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<span>Origins</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Attendance_and_locations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Attendance_and_locations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Attendance and locations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Attendance_and_locations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Role" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Role</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Role-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electing_and_deposing_kings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electing_and_deposing_kings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Electing and deposing kings</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electing_and_deposing_kings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Norman_Conquest" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Norman_Conquest"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Norman Conquest</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Norman_Conquest-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Historiography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Witan</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 34 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-34" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">34 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%96%D1%82%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%82" title="Вітэнагемот – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Вітэнагемот" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%8E%D1%96%D1%82%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%82" title="Ўітэнагемот – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Ўітэнагемот" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witenagemot" title="Witenagemot – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Witenagemot" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witenagemot" title="Witenagemot – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Witenagemot" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witenagemot" title="Witenagemot – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Witenagemot" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witenagemot" title="Witenagemot – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Witenagemot" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%A7%DA%AF%D9%85%D9%88%D9%86%D8%AA" title="ویتناگمونت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ویتناگمونت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witenagemot" title="Witenagemot – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Witenagemot" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9C%84%ED%85%8C%EB%82%98%EC%98%88%EB%AA%A8%ED%8A%B8" title="위테나예모트 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="위테나예모트" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8E%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%A5%D5%B4%D5%B8%D5%BF" title="Վիտենագեմոտ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Վիտենագեմոտ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witenagemot" title="Witenagemot – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Witenagemot" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witenagemot" title="Witenagemot – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Witenagemot" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witan" title="Witan – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Witan" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%95%D7%99%D7%98%D7%A0%D7%92%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%98" title="ויטנגמוט – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ויטנגמוט" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A3%E1%83%98%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98" title="უიტენაგემოტი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="უიტენაგემოტი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witan" title="Witan – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Witan" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witan" title="Witan – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Witan" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witenagemot" title="Witenagemot – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Witenagemot" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B3%A2%E4%BA%BA%E4%BC%9A%E8%AD%B0" title="賢人会議 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="賢人会議" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witenagemot" title="Witenagemot – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Witenagemot" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witenagemot" title="Witenagemot – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Witenagemot" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witenagemot" title="Witenagemot – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Witenagemot" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witanagemot" title="Witanagemot – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Witanagemot" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%82" title="Витенагемот – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Витенагемот" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witenagemot" title="Witenagemot – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Witenagemot" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witan" title="Witan – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Witan" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Витан – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Витан" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witenagemot" title="Witenagemot – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Witenagemot" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witenagemot" title="Witenagemot – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Witenagemot" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witenagemot" title="Witenagemot – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Witenagemot" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99" title="สภาวิททัน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สภาวิททัน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witan" title="Witan – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Witan" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%82" title="Вітенагемот – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Вітенагемот" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li 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class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">King's council in Anglo-Saxon England</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Witan_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Witan (disambiguation)">Witan (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hexateuch_king.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Hexateuch_king.jpg/330px-Hexateuch_king.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Hexateuch_king.jpg/500px-Hexateuch_king.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Hexateuch_king.jpg/960px-Hexateuch_king.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2736" data-file-height="1905" /></a><figcaption>Anglo-Saxon king with his witan. Biblical scene in the illustrated <a href="/wiki/Old_English_Hexateuch" title="Old English Hexateuch">Old English Hexateuch</a> (11th century), portraying pharaoh in court session, after passing judgment on his chief baker and chief cupbearer.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>witan</b> (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">wise men</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>) was the king's council in the <a href="/wiki/Government_in_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="Government in Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon government of England</a> from before the 7th century until the 11th century. It comprised important <a href="/wiki/British_nobility#Early_English_period" title="British nobility">noblemen</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Ealdormen" class="mw-redirect" title="Ealdormen">ealdormen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thegn" title="Thegn">thegns</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bishop" title="Bishop">bishops</a>. Meetings of the witan were sometimes called the <b>witenagemot</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Its primary function was to advise the king on legislation, judicial cases, land transfers, and other matters of national importance. The witan may have elected new kings from among members of the ruling dynasty. After the <a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman Conquest</a> in 1066, these roles were performed by a similar council known as the <a href="/wiki/Curia_regis" title="Curia regis">curia regis</a>. </p><p>The witan is considered an ancestor of the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_England" title="Parliament of England">Parliament of England</a>. Before the 20th century, historians thought it had been a proto-parliament, an institution that was both democratic and representative. In the 20th century, historians shifted to emphasise the witan's <a href="/wiki/Ad_hoc" title="Ad hoc">ad hoc</a> and essentially royal nature. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Witan&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a> word <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">witan</i></span> (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">wise men</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>) described the counsellors of Anglo-Saxon kings. At the same time, the word could also refer to other kinds of counsellors, such as the witan of a <a href="/wiki/Shire_court" title="Shire court">shire court</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoach20133_&_20_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoach20133_&_20-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Wulfstan_II,_Archbishop_of_York" class="mw-redirect" title="Wulfstan II, Archbishop of York">Wulfstan II, Archbishop of York</a> (1002–1023), wrote in his <i>Institutes of Polity</i> that "it is incumbent on bishops, that venerable 'witan' always travel with them, and dwell with them, at least of the priesthood; that they may consult with them<span class="nowrap"> </span>... and who may be their counsellors at every time."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThorpe1840317_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThorpe1840317-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A contemporary account of a dispute over an estate in <a href="/wiki/Middlesex" title="Middlesex">Middlesex</a> in the 950s refers to a decision of the <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">Myrcna witan</i></span> (<span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text"><a href="/wiki/Mercia" title="Mercia">Mercian</a> witan</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobertson195690_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobertson195690-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The most common Old English term for a meeting of the witan is <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">gemot</i></span>, sometimes expanded as <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">micel gemot</i></span> (<span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">great assembly</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>). Writers of <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> texts used <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">conventus</i></span> or <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">magnum sapientium conventus</i></span> (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">great assembly of wise men</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>). Modern scholars use <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">witenagemot</i></span> (<span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">assembly of counsellors</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>) as a technical term,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoach20133_&_20_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoach20133_&_20-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but historian <a href="/wiki/John_Maddicott" title="John Maddicott">John Maddicott</a> noted its rarity in the 11th century with only nine pre-<a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Conquest</a> examples, mainly in the <a href="/wiki/Edward_the_Confessor#Crisis_of_1051–52" title="Edward the Confessor">crisis of 1051–1052</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaddicott201050_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaddicott201050-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Wormald" title="Patrick Wormald">Patrick Wormald</a> was also cautious, describing it as "a word always rare and unattested before 1035".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWormald199994_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWormald199994-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins">Origins</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Witan&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Thing_(assembly)" title="Thing (assembly)">Thing (assembly)</a></div> <p>The origins of the witan lie in the practice of <a href="/wiki/Germanic_kingship" title="Germanic kingship">Germanic kings</a> seeking the advice of their great men. This practice survived within the many <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_kingdoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Saxon kingdoms">Anglo-Saxon kingdoms</a> established after the <a href="/wiki/End_of_Roman_rule_in_Britain" title="End of Roman rule in Britain">end of Roman rule in Britain</a>. Maddicott writes that these early "royal assemblies lacked the institutional qualities of regularity, formality of structure, and a distinctive agenda" seen in later assemblies. They were also distinctly local.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaddicott20101–2_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaddicott20101–2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first recorded act of a witenagemot was the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_%C3%86thelberht" title="Law of Æthelberht">law code of King Æthelberht</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kent" title="Kingdom of Kent">Kent</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 600</span>, the earliest document which survives in sustained Old English prose.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiebermann19134–5_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiebermann19134–5-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Before the 9th century, only <a href="/wiki/Church_council" class="mw-redirect" title="Church council">church councils</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Hertford" title="Council of Hertford">Council of Hertford</a> in 672, transcended the boundaries of individual kingdoms. With the <a href="/wiki/Unification_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Unification of England">unification of England</a> in the 10th century, the witan acquired a national scope for the first time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaddicott20102–3_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaddicott20102–3-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Attendance_and_locations">Attendance and locations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Witan&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Attendance and locations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to historian <a href="/wiki/Bryce_Lyon" title="Bryce Lyon">Bryce Lyon</a>, the witan "was an <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/amoebic" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:amoebic">amoebic</a> sort of organization with no definite composition or function".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon198045_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon198045-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It does appear, however, that an indispensable requirement was the presence of leading secular and ecclesiastical <a href="/wiki/Magnate" title="Magnate">magnates</a>. Kings issued <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_charters" title="Anglo-Saxon charters">royal charters</a> at meetings of the witan, and the witness lists to these charters also served as attendance lists.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoach201327_&_33_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoach201327_&_33-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> About 2,000 charters and 40 law codes attest to the workings of around 300 recorded witan meetings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiebermann19132_&_14_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiebermann19132_&_14-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Typically, scribes listed witnesses in hierarchical order, with the king listed first, followed by:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoach201328_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoach201328-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>the queen</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%86theling" title="Ætheling">æthelings</a> (princes)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bishop" title="Bishop">bishops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbot" title="Abbot">abbots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ealdormen" class="mw-redirect" title="Ealdormen">ealdormen</a> (later <a href="/wiki/Earl" title="Earl">earls</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thegn" title="Thegn">thegns</a></li></ul> <p>When English kings claimed overlordship over their Welsh neighbors, the <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_in_Wales" title="List of rulers in Wales">Welsh kings</a> might also be in attendance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn1984102_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn1984102-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Anglo-Saxon England lacked a fixed capital, and the royal court was <a href="/wiki/Itinerant_court" title="Itinerant court">itinerant</a>. The witan convened at various locations, including royal palaces, towns, and hunting lodges. Between 900 and 1066, over 50 locations were recorded. <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_London" title="Anglo-Saxon London">London</a> and <a href="/wiki/Winchester" title="Winchester">Winchester</a> were popular meeting places, and other locations included: Abingdon, Amesbury, Andover, Aylesford, Cookham, Dorchester, Faversham, King's Enham, Southampton, Wantage, Oxford, Kirtlington, and Woodstock. In the <a href="/wiki/West_Country" title="West Country">West Country</a>, meetings were held at <a href="/wiki/Gloucester" title="Gloucester">Gloucester</a>, Axminster, Bath, Calne, Cheddar, Chippenham, Cirencester, Edington, Malmesbury, Winchcombe, and Exeter. While meetings in the <a href="/wiki/Northern_England" title="Northern England">North</a> were rare, the witan did convene at Nottingham in 934 and at Lincoln in 1045. The witan could meet at any time, but it often gathered during Christmas, Lent, and Easter when many nobles were present at court.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn1984102–104_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn1984102–104-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon198046_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon198046-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Role">Role</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Witan&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Role"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_law" title="Anglo-Saxon law">Anglo-Saxon law</a></div> <p>The witan played a significant role in legislation. The king and his advisers would draft laws and then seek the witan's consultation and consent. As Lyon points out, this process was a testament to the king's belief in gathering opinions from all parts of the kingdom, which "produced a wider sampling of opinion and gave the law more solid support". The witan took part in both secular and ecclesiastical legislation. Church law, however, was drafted by the clergy, with <a href="/wiki/Catholic_laity" title="Catholic laity">lay</a> nobles merely giving consent.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon198046–47_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon198046–47-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The witan's influence was not limited to legislation. The king sought its advice and consent for extraordinary taxation that would burden the nobility, such as the <a href="/wiki/Danegeld" title="Danegeld">Danegeld</a>.The witan deliberated on matters of war, peace, and treaties.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon198047–48_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon198047–48-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The declaration of royal <a href="/wiki/Will_and_testament" title="Will and testament">wills</a> occurred at witan meetings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn1984102_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn1984102-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Kings issued charters granting <a href="/wiki/Bookland_(law)" title="Bookland (law)">bookland</a> at witan meetings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn1984102_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn1984102-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The witness lists attached to these charters proved that the witan consented to the grants. This practice originated from the late <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a>, which required witnesses for private transactions. Historian <a href="/wiki/Levi_Roach" title="Levi Roach">Levi Roach</a> explains that the "adoption of this method of authentication for early English <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_charters#Diplomas" title="Anglo-Saxon charters">diplomas</a> is understandable: in the absence of direct bureaucratic continuity with the late Roman Empire, which effectively precluded sealing or notarial subscription, as practised elsewhere, the use of witnesses, mirroring the methods of authentication used for private transactions on the continent, was an elegant solution."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoach201327_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoach201327-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Electing_and_deposing_kings">Electing and deposing kings</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Witan&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Electing and deposing kings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The witan was noted by contemporary sources as having the singular power to <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">ceosan to cynige</i></span>, <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">to choose the king</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> from amongst the extended royal family. Nevertheless, at least until the 11th century, royal succession generally followed the "ordinary system of <a href="/wiki/Primogeniture" title="Primogeniture">primogeniture</a>". The historian Chadwick interpreted these facts as proof that the so-called election of the king by the witan merely amounted to formal recognition of the deceased king's natural successor.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChadwick1905357–358_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChadwick1905357–358-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But Liebermann was generally less willing than Chadwick to see the witan's significance as buried under the weight of the royal prerogative:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiebermann191321_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiebermann191321-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The influence of the king, or at least of kingship, on the constitution of the assembly seems, therefore, to have been immense. But on the other hand he (the king) was elected by the witan<span class="nowrap"> </span>... He could not depose the prelates or ealdormen, who held their office for life, nor indeed the hereditary thanes<span class="nowrap"> </span>... At any rate, the king had to get on with the highest statesmen appointed by his predecessor, though possibly disliked by him, until death made a post vacant that he could fill with a relation or a favourite, not, however, without having a certain regard to the wishes of the aristocracy.</p></blockquote> <p>Liebermann's more subtle position seems to be vindicated by testimony from abbot <a href="/wiki/%C3%86lfric_of_Eynsham" title="Ælfric of Eynsham">Ælfric of Eynsham</a>, the leading <a href="/wiki/Homily" title="Homily">homilist</a> of the late tenth century, who wrote:<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>No man can make himself king, but the people has the choice to choose as king whom they please; but after he is consecrated as king, he then has dominion over the people, and they cannot shake his <a href="/wiki/Yoke#Symbolism" title="Yoke">yoke</a> off their necks.</p></blockquote> <p>In addition to having a role in the election of kings, it is often held that the witenagemots had the power to <a href="/wiki/Deposition_(politics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Deposition (politics)">depose</a> an unpopular king. However, there are only two occasions when this probably happened, in 757 and 774 with the depositions of kings <a href="/wiki/Sigeberht_of_Wessex" title="Sigeberht of Wessex">Sigeberht of Wessex</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alhred_of_Northumbria" title="Alhred of Northumbria">Alhred of Northumbria</a> respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChadwick1905362–363_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChadwick1905362–363-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The witan's powers are illustrated by the following event. In the year 1013 King Æthelred II (Æthelred the Unready) fled the country from <a href="/wiki/Sweyn_Forkbeard" title="Sweyn Forkbeard">Sweyn Forkbeard</a>, who then had the witan proclaim him king. Within a few weeks, however, Sweyn died and Æthelred was called back to England by the witan. According to the <i>Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</i>, the witan would only receive him back under the condition that he promise to rule better than he had.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGarmonsway1954145_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarmonsway1954145-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Æthelred did so, and was reinstated as <a href="/wiki/King_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="King of England">King of England</a>. His nickname of the 'Unræd' or 'Unready' means ill-advised, indicating that contemporaries regarded those who sat in the witan as part responsible for the failure of his reign. </p><p>At the end of 1065, King Edward the Confessor fell into a coma without clarifying his preference for the succession. He died on 5 January 1066, according to the Vita Ædwardi Regis, but not before briefly regaining consciousness and commending his widow and the kingdom to Harold's "protection". When the witan convened the next day they selected Harold to succeed as ruler of England.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Norman_Conquest">Norman Conquest</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Witan&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Norman Conquest"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Government_in_Norman_and_Angevin_England" title="Government in Norman and Angevin England">Government in Norman and Angevin England</a></div> <p>After the <a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman Conquest</a> in 1066, <a href="/wiki/William_the_Conqueror" title="William the Conqueror">William I</a> replaced the witan with the <a href="/wiki/Curia_regis" title="Curia regis">curia regis</a> (Latin for <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">king's court</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>). In a sign of the witan's enduring legacy, the curia regis continued to be dubbed a <i>witan</i> by <a href="/wiki/List_of_English_chronicles" title="List of English chronicles">chroniclers</a> until as late as the 12th century.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Maddicott writes that the witan (what he terms "royal assemblies") were "the direct forebears of the councils of post-Conquest England and the parliaments which were the councils' descendants".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaddicott20103_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaddicott20103-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historiography">Historiography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Witan&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Historiography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The "Saxon myth" claimed that the old Saxon witan was the representative assembly of English landholders until disbanded by the Norman invaders and that it reemerged as the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_England" title="Parliament of England">Parliament of England</a>. This idea was held across the <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a> in North America in the years prior to the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> (1776–1783). Among the believers were <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Mayhew" title="Jonathan Mayhew">Jonathan Mayhew</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiddlekauff2005124_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiddlekauff2005124-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Whig_historians" class="mw-redirect" title="Whig historians">Whig historians</a> of the 19th century were concerned with explaining the evolution of the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Constitution of the United Kingdom">English constitution</a>, and they found in the witan a proto-parliament or in the words of <a href="/wiki/Felix_Liebermann" title="Felix Liebermann">Felix Liebermann</a>, "one of the lineal ancestors of the British Parliament".<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After World War I, historians such as <a href="/wiki/Frank_Stenton" title="Frank Stenton">Frank Stenton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Whitelock" title="Dorothy Whitelock">Dorothy Whitelock</a> shifted their focus to understanding the Anglo-Saxon period on its own terms. In his 1943 <i>Anglo-Saxon England</i>, Stenton chose to use the term "King's Council" in place of <i>witan</i> and <i>witenagemot</i>. This change in terminology signaled an important change in the way Anglo-Saxon political assemblies were perceived. Instead of proto-parliaments, the assemblies were essentially royal institutions. Other historians followed Stenton's lead.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoach20133_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoach20133-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Scholars such as Stenton have noted that the witenagemot was in many ways different from the future institution of the Parliament of England; it had substantially different powers and some major limitations, such as a lack of a fixed procedure, schedule, or meeting place.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELapidge2002257_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELapidge2002257-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his 1995 biography of <a href="/wiki/Alfred_the_Great" title="Alfred the Great">Alfred the Great</a>, historian David Sturdy argues that the witan did not embody modern notions of a "national institution" or a "democratic" body. He writes, "<a href="/wiki/Victorian_era" title="Victorian era">Victorian</a> notions of a national 'witan' are crazy dreams without foundation, myths of a 'democratic parliament' that never was."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESturdy1995124_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESturdy1995124-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While many modern historians avoid the terms <i>witan</i> and <i>witenagemot</i>, few would go as far as Geoffrey Hindley, who described <i>witenagemot</i> as an "essentially Victorian" coinage.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHindley2006220_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHindley2006220-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England</i> prefers "king's council" but adds that it was known in Old English as the witan.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYorke2014126_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYorke2014126-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Maddicott regarded the word <i>witan</i> with suspicion, even though it is used in sources such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_Chronicle" title="Anglo-Saxon Chronicle">Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</a></i>. In his study of the origins of the English parliament, he generally preferred the more neutral word "assembly":<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaddicott20104_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaddicott20104-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>But the word carries with it, however unjustifiably, a fustian air of decayed scholarship, and, in addition, its use may seem to prejudge the answer to an important question: do we have here an institution, a capitalized 'Witan', as it were, or merely a lower-case ad hoc gathering of the wise men who were the king's councillors?</p></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/Henrietta_Leyser" title="Henrietta Leyser">Henrietta Leyser</a> commented in 2017 that for decades historians avoided using the word <i>witan</i> for assemblies in case they were interpreted as proto-parliaments, and she went on: "Recent historiography, however, has reintroduced the term since it is clear that it was generally accepted that certain kinds of business could only be transacted with a substantial number of the king's wise men, in other words, in the company of his 'witan<span style="padding-right:.15em;">'</span>". She does not mention the term <i>witenagemot</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeyser2017117_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeyser2017117-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Witan&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/40px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/60px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/120px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has the text of the <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">1911 <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i></a> article "<span style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Witan" class="extiw" title="wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Witan">Witan</a></span>".</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Councils_of_Clovesho" title="Councils of Clovesho">Councils of Clovesho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elective_monarchy" title="Elective monarchy">Elective monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurultai" title="Kurultai">Kurultai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loya_Jirga" class="mw-redirect" title="Loya Jirga">Loya Jirga</a>, a similar concept from <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majlis" title="Majlis">Majlis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panchayati_Raj" class="mw-redirect" title="Panchayati Raj">Panchayati Raj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oyo_Mesi" title="Oyo Mesi">Oyomesi</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Witan&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pronounced <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'w' in 'wind'">w</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="/j/: 'y' in 'yes'">j</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="/oʊ/: 'o' in 'code'">oʊ</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span></span>/</a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling"><span style="font-size:90%">WIT</span>-in-ə-yə-<span style="font-size:90%">MOHT</span></i></a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Witan&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFReference-OED-witenagemot" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/search/dictionary/?q=witenagemot">"witenagemot"</a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i> (Online ed.). <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=witenagemot&rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.edition=Online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oed.com%2Fsearch%2Fdictionary%2F%3Fq%3Dwitenagemot&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWitan" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/public/login/loggingin#withyourlibrary">participating institution membership</a> required.)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoach20133_&_20-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoach20133_&_20_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoach20133_&_20_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoach2013">Roach 2013</a>, pp. 3 & 20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThorpe1840317-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThorpe1840317_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThorpe1840">Thorpe 1840</a>, p. 317.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERobertson195690-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobertson195690_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRobertson1956">Robertson 1956</a>, p. 90.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaddicott201050-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaddicott201050_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMaddicott2010">Maddicott 2010</a>, p. 50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWormald199994-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWormald199994_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWormald1999">Wormald 1999</a>, p. 94.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaddicott20101–2-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaddicott20101–2_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMaddicott2010">Maddicott 2010</a>, pp. 1–2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiebermann19134–5-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiebermann19134–5_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLiebermann1913">Liebermann 1913</a>, pp. 4–5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaddicott20102–3-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaddicott20102–3_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMaddicott2010">Maddicott 2010</a>, pp. 2–3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon198045-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon198045_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon1980">Lyon 1980</a>, p. 45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoach201327_&_33-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoach201327_&_33_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoach2013">Roach 2013</a>, pp. 27 & 33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiebermann19132_&_14-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiebermann19132_&_14_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLiebermann1913">Liebermann 1913</a>, pp. 2 & 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoach201328-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoach201328_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoach2013">Roach 2013</a>, p. 28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn1984102-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn1984102_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn1984102_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn1984102_15-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLoyn1984">Loyn 1984</a>, p. 102.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoyn1984102–104-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoyn1984102–104_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLoyn1984">Loyn 1984</a>, pp. 102–104.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon198046-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon198046_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon1980">Lyon 1980</a>, p. 46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon198046–47-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon198046–47_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon1980">Lyon 1980</a>, pp. 46–47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon198047–48-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon198047–48_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyon1980">Lyon 1980</a>, pp. 47–48.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoach201327-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoach201327_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoach2013">Roach 2013</a>, p. 27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChadwick1905357–358-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChadwick1905357–358_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChadwick1905">Chadwick 1905</a>, pp. 357–358.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiebermann191321-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiebermann191321_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLiebermann1913">Liebermann 1913</a>, p. 21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Quoted in <a href="#CITEREFWhitelock1956">Whitelock 1956</a>, p. 642.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChadwick1905362–363-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChadwick1905362–363_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChadwick1905">Chadwick 1905</a>, pp. 362–363.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarmonsway1954145-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGarmonsway1954145_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGarmonsway1954">Garmonsway 1954</a>, p. 145.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zpwtg82/revision/3">"Edward's death and claimants to the throne – Edexcel"</a>. BBC.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Edward%27s+death+and+claimants+to+the+throne+%E2%80%93+Edexcel&rft.pub=BBC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fbitesize%2Fguides%2Fzpwtg82%2Frevision%2F3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWitan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Origins of the Western Legal Tradition: From Thales to the Tudors</i> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-862-87181-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-862-87181-7">1-862-87181-7</a> p. 226</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaddicott20103-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaddicott20103_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMaddicott2010">Maddicott 2010</a>, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiddlekauff2005124-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiddlekauff2005124_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiddlekauff2005">Middlekauff 2005</a>, p. 124.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLiebermann1913">Liebermann 1913</a>, p. 1 quoted in <a href="#CITEREFRoach2013">Roach 2013</a>, p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoach20133-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoach20133_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoach2013">Roach 2013</a>, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELapidge2002257-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELapidge2002257_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLapidge2002">Lapidge 2002</a>, p. 257.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESturdy1995124-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESturdy1995124_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSturdy1995">Sturdy 1995</a>, p. 124.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHindley2006220-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHindley2006220_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHindley2006">Hindley 2006</a>, p. 220.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYorke2014126-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYorke2014126_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYorke2014">Yorke 2014</a>, p. 126.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaddicott20104-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaddicott20104_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMaddicott2010">Maddicott 2010</a>, p. 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeyser2017117-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeyser2017117_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLeyser2017">Leyser 2017</a>, p. 117.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Witan&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 35em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFChadwick1905" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hector_Munro_Chadwick" title="Hector Munro Chadwick">Chadwick, H. M.</a> (1905). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tWcIAQAAMAAJ"><i>Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions</i></a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+on+Anglo-Saxon+Institutions&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1905&rft.aulast=Chadwick&rft.aufirst=H.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtWcIAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWitan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGarmonsway1954" class="citation book cs1">Garmonsway, George Norman, ed. (1954). <i>The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</i> (2nd ed.). London.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Anglo-Saxon+Chronicle&rft.place=London&rft.edition=2nd&rft.date=1954&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWitan" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHindley2006" class="citation book cs1">Hindley, Geoffrey (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GqbABAAAQBAJ"><i>A Brief History of the Anglo-Saxons</i></a>. London: Robinson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781472107596" title="Special:BookSources/9781472107596"><bdi>9781472107596</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Brief+History+of+the+Anglo-Saxons&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Robinson&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9781472107596&rft.aulast=Hindley&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGqbABAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWitan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLapidge2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Lapidge" title="Michael Lapidge">Lapidge, Michael</a>, ed. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NVLJD0nweukC"><i>Interpreters of Early Medieval Britain</i></a>. British Academy. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9-780-19726-277-1" title="Special:BookSources/9-780-19726-277-1"><bdi>9-780-19726-277-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Interpreters+of+Early+Medieval+Britain&rft.pub=British+Academy&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9-780-19726-277-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNVLJD0nweukC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWitan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLeyser2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henrietta_Leyser" title="Henrietta Leyser">Leyser, Henrietta</a> (2017). <i>A Short History of the Anglo-Saxons</i>. London: I. B. Taurus. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78076-600-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78076-600-3"><bdi>978-1-78076-600-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+the+Anglo-Saxons&rft.place=London&rft.pub=I.+B.+Taurus&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-78076-600-3&rft.aulast=Leyser&rft.aufirst=Henrietta&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWitan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLiebermann1913" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Felix_Liebermann" title="Felix Liebermann">Liebermann, Felix</a> (1913). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Tc45AQAAIAAJ"><i>The National Assembly in the Anglo-Saxon Period</i></a>. Halle: Max Niemeyer.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+National+Assembly+in+the+Anglo-Saxon+Period&rft.place=Halle&rft.pub=Max+Niemeyer&rft.date=1913&rft.aulast=Liebermann&rft.aufirst=Felix&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTc45AQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWitan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLoyn1984" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/H._R._Loyn" title="H. R. Loyn">Loyn, H. R.</a> (1984). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/governanceofangl0000loyn"><i>The Governance of Anglo-Saxon England, 500–1087</i></a></span>. Governance of England. Vol. 1. Stanford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780804712170" title="Special:BookSources/9780804712170"><bdi>9780804712170</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Governance+of+Anglo-Saxon+England%2C+500%E2%80%931087&rft.series=Governance+of+England&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=9780804712170&rft.aulast=Loyn&rft.aufirst=H.+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgovernanceofangl0000loyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWitan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLyon1980" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bryce_Lyon" title="Bryce Lyon">Lyon, Bryce</a> (1980). <i>A Constitutional and Legal History of Medieval England</i> (2nd ed.). W. W. Norton & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-95132-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-95132-4"><bdi>0-393-95132-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Constitutional+and+Legal+History+of+Medieval+England&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=0-393-95132-4&rft.aulast=Lyon&rft.aufirst=Bryce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWitan" class="Z3988"></span> 1st edition available at the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/constitutionalle0000bryc">Internet Archive</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMaddicott2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Maddicott" title="John Maddicott">Maddicott, J. R.</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KCcUDAAAQBAJ"><i>The Origins of the English Parliament, 924–1327</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-199-58550-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-199-58550-2"><bdi>978-0-199-58550-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+the+English+Parliament%2C+924%E2%80%931327&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-199-58550-2&rft.aulast=Maddicott&rft.aufirst=J.+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKCcUDAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWitan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMiddlekauff2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Middlekauff" title="Robert Middlekauff">Middlekauff, Robert</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nya0ODz-B-cC"><i>The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763–1789</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_History_of_the_United_States" title="Oxford History of the United States">Oxford History of the United States</a>. Vol. 3 (revised and expanded ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-531588-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-531588-2"><bdi>978-0-19-531588-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Glorious+Cause%3A+The+American+Revolution%2C+1763%E2%80%931789&rft.series=Oxford+History+of+the+United+States&rft.edition=revised+and+expanded&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-531588-2&rft.aulast=Middlekauff&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dnya0ODz-B-cC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWitan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRoach2013" class="citation book cs1">Roach, Levi (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vbb1AAAAQBAJ"><i>Kingship and Consent in Anglo-Saxon England, 871–978: Assemblies and the State in the Early Middle Ages</i></a>. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9-781-10703-653-6" title="Special:BookSources/9-781-10703-653-6"><bdi>9-781-10703-653-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kingship+and+Consent+in+Anglo-Saxon+England%2C+871%E2%80%93978%3A+Assemblies+and+the+State+in+the+Early+Middle+Ages&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9-781-10703-653-6&rft.aulast=Roach&rft.aufirst=Levi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dvbb1AAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWitan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRobertson1956" class="citation book cs1">Robertson, Agnes, ed. (1956). <i>Anglo-Saxon Charters</i> (2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/504288415">504288415</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Anglo-Saxon+Charters&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1956&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F504288415&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWitan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSturdy1995" class="citation book cs1">Sturdy, David (1995). <i>Alfred the Great</i>. Constable. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0094765707" title="Special:BookSources/0094765707"><bdi>0094765707</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alfred+the+Great&rft.pub=Constable&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0094765707&rft.aulast=Sturdy&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWitan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFThorpe1840" class="citation book cs1">Thorpe, Benjamin (1840). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-w0tAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA317"><i>Ancient Laws and Institutes of England</i></a>. G. E. Eyre and A. Spottiswoode, printers to the Queen's Most Excellent Majesty.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Laws+and+Institutes+of+England&rft.pub=G.+E.+Eyre+and+A.+Spottiswoode%2C+printers+to+the+Queen%27s+Most+Excellent+Majesty&rft.date=1840&rft.aulast=Thorpe&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-w0tAAAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA317&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWitan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWhitelock1956" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Whitelock" title="Dorothy Whitelock">Whitelock, Dorothy</a> (1956). "Review: <i>The Witenagemot in the Reign of Edward the Confessor</i> by Tryggvi J. Oleson". <i>The English Historical Review</i>. <b>71</b> (281): <span class="nowrap">640–</span>642. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/556848">556848</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+English+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Review%3A+The+Witenagemot+in+the+Reign+of+Edward+the+Confessor+by+Tryggvi+J.+Oleson&rft.volume=71&rft.issue=281&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E640-%3C%2Fspan%3E642&rft.date=1956&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F556848%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Whitelock&rft.aufirst=Dorothy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWitan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWormald1999" class="citation book cs1">Wormald, Patrick (1999). <i>The Making of English Law: King Alfred to the Twelfth Century</i>. Oxford: Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-13496-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-13496-4"><bdi>0-631-13496-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+English+Law%3A+King+Alfred+to+the+Twelfth+Century&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-631-13496-4&rft.aulast=Wormald&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWitan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFYorke2014" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Yorke" title="Barbara Yorke">Yorke, Barbara</a> (2014). "Council, King's". In Lapidge, Michael; Blair, John; Keynes, Simon; Scragg, Donald (eds.). <i>The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Anglo-Saxon England</i> (2nd ed.). Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley Blackwell. pp. <span class="nowrap">126–</span>127. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-65632-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-65632-7"><bdi>978-0-470-65632-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Council%2C+King%27s&rft.btitle=The+Wiley+Blackwell+Encyclopedia+of+Anglo-Saxon+England&rft.place=Chichester%2C+West+Sussex&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E126-%3C%2Fspan%3E127&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Wiley+Blackwell&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-470-65632-7&rft.aulast=Yorke&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWitan" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Witan&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316" /><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGomme1880" class="citation book cs1">Gomme, George Laurence (1880). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://socialsciences.mcmaster.ca/econ/ugcm/3ll3/gomme/PrimitiveFolkMoots.pdf"><i>Primitive Folkmoots; or, Open-Air Assemblies in Britain</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. London: <a href="/wiki/William_Clowes_Ltd." title="William Clowes Ltd.">William Clowes and Sons, Ltd.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://socialsciences.mcmaster.ca/econ/ugcm/3ll3/gomme/PrimitiveFolkMoots.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 9 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Primitive+Folkmoots%3B+or%2C+Open-Air+Assemblies+in+Britain&rft.place=London&rft.pub=William+Clowes+and+Sons%2C+Ltd.&rft.date=1880&rft.aulast=Gomme&rft.aufirst=George+Laurence&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsocialsciences.mcmaster.ca%2Fecon%2Fugcm%2F3ll3%2Fgomme%2FPrimitiveFolkMoots.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWitan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHodgkin1906" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hodgkin_(historian)" title="Thomas Hodgkin (historian)">Hodgkin, Thomas</a> (1906). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9kgNAAAAIAAJ"><i>The History of England from the Earliest Times to the Norman Conquest</i></a>. London: Longmans, Green, and Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+England+from+the+Earliest+Times+to+the+Norman+Conquest&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Longmans%2C+Green%2C+and+Co.&rft.date=1906&rft.aulast=Hodgkin&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9kgNAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWitan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHollister1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/C._Warren_Hollister" title="C. Warren Hollister">Hollister, C. Warren</a> (1995). "Chapter 3". <i>The Making of England, 55 B.C. to 1399</i> (7th ed.). D. C. Heath and Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0669397164" title="Special:BookSources/0669397164"><bdi>0669397164</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+3&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+England%2C+55+B.C.+to+1399&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=D.+C.+Heath+and+Company&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0669397164&rft.aulast=Hollister&rft.aufirst=C.+Warren&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWitan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFOleson1955" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Tryggvi_Julius_Oleson" title="Tryggvi Julius Oleson">Oleson, Tryggvi J.</a> (1955). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/witenagemotinrei0000oles"><i>The Witenagemot in the Reign of Edward the Confessor</i></a></span>. University of Toronto Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781487581817" title="Special:BookSources/9781487581817"><bdi>9781487581817</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Witenagemot+in+the+Reign+of+Edward+the+Confessor&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=1955&rft.isbn=9781487581817&rft.aulast=Oleson&rft.aufirst=Tryggvi+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwitenagemotinrei0000oles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWitan" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output 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.navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Kingdom_of_England" title="Template:Kingdom of England"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Kingdom_of_England" title="Template talk:Kingdom of England"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Kingdom_of_England" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Kingdom of England"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Kingdom_of_England436" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">Kingdom of England</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_England" title="History of England">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_English_history" title="Timeline of English history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heptarchy" title="Heptarchy">Heptarchy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">Kingdom of England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman Conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Norman_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Norman England">Anglo-Normans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Anarchy" title="The Anarchy">The Anarchy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angevin_Empire" title="Angevin Empire">Angevin Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/England_in_the_Late_Middle_Ages" title="England in the Late Middle Ages">England in the Late Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_England_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Economy of England in the Middle Ages">Economy in the Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Roses" title="Wars of the Roses">Wars of the Roses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tudor_period" title="Tudor period">Tudor period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_Reformation" title="English Reformation">English Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_era" title="Elizabethan era">Elizabethan era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Renaissance" title="English Renaissance">English Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stuart_period" title="Stuart period">Stuart period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_the_Crowns" title="Union of the Crowns">Union of the Crowns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunpowder_Plot" title="Gunpowder Plot">Gunpowder Plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacobean_era" title="Jacobean era">Jacobean era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">Civil War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interregnum_(England)" title="Interregnum (England)">Interregnum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_England" title="Commonwealth of England">Commonwealth of England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Protectorate" title="The Protectorate">The Protectorate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stuart_Restoration" title="Stuart Restoration">The Restoration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Popish_Plot" title="Popish Plot">Popish Plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusion_Crisis" title="Exclusion Crisis">Exclusion Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1707" title="Acts of Union 1707">Union with Scotland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_overseas_possessions" title="English overseas possessions">Overseas possessions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crown_colony" title="Crown colony">Crown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proprietary_colony" title="Proprietary colony">Proprietary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_protectorate" title="British protectorate">Protectorate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_England" title="Maritime history of England">Maritime history</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dynasty" title="Dynasty">Royal Houses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Wessex" title="House of Wessex">Wessex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Kn%C3%BDtlinga" title="House of Knýtlinga">Knýtlinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Normandy" title="House of Normandy">Normandy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angevin_kings_of_England" title="Angevin kings of England">Angevin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Plantagenet" title="House of Plantagenet">Plantagenet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Lancaster" title="House of Lancaster">Lancaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_York" title="House of York">York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Tudor" title="House of Tudor">Tudor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Stuart" title="House of Stuart">Stuart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Orange-Nassau" title="House of Orange-Nassau">Orange-Nassau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_England" title="Politics of England">Politics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/English_law" title="English law">Law</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Witan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curia_regis" title="Curia regis">Curia regis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnum_Concilium" title="Magnum Concilium">Magnum Concilium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_England" title="Parliament of England">Parliament</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="House of Lords of England">House of Lords</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_England" title="House of Commons of England">House of Commons</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King%27s_Secretary" title="King's Secretary">King's Secretary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_English_monarchy" title="History of the English monarchy">Monarchy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_Council_of_State" title="English Council of State">Council of State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Protector" title="Lord Protector">Lord Protector</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peerage_of_England" title="Peerage of England">Peerage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privy_Council_of_England" title="Privy Council of England">Privy Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_ministries" title="List of English ministries">Ministries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_State_(England)" title="Secretary of State (England)">Secretary of State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governance_of_England" title="Governance of England">Governance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Government_in_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="Government in Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_in_medieval_England" title="Government in medieval England">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_government" title="Elizabethan government">Elizabethan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Star_Chamber" title="Star Chamber">Star Chamber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whiggism" title="Whiggism">Whigs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tory" title="Tory">Tories</a></li></ul> <ul><li>Acts of Parliament:</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England,_1225%E2%80%931267" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England, 1225–1267">1225–1267</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England,_1275%E2%80%931307" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England, 1275–1307">1275–1307</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England,_1308%E2%80%931325" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England, 1308–1325">1308–1325</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutes_of_uncertain_date" title="Statutes of uncertain date"><i>Temp. incert.</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England,_1327%E2%80%931376" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England, 1327–1376">1327–1376</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England,_1377%E2%80%931397" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England, 1377–1397">1377–1397</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England,_1399%E2%80%931411" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England, 1399–1411">1399–1411</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England,_1413%E2%80%931421" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England, 1413–1421">1413–1421</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England,_1422%E2%80%931460" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England, 1422–1460">1422–1460</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1461" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1461">1461</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1463" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1463">1463</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1464" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1464">1464</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1467" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1467">1467</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1468" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1468">1468</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1472" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1472">1472</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1474" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1474">1474</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1477" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1477">1477</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1482" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1482">1482</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1483" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1483">1483</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1485" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1485">1485</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1487" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1487">1487</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1488" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1488">1488</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1491" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1491">1491</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1495" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1495">1495</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1496" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1496">1496</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1503" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1503">1503</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1509" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1509">1509</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1511" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1511">1511</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1512" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1512">1512</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1513" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1513">1513</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1514" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1514">1514</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1515" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1515">1515</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1523" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1523">1523</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1529" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1529">1529</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1530" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1530">1530</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1531" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1531">1531</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1532" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1532">1532</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1533" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1533">1533</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1534" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1534">1534</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1535" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1535">1535</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1536" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1536">1536</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1539" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1539">1539</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1540" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1540">1540</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1541" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1541">1541</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1542" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1542">1542</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1543" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1543">1543</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1545" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1545">1545</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1546" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1546">1546</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1547" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1547">1547</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1548" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1548">1548</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1549" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1549">1549</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1551" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1551">1551</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1553" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1553">1553</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1554" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1554">1554</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1555" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1555">1555</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1557" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1557">1557</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1558" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1558">1558</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1562" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1562">1562</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1566" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1566">1566</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1571" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1571">1571</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1572" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1572">1572</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1575" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1575">1575</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1580" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1580">1580</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1584" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1584">1584</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1586" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1586">1586</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1588" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1588">1588</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1592" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1592">1592</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1597" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1597">1597</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1601" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1601">1601</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1603" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1603">1603</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1605" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1605">1605</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1606" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1606">1606</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1609" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1609">1609</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1620" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1620">1620</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1623" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1623">1623</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1625" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1625">1625</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1627" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1627">1627</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1640" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1640">1640</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_ordinances_and_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England,_1642%E2%80%931660" title="List of ordinances and acts of the Parliament of England, 1642–1660">1642–1660</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1660" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1660">1660</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1661" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1661">1661</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1662" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1662">1662</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1663" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1663">1663</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1664" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1664">1664</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1665" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1665">1665</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1666" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1666">1666</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1667" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1667">1667</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1670" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1670">1670</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1672" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1672">1672</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1675" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1675">1675</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1677" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1677">1677</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1678" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1678">1678</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1679" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1679">1679</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1680" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1680">1680</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1685" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1685">1685</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1688" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1688">1688</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1689" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1689">1689</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1690" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1690">1690</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1691" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1691">1691</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1692" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1692">1692</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1693" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1693">1693</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1694" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1694">1694</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1695" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1695">1695</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1696" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1696">1696</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1697" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1697">1697</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1698" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1698">1698</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1700" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1700">1700</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1701" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1701">1701</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1702" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1702">1702</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1703" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1703">1703</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1704" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1704">1704</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1705" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1705">1705</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1706" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1706">1706</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Military of England">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_military_organization" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Saxon military organization">Anglo-Saxon military</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_warfare" title="Anglo-Saxon warfare">Warfare</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Army" title="English Army">English Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Model_Army" title="New Model Army">New Model Army</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ship_names_of_the_Royal_Navy" title="List of ship names of the Royal Navy">Ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Royal_Navy_(before_1707)" title="History of the Royal Navy (before 1707)">History</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_England" title="Geography of England">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historic_counties_of_England" title="Historic counties of England">Counties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_England" title="List of islands of England">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_places_in_England" title="List of places in England">Places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_towns_in_England" title="List of towns in England">Towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_castles_in_England" title="List of castles in England">Castles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_palaces#England" title="List of palaces">Palaces</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_England" title="Demographics of England">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_language_in_England" title="English language in England">English language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_people" title="English people">English people</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_people" title="List of English people">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_England" title="Culture of England">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_England" title="Religion in England">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_cuisine" title="English cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_folklore" title="English folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morris_dance" title="Morris dance">Morris dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Country_dance" title="Country dance">Country dance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_England" title="Architecture of England">Architecture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_architecture" title="Anglo-Saxon architecture">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Gothic_architecture" title="English Gothic architecture">English Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tudor_architecture" title="Tudor architecture">Tudor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_architecture" title="Elizabethan architecture">Elizabethan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacobean_architecture" title="Jacobean architecture">Jacobean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne_style_architecture" title="Queen Anne style architecture">Queen Anne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_architecture" title="Georgian architecture">Georgian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_England" title="National symbols of England">Symbols</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_England" title="Flag of England">National flag</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_English_flags" title="List of English flags">list</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_heraldry" title="English heraldry">Heraldry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_England" title="Coat of arms of England">Coat of arms</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/College_of_Arms" title="College of Arms">College of Arms</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_badges_of_England" title="Royal badges of England">Royal badges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_supporters_of_England" title="Royal supporters of England">Royal supporters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_standards_of_England" title="Royal standards of England">Royal standards</a></li> <li><a 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data-event-name="ve-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-edit mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-edit"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-viewsource-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-protected-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-editLock mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-editLock"></span> <span></span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-buttons"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet mw-interlanguage-selector" id="p-lang-btn-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-language"></span> <span>34 languages</span> </button> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet 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