k<sub>1</sub> / 2k<sub>4</sub>)<sup>1/2</sup> [CH<sub>3</sub>CHO]<sup>3/2</sup> </p><p>Thus the mechanism explains the observed rate expression, for the principal products CH<sub>4</sub> and CO. The exact rate law may be even more complicated, there are also minor products such as <a href="/wiki/Acetone" title="Acetone">acetone</a> (CH<sub>3</sub>COCH<sub>3</sub>) and <a href="/wiki/Propionaldehyde" title="Propionaldehyde">propanal</a> (CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>CHO). </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Other_experimental_methods_to_determine_mechanism">Other experimental methods to determine mechanism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Reaction_mechanism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Other experimental methods to determine mechanism" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <p>Many <a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">experiments</a> that suggest the possible sequence of steps in a reaction mechanism have been designed, including: </p> <ul><li>measurement of the effect of temperature (<a href="/wiki/Arrhenius_equation" title="Arrhenius equation">Arrhenius equation</a>) to determine the <a href="/wiki/Activation_energy" title="Activation energy">activation energy</a><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">spectroscopic</a> observation of <a href="/wiki/Reaction_intermediates" class="mw-redirect" title="Reaction intermediates">reaction intermediates</a></li> <li>determination of the <a href="/wiki/Stereochemistry" title="Stereochemistry">stereochemistry</a> of products, for example in <a href="/wiki/Nucleophilic_substitution" title="Nucleophilic substitution">nucleophilic substitution</a> reactions<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>measurement of the effect of <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_isotope_effect" title="Kinetic isotope effect">isotopic substitution</a> on the reaction rate<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>for reactions in solution, measurement of the effect of pressure on the reaction rate to determine the volume change on formation of the activated complex<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>for reactions of ions in solution, measurement of the effect of <a href="/wiki/Ionic_strength" title="Ionic strength">ionic strength</a> on the reaction rate<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>direct observation of the <a href="/wiki/Activated_complex" title="Activated complex">activated complex</a> by <a href="/wiki/Femtochemistry" title="Femtochemistry">pump-probe spectroscopy</a><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>infrared <a href="/wiki/Chemiluminescence" title="Chemiluminescence">chemiluminescence</a> to detect vibrational excitation in the products<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrospray_ionization_mass_spectrometry" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrospray ionization mass spectrometry">electrospray ionization mass spectrometry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crossover_experiment_(chemistry)" title="Crossover experiment (chemistry)">crossover experiments</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Theoretical_modeling">Theoretical modeling</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Reaction_mechanism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Theoretical modeling" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <p>A correct reaction mechanism is an important part of accurate <a href="/wiki/Predictive_modeling" class="mw-redirect" title="Predictive modeling">predictive modeling</a>. For many combustion and plasma systems, detailed mechanisms are not available or require development. </p><p>Even when information is available, identifying and assembling the relevant data from a variety of sources, reconciling discrepant values and extrapolating to different conditions can be a difficult process without expert help. Rate constants or thermochemical data are often not available in the literature, so <a href="/wiki/Computational_chemistry" title="Computational chemistry">computational chemistry</a> techniques or <a href="/wiki/Group_additivity_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Group additivity method">group additivity methods</a> must be used to obtain the required parameters. </p><p>Computational chemistry methods can also be used to calculate <a href="/wiki/Potential_energy_surface" title="Potential energy surface">potential energy surfaces</a> for reactions and determine probable mechanisms.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Molecularity">Molecularity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Reaction_mechanism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Molecularity" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Molecularity" title="Molecularity">molecularity</a></div> <p><b>Molecularity</b> in <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a> is the number of colliding <a href="/wiki/Molecular_entity" title="Molecular entity">molecular entities</a> that are involved in a single <a href="/wiki/Reaction_step" title="Reaction step">reaction step</a>. </p> <ul><li>A reaction step involving one molecular entity is called unimolecular.</li> <li>A reaction step involving two molecular entities is called bimolecular.</li> <li>A reaction step involving three molecular entities is called trimolecular or termolecular.</li></ul> <p>In general, reaction steps involving more than three molecular entities do not occur, because is statistically improbable in terms of Maxwell distribution to find such a transition state. </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Reaction_mechanism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organic_reaction#By_mechanism" title="Organic reaction">Organic reactions by mechanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleophilic_acyl_substitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleophilic acyl substitution">Nucleophilic acyl substitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neighbouring_group_participation" title="Neighbouring group participation">Neighbouring group participation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finkelstein_reaction" title="Finkelstein reaction">Finkelstein reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lindemann_mechanism" title="Lindemann mechanism">Lindemann mechanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrochemical_reaction_mechanism" title="Electrochemical reaction mechanism">Electrochemical reaction mechanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleophilic_abstraction" title="Nucleophilic abstraction">Nucleophilic abstraction</a></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Reaction_mechanism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMarch1985" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jerry_March" title="Jerry March">March, Jerry</a> (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/_/ZKqWAQAACAAJ?hl=en"><i>Advanced Organic Chemistry: Reactions, Mechanisms, and Structure</i></a> (3rd ed.). New York: Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780471854722" title="Special:BookSources/9780471854722"><bdi>9780471854722</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/642506595">642506595</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Advanced+Organic+Chemistry%3A+Reactions%2C+Mechanisms%2C+and+Structure&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F642506595&rft.isbn=9780471854722&rft.aulast=March&rft.aufirst=Jerry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.co.in%2Fbooks%2Fedition%2F_%2FZKqWAQAACAAJ%3Fhl%3Den&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReaction+mechanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Espenson, James H. <i>Chemical Kinetics and Reaction Mechanisms</i> (2nd ed., McGraw-Hill, 2002) chap.6, <i>Deduction of Reaction Mechanisms</i> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-288362-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-07-288362-6">0-07-288362-6</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBäckström1927" class="citation journal cs1">Bäckström, Hans L. J. (1 June 1927). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ja01405a011">"The chain-reaction theory of negative catalysis"</a>. <i>Journal of the American Chemical Society</i>. <b>49</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">1460–</span>1472. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fja01405a011">10.1021/ja01405a011</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 January</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Chemical+Society&rft.atitle=The+chain-reaction+theory+of+negative+catalysis&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1460-%3C%2Fspan%3E1472&rft.date=1927-06-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fja01405a011&rft.aulast=B%C3%A4ckstr%C3%B6m&rft.aufirst=Hans+L.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpubs.acs.org%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1021%2Fja01405a011&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReaction+mechanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Keith_J._Laidler" title="Keith J. Laidler">Laidler K.J.</a> and Meiser J.H., <i>Physical Chemistry</i> (Benjamin/Cummings 1982) p.416-417 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8053-5682-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8053-5682-7">0-8053-5682-7</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Atkins and de Paula p.830-1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Atkins" title="Peter Atkins">Atkins P</a> and de Paula J, <i>Physical Chemistry</i> (8th ed., W.H. Freeman 2006) p.812 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7167-8759-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-7167-8759-8">0-7167-8759-8</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Espenson p.156-160</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Morrison R.T. and Boyd R.N. <i>Organic Chemistry</i> (4th ed., Allyn and Bacon 1983) p.216-9 and p.228-231, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-205-05838-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-205-05838-8">0-205-05838-8</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Atkins" title="Peter Atkins">Atkins P</a> and de Paula J, <i>Physical Chemistry</i> (8th ed., W.H. Freeman 2006) p.816-8 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7167-8759-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-7167-8759-8">0-7167-8759-8</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Moore J.W. and <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Pearson" title="Ralph Pearson">Pearson R.G.</a> <i>Kinetics and Mechanism</i> (3rd ed., John Wiley 1981) p.276-8 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-03558-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-471-03558-0">0-471-03558-0</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Keith_J._Laidler" title="Keith J. Laidler">Laidler K.J.</a> and Meiser J.H., <i>Physical Chemistry</i> (Benjamin/Cummings 1982) p.389-392 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8053-5682-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8053-5682-7">0-8053-5682-7</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Atkins and de Paula p.884-5</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Laidler and Meiser p.388-9</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Atkins and de Paula p.892-3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Atkins and de Paula p.886</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Laidler and Meiser p.396-7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Investigation of chemical reactions in solution using API-MS<i></i> Leonardo Silva Santos, Larissa Knaack, Jurgen O. Metzger <a href="/wiki/International_Journal_of_Mass_Spectrometry" title="International Journal of Mass Spectrometry">Int. J. Mass Spectrom.</a>; <b>2005</b>; 246 pp 84 - 104; (Review) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ijms.2005.08.016">10.1016/j.ijms.2005.08.016</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Espenson p.112</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Atkins and de Paula p.887-891</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <p>L.G.WADE, ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 7TH ED, 2010 </p> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a 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href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%AA%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%84" title="آلية تفاعل – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="آلية تفاعل" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mecanismu_de_reaici%C3%B3n" title="Mecanismu de reaición – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Mecanismu de reaición" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mecanisme_de_reacci%C3%B3" title="Mecanisme de reacció – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Mecanisme de reacció" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reak%C4%8Dn%C3%AD_mechanismus" title="Reakční mechanismus – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Reakční mechanismus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaktionsmekanisme" title="Reaktionsmekanisme – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Reaktionsmekanisme" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaktionsmechanismus" title="Reaktionsmechanismus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Reaktionsmechanismus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaktsiooni_mehhanism" title="Reaktsiooni mehhanism – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Reaktsiooni mehhanism" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mecanismo_de_reacci%C3%B3n" title="Mecanismo de reacción – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Mecanismo de reacción" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reakcia_mekanismo" title="Reakcia mekanismo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Reakcia mekanismo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erreakzio-mekanismo" title="Erreakzio-mekanismo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Erreakzio-mekanismo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B2%D9%88%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D9%88%D8%A7%DA%A9%D9%86%D8%B4" title="سازوکار واکنش – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سازوکار واکنش" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9canisme_r%C3%A9actionnel" title="Mécanisme réactionnel – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Mécanisme réactionnel" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B0%98%EC%9D%91_%EA%B3%BC%EC%A0%95" title="반응 과정 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="반응 과정" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE-%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BF" title="अभिक्रिया क्रिया-विधि – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अभिक्रिया क्रिया-विधि" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mekanisme_reaksi" title="Mekanisme reaksi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Mekanisme reaksi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meccanismo_di_reazione" title="Meccanismo di reazione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Meccanismo di reazione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mecanism_de_la_reassiun" title="Mecanism de la reassiun – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Mecanism de la reassiun" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reakci%C3%B3mechanizmus" title="Reakciómechanizmus – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Reakciómechanizmus" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mekanisme_tindak_balas" title="Mekanisme tindak balas – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Mekanisme tindak balas" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactiemechanisme" title="Reactiemechanisme – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Reactiemechanisme" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%8D%E5%BF%9C%E6%A9%9F%E6%A7%8B" title="反応機構 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="反応機構" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaksjonsmekanisme" title="Reaksjonsmekanisme – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Reaksjonsmekanisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanizmy_reakcji_chemicznych" title="Mechanizmy reakcji chemicznych – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Mechanizmy reakcji chemicznych" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mecanismo_de_rea%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Mecanismo de reação – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Mecanismo de reação" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mecanism_de_reac%C8%9Bie" title="Mecanism de reacție – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Mecanism de reacție" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B8" title="Механизм реакции – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Механизм реакции" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaction_mechanism" title="Reaction mechanism – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Reaction mechanism" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%95%DB%8E%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%8C_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%95%D9%88%DB%95" title="ڕێبازی کاردانەوە – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ڕێبازی کاردانەوە" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehanizam_reakcije" title="Mehanizam reakcije – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Mehanizam reakcije" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaktiomekanismi" title="Reaktiomekanismi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Reaktiomekanismi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaktionsmekanism" title="Reaktionsmekanism – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Reaktionsmekanism" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%88_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%88" title="வேதிவினை வழிமுறை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="வேதிவினை வழிமுறை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaksiyon_mekanizmas%C4%B1" title="Reaksiyon mekanizması – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Reaksiyon mekanizması" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%86%D1%96%D1%97" title="Механізм реакції – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Механізм реакції" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%8D%E6%87%89%E6%A9%9F%E5%88%B6" title="反應機制 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="反應機制" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%8D%E5%BA%94%E6%9C%BA%E7%90%86" title="反应机理 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="反应机理" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 19 January 2025, at 19:39<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Content is available under <a class="external" rel="nofollow" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">CC BY-SA 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places" class="footer-places hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a 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