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id="toc-Business_process_for_internationalizing_software" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Business_process_for_internationalizing_software"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Business process for internationalizing software</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Business_process_for_internationalizing_software-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Engineering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Engineering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Engineering</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Engineering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Process" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Process"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Process</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Process-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Commercial_considerations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commercial_considerations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Commercial considerations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commercial_considerations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header 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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Internationalization and localization</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 38 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-38" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">38 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%84_%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B7%D9%8A%D9%86" title="تدويل وتوطين – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تدويل وتوطين" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internacionalizaci%C3%B3n_y_llocalizaci%C3%B3n" title="Internacionalización y llocalización – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Internacionalización y llocalización" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kok-ch%C3%A8-h%C3%B2a_kap_ch%C4%81i-t%C4%93-h%C3%B2a" title="Kok-chè-hòa kap chāi-tē-hòa – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Kok-chè-hòa kap chāi-tē-hòa" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D1%82%D3%99%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D3%99%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BB%D3%99%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D2%AF" title="Программа тәьминәтен локалләштереү – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Программа тәьминәтен локалләштереү" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internacionalitzaci%C3%B3_i_localitzaci%C3%B3" title="Internacionalització i localització – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Internacionalització i localització" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internacionalizace_a_lokalizace" title="Internacionalizace a lokalizace – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Internacionalizace a lokalizace" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhyngwladoli_a_lleoleiddio" title="Rhyngwladoli a lleoleiddio – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Rhyngwladoli a lleoleiddio" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internationalisering_og_lokalisering" title="Internationalisering og lokalisering – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Internationalisering og lokalisering" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CE%B9%CE%B5%CE%B8%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%AF%CE%B7%CF%83%CE%B7_%CE%BA%CE%B1%CE%B9_%CE%B5%CF%80%CE%B9%CF%87%CF%8E%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%B1_%CF%80%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%83%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BC%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AE" title="Διεθνοποίηση και επιχώρια προσαρμογή – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Διεθνοποίηση και επιχώρια προσαρμογή" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internacionalizaci%C3%B3n_y_localizaci%C3%B3n" title="Internacionalización y localización – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Internacionalización y localización" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internazionalizazioa_eta_lokalizazioa" title="Internazionalizazioa eta lokalizazioa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Internazionalizazioa eta lokalizazioa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%84%D9%84%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%8C_%D9%88_%D9%85%D8%AD%D9%84%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%8C" title="بین‌المللی‌سازی و محلی‌سازی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بین‌المللی‌سازی و محلی‌سازی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internationalisation_et_localisation" title="Internationalisation et localisation – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Internationalisation et localisation" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internacionalizaci%C3%B3n_e_localizaci%C3%B3n" title="Internacionalización e localización – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Internacionalización e localización" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B5%AD%EC%A0%9C%ED%99%94%EC%99%80_%EC%A7%80%EC%97%AD%ED%99%94" title="국제화와 지역화 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="국제화와 지역화" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3_(%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B0)" title="स्थानीकरण (सॉफ्टवेयर) – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="स्थानीकरण (सॉफ्टवेयर)" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internacionalizacija_i_lokalizacija" title="Internacionalizacija i lokalizacija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Internacionalizacija i lokalizacija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internasionalisasi_dan_pelokalan" title="Internasionalisasi dan pelokalan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Internasionalisasi dan pelokalan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%96%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%94" title="לוקליזציה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="לוקליזציה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internacionaliz%C3%A1l%C3%A1s_%C3%A9s_honos%C3%ADt%C3%A1s" title="Internacionalizálás és honosítás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Internacionalizálás és honosítás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3_%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3" title="आंतरराष्ट्रीयीकरण आणि स्थानिकीकरण – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="आंतरराष्ट्रीयीकरण आणि स्थानिकीकरण" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9B%BD%E9%9A%9B%E5%8C%96%E3%81%A8%E5%9C%B0%E5%9F%9F%E5%8C%96" title="国際化と地域化 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="国際化と地域化" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internasjonalisering_og_lokalisering" title="Internasjonalisering og lokalisering – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Internasjonalisering og lokalisering" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B9_(%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B5)" title="Локализаций (информатике) – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Локализаций (информатике)" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Олык марий</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internacionaliza%C3%A7%C3%A3o_e_tradu%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Internacionalização e tradução – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Internacionalização e tradução" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B8_%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Интернационализация и локализация – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Интернационализация и локализация" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internacionaliz%C3%A1cia_a_lokaliz%C3%A1cia" title="Internacionalizácia a lokalizácia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Internacionalizácia a lokalizácia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internacionalizacija_in_lokalizacija" title="Internacionalizacija in lokalizacija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Internacionalizacija in lokalizacija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%B8_%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Интернационализација и локализација – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Интернационализација и локализација" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kansainv%C3%A4list%C3%A4minen_ja_lokalisointi" title="Kansainvälistäminen ja lokalisointi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kansainvälistäminen ja lokalisointi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internationalisering_och_lokalisering" title="Internationalisering och lokalisering – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Internationalisering och lokalisering" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="சர்வதேசமயப்படுத்தலும் உள்ளூர்மயப்படுத்தலும் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="சர்வதேசமயப்படுத்தலும் உள்ளூர்மயப்படுத்தலும்" 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Translation" title="Category:Translation">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:none;padding-top:0;"><a href="/wiki/Translation" title="Translation">Translation</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%C3%86toms_-_Translation.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/%C3%86toms_-_Translation.svg/100px-%C3%86toms_-_Translation.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/%C3%86toms_-_Translation.svg/150px-%C3%86toms_-_Translation.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/%C3%86toms_-_Translation.svg/200px-%C3%86toms_-_Translation.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:antiquewhite;"> Types</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legal_translation" title="Legal translation">Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translation#Literary_translation" title="Translation">Literary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bible_translations" title="Bible translations">Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quran_translations" title="Quran translations">Quran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirukkural_translations" title="Tirukkural translations">Kural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_validation" title="Linguistic validation">Linguistic validation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_translation" title="Medical translation">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulatory_translation" title="Regulatory translation">Regulatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_translation" title="Technical translation">Technical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_interpretation" title="Language interpretation">Interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_translation" title="Cultural translation">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">Word-for-word</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sense-for-sense_translation" title="Sense-for-sense translation">Sense-for-sense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homophonic_translation" title="Homophonic translation">Homophonic</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:antiquewhite;"> Theory</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Translation_studies" title="Translation studies">Translation studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skopos_theory" title="Skopos theory">Skopos theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translation_project" title="Translation project">Translation project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translation_criticism" title="Translation criticism">Translation criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_and_formal_equivalence" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamic and formal equivalence">Dynamic and formal equivalence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contrastive_linguistics" title="Contrastive linguistics">Contrastive linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polysystem_theory" title="Polysystem theory">Polysystem theory</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:antiquewhite;"> Technologies</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer-assisted_translation" title="Computer-assisted translation">CAT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_translation" title="Machine translation">Machine translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_translation" title="Mobile translation">Mobile translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translation_management_system" title="Translation management system">Translation management system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dubbing" title="Dubbing">Dubbing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subtitles" title="Subtitles">Subtitling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-editing" title="Pre-editing">Pre-editing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postediting" title="Postediting">Postediting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multimedia_translation" title="Multimedia translation">Multimedia translation</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:antiquewhite;"> Localization</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glocalization" title="Glocalization">Glocalization</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Internationalization and localization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_localisation" title="Language localisation">Language localization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_game_localization" title="Video game localization">Video game localization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dubbing_(filmmaking)#Localization" class="mw-redirect" title="Dubbing (filmmaking)">Dub localization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Website_localization" title="Website localization">Website localization</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Software localization</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:antiquewhite;"> Institutional</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Translation_associations" title="Category:Translation associations">Associations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Translation_awards" title="Category:Translation awards">Awards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Translation_organizations" title="Category:Translation organizations">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Translation_and_interpreting_schools" title="Category:Translation and interpreting schools">Schools</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:antiquewhite;"> Related topics</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Untranslatability" title="Untranslatability">Untranslatability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcription_(linguistics)" title="Transcription (linguistics)">Transcription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transliteration" title="Transliteration">Transliteration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_relay_service" title="Video relay service">Video relay service</a> (VRS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telephone_interpreting" title="Telephone interpreting">Telephone interpreting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_barrier" title="Language barrier">Language barrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fan_translation" title="Fan translation">Fan translation</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fan_translation_of_video_games" title="Fan translation of video games">of video games</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fansub" title="Fansub">Fansub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fandub" title="Fandub">Fandub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scanlation" title="Scanlation">Scanlation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journalistic_translation" title="Journalistic translation">Journalistic translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Translation_publications" title="Category:Translation publications">Books and magazines on translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Bible_translations_by_language" title="Category:Bible translations by language">Bible translations by language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Translations" title="Category:Translations">Translated books</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_literary_works_by_number_of_translations" title="List of literary works by number of translations">List of most translated works</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Translators" title="Category:Translators">Translators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Tirukkural_translations_by_language" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Tirukkural translations by language">Kural translations by language</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Translation_info" title="Template:Translation info"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Translation_info" title="Template talk:Translation info"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Translation_info" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Translation info"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Debian72Trinity35132.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Debian72Trinity35132.png/350px-Debian72Trinity35132.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Debian72Trinity35132.png/525px-Debian72Trinity35132.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Debian72Trinity35132.png/700px-Debian72Trinity35132.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>Screenshot of <a href="/wiki/Trinity_Desktop_Environment" title="Trinity Desktop Environment">TDE</a> software programs mostly localized to <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Chinese (traditional)</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Computing" title="Computing">computing</a>, <b>internationalization and localization</b> (<a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American</a>) or <b>internationalisation and localisation</b> (<a href="/wiki/British_English" title="British English">British</a>), often abbreviated <b>i18n</b> and <b>l10n</b> respectively,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are means of adapting <a href="/wiki/Computer_software" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer software">computer software</a> to different languages, regional peculiarities and technical requirements of a target <a href="/wiki/Locale_(computer_software)" title="Locale (computer software)">locale</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-SFW_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SFW-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Internationalization is the process of designing a <a href="/wiki/Application_software" title="Application software">software application</a> so that it can be adapted to various languages and regions without engineering changes. Localization is the process of adapting internationalized software for a specific region or language by translating text and adding locale-specific components. </p><p>Localization (which is potentially performed multiple times, for different locales) uses the infrastructure or flexibility provided by internationalization (which is ideally performed only once before localization, or as an integral part of ongoing development).<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Naming">Naming</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Internationalization_and_localization&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Naming"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The terms are frequently abbreviated to the <a href="/wiki/Numeronym" title="Numeronym">numeronyms</a> <i><b>i18n</b></i> (where <i>18</i> stands for the number of letters between the first <i>i</i> and the last <i>n</i> in the word <i>internationalization</i>, a usage coined at <a href="/wiki/Digital_Equipment_Corporation" title="Digital Equipment Corporation">Digital Equipment Corporation</a> in the 1970s or 1980s)<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <i><b>l10n</b></i> for <i>localization</i>, due to the length of the words.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-GNU_Org.,_2019_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GNU_Org.,_2019-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some writers have the latter term capitalized <i>(<b>L10n</b>)</i> to help distinguish the two.<sup id="cite_ref-L10n_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-L10n-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some companies, like <a href="/wiki/IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oracle_Corporation" title="Oracle Corporation">Oracle</a>, use the term <i><a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a></i>, <i>g11n</i>, for the combination of internationalization and localization.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Microsoft" title="Microsoft">Microsoft</a> defines internationalization as a combination of world-readiness and localization. World-readiness is a developer task, which enables a product to be used with multiple scripts and cultures (globalization) and separates user interface resources in a localizable format (localizability, abbreviated to <i>L12y</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Hewlett-Packard" title="Hewlett-Packard">Hewlett-Packard</a> and <a href="/wiki/HP-UX" title="HP-UX">HP-UX</a> created a system called "National Language Support" or "Native Language Support" (NLS) to produce localizable software.<sup id="cite_ref-SFW_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SFW-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some vendors, including IBM<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> use the term <i>National Language Version</i> (NLV) for localized versions of software products supporting only one specific locale. The term implies the existence of other alike NLV versions of the software for different markets; this terminology is not used where no internationalization and localization was undertaken and a software product only supports one language and locale in any version. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scope">Scope</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Internationalization_and_localization&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Scope"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Globalisationchart.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Globalisationchart.svg/400px-Globalisationchart.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Globalisationchart.svg/600px-Globalisationchart.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Globalisationchart.svg/800px-Globalisationchart.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="925" data-file-height="522" /></a><figcaption>The internationalization and localization process<br />(based on a chart from the <a href="/wiki/Localization_Industry_Standards_Association" title="Localization Industry Standards Association">LISA</a> website)</figcaption></figure> <p>According to <i>Software without frontiers</i>, the design aspects to consider when internationalizing a product are "data encoding, data and documentation, software construction, hardware device support, and user interaction"; while the key design areas to consider when making a fully internationalized product from scratch are "user interaction, algorithm design and data formats, software services, and documentation".<sup id="cite_ref-SFW_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SFW-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Translation is typically the most time-consuming component of <a href="/wiki/Language_localization" class="mw-redirect" title="Language localization">language localization</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-SFW_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SFW-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This may involve: </p> <ul><li>For film, video, and audio, translation of spoken words or music lyrics, often using either <a href="/wiki/Dub_localization" class="mw-redirect" title="Dub localization">dubbing</a> or <a href="/wiki/Subtitle_(captioning)" class="mw-redirect" title="Subtitle (captioning)">subtitles</a></li> <li>Text translation for printed materials, and digital media (possibly including error messages and documentation)</li> <li>Potentially altering images and logos containing text to contain translations or generic icons<sup id="cite_ref-SFW_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SFW-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Different translation lengths and differences in character sizes (e.g. between <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a> letters and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a>) can cause layouts that work well in one language to work poorly in others<sup id="cite_ref-SFW_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SFW-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Consideration of differences in <a href="/wiki/Dialect" title="Dialect">dialect</a>, <a href="/wiki/Register_(sociolinguistics)" title="Register (sociolinguistics)">register</a> or <a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)">variety</a><sup id="cite_ref-SFW_2-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SFW-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Writing conventions like: <ul><li>Formatting of numbers (especially <a href="/wiki/Decimal_separator" title="Decimal separator">decimal separator</a> and <a href="/wiki/Digit_grouping" class="mw-redirect" title="Digit grouping">digit grouping</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Date_and_time_representation_by_country" title="Date and time representation by country">Date and time format</a>, possibly including the use of different calendars (e.g. the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_calendar" title="Islamic calendar">Islamic</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_calendar" title="Japanese calendar">Japanese calendar</a>)</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Standard_locale_data">Standard locale data</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Internationalization_and_localization&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Standard locale data"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Computer_software" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer software">Computer software</a> can encounter differences above and beyond straightforward translation of words and phrases, because computer programs can generate content dynamically. These differences may need to be taken into account by the internationalization process in preparation for translation. Many of these differences are so regular that a conversion between languages can be easily automated. The <a href="/wiki/Common_Locale_Data_Repository" title="Common Locale Data Repository">Common Locale Data Repository</a> by <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> provides a collection of such differences. Its data is used by major <a href="/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating systems</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Windows" title="Microsoft Windows">Microsoft Windows</a>, <a href="/wiki/MacOS" title="MacOS">macOS</a> and <a href="/wiki/Debian" title="Debian">Debian</a>, and by major Internet companies or projects such as <a href="/wiki/Google" title="Google">Google</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Wikimedia_Foundation" title="Wikimedia Foundation">Wikimedia Foundation</a>. Examples of such differences include: </p> <ul><li>Different "scripts" in different <a href="/wiki/Writing_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Writing systems">writing systems</a> use different <a href="/wiki/Character_(symbol)" title="Character (symbol)">characters</a> – a different set of letters, <a href="/wiki/Syllabary" title="Syllabary">syllograms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Logogram" title="Logogram">logograms</a>, or symbols. Modern systems use the <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> standard to represent many different languages with a single <a href="/wiki/Character_encoding" title="Character encoding">character encoding</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Writing_direction" class="mw-redirect" title="Writing direction">Writing direction</a> is left to right in most European languages, right-to-left in Hebrew and Arabic, or both in <a href="/wiki/Boustrophedon" title="Boustrophedon">boustrophedon</a> scripts, and optionally vertical in some Asian languages.<sup id="cite_ref-SFW_2-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SFW-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complex_text_layout" title="Complex text layout">Complex text layout</a>, for languages where characters change shape depending on context</li> <li>Capitalization exists in some scripts and not in others</li> <li>Different languages and writing systems have different <a href="/wiki/Collation" title="Collation">text sorting</a> rules</li> <li>Different languages have different <a href="/wiki/Numeral_(linguistics)" title="Numeral (linguistics)">numeral systems</a>, which might need to be supported if <a href="/wiki/Western_Arabic_numerals" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Arabic numerals">Western Arabic numerals</a> are not used</li> <li>Different languages have different pluralization rules, which can complicate programs that dynamically display numerical content.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other grammar rules might also vary, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Genitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Genitive">genitive</a>.</li> <li>Different languages use different punctuation (e.g. quoting text using double-quotes (" ") as in English, or <a href="/wiki/Guillemet" title="Guillemet">guillemets</a> (« ») as in French)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keyboard_shortcut" title="Keyboard shortcut">Keyboard shortcuts</a> can only make use of buttons on the <a href="/wiki/Keyboard_layout" title="Keyboard layout">keyboard layout</a> which is being localized for. If a shortcut corresponds to a word in a particular language (e.g. Ctrl-s stands for "save" in English), it may need to be changed.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="National_conventions">National conventions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Internationalization_and_localization&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: National conventions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Different countries have different economic conventions, including variations in: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paper_size" title="Paper size">Paper sizes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broadcast_television_systems" title="Broadcast television systems">Broadcast television systems</a> and popular <a href="/wiki/Storage_media" class="mw-redirect" title="Storage media">storage media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_conventions_for_writing_telephone_numbers" title="National conventions for writing telephone numbers">Telephone number formats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Address_(geography)#Mailing_address_format_by_country" class="mw-redirect" title="Address (geography)">Postal address formats</a>, <a href="/wiki/Postal_code" title="Postal code">postal codes</a>, and choice of delivery services</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Currency" title="Currency">Currency</a> (<a href="/wiki/Currency_symbol" title="Currency symbol">symbols</a>, positions of currency markers, and reasonable amounts due to different <a href="/wiki/Inflation" title="Inflation">inflation</a> histories) – <a href="/wiki/ISO_4217" title="ISO 4217">ISO 4217</a> codes are often used for internationalization</li> <li><a href="/wiki/System_of_measurement" class="mw-redirect" title="System of measurement">System of measurement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battery_sizes" class="mw-redirect" title="Battery sizes">Battery sizes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mains_electricity_by_country" title="Mains electricity by country">Voltage and current standards</a></li></ul> <p>In particular, the United States and Europe differ in most of these cases. Other areas often follow one of these. </p><p>Specific third-party services, such as online maps, weather reports, or <a href="/wiki/Payment_service_provider" title="Payment service provider">payment service providers</a>, might not be available worldwide from the same carriers, or at all. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Time_zone" title="Time zone">Time zones</a> vary across the world, and this must be taken into account if a product originally only interacted with people in a single time zone. For internationalization, <a href="/wiki/Coordinated_Universal_Time" title="Coordinated Universal Time">UTC</a> is often used internally and then converted into a local time zone for display purposes. </p><p>Different countries have different legal requirements, meaning for example: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compliance_(regulation)" class="mw-redirect" title="Compliance (regulation)">Regulatory compliance</a> may require customization for a particular jurisdiction, or a change to the product as a whole, such as: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Privacy_law" title="Privacy law">Privacy law</a> compliance</li> <li>Additional <a href="/wiki/Disclaimer" title="Disclaimer">disclaimers</a> on a website or packaging</li> <li>Different consumer labelling requirements</li> <li>Compliance with <a href="/wiki/Export_restrictions" class="mw-redirect" title="Export restrictions">export restrictions</a> and regulations on <a href="/wiki/Encryption" title="Encryption">encryption</a></li> <li>Compliance with an <a href="/wiki/Internet_censorship" title="Internet censorship">Internet censorship</a> regime or <a href="/wiki/Subpoena" title="Subpoena">subpoena</a> procedures</li> <li>Requirements for <a href="/wiki/Accessibility" title="Accessibility">accessibility</a></li> <li>Collecting different taxes, such as <a href="/wiki/Sales_tax" title="Sales tax">sales tax</a>, <a href="/wiki/Value_added_tax" class="mw-redirect" title="Value added tax">value added tax</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Customs_duties" class="mw-redirect" title="Customs duties">customs duties</a></li> <li>Sensitivity to different political issues, like <a href="/wiki/Category:Geographical_naming_disputes" title="Category:Geographical naming disputes">geographical naming disputes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Border_dispute" class="mw-redirect" title="Border dispute">disputed borders</a> shown on maps (e.g., India has proposed a bill that would make failing to show <a href="/wiki/Kashmir" title="Kashmir">Kashmir</a> and other areas as intended by the government a crime<sup id="cite_ref-HaiderPakistan16_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HaiderPakistan16-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-HamdaniChanging16_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HamdaniChanging16-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CourierAnOver17_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CourierAnOver17-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>)</li></ul></li> <li>Government-assigned numbers have different formats (such as passports, <a href="/wiki/Social_Security_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="Social Security Number">Social Security Numbers</a> and other <a href="/wiki/National_identification_number" title="National identification number">national identification numbers</a>)</li></ul> <p>Localization also may take into account differences in culture, such as: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_holidays_by_country" title="List of holidays by country">Local holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_name" title="Personal name">Personal name</a> and <a href="/wiki/Title" title="Title">title</a> conventions</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></li> <li>Comprehensibility and cultural appropriateness of images and <a href="/wiki/Color_symbolism" title="Color symbolism">color symbolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnicity" title="Ethnicity">Ethnicity</a>, clothing, and <a href="/wiki/Socioeconomic_status" title="Socioeconomic status">socioeconomic status</a> of people and architecture of locations pictured</li> <li>Local customs and <a href="/wiki/Convention_(norm)" title="Convention (norm)">conventions</a>, such as social taboos, popular local religions, or superstitions such as <a href="/wiki/Blood_types_in_Japanese_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood types in Japanese culture">blood types in Japanese culture</a> vs. astrological signs in other cultures</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Business_process_for_internationalizing_software">Business process for internationalizing software</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Internationalization_and_localization&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Business process for internationalizing software"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>To <i>internationalize</i> a product, it is important to look at a variety of markets that the product will foreseeably enter.<sup id="cite_ref-SFW_2-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SFW-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Details such as field length for street addresses, unique format for the address, ability to make the postal code field optional to address countries that do not have postal codes or the state field for countries that do not have states, plus the introduction of new registration flows that adhere to local laws are just some of the examples that make internationalization a complex project.<sup id="cite_ref-L10n_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-L10n-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A broader approach takes into account cultural factors regarding for example the adaptation of the business process logic or the inclusion of individual cultural (behavioral) aspects.<sup id="cite_ref-SFW_2-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SFW-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Already in the 1990s, companies such as <a href="/wiki/Groupe_Bull" title="Groupe Bull">Bull</a> used <a href="/wiki/Machine_translation" title="Machine translation">machine translation</a> (<a href="/wiki/Systran" class="mw-redirect" title="Systran">Systran</a>) on a large scale, for all their translation activity: human translators handled pre-editing (making the input machine-readable) and <a href="/wiki/Post-editing" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-editing">post-editing</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-SFW_2-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SFW-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Engineering">Engineering</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Internationalization_and_localization&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Engineering"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Both in re-engineering an existing software or designing a new internationalized software, the first step of internationalization is to split each potentially locale-dependent part (whether code, text or data) into a separate module.<sup id="cite_ref-SFW_2-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SFW-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each module can then either rely on a standard library/dependency or be independently replaced as needed for each locale. </p><p>The current prevailing practice is for applications to place text in resource files which are loaded during program execution as needed.<sup id="cite_ref-SFW_2-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SFW-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These strings, stored in resource files, are relatively easy to translate. Programs are often built to reference resource libraries depending on the selected locale data. </p><p>The storage for translatable and translated strings is sometimes called a message catalog<sup id="cite_ref-SFW_2-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SFW-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as the strings are called messages. The catalog generally comprises a set of files in a specific localization format and a standard library to handle said format. One <a href="/wiki/Software_library" class="mw-redirect" title="Software library">software library</a> and format that aids this is <a href="/wiki/Gettext" title="Gettext">gettext</a>. </p><p>Thus to get an application to support multiple languages one would design the application to select the relevant language resource file at runtime. The code required to manage data entry verification and many other locale-sensitive data types also must support differing locale requirements. Modern development systems and operating systems include sophisticated libraries for international support of these types, see also <a href="#Standard_locale_data">Standard locale data</a> above. </p><p>Many localization issues (e.g. writing direction, text sorting) require more profound changes in the software than text translation. For example, <a href="/wiki/OpenOffice.org" title="OpenOffice.org">OpenOffice.org</a> achieves this with compilation switches. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Process">Process</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Internationalization_and_localization&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Process"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A globalization method includes, after planning, three implementation steps: internationalization, localization and quality assurance.<sup id="cite_ref-SFW_2-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SFW-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To some degree (e.g. for <a href="/wiki/Quality_assurance" title="Quality assurance">quality assurance</a>), development teams include someone who handles the basic/central stages of the process which then enables all the others.<sup id="cite_ref-SFW_2-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SFW-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such persons typically understand foreign languages and cultures and have some technical background. Specialized technical writers are required to construct a culturally appropriate syntax for potentially complicated concepts, coupled with engineering resources to deploy and test the localization elements. </p><p>Once properly internationalized, software can rely on more decentralized models for localization: <a href="/wiki/Free_and_open_source_software" class="mw-redirect" title="Free and open source software">free and open source software</a> usually rely on self-localization by end-users and volunteers, sometimes organized in teams.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/GNOME_project" class="mw-redirect" title="GNOME project">GNOME project</a>, for example, has volunteer translation teams for over 100 languages.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/MediaWiki" title="MediaWiki">MediaWiki</a> supports over 500 languages, of which 100 are mostly complete as of September 2023<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Internationalization_and_localization&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When translating existing text to other languages, it is difficult to maintain the parallel versions of texts throughout the life of the product.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, if a message displayed to the user is modified, all of the translated versions must be changed. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Independent_software_vendor" title="Independent software vendor">Independent software vendor</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Microsoft" title="Microsoft">Microsoft</a> may provides reference software localization guidelines for developers.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The software localization language may be different from <a href="/wiki/Written_language" title="Written language">written language</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Commercial_considerations">Commercial considerations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Internationalization_and_localization&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Commercial considerations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In a commercial setting, the benefit of localization is access to more markets. In the early 1980s, <a href="/wiki/Lotus_1-2-3" title="Lotus 1-2-3">Lotus 1-2-3</a> took two years to separate program code and text and lost the market lead in Europe over <a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Multiplan" class="mw-redirect" title="Microsoft Multiplan">Microsoft Multiplan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-SFW_2-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SFW-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> MicroPro found that using an Austrian translator for the West German market caused its <a href="/wiki/WordStar" title="WordStar">WordStar</a> documentation to, an executive said, not "have the tone it should have had".<sup id="cite_ref-schrage19850217_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-schrage19850217-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, there are considerable costs involved, which go far beyond engineering. Further, business operations must adapt to manage the production, storage and distribution of multiple discrete localized products, which are often being sold in completely different currencies, regulatory environments and tax regimes. </p><p>Finally, sales, marketing and <a href="/wiki/Technical_support" title="Technical support">technical support</a> must also facilitate their operations in the new languages, to support customers for the localized products. Particularly for relatively small language populations, it may never be economically viable to offer a localized product. Even where large language populations could justify localization for a given product, and a product's internal structure already permits localization, a given software developer or publisher may lack the size and sophistication to manage the ancillary functions associated with operating in multiple locales. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Internationalization_and_localization&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Subcomponents and standards: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bidirectional_script_support" class="mw-redirect" title="Bidirectional script support">Bidirectional script support</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Components_for_Unicode" title="International Components for Unicode">International Components for Unicode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_code" title="Language code">Language code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_localisation" title="Language localisation">Language localization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Website_localization" title="Website localization">Website localization</a></li></ul></li> <li>Related concepts: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_accessibility" title="Computer accessibility">Computer accessibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_Russification" title="Computer Russification">Computer Russification</a>, localization into Russian language</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_concerns" title="Separation of concerns">Separation of concerns</a></li></ul></li> <li>Methods and examples: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Game_localization" class="mw-redirect" title="Game localization">Game localization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization_Management_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Globalization Management System">Globalization Management System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudolocalization" title="Pseudolocalization">Pseudolocalization</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Software_testing" title="Software testing">software testing</a> method for testing a software product's readiness for localization.</li></ul></li> <li>Other: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Input_method_editor" class="mw-redirect" title="Input method editor">Input method editor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_industry" title="Language industry">Language industry</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Internationalization_and_localization&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output 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.citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFIshidaMiller2005" class="citation web cs1">Ishida, Richard; Miller, Susan K. (2005-12-05). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.w3.org/International/questions/qa-i18n">"Localization vs. Internationalization"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/W3C" class="mw-redirect" title="W3C">W3C</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160403134943/http://www.w3.org/International/questions/qa-i18n/">Archived</a> from the original on 2016-04-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-09-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=W3C&rft.atitle=Localization+vs.+Internationalization&rft.date=2005-12-05&rft.aulast=Ishida&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft.au=Miller%2C+Susan+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2FInternational%2Fquestions%2Fqa-i18n&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SFW-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SFW_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SFW_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SFW_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SFW_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SFW_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SFW_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SFW_2-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SFW_2-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SFW_2-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SFW_2-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SFW_2-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SFW_2-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SFW_2-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SFW_2-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SFW_2-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SFW_2-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SFW_2-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHallHudson1997" class="citation book cs1">Hall, P. A. V.; Hudson, R., eds. (1997). <i>Software without Frontiers: A Multi-Platform, Multi-Cultural, Multi-Nation Approach</i>. Chichester: Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-96974-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-471-96974-5"><bdi>0-471-96974-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Software+without+Frontiers%3A+A+Multi-Platform%2C+Multi-Cultural%2C+Multi-Nation+Approach&rft.place=Chichester&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-471-96974-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEsselink2006" class="citation book cs1">Esselink, Bert (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120907235057/http://isg.urv.es/library/papers/Esselink_Evolution.pdf">"The Evolution of Localization"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In Pym, Anthony; Perekrestenko, Alexander; Starink, Bram (eds.). <i>Translation Technology and Its Teaching (With Much Mention of Localization)</i>. Tarragona: Intercultural Studies Group – URV. pp. 21–29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/84-611-1131-1" title="Special:BookSources/84-611-1131-1"><bdi>84-611-1131-1</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://isg.urv.es/library/papers/Esselink_Evolution.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 7 September 2012. <q>In a nutshell, localization revolves around combining language and technology to produce a product that can cross cultural and language barriers. No more, no less.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Evolution+of+Localization&rft.btitle=Translation+Technology+and+Its+Teaching+%28With+Much+Mention+of+Localization%29&rft.place=Tarragona&rft.pages=21-29&rft.pub=Intercultural+Studies+Group+%E2%80%93+URV&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=84-611-1131-1&rft.aulast=Esselink&rft.aufirst=Bert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fisg.urv.es%2Flibrary%2Fpapers%2FEsselink_Evolution.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.w3.org/2001/12/Glossary#I18N">"Glossary of W3C Jargon"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/W3C" class="mw-redirect" title="W3C">W3C</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110902154839/http://www.w3.org/2001/12/Glossary#I18N">Archived</a> from the original on 2 September 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 September</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=W3C&rft.atitle=Glossary+of+W3C+Jargon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2001%2F12%2FGlossary%23I18N&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.i18nguy.com/origini18n.html">"Origin of the Abbreviation I18n"</a>. <i>I18nGuy</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140627034040/http://www.i18nguy.com/origini18n.html">Archived</a> from the original on 27 June 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=I18nGuy&rft.atitle=Origin+of+the+Abbreviation+I18n&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.i18nguy.com%2Forigini18n.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GNU_Org.,_2019-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-GNU_Org.,_2019_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gnu.org/software/gettext/manual/html_node/Concepts.html">"Concepts (GNU gettext utilities)"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Gnu.org" class="mw-redirect" title="Gnu.org">gnu.org</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190918095917/https://www.gnu.org/software/gettext/manual/html_node/Concepts.html">Archived</a> from the original on 18 September 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 September</span> 2023</span>. <q>Many people, tired of writing these long words over and over again, took the habit of writing <i>i18n</i> and <i>l10n</i> instead, quoting the first and last letter of each word, and replacing the run of intermediate letters by a number merely telling how many such letters there are.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=gnu.org&rft.atitle=Concepts+%28GNU+gettext+utilities%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gnu.org%2Fsoftware%2Fgettext%2Fmanual%2Fhtml_node%2FConcepts.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-L10n-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-L10n_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-L10n_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFalan2011" class="citation web cs1">alan (29 March 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ccjk.com/what-is-internationalization-i18n-localization-l10n-and-globalization-g11n/">"What is Internationalization (i18n), Localization (L10n) and Globalization (g11n)"</a>. <i>ccjk.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150402114350/http://www.ccjk.com/what-is-internationalization-i18n-localization-l10n-and-globalization-g11n/">Archived</a> from the original on 2 April 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 September</span> 2023</span>. <q>The capital L in L10n helps to distinguish it from the lowercase i in i18n.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ccjk.com&rft.atitle=What+is+Internationalization+%28i18n%29%2C+Localization+%28L10n%29+and+Globalization+%28g11n%29&rft.date=2011-03-29&rft.au=alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ccjk.com%2Fwhat-is-internationalization-i18n-localization-l10n-and-globalization-g11n%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160331105340/http://www-01.ibm.com/software/globalization/">"Globalize Your Business"</a>. <i>IBM</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibm.com/software/globalization/">the original</a> on 31 March 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=IBM&rft.atitle=Globalize+Your+Business&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ibm.com%2Fsoftware%2Fglobalization%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150412064148/https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/goglobal/bb688110.aspx">"Globalization Step-by-Step"</a>. <i>Go Global Developer Center</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 September</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=gnu.org&rft.atitle=Plural+forms+%28GNU+gettext+utilities%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gnu.org%2Fsoftware%2Fgettext%2Fmanual%2Fhtml_node%2FPlural-forms.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://languagetranslationsservices.wordpress.com/2014/08/21/do-we-need-to-localize-keyboard-shortcuts/">"Do We Need to Localize Keyboard Shortcuts?"</a>. <i>Human Translation Services – Language to Language Translation</i>. 21 August 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150403113353/http://languagetranslationsservices.wordpress.com/2014/08/21/do-we-need-to-localize-keyboard-shortcuts/">Archived</a> from the original on 3 April 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Human+Translation+Services+%E2%80%93+Language+to+Language+Translation&rft.atitle=Do+We+Need+to+Localize+Keyboard+Shortcuts%3F&rft.date=2014-08-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flanguagetranslationsservices.wordpress.com%2F2014%2F08%2F21%2Fdo-we-need-to-localize-keyboard-shortcuts%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HaiderPakistan16-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-HaiderPakistan16_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMateen_Haider2016" class="citation news cs1">Mateen Haider (17 May 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dawn.com/news/1258908/pakistan-expresses-concern-over-indias-controversial-maps-bill">"Pakistan Expresses Concern Over India's Controversial 'Maps Bill'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>Dawn</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180510115216/https://www.dawn.com/news/1258908/pakistan-expresses-concern-over-indias-controversial-maps-bill">Archived</a> from the original on 10 May 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 May</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Dawn&rft.atitle=Pakistan+Expresses+Concern+Over+India%27s+Controversial+%27Maps+Bill%27&rft.date=2016-05-17&rft.au=Mateen+Haider&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dawn.com%2Fnews%2F1258908%2Fpakistan-expresses-concern-over-indias-controversial-maps-bill&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HamdaniChanging16-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-HamdaniChanging16_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYasser_Latif_Hamdani2016" class="citation web cs1">Yasser Latif Hamdani (18 May 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tribune.com.pk/article/34594/changing-maps-will-not-m">"Changing Maps Will Not Mean Kashmir Is a Part of You, India"</a>. <i>The Express Tribune</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Madras+Courier&rft.atitle=An+Overview+of+the+Geospatial+Information+Regulation+Bill&rft.date=2017-07-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmadrascourier.com%2Fpolicy%2Fan-overview-of-the-geospatial-information-regulation-bill%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/previous-versions/cc195167(v=msdn.10)">"Appendix V International Address Formats"</a>. <i>Microsoft Docs</i>. 2 June 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210519025813/https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/previous-versions/cc195167(v=msdn.10)">Archived</a> from the original on 19 May 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Microsoft+Docs&rft.atitle=Appendix+V+International+Address+Formats&rft.date=2008-06-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdocs.microsoft.com%2Fen-us%2Fprevious-versions%2Fcc195167%28v%3Dmsdn.10%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPawlowski" class="citation cs1">Pawlowski, Jan M. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://users.jyu.fi/~japawlow/culture_profiles_pawlowski_draft20080901.pdf"><i>Culture Profiles: Facilitating Global Learning and Knowledge Sharing</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (Draft version). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110716064423/http://users.jyu.fi/~japawlow/culture_profiles_pawlowski_draft20080901.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2011-07-16<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-10-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Culture+Profiles%3A+Facilitating+Global+Learning+and+Knowledge+Sharing&rft.aulast=Pawlowski&rft.aufirst=Jan+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fusers.jyu.fi%2F~japawlow%2Fculture_profiles_pawlowski_draft20080901.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReinaRoblesGonzález-Barahona2013" class="citation book cs1">Reina, Laura Arjona; Robles, Gregorio; González-Barahona, Jesús M. (2013). "A Preliminary Analysis of Localization in Free Software: How Translations Are Performed". In Petrinja, Etiel; Succi, Giancarlo; Ioini, Nabil El; Sillitti, Alberto (eds.). <i>Open Source Software: Quality Verification</i>. IFIP Advances in Information and Communication Technology. Vol. 404. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 153–167. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-38928-3_11">10.1007/978-3-642-38928-3_11</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-38927-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-642-38927-6"><bdi>978-3-642-38927-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+Preliminary+Analysis+of+Localization+in+Free+Software%3A+How+Translations+Are+Performed&rft.btitle=Open+Source+Software%3A+Quality+Verification&rft.series=IFIP+Advances+in+Information+and+Communication+Technology&rft.pages=153-167&rft.pub=Springer+Berlin+Heidelberg&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-642-38928-3_11&rft.isbn=978-3-642-38927-6&rft.aulast=Reina&rft.aufirst=Laura+Arjona&rft.au=Robles%2C+Gregorio&rft.au=Gonz%C3%A1lez-Barahona%2C+Jes%C3%BAs+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://l10n.gnome.org/languages/">"GNOME Languages"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/GNOME" title="GNOME">GNOME</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230829184045/https://l10n.gnome.org/languages/">Archived</a> from the original on 29 August 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 September</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=GNOME&rft.atitle=GNOME+Languages&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fl10n.gnome.org%2Flanguages%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translatewiki.net/wiki/Translating:Group_statistics">"Translating:Group Statistics"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Translatewiki.net" title="Translatewiki.net">translatewiki.net</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230829185828/https://translatewiki.net/wiki/Translating:Group_statistics">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-08-29<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-09-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=translatewiki.net&rft.atitle=Translating%3AGroup+Statistics&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftranslatewiki.net%2Fwiki%2FTranslating%3AGroup_statistics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pocketgamer.biz/feature/58406/sponsored-feature-how-to-translate-a-game-into-20-languages-and-avoid-going-to-hell/">"How to Translate a Game Into 20 Languages and Avoid Going to Hell: Exorcising the Four Devils of Confusion"</a>. <i>PocketGamer.biz</i>. 4 April 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171207110435/http://www.pocketgamer.biz/feature/58406/sponsored-feature-how-to-translate-a-game-into-20-languages-and-avoid-going-to-hell/">Archived</a> from the original on 7 December 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=PocketGamer.biz&rft.atitle=How+to+Translate+a+Game+Into+20+Languages+and+Avoid+Going+to+Hell%3A+Exorcising+the+Four+Devils+of+Confusion&rft.date=2014-04-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pocketgamer.biz%2Ffeature%2F58406%2Fsponsored-feature-how-to-translate-a-game-into-20-languages-and-avoid-going-to-hell%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFjowilco2023" class="citation web cs1">jowilco (2023-08-24). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/globalization/reference/microsoft-style-guides">"Microsoft Localization Style Guides - Globalization"</a>. <i>learn.microsoft.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-09-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=learn.microsoft.com&rft.atitle=Microsoft+Localization+Style+Guides+-+Globalization&rft.date=2023-08-24&rft.au=jowilco&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flearn.microsoft.com%2Fen-us%2Fglobalization%2Freference%2Fmicrosoft-style-guides&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-schrage19850217-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-schrage19850217_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchrage1985" class="citation news cs1">Schrage, Michael (17 February 1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/business/1985/02/17/ibm-wins-dominance-in-european-computer-market/bdcb9e21-8107-4dad-88d7-713f2709a8d8/">"IBM Wins Dominance in European Computer Market"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180829110208/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/business/1985/02/17/ibm-wins-dominance-in-european-computer-market/bdcb9e21-8107-4dad-88d7-713f2709a8d8/">Archived</a> from the original on 29 August 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 August</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=IBM+Wins+Dominance+in+European+Computer+Market&rft.date=1985-02-17&rft.aulast=Schrage&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Farchive%2Fbusiness%2F1985%2F02%2F17%2Fibm-wins-dominance-in-european-computer-market%2Fbdcb9e21-8107-4dad-88d7-713f2709a8d8%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Internationalization_and_localization&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith-Ferrier2006" class="citation book cs1">Smith-Ferrier, Guy (2006). <i>.NET Internationalization: The Developer's Guide to Building Global Windows and Web Applications</i>. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Addison Wesley Professional. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-321-34138-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-321-34138-4"><bdi>0-321-34138-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=.NET+Internationalization%3A+The+Developer%27s+Guide+to+Building+Global+Windows+and+Web+Applications&rft.place=Upper+Saddle+River%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pub=Addison+Wesley+Professional&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-321-34138-4&rft.aulast=Smith-Ferrier&rft.aufirst=Guy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEsselink2000" class="citation book cs1">Esselink, Bert (2000). <i>A Practical Guide to Localization</i>. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58811-006-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-58811-006-0"><bdi>1-58811-006-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Practical+Guide+to+Localization&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pub=John+Benjamins&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=1-58811-006-0&rft.aulast=Esselink&rft.aufirst=Bert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAsh2003" class="citation book cs1">Ash, Lydia (2003). <i>The Web Testing Companion: The Insider's Guide to Efficient and Effective Tests</i>. Indianapolis, Indiana: Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-43021-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-471-43021-8"><bdi>0-471-43021-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Web+Testing+Companion%3A+The+Insider%27s+Guide+to+Efficient+and+Effective+Tests&rft.place=Indianapolis%2C+Indiana&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-471-43021-8&rft.aulast=Ash&rft.aufirst=Lydia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDePalma2004" class="citation book cs1">DePalma, Donald A. (2004). <i>Business Without Borders: A Strategic Guide to Global Marketing</i>. Chelmsford, Massachusetts: Globa Vista Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9765169-0-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-9765169-0-X"><bdi>0-9765169-0-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Business+Without+Borders%3A+A+Strategic+Guide+to+Global+Marketing&rft.place=Chelmsford%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Globa+Vista+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-9765169-0-X&rft.aulast=DePalma&rft.aufirst=Donald+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Internationalization_and_localization&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: External 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