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id="toc-Establishment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nuremberg_charter" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nuremberg_charter"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Nuremberg charter </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nuremberg_charter-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Judges_and_prosecutors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Judges_and_prosecutors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Judges and prosecutors </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Judges_and_prosecutors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indictment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indictment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Indictment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indictment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Defendants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Defendants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Defendants </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Defendants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evidence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evidence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Evidence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evidence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Course_of_the_trial" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Course_of_the_trial"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Course of the trial </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Course_of_the_trial-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Course of the trial subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Course_of_the_trial-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-American_and_British_prosecution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#American_and_British_prosecution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 American and British prosecution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-American_and_British_prosecution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-French_prosecution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#French_prosecution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 French prosecution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-French_prosecution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Soviet_prosecution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soviet_prosecution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Soviet prosecution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soviet_prosecution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Defense" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Defense"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Defense </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Defense-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Closing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Closing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Closing </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Closing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verdict" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verdict"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Verdict </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verdict-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subsequent_Nuremberg_trials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subsequent_Nuremberg_trials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Subsequent Nuremberg trials </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subsequent_Nuremberg_trials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary_reactions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_reactions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Contemporary reactions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_reactions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Legacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Nuremberg trials</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 77 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-77" aria-hidden="true" > 77 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurenberg-verhore" title="Neurenberg-verhore – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Neurenberg-verhore" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%83%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%BA" title="محاكمات نورنبيرغ – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="محاكمات نورنبيرغ" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xuicios_de_N%C3%BAremberg" title="Xuicios de Núremberg – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Xuicios de Núremberg" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BCrnberq_prosesi" title="Nürnberq prosesi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Nürnberq prosesi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%82_%D9%85%D8%AD%DA%A9%D9%85%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="نورنبرق محکمه‌سی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="نورنبرق محکمه‌سی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%97_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0" title="নুরেমবার্গ বিচার – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="নুরেমবার্গ বিচার" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BCrnberg_S%C3%ADm-pho%C3%A0%E2%81%BF" title="Nürnberg Sím-phoàⁿ – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Nürnberg Sím-phoàⁿ" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%8E%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Нюрнберг процесы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Нюрнберг процесы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%8E%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%96_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8D%D1%81" title="Нюрнбергскі працэс – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Нюрнбергскі працэс" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%8E%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B1%D1%8D%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%96_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8D%D1%81" title="Нюрнбэрскі працэс – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Нюрнбэрскі працэс" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%8E%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B8" title="Нюрнбергски процеси – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Нюрнбергски процеси" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nirnber%C5%A1ki_proces" title="Nirnberški proces – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Nirnberški proces" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosez_N%C3%BCrnberg" title="Prosez Nürnberg – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Prosez Nürnberg" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judicis_de_Nuremberg" title="Judicis de Nuremberg – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Judicis de Nuremberg" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norimbersk%C3%BD_proces" title="Norimberský proces – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Norimberský proces" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treialon_Nuremberg" title="Treialon Nuremberg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Treialon Nuremberg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BCrnbergprocessen" title="Nürnbergprocessen – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Nürnbergprocessen" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BCrnberger_Prozess_gegen_die_Hauptkriegsverbrecher" title="Nürnberger Prozess gegen die Hauptkriegsverbrecher – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Nürnberger Prozess gegen die Hauptkriegsverbrecher" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BCrnbergi_protsess" title="Nürnbergi protsess – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Nürnbergi protsess" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CE%AF%CE%BA%CE%B7_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%9D%CF%85%CF%81%CE%B5%CE%BC%CE%B2%CE%AD%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%B7%CF%82" title="Δίκη της Νυρεμβέργης – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Δίκη της Νυρεμβέργης" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juicios_de_N%C3%BAremberg" title="Juicios de Núremberg – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Juicios de Núremberg" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nurenbergaj_procesoj" title="Nurenbergaj procesoj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Nurenbergaj procesoj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nurenbergeko_epaiketak" title="Nurenbergeko epaiketak – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Nurenbergeko epaiketak" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%AF%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%87_%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%B1%DA%AF" title="دادگاه نورنبرگ – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دادگاه نورنبرگ" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proc%C3%A8s_de_Nuremberg" title="Procès de Nuremberg – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Procès de Nuremberg" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosessen_fan_Neurenberch" title="Prosessen fan Neurenberch – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Prosessen fan Neurenberch" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xu%C3%ADzos_de_N%C3%BAremberg" title="Xuízos de Núremberg – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Xuízos de Núremberg" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%89%98%EB%A5%B8%EB%B2%A0%EB%A5%B4%ED%81%AC_%EA%B5%AD%EC%A0%9C%EA%B5%B0%EC%82%AC%EC%9E%AC%ED%8C%90" title="뉘른베르크 국제군사재판 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="뉘른베르크 국제군사재판" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%86%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D6%80%D5%B6%D5%A2%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A3%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%A4%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%BE%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Նյուրնբերգյան դատավարություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Նյուրնբերգյան դատավարություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BCrnber%C5%A1ki_proces" title="Nürnberški proces – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Nürnberški proces" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judicii_di_N%C3%BCrnberg" title="Judicii di Nürnberg – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Judicii di Nürnberg" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidang_N%C3%BCrnberg" title="Sidang Nürnberg – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sidang Nürnberg" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BCrnberg-r%C3%A9ttarh%C3%B6ldin" title="Nürnberg-réttarhöldin – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Nürnberg-réttarhöldin" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Processo_di_Norimberga" title="Processo di Norimberga – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Processo di Norimberga" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A9%D7%A4%D7%98%D7%99_%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%A0%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%92" title="משפטי נירנברג – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="משפטי נירנברג" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9C%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%AA%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98" title="ნიურნბერგის პროცესი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ნიურნბერგის პროცესი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%8E%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%96" title="Нюрнберг процесі – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Нюрнберг процесі" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kesi_za_Nuremberg" title="Kesi za Nuremberg – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Kesi za Nuremberg" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%8E%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8" title="Нюрнберг процесси – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Нюрнберг процесси" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iudicia_Norimbergensia" title="Iudicia Norimbergensia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Iudicia Norimbergensia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nirnbergas_process" title="Nirnbergas process – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Nirnbergas process" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BCrnberger_Prozesser" title="Nürnberger Prozesser – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Nürnberger Prozesser" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niurnbergo_karo_nusikaltim%C5%B3_tribunolas" title="Niurnbergo karo nusikaltimų tribunolas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Niurnbergo karo nusikaltimų tribunolas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BCrnbergi_per" title="Nürnbergi per – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Nürnbergi per" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%81" title="Нирнбершки процес – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Нирнбершки процес" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%BE" title="ന്യൂറംബർഗ് വിചാരണകൾ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ന്യൂറംബർഗ് വിചാരണകൾ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AD%D9%83%D9%85%D8%A9_%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%AC" title="محكمة نورنبيرج – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="محكمة نورنبيرج" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perbicaraan_Nuremberg" title="Perbicaraan Nuremberg – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Perbicaraan Nuremberg" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proces_van_Neurenberg" title="Proces van Neurenberg – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Proces van Neurenberg" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%8B%E3%83%A5%E3%83%AB%E3%83%B3%E3%83%99%E3%83%AB%E3%82%AF%E8%A3%81%E5%88%A4" title="ニュルンベルク裁判 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ニュルンベルク裁判" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%83%D1%8C%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81" title="Нуьрнберган процесс – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Нуьрнберган процесс" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BCrnbergprosessen" title="Nürnbergprosessen – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Nürnbergprosessen" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BCrnbergprosessen" title="Nürnbergprosessen – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Nürnbergprosessen" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proc%C3%A8s_de_Nuremberg" title="Procès de Nuremberg – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Procès de Nuremberg" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyurnberg_sud_jarayoni" title="Nyurnberg sud jarayoni – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Nyurnberg sud jarayoni" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julgamentos_de_Nuremberga" title="Julgamentos de Nuremberga – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Julgamentos de Nuremberga" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procesele_de_la_N%C3%BCrnberg" title="Procesele de la Nürnberg – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Procesele de la Nürnberg" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%8E%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81" title="Нюрнбергский процесс – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Нюрнбергский процесс" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gjyqi_i_Nyr%C3%ABmbergut" title="Gjyqi i Nyrëmbergut – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Gjyqi i Nyrëmbergut" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuremberg_Trials" title="Nuremberg Trials – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Nuremberg Trials" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norimbersk%C3%BD_proces" title="Norimberský proces – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Norimberský proces" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BCrnber%C5%A1ki_procesi" title="Nürnberški procesi – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Nürnberški procesi" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%81%D1%83%D1%92%D0%B5%D1%9A%D0%B0" title="Нирнбершка суђења – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Нирнбершка суђења" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nirnber%C5%A1ki_proces" title="Nirnberški proces – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Nirnberški proces" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BCrnbergin_oikeudenk%C3%A4ynnit" title="Nürnbergin oikeudenkäynnit – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Nürnbergin oikeudenkäynnit" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BCrnbergprocessen" title="Nürnbergprocessen – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Nürnbergprocessen" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mga_paglilitis_sa_Nuremberg" title="Mga paglilitis sa Nuremberg – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Mga paglilitis sa Nuremberg" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="நியூரம்பெர்க் தீர்ப்பாயம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="நியூரம்பெர்க் தீர்ப்பாயம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BCrnberg_x%C3%B6keme" title="Nürnberg xökeme – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Nürnberg xökeme" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%93%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B5%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B7%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%84" title="การพิจารณาคดีเนือร์นแบร์ค – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การพิจารณาคดีเนือร์นแบร์ค" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BCrnberg_Uluslararas%C4%B1_Asker%C3%AE_Ceza_Mahkemesi" title="Nürnberg Uluslararası Askerî Ceza Mahkemesi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Nürnberg Uluslararası Askerî Ceza Mahkemesi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%8E%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B7%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%81" title="Нюрнберзький процес – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Нюрнберзький процес" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%B2a_%C3%A1n_N%C3%BCrnberg" title="Tòa án Nürnberg – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tòa án Nürnberg" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a 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For the Tokyo Trial, see <a href="/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">International Military Tribunal for the Far East</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251680060">.mw-parser-output .ib-court-case .infobox-image img{background-color:#f8f9fa}.mw-parser-output .ib-court-case .infobox-above{font-style:italic;font-size:125%}.mw-parser-output .ib-court-case .infobox-header{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .ib-court-case .ib-court-case-red-header{background-color:red;color:white;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .ib-court-case .ib-court-case-green-header{background-color:green;color:white;font-weight:bold}</style><table class="infobox scotus ib-court-case"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above fn"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886049405">.mw-parser-output .noitalic{font-style:normal}</style>International Military Tribunal</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Color_photograph_of_judges%27_bench_at_IMT.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Color_photograph_of_judges%27_bench_at_IMT.jpg/300px-Color_photograph_of_judges%27_bench_at_IMT.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="229" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Color_photograph_of_judges%27_bench_at_IMT.jpg/450px-Color_photograph_of_judges%27_bench_at_IMT.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Color_photograph_of_judges%27_bench_at_IMT.jpg/600px-Color_photograph_of_judges%27_bench_at_IMT.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1574" data-file-height="1200" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Judges' bench during the tribunal at the <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Justice,_Nuremberg" title="Palace of Justice, Nuremberg">Palace of Justice</a> in <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg" title="Nuremberg">Nuremberg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Allied-occupied_Germany" title="Allied-occupied Germany">Allied-occupied Germany</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Indictment" title="Indictment">Indictment</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_(law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Conspiracy (law)">Conspiracy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_peace" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimes against peace">crimes against peace</a>, <a href="/wiki/War_crimes" class="mw-redirect" title="War crimes">war crimes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">crimes against humanity</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Started</th><td class="infobox-data">20 November 1945</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Decided</th><td class="infobox-data">1 October 1946</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Defendants</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/List_of_defendants_at_the_International_Military_Tribunal" title="List of defendants at the International Military Tribunal">24 (see list)</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Witnesses</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/List_of_witnesses_to_the_International_Military_Tribunal" title="List of witnesses to the International Military Tribunal">37 prosecution, 83 defense</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Case history</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Related actions</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Subsequent_Nuremberg_trials" title="Subsequent Nuremberg trials">Subsequent Nuremberg trials</a> <a href="/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">International Military Tribunal for the Far East</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Court membership</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Judges sitting</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iona_Nikitchenko" title="Iona Nikitchenko">Iona Nikitchenko</a> (Soviet Union)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Lawrence,_1st_Baron_Oaksey" title="Geoffrey Lawrence, 1st Baron Oaksey">Geoffrey Lawrence</a> (UK)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Biddle" title="Francis Biddle">Francis Biddle</a> (US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Donnedieu_de_Vabres" title="Henri Donnedieu de Vabres">Donnedieu de Vabres</a> (France)</li></ul> </div> and deputies</td></tr></tbody></table> The Nuremberg trials were held by the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies</a> against representatives of the defeated <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> for plotting and carrying out invasions of other countries across Europe and <a href="/wiki/Atrocity_crime" title="Atrocity crime">atrocities</a> against their citizens in <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. Between 1939 and 1945, Nazi Germany invaded many countries across Europe, inflicting 27 million deaths in the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> alone. Proposals for how to punish the defeated Nazi leaders ranged from a <a href="/wiki/Show_trial" title="Show trial">show trial</a> (the Soviet Union) to <a href="/wiki/Summary_execution" title="Summary execution">summary executions</a> (the United Kingdom). In mid-1945, France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States agreed to convene a joint tribunal in <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg" title="Nuremberg">Nuremberg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupation of Germany">occupied Germany</a>, with the <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Nuremberg_charter">Nuremberg Charter</a> as its legal instrument. Between 20 November 1945 and 1 October 1946, the International Military Tribunal (IMT) tried 22 of the most important surviving leaders of Nazi Germany in the political, military, and economic spheres, as well as six German organizations. The purpose of the trial was not just to convict the defendants but also to assemble irrefutable evidence of Nazi crimes, offer a history lesson to the defeated Germans, and delegitimize the traditional German elite. The IMT verdict followed the prosecution in declaring the <a href="/wiki/Crime_of_aggression" title="Crime of aggression">crime</a> of plotting and waging <a href="/wiki/Aggressive_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Aggressive war">aggressive war</a> "the supreme international crime" because "it contains within itself the accumulated evil of the whole".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013165-1">[1]</a> Most of the defendants were also charged with <a href="/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">war crimes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">crimes against humanity</a>, and the systematic murder of millions of Jews in <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">the Holocaust</a> was significant to the trial. <a href="/wiki/Subsequent_Nuremberg_trials" title="Subsequent Nuremberg trials">Twelve further trials</a> were conducted by the United States against lower-level perpetrators, which focused more on the Holocaust. Controversial at the time for their <a href="/wiki/Ex_post_facto_law" title="Ex post facto law">retroactive criminalization</a> of aggression, the trials' innovation of holding individuals responsible for violations of international law is considered "the true beginning of <a href="/wiki/International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">international criminal law</a>".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014148-2">[2]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origin">Origin</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuremberg_trials&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Origin">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Selection_on_the_ramp_at_Auschwitz-Birkenau,_1944_(Auschwitz_Album)_1a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Selection_on_the_ramp_at_Auschwitz-Birkenau%2C_1944_%28Auschwitz_Album%29_1a.jpg/220px-Selection_on_the_ramp_at_Auschwitz-Birkenau%2C_1944_%28Auschwitz_Album%29_1a.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Selection_on_the_ramp_at_Auschwitz-Birkenau%2C_1944_%28Auschwitz_Album%29_1a.jpg/330px-Selection_on_the_ramp_at_Auschwitz-Birkenau%2C_1944_%28Auschwitz_Album%29_1a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Selection_on_the_ramp_at_Auschwitz-Birkenau%2C_1944_%28Auschwitz_Album%29_1a.jpg/440px-Selection_on_the_ramp_at_Auschwitz-Birkenau%2C_1944_%28Auschwitz_Album%29_1a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4205" data-file-height="2814" /></a><figcaption>Jews arriving at <a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_concentration_camp" title="Auschwitz concentration camp">Auschwitz concentration camp</a>, 1944. According to legal historian <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kirsten_Sellars&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kirsten Sellars (page does not exist)">Kirsten Sellars</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Death_camps" class="mw-redirect" title="Death camps">death camps</a> "formed the moral core of the Allies' case against the Nazi leaders".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars20101092-3">[3]</a></figcaption></figure> Between 1939 and 1945, <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> <a href="/wiki/European_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="European theatre of World War II">invaded many European countries</a>, including <a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="German invasion of Poland">Poland</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Denmark_(1940)" title="German invasion of Denmark (1940)">Denmark</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Norway" class="mw-redirect" title="German invasion of Norway">Norway</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_the_Netherlands" title="German invasion of the Netherlands">the Netherlands</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Belgium_(1940)" title="German invasion of Belgium (1940)">Belgium</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Luxembourg" title="German invasion of Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Fall of France">France</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Yugoslavia" class="mw-redirect" title="German invasion of Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Greece" title="German invasion of Greece">Greece</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="German invasion of the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014151–159-4">[4]</a> German <a href="/wiki/War_of_aggression" title="War of aggression">aggression</a> was accompanied by immense brutality in occupied areas;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch202027–28-5">[5]</a> war losses in the Soviet Union alone <a href="/wiki/World_War_II_casualties_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="World War II casualties of the Soviet Union">included 27 million dead</a>, mostly civilians, which was one seventh of the prewar population.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch202056-6">[6]</a> The legal reckoning was premised on the extraordinary nature of Nazi criminality, particularly the <a href="/wiki/Holocaust_uniqueness_debate" title="Holocaust uniqueness debate">perceived singularity</a> of <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">the systematic murder of millions of Jews</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars20101092-3">[3]</a> The first step towards the trials of Nazi war criminals were initiatives taken by the governments-in-exile of countries occupied by Germany, especially <a href="/wiki/Polish_government-in-exile" title="Polish government-in-exile">Poland</a>, which as early as December 1939 established agencies aimed at recording crimes committed by German in Poland for their later prosecution.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMachcewiczPaczkowski202143-7">[7]</a> These efforts resulted in a Polish-French-British declaration on April 18, 1940, holding Germany responsible for the crimes, without an explicit promise of their prosecution.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMachcewiczPaczkowski202144-8">[8]</a> Such a promise was included in a declaration by the occupied countries in November 1941, gathered at a conference organized on Poland's initiative.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMachcewiczPaczkowski202143–44-9">[9]</a> Another conference, held in January 1942, saw the participation of observers from the USSR, US, China, and the United Kingdom. It adopted <a href="/wiki/Punishment_for_War_Crimes" title="Punishment for War Crimes">a declaration</a> promising to punish both direct perpetrators and their superiors, which later became the basis of the Nuremberg system. The Inter-Allied Commission on the Punishment of War Crimes was also established at that time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMachcewiczPaczkowski202144-8">[8]</a> The United States and United Kingdom refused to endorse this proposal, citing the failure of <a href="/wiki/War_crimes_trials_after_World_War_I" title="War crimes trials after World War I">war crimes prosecutions</a> after <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch202022-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201632,_64-11">[11]</a> Pressures, primarily from Poland and Czechoslovakia, led the British to take concrete steps in the area of prosecuting German crimes. The London-based <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_War_Crimes_Commission" title="United Nations War Crimes Commission">United Nations War Crimes Commission</a>—without Soviet participation—first met in October 1943 and became bogged down in the scope of its mandate, with Belgian jurist <a href="/wiki/Marcel_de_Baer" title="Marcel de Baer">Marcel de Baer</a> and Czech legal scholar <a href="/wiki/Bohuslav_E%C4%8Der" title="Bohuslav Ečer">Bohuslav Ečer</a> arguing for a broader definition of <a href="/wiki/War_crimes" class="mw-redirect" title="War crimes">war crimes</a> that would include "the crime of war".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201664-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch202030–31-13">[13]</a> On 1 November 1943, the Soviet Union, United Kingdom, and United States issued the <a href="/wiki/Moscow_Declaration" class="mw-redirect" title="Moscow Declaration">Moscow Declaration</a>, warning the Nazi leadership of the signatories' intent to "pursue them to the uttermost ends of the earth...in order that justice may be done".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeller20119-14">[14]</a> The declaration stated that those high-ranking Nazis who had committed crimes in several countries would be dealt with jointly, while others would be tried where they had committed their crimes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeller20119-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGemählich2019paragraph_4-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201664-12">[12]</a> Soviet jurist <a href="/wiki/Aron_Trainin" title="Aron Trainin">Aron Trainin</a> developed the concept of <a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_peace" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimes against peace">crimes against peace</a> (waging <a href="/wiki/Aggressive_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Aggressive war">aggressive war</a>) which would later be central to the proceedings at Nuremberg.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch20208-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars201349–50-17">[17]</a> Trainin's ideas were reprinted in the West and widely adopted.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch202031,_36,_54-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201663-19">[19]</a> Of all the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies</a>, the Soviet Union lobbied most intensely for trying the defeated German leaders for aggression in addition to war crimes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch20208-16">[16]</a> The Soviet Union wanted to hold a <a href="/wiki/Show_trial" title="Show trial">trial with a predetermined outcome</a> similar to the 1930s <a href="/wiki/Moscow_trials" title="Moscow trials">Moscow trials</a>, in order to demonstrate the Nazi leaders' guilt and build a case for <a href="/wiki/War_reparations" title="War reparations">war reparations</a> to rebuild the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet economy">Soviet economy</a>, which had been devastated by the war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch20204,_107-20">[20]</a> The United States insisted on a trial that would be seen as legitimate as a means of reforming Germany and demonstrating the superiority of the Western system.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel20163-21">[21]</a> The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_War" title="United States Department of War">United States Department of War</a> was drawing up plans for an international tribunal in late 1944 and early 1945. The British government still preferred the <a href="/wiki/Summary_execution" title="Summary execution">summary execution</a> of Nazi leaders, citing the failure of trials after World War I and qualms about <a href="/wiki/Ex_post_facto_law" title="Ex post facto law">retroactive criminality</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch202026–27,_31-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars201367,_74–75-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201670-24">[24]</a> The form that retribution would take was left unresolved at the <a href="/wiki/Yalta_Conference" title="Yalta Conference">Yalta Conference</a> in February 1945.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch202040-25">[25]</a> On 2 May, at the <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco_Conference" class="mw-redirect" title="San Francisco Conference">San Francisco Conference</a>, United States president <a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> announced the formation of an international military tribunal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch202045–46-26">[26]</a> On 8 May, <a href="/wiki/German_Instrument_of_Surrender" title="German Instrument of Surrender">Germany surrendered unconditionally</a>, bringing <a href="/wiki/End_of_World_War_II_in_Europe" title="End of World War II in Europe">an end to the war in Europe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeller201110-27">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Establishment">Establishment</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuremberg_trials&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Establishment">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nuremberg_charter">Nuremberg charter</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuremberg_trials&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Nuremberg charter">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A.N._Trainin_speaks_at_the_War_Crimes_Executive_Committee.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/A.N._Trainin_speaks_at_the_War_Crimes_Executive_Committee.jpg/220px-A.N._Trainin_speaks_at_the_War_Crimes_Executive_Committee.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/A.N._Trainin_speaks_at_the_War_Crimes_Executive_Committee.jpg/330px-A.N._Trainin_speaks_at_the_War_Crimes_Executive_Committee.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/A.N._Trainin_speaks_at_the_War_Crimes_Executive_Committee.jpg/440px-A.N._Trainin_speaks_at_the_War_Crimes_Executive_Committee.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1493" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Aron_Trainin" title="Aron Trainin">Aron Trainin</a> (center, with moustache) speaks at the London Conference.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Palace_of_Justice_in_Nurnberg.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/The_Palace_of_Justice_in_Nurnberg.jpg/220px-The_Palace_of_Justice_in_Nurnberg.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/The_Palace_of_Justice_in_Nurnberg.jpg/330px-The_Palace_of_Justice_in_Nurnberg.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/The_Palace_of_Justice_in_Nurnberg.jpg/440px-The_Palace_of_Justice_in_Nurnberg.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Aerial view of the Palace of Justice in 1945, with the prison attached behind it</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ruins_of_Nuremberg_after_World_War_II.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Ruins_of_Nuremberg_after_World_War_II.jpg/220px-Ruins_of_Nuremberg_after_World_War_II.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Ruins_of_Nuremberg_after_World_War_II.jpg/330px-Ruins_of_Nuremberg_after_World_War_II.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Ruins_of_Nuremberg_after_World_War_II.jpg/440px-Ruins_of_Nuremberg_after_World_War_II.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3754" data-file-height="2908" /></a><figcaption>Ruins of <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg" title="Nuremberg">Nuremberg</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1945</figcaption></figure> At the London Conference, held from 26 June to 2 August 1945, representatives of France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States negotiated the form that the trial would take. Until the end of the negotiations, it was not clear that any trial would be held at all.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars201384-28">[28]</a> The offenses that would be prosecuted were crimes against peace, <a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">crimes against humanity</a>, and war crimes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars201385–86-29">[29]</a> At the conference, it was debated whether wars of aggression were prohibited in existing <a href="/wiki/Customary_international_law" title="Customary international law">customary international law</a>; regardless, before the charter was adopted there was no law providing for criminal responsibility for aggression.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars201387–88-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETomuschat2006832–833-31">[31]</a> Despite misgivings from other Allies, American negotiator and <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Court (United States)">Supreme Court</a> justice <a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Jackson" title="Robert H. Jackson">Robert H. Jackson</a> threatened the United States' withdrawal if aggression was not prosecuted because it had been the rationale for <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II#Origins" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">American entry into World War II</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars201384–85,_88–89-32">[32]</a> However, Jackson conceded on defining crimes against peace; the other three Allies were opposed because it would undermine the freedom of action of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council" title="United Nations Security Council">United Nations Security Council</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars201398–100-33">[33]</a> War crimes already existed in international law as criminal violations of the <a href="/wiki/International_humanitarian_law" title="International humanitarian law">laws and customs of war</a>, but these did not apply to a government's treatment of its own citizens.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETomuschat2006834-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch202030,_34-35">[35]</a> Legal experts sought a way to try crimes against German citizens, such as the <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Germany" title="The Holocaust in Germany">German Jews</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch202034-36">[36]</a> A Soviet proposal for a charge of "crimes against civilians" was renamed "crimes against humanity" at Jackson's suggestion<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch202068,_73-37">[37]</a> after previous uses of the term in the <a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_World_War_I" title="Aftermath of World War I">post-World War I</a> <a href="/wiki/Commission_of_Responsibilities" title="Commission of Responsibilities">Commission of Responsibilities</a> and in failed efforts to prosecute the perpetrators of the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide" title="Armenian genocide">Armenian genocide</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBassiouni2011xxx–xxxi,_94-38">[38]</a> The British proposal to define crimes against humanity was largely accepted, with the final wording being "murder, extermination, enslavement, deportation, and other inhumane acts committed against any civilian population".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBassiouni2011xxxi,_33-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMusa2016373-40">[40]</a> The final version of the charter limited the tribunal's jurisdiction over crimes against humanity to those committed as part of a war of aggression.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch202073-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAcquaviva2011884–885-42">[42]</a> Both the United States—concerned that its "<a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow" class="mw-redirect" title="Jim Crow">Jim Crow</a>" system of <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">racial segregation</a> not be labeled a crime against humanity—and the Soviet Union wanted to avoid giving an international court jurisdiction over a government's treatment of its own citizens.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMouralis2019102–103,_114,_120,_135-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch202070-44">[44]</a> The charter upended the traditional view of <a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">international law</a> by holding individuals, <a href="/wiki/State_responsibility" title="State responsibility">rather than states</a>, responsible for breaches.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETomuschat2006839–840-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars201385–86-29">[29]</a> The other three Allies' proposal to limit the definition of the crimes to acts committed by the defeated Axis was rejected by Jackson. Instead, the charter limited the jurisdiction of the court to Germany's actions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch20209–10-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013101-47">[47]</a> Article 7 prevented the defendants from claiming <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_immunity" title="Sovereign immunity">sovereign immunity</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars201387-48">[48]</a> and the plea of acting under <a href="/wiki/Superior_orders" title="Superior orders">superior orders</a> was left for the judges to decide.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeller201111-49">[49]</a> The trial was held under modified <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars201385-50">[50]</a> The negotiators decided that the tribunal's permanent seat would be in Berlin, while the trial would be held at the <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Justice,_Nuremberg" title="Palace of Justice, Nuremberg">Palace of Justice</a> in <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg" title="Nuremberg">Nuremberg</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch202073-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201676-51">[51]</a> Located in the <a href="/wiki/American_occupation_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="American occupation zone">American occupation zone</a>, Nuremberg was a symbolic location as the site of <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_rallies" title="Nuremberg rallies">Nazi rallies</a>. The Palace of Justice was relatively intact but needed to be renovated for the trial due to <a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Nuremberg_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Nuremberg in World War II">bomb damage</a>; it had an attached prison where the defendants could be held.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinke200631-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201676-51">[51]</a> On 8 August, the Nuremberg Charter was signed in London.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch202074-53">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Judges_and_prosecutors">Judges and prosecutors</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuremberg_trials&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Judges and prosecutors">edit</a>]</div> In early 1946, there were a thousand employees from the four countries' delegations in Nuremberg, of which about two thirds were from the United States.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMouralis201921-54">[54]</a> Besides legal professionals, there were many social-science researchers, psychologists, translators, and interpreters, and <a href="/wiki/Graphic_designer" title="Graphic designer">graphic designers</a>, the last to make the many charts used during the trial.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMouralis201922-55">[55]</a> Each state appointed a prosecution team and two judges, one being a deputy without voting rights.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch20202,_112-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016100-57">[57]</a> Jackson was appointed the United States' chief prosecutor, whom historian <a href="/wiki/Kim_Christian_Priemel" class="mw-redirect" title="Kim Christian Priemel">Kim Christian Priemel</a> describes as "a versatile politician and a remarkable orator, if not a great legal thinker".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201671,_90-58">[58]</a> The United States prosecution believed that <a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a> was the product of a German deviation from the West (the <a href="/wiki/Sonderweg" title="Sonderweg">Sonderweg</a> thesis) and sought to correct this deviation with a trial that would serve both retributive and educational purposes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel20163,_6-59">[59]</a> As the largest delegation, it would take on the bulk of the prosecutorial effort.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201691-60">[60]</a> At Jackson's recommendation, the United States appointed judges <a href="/wiki/Francis_Biddle" title="Francis Biddle">Francis Biddle</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_J._Parker" title="John J. Parker">John Parker</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201690-61">[61]</a> The British chief prosecutor was <a href="/wiki/Hartley_Shawcross" title="Hartley Shawcross">Hartley Shawcross</a>, <a href="/wiki/Attorney_General_for_England_and_Wales" title="Attorney General for England and Wales">Attorney General for England and Wales</a>, assisted by his predecessor <a href="/wiki/David_Maxwell_Fyfe" class="mw-redirect" title="David Maxwell Fyfe">David Maxwell Fyfe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch202053,_73–74-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201688-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013115-64">[64]</a> Although the chief British judge, <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Lawrence,_1st_Baron_Oaksey" title="Geoffrey Lawrence, 1st Baron Oaksey">Sir Geoffrey Lawrence</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lord_Justice_of_Appeal" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Justice of Appeal">Lord Justice of Appeal</a>), was the nominal president of the tribunal, in practice Biddle exercised more authority.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201690-61">[61]</a> The French prosecutor, <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_de_Menthon" title="François de Menthon">François de Menthon</a>, had just overseen trials of the leaders of <a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy France</a>;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch202074-53">[53]</a> he resigned in January 1946 and was replaced by <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Champetier_de_Ribes" title="Auguste Champetier de Ribes">Auguste Champetier de Ribes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGemählich2019paragraph_10-65">[65]</a> The French judges were <a href="/wiki/Henri_Donnedieu_de_Vabres" title="Henri Donnedieu de Vabres">Henri Donnedieu de Vabres</a>, a professor of criminal law, and deputy <a href="/wiki/Robert_Falco" title="Robert Falco">Robert Falco</a>, a judge of the <a href="/wiki/Cour_de_Cassation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cour de Cassation">Cour de Cassation</a> who had represented France at the London Conference.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201675,_89-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGemählich2019paragraph_10-65">[65]</a> The French government tried to appoint staff who were not tainted by collaboration with the Vichy regime; some appointments, including Champetier de Ribes, were of those who had been in the <a href="/wiki/French_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="French resistance">French resistance</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGemählich2019paragraphs_11–12-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201687-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020204-69">[69]</a> Expecting a show trial, the Soviet Union<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch20209-70">[70]</a> initially appointed as chief prosecutor <a href="/wiki/Iona_Nikitchenko" title="Iona Nikitchenko">Iona Nikitchenko</a>, who had presided over the Moscow trials, but he was made a judge and replaced by <a href="/wiki/Roman_Rudenko" title="Roman Rudenko">Roman Rudenko</a>, a show trial prosecutor<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch20209,_78-71">[71]</a> chosen for his skill as an orator.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020217-72">[72]</a> The Soviet judges and prosecutors were not permitted to make any major decisions without consulting a commission in Moscow led by Soviet politician <a href="/wiki/Andrei_Vyshinsky" class="mw-redirect" title="Andrei Vyshinsky">Andrei Vyshinsky</a>; the resulting delays hampered the Soviet effort to set the agenda.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch20209-70">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201690-61">[61]</a> The influence of the Soviet delegation was also constrained by limited English proficiency, lack of interpreters, and unfamiliarity with diplomacy and international institutions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch202088–89-73">[73]</a> Requests by <a href="/wiki/Chaim_Weizmann" title="Chaim Weizmann">Chaim Weizmann</a>, the president of the <a href="/wiki/World_Zionist_Organization" title="World Zionist Organization">World Zionist Organization</a>, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_National_Unity" title="Provisional Government of National Unity">Provisional Government of National Unity</a> in Poland, for an active role in the trial justified by their representation of victims of Nazi crimes were rejected.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016117-74">[74]</a> The Soviet Union invited prosecutors from its allies, including Poland, <a href="/wiki/Third_Czechoslovak_Republic" title="Third Czechoslovak Republic">Czechoslovakia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Yugoslavia" title="Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a>; Denmark and Norway also sent a delegation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFleming2022209-75">[75]</a> Although the Polish delegation was not empowered to intervene in the proceedings, it submitted evidence and an indictment, succeeding at drawing some attention to crimes committed against Polish Jews and non-Jews.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFleming2022209,_220-76">[76]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indictment">Indictment</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuremberg_trials&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Indictment">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:At_a_solemn_session_in_Berlin,_the_representatives_of_the_various_nations_handed_over_to_the_Tribunal_their_indictments_for_the_Nuremberg_Trials.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/At_a_solemn_session_in_Berlin%2C_the_representatives_of_the_various_nations_handed_over_to_the_Tribunal_their_indictments_for_the_Nuremberg_Trials.jpg/220px-At_a_solemn_session_in_Berlin%2C_the_representatives_of_the_various_nations_handed_over_to_the_Tribunal_their_indictments_for_the_Nuremberg_Trials.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/At_a_solemn_session_in_Berlin%2C_the_representatives_of_the_various_nations_handed_over_to_the_Tribunal_their_indictments_for_the_Nuremberg_Trials.jpg/330px-At_a_solemn_session_in_Berlin%2C_the_representatives_of_the_various_nations_handed_over_to_the_Tribunal_their_indictments_for_the_Nuremberg_Trials.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/At_a_solemn_session_in_Berlin%2C_the_representatives_of_the_various_nations_handed_over_to_the_Tribunal_their_indictments_for_the_Nuremberg_Trials.jpg/440px-At_a_solemn_session_in_Berlin%2C_the_representatives_of_the_various_nations_handed_over_to_the_Tribunal_their_indictments_for_the_Nuremberg_Trials.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4056" data-file-height="2619" /></a><figcaption>Handing over the indictment to the tribunal, 18 October 1945</figcaption></figure> The work of drafting the indictment was divided up by the national delegations. The British worked on aggressive war; the other delegations were assigned the task of covering crimes against humanity and war crimes committed on the <a href="/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Western Front (World War II)">Western Front</a> (France) and the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front</a> (the Soviet Union). The United States delegation outlined the overall Nazi conspiracy and criminality of Nazi organizations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch202080-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016101-78">[78]</a> The British and American delegations decided to work jointly in drafting the charges of conspiracy to wage aggressive war. On 17 September, the various delegations met to discuss the indictment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch202080–81-79">[79]</a> The charge of <a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_(criminal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Conspiracy (criminal)">conspiracy</a>, absent from the charter, held together the wide array of charges and defendants<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016102-80">[80]</a> and was used to charge the top Nazi leaders, as well as bureaucrats who had never killed anyone or perhaps even directly ordered killing. It was also an end run on the charter's limits on charging crimes committed before the beginning of World War II.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016111-81">[81]</a> Conspiracy charges were central to the cases against propagandists and industrialists: the former were charged with providing the ideological justification for war and other crimes, while the latter were accused of enabling Germany's war effort.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016112–113-82">[82]</a> The charge, a brainchild of <a href="/wiki/War_Department" title="War Department">War Department</a> lawyer <a href="/w/index.php?title=Murray_C._Bernays&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Murray C. Bernays (page does not exist)">Murray C. Bernays</a>, and perhaps inspired by his previous work prosecuting <a href="/wiki/Securities_fraud" title="Securities fraud">securities fraud</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201618,_69,_111-83">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars201369-84">[84]</a> was spearheaded by the United States and less popular with the other delegations, particularly France.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201699-85">[85]</a> The problem of translating the indictment and evidence into the three official languages of the tribunal—English, French, and Russian—as well as German was severe due to the scale of the task and difficulty of recruiting interpreters, especially in the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch202082–83-86">[86]</a> Vyshinsky demanded extensive corrections to the charges of crimes against peace, especially regarding the role of the <a href="/wiki/German%E2%80%93Soviet_pact" class="mw-redirect" title="German–Soviet pact">German–Soviet pact</a> in starting World War II.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch202084–86-87">[87]</a> Jackson also separated out an overall conspiracy charge from the other three charges, aiming that the American prosecution would cover the overall Nazi conspiracy while the other delegations would flesh out the details of Nazi crimes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch202087-88">[88]</a> The division of labor, and the haste with which the indictment was prepared, resulted in duplication, imprecise language, and lack of attribution of specific charges to individual defendants.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016100–101-89">[89]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Defendants">Defendants</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuremberg_trials&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Defendants">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_defendants_at_the_International_Military_Tribunal" title="List of defendants at the International Military Tribunal">List of defendants at the International Military Tribunal</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Defendants_in_the_dock_at_nuremberg_trials.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Defendants_in_the_dock_at_nuremberg_trials.jpg/220px-Defendants_in_the_dock_at_nuremberg_trials.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Defendants_in_the_dock_at_nuremberg_trials.jpg/330px-Defendants_in_the_dock_at_nuremberg_trials.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Defendants_in_the_dock_at_nuremberg_trials.jpg/440px-Defendants_in_the_dock_at_nuremberg_trials.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1523" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>The defendants in the dock</figcaption></figure> Some of the most prominent Nazis—<a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Himmler" title="Heinrich Himmler">Heinrich Himmler</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Goebbels" title="Joseph Goebbels">Joseph Goebbels</a>—had committed suicide and therefore could not be tried.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinke200627-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201681-91">[91]</a> The prosecutors wanted to try representative leaders of German politics, economy, and military.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinke200628–29-92">[92]</a> Most of the defendants had surrendered to the United States or United Kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201681–82-93">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch202074-53">[53]</a> The defendants, who were largely unrepentant,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch20205-94">[94]</a> included former cabinet ministers: <a href="/wiki/Franz_von_Papen" title="Franz von Papen">Franz von Papen</a> (who had <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler%27s_rise_to_power" title="Adolf Hitler's rise to power">brought Hitler to power</a>); <a href="/wiki/Joachim_von_Ribbentrop" title="Joachim von Ribbentrop">Joachim von Ribbentrop</a> (<a href="/wiki/Reich_Foreign_Ministry" class="mw-redirect" title="Reich Foreign Ministry">foreign minister</a>), <a href="/wiki/Konstantin_von_Neurath" title="Konstantin von Neurath">Konstantin von Neurath</a> (<a href="/wiki/Reich_Foreign_Ministry" class="mw-redirect" title="Reich Foreign Ministry">foreign minister</a>). <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Frick" title="Wilhelm Frick">Wilhelm Frick</a> (<a href="/wiki/Reich_Interior_Ministry" class="mw-redirect" title="Reich Interior Ministry">interior minister</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Rosenberg" title="Alfred Rosenberg">Alfred Rosenberg</a> (minister for the occupied eastern territories).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201681-91">[91]</a> Also prosecuted were leaders of the German economy, such as <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Krupp" class="mw-redirect" title="Gustav Krupp">Gustav Krupp</a> (of the conglomerate <a href="/wiki/Krupp_AG" class="mw-redirect" title="Krupp AG">Krupp AG</a>), former <a href="/wiki/Reichsbank" title="Reichsbank">Reichsbank</a> president <a href="/wiki/Hjalmar_Schacht" title="Hjalmar Schacht">Hjalmar Schacht</a>, and economic planners <a href="/wiki/Albert_Speer" title="Albert Speer">Albert Speer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walther_Funk" title="Walther Funk">Walther Funk</a>, along with Speer's subordinate and head of the <a href="/wiki/Forced_labor_in_Nazi_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Forced labor in Nazi Germany">forced labor program</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Sauckel" title="Fritz Sauckel">Fritz Sauckel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch202076-95">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201682,_139-96">[96]</a> While the British were skeptical of prosecuting economic leaders, the French had a strong interest in highlighting German economic imperialism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201682-97">[97]</a> The military leaders were <a href="/wiki/Hermann_G%C3%B6ring" title="Hermann Göring">Hermann Göring</a>—the most infamous surviving Nazi<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201681-91">[91]</a>—<a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Keitel" title="Wilhelm Keitel">Wilhelm Keitel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Jodl" title="Alfred Jodl">Alfred Jodl</a>, <a href="/wiki/Erich_Raeder" title="Erich Raeder">Erich Raeder</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Karl_D%C3%B6nitz" title="Karl Dönitz">Karl Dönitz</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201682-97">[97]</a> Also on trial were propagandists <a href="/wiki/Julius_Streicher" title="Julius Streicher">Julius Streicher</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hans_Fritzsche" title="Hans Fritzsche">Hans Fritzsche</a>; <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Hess" title="Rudolf Hess">Rudolf Hess</a>, Hitler's deputy who had flown to Britain in 1941; <a href="/wiki/Hans_Frank" title="Hans Frank">Hans Frank</a>, governor-general of the <a href="/wiki/General_Governorate" class="mw-redirect" title="General Governorate">General Governorate</a> of Poland; <a href="/wiki/Hitler_Youth" title="Hitler Youth">Hitler Youth</a> leader <a href="/wiki/Baldur_von_Schirach" title="Baldur von Schirach">Baldur von Schirach</a>; <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Seyss-Inquart" title="Arthur Seyss-Inquart">Arthur Seyss-Inquart</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reichskommissariat_Niederlande" title="Reichskommissariat Niederlande">Reich Commissioner for the Netherlands</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Kaltenbrunner" title="Ernst Kaltenbrunner">Ernst Kaltenbrunner</a>, the leader of Himmler's <a href="/wiki/Reich_Main_Security_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="Reich Main Security Office">Reich Main Security Office</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201682,_127-98">[98]</a> Observers of the trial found the defendants mediocre and contemptible.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016121–122-99">[99]</a> Although the list of defendants was finalized on 29 August,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinke200629-100">[100]</a> as late as October, Jackson demanded the addition of new names, but this was rejected.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201683–84-101">[101]</a> Of the 24 men indicted, <a href="/wiki/Martin_Bormann" title="Martin Bormann">Martin Bormann</a> was <a href="/wiki/Tried_in_absentia" class="mw-redirect" title="Tried in absentia">tried in absentia</a>, as the Allies were unaware of his death; Krupp was too ill to stand trial; and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Ley" title="Robert Ley">Robert Ley</a> had committed suicide before the start of the trial.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201683,_106,_133-102">[102]</a> Former Nazis were allowed to serve as counsel<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201691-60">[60]</a> and by mid-November all defendants had lawyers. The defendants' lawyers jointly appealed to the court, claiming it did not have jurisdiction against the accused; but this motion was rejected. The defense lawyers saw themselves as acting on behalf of their clients, but also the German nation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201692–93-103">[103]</a> Initially, the Americans had planned to try fourteen organizations and their leaders, but this was narrowed to six: the <a href="/wiki/Hitler_cabinet" title="Hitler cabinet">Reich Cabinet</a>, the Leadership Corps of the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Gestapo" title="Gestapo">Gestapo</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_SA" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi SA">SA</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Schutzstaffel" title="Schutzstaffel">SS</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Sicherheitsdienst" title="Sicherheitsdienst">SD</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Generalstab" class="mw-redirect" title="Generalstab">General Staff</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oberkommando_der_Wehrmacht" title="Oberkommando der Wehrmacht">High Command</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Wehrmacht" title="Wehrmacht">German military</a> (Wehrmacht).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinke200627–28-104">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETomuschat2006841-105">[105]</a> The aim was to have these organizations declared criminal, so that their members could be tried expeditiously for membership in a criminal organization.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETomuschat2006841-105">[105]</a> Senior American officials believed that convicting organizations was a good way of showing that not just the top German leaders were responsible for crimes, without condemning the entire German people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020205-106">[106]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evidence">Evidence</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuremberg_trials&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Evidence">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Evidence_in_Nuremberg_trials.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Evidence_in_Nuremberg_trials.jpg/220px-Evidence_in_Nuremberg_trials.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Evidence_in_Nuremberg_trials.jpg/330px-Evidence_in_Nuremberg_trials.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Evidence_in_Nuremberg_trials.jpg/440px-Evidence_in_Nuremberg_trials.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1579" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">United States Army</a> clerks with evidence</figcaption></figure> Over the summer, all of the national delegations struggled to gather evidence for the upcoming trial.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinke200624–26-107">[107]</a> The American and British prosecutors focused on documentary evidence and affidavits rather than testimony from survivors. This strategy increased the credibility of their case, since survivor testimony was considered less reliable and more vulnerable to accusations of bias, but reduced public interest in the proceedings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharples201339-108">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016105-109">[109]</a> The American prosecution drew on reports of the <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Strategic_Services" title="Office of Strategic Services">Office of Strategic Services</a>, an American intelligence agency, and information provided by the <a href="/wiki/YIVO_Institute_for_Jewish_Research" class="mw-redirect" title="YIVO Institute for Jewish Research">YIVO Institute for Jewish Research</a> and the <a href="/wiki/American_Jewish_Committee" title="American Jewish Committee">American Jewish Committee</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016116–117-110">[110]</a> while the French prosecution presented many documents that it had obtained from the <a href="/wiki/Center_of_Contemporary_Jewish_Documentation" title="Center of Contemporary Jewish Documentation">Center of Contemporary Jewish Documentation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGemählich2019paragraph_19-111">[111]</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_witnesses_to_the_International_Military_Tribunal" title="List of witnesses to the International Military Tribunal">The prosecution called 37 witnesses compared to the defense's 83</a>, not including 19 defendants who testified on their own behalf.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016105-109">[109]</a> The prosecution examined 110,000 captured German documents<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMouralis201922-55">[55]</a> and entered 4,600 into evidence,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016148-112">[112]</a> along with 30 kilometres (19 mi) of film and 25,000 photographs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMouralis2016fn_82-113">[113]</a> The charter allowed the <a href="/wiki/Admissible_evidence" title="Admissible evidence">admissibility</a> of any evidence deemed to have <a href="/wiki/Relevance_(law)" title="Relevance (law)">probative</a> value, including <a href="/wiki/Deposition_(law)" title="Deposition (law)">depositions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDouglas200130-114">[114]</a> Because of the loose evidentiary rules, photographs, charts, maps, and films played an important role in making incredible crimes believable.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016105-109">[109]</a> After the American prosecution submitted many documents at the beginning of the trial, the judges insisted that all of the evidence be read into the record, which slowed the trial.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016104-115">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDouglas200118-116">[116]</a> The structure of the charges also caused delays as the same evidence ended up being read out multiple times, when it was relevant to both conspiracy and the other charges.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDouglas200116-117">[117]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Course_of_the_trial">Course of the trial</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuremberg_trials&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Course of the trial">edit</a>]</div> The International Military Tribunal began trial on 20 November 1945,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020138-118">[118]</a> after postponement requests from the Soviet prosecution, who wanted more time to prepare its case, were rejected.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020124-119">[119]</a> All defendants <a href="/wiki/Plea_(law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Plea (law)">pleaded</a> not guilty.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMouralis201923-120">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinke200640-121">[121]</a> Jackson made it clear that the trial's purpose extended beyond convicting the defendants. Prosecutors wanted to assemble irrefutable evidence of Nazi crimes, establish individual responsibility and the crime of aggression in international law, provide a history lesson to the defeated Germans, delegitimize the traditional German elite,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMouralis2016paragraph_3-122">[122]</a> and allow the Allies to distance themselves from <a href="/wiki/Appeasement" title="Appeasement">appeasement</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013159-123">[123]</a> Jackson maintained that while the United States did "not seek to convict the whole German people of crime", neither did the trial "serve to absolve the whole German people except 21 men in the dock".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016133-124">[124]</a> Nevertheless, defense lawyers (although not most of the defendants) often argued that the prosecution was trying to promote <a href="/wiki/German_collective_guilt" title="German collective guilt">German collective guilt</a> and forcefully countered this <a href="/wiki/Straw_man" title="Straw man">strawman</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016133-124">[124]</a> According to Priemel, the conspiracy charge "invited apologetic interpretations: narratives of absolute, <a href="/wiki/Totalitarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Totalitarian">totalitarian</a> dictatorship, run by society's lunatic fringe, of which the Germans had been the first victims rather than agents, collaborators, and <a href="/wiki/Fellow_traveller" title="Fellow traveller">fellow travellers</a>".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016149-125">[125]</a> In contrast, the evidence presented on the Holocaust convinced some observers that <a href="/wiki/Contemporary_knowledge_of_the_Holocaust" class="mw-redirect" title="Contemporary knowledge of the Holocaust">Germans must have been aware of this crime</a> while it was ongoing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016150-126">[126]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="American_and_British_prosecution">American and British prosecution</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuremberg_trials&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: American and British prosecution">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Nazi_Concentration_Camps.webm/220px-seek%3D2-Nazi_Concentration_Camps.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="3474" data-mwtitle="Nazi_Concentration_Camps.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Nazi_Concentration_Camps.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/af/Nazi_Concentration_Camps.webm/Nazi_Concentration_Camps.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source 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src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ANazi_Concentration_Camps.webm&lang=zh&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="zh" label="中文 ‪(zh)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></video><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Concentration_and_Prison_Camps" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi Concentration and Prison Camps">Nazi Concentration and Prison Camps</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Proces_Neurenberg,_Bestanddeelnr_901-2078.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Proces_Neurenberg%2C_Bestanddeelnr_901-2078.jpg/220px-Proces_Neurenberg%2C_Bestanddeelnr_901-2078.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Proces_Neurenberg%2C_Bestanddeelnr_901-2078.jpg/330px-Proces_Neurenberg%2C_Bestanddeelnr_901-2078.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Proces_Neurenberg%2C_Bestanddeelnr_901-2078.jpg/440px-Proces_Neurenberg%2C_Bestanddeelnr_901-2078.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2672" data-file-height="2725" /></a><figcaption>Presenting information on German aggression, 4 December</figcaption></figure> On 21 November, Jackson gave the opening speech for the prosecution.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016106-127">[127]</a> He described the fact that the defeated Nazis received a trial as "one of the most significant tributes that Power has ever paid to Reason".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016107-128">[128]</a> Focusing on aggressive war, which he described as the root of the other crimes, Jackson promoted an <a href="/wiki/Functionalism_and_intentionalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Functionalism and intentionalism">intentionalist</a> view of the Nazi state and its overall criminal conspiracy. The speech was favorably received by the prosecution, the tribunal, the audience, historians, and even the defendants.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016107–108-129">[129]</a> Much of the American case focused on the development of the Nazi conspiracy before the outbreak of war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016111-81">[81]</a> The American prosecution became derailed during attempts to provide evidence on the first act of aggression, <a href="/wiki/German_annexation_of_Austria" class="mw-redirect" title="German annexation of Austria">against Austria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDouglas200120–21-130">[130]</a> On 29 November, the prosecution was unprepared to continue presenting on the <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Czechoslovakia" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupation of Czechoslovakia">invasion of Czechoslovakia</a>, and instead screened <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Concentration_and_Prison_Camps" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi Concentration and Prison Camps">Nazi Concentration and Prison Camps</a>. The film, compiled from footage of the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps#Death_marches_and_liberation" title="Nazi concentration camps">liberation of Nazi concentration camps</a>, shocked both the defendants and the judges, who adjourned the trial.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016104–105-131">[131]</a> Indiscriminate selection and disorganized presentation of documentary evidence without tying it to specific defendants hampered the American prosecutors' work on the conspiracy to commit crimes against humanity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016116-132">[132]</a> The Americans summoned <a href="/wiki/Einsatzgruppen" title="Einsatzgruppen">Einsatzgruppen</a> commander <a href="/wiki/Otto_Ohlendorf" title="Otto Ohlendorf">Otto Ohlendorf</a>, who testified about the murder of 80,000 people by those under his command, and SS general <a href="/wiki/Erich_von_dem_Bach-Zelewski" title="Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski">Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski</a>, who admitted that German <a href="/wiki/Anti-partisan_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-partisan warfare">anti-partisan warfare</a> was little more than a cover for the mass murder of Jews.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDouglas200169–70-133">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016118–119-134">[134]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Evidence_about_Ernst_Kaltenbrunner%27s_crimes_is_presented_at_the_International_Military_Tribunal.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Evidence_about_Ernst_Kaltenbrunner%27s_crimes_is_presented_at_the_International_Military_Tribunal.jpg/220px-Evidence_about_Ernst_Kaltenbrunner%27s_crimes_is_presented_at_the_International_Military_Tribunal.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Evidence_about_Ernst_Kaltenbrunner%27s_crimes_is_presented_at_the_International_Military_Tribunal.jpg/330px-Evidence_about_Ernst_Kaltenbrunner%27s_crimes_is_presented_at_the_International_Military_Tribunal.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Evidence_about_Ernst_Kaltenbrunner%27s_crimes_is_presented_at_the_International_Military_Tribunal.jpg/440px-Evidence_about_Ernst_Kaltenbrunner%27s_crimes_is_presented_at_the_International_Military_Tribunal.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1589" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Evidence about <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Kaltenbrunner" title="Ernst Kaltenbrunner">Ernst Kaltenbrunner</a>'s crimes is presented, 2 January 1946.</figcaption></figure> The British prosecution covered the charge of crimes against peace, which was largely redundant to the American conspiracy case.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016102-80">[80]</a> On 4 December, Shawcross gave the opening speech, much of which had been written by Cambridge professor <a href="/wiki/Hersch_Lauterpacht" title="Hersch Lauterpacht">Hersch Lauterpacht</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201689,_108-135">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMusa2016384-136">[136]</a> Unlike Jackson, Shawcross attempted to minimize the novelty of the aggression charges, elaborating its precursors in the conventions of <a href="/wiki/Hague_Conventions_of_1899_and_1907" title="Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907">Hague</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geneva_Convention" class="mw-redirect" title="Geneva Convention">Geneva</a>, the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations_Covenant" class="mw-redirect" title="League of Nations Covenant">League of Nations Covenant</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Locarno_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Locarno Treaty">Locarno Treaty</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Kellogg%E2%80%93Briand_Pact" title="Kellogg–Briand Pact">Kellogg–Briand Pact</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016108-137">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013121–122-138">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMusa2016380–381-139">[139]</a> The British took four days to make their case,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMusa2016382-140">[140]</a> with Maxwell Fyfe detailing treaties broken by Germany.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMusa2016383-141">[141]</a> In mid-December the Americans switched to presenting the case against the indicted organizations,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020185-142">[142]</a> while in January both the British and Americans presented evidence against individual defendants.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020199–200-143">[143]</a> Besides the organizations mentioned in the indictment, American, and British prosecutors also mentioned the complicity of the German <a href="/wiki/Reich_Foreign_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="Reich Foreign Office">Foreign Office</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_Army_(Wehrmacht)" class="mw-redirect" title="German Army (Wehrmacht)">army</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kriegsmarine" title="Kriegsmarine">navy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016119-144">[144]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="French_prosecution">French prosecution</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuremberg_trials&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: French prosecution">edit</a>]</div> From 17 January to 7 February 1946, France presented its charges and supporting evidence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGemählich2019paragraph_15-145">[145]</a> In contrast to the other prosecution teams, the French prosecution delved into Germany's development in the nineteenth century, arguing that it had diverged from the West due to <a href="/wiki/Pan-Germanism" title="Pan-Germanism">pan-Germanism</a> and imperialism. They argued that Nazi ideology, which derived from these earlier ideas, was the <a href="/wiki/Mens_rea" title="Mens rea">mens rea</a>—criminal intent—of the crimes on trial.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016110–111-146">[146]</a> The French prosecutors, more than their British or American counterparts, emphasized the complicity of many Germans;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGemählich2019paragraph_16-147">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016111-81">[81]</a> they barely mentioned the charge of aggressive war and instead focused on forced labor, economic plunder, and massacres.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGemählich2019paragraph_17-148">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016115-149">[149]</a> Prosecutor <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Faure" title="Edgar Faure">Edgar Faure</a> grouped together various German policies, such as the German annexation of <a href="/wiki/Alsace%E2%80%93Lorraine" title="Alsace–Lorraine">Alsace–Lorraine</a>, under the label of <a href="/wiki/Germanization" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanization">Germanization</a>, which he argued was a crime against humanity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGemählich2019paragraph_18-150">[150]</a> Unlike the British and American prosecution strategies, which focused on using German documents to make their cases, the French prosecutors took the perspective of the victims, submitting postwar police reports.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGemählich2019paragraphs_20–21-151">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016119-144">[144]</a> Eleven witnesses, including victims of Nazi persecution, were called; resistance fighter and <a href="/wiki/Auschwitz" class="mw-redirect" title="Auschwitz">Auschwitz</a> survivor <a href="/wiki/Marie_Claude_Vaillant-Couturier" class="mw-redirect" title="Marie Claude Vaillant-Couturier">Marie Claude Vaillant-Couturier</a> testified about crimes she had witnessed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDouglas200170-152">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGemählich2019paragraphs_20–21-151">[151]</a> The French charges of war crimes were accepted by the tribunal, except for the execution of hostages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGemählich2019paragraphs_17–18-153">[153]</a> Due to the narrow definition of crimes against humanity in the charter, the only part of the Germanization charges accepted by the judges was the <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_France" title="The Holocaust in France">deportation of Jews from France</a> and other parts of Western Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGemählich2019paragraph_18-150">[150]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Soviet_prosecution">Soviet prosecution</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuremberg_trials&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Soviet prosecution">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%93%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C_%D0%BE%D1%82_%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%9D%D1%8E%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B5_%D0%A0.%D0%90._%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/%D0%93%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C_%D0%BE%D1%82_%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%9D%D1%8E%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B5_%D0%A0.%D0%90._%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BE.jpg/220px-%D0%93%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C_%D0%BE%D1%82_%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%9D%D1%8E%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B5_%D0%A0.%D0%90._%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BE.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/%D0%93%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C_%D0%BE%D1%82_%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%9D%D1%8E%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B5_%D0%A0.%D0%90._%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BE.jpg/330px-%D0%93%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C_%D0%BE%D1%82_%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%9D%D1%8E%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B5_%D0%A0.%D0%90._%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/%D0%93%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C_%D0%BE%D1%82_%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%9D%D1%8E%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B5_%D0%A0.%D0%90._%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BE.jpg/440px-%D0%93%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C_%D0%BE%D1%82_%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%9D%D1%8E%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B5_%D0%A0.%D0%90._%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2058" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Roman_Rudenko" title="Roman Rudenko">Roman Rudenko</a> opens the Soviet case.</figcaption></figure> On 8 February, the Soviet prosecution opened its case with a speech by Rudenko that covered all four prosecution charges, highlighting a wide variety of crimes committed by the German occupiers as part of their destructive and unprovoked invasion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020216–218-154">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016109-155">[155]</a> Rudenko tried to emphasize common ground with the other Allies while rejecting any similarity between Nazi and Soviet rule.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016109-155">[155]</a> The next week, the Soviet prosecution produced <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Paulus" title="Friedrich Paulus">Friedrich Paulus</a>—a German <a href="/wiki/Generalfeldmarschall" title="Generalfeldmarschall">field marshal</a> captured after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stalingrad" title="Battle of Stalingrad">Battle of Stalingrad</a>—as a witness and questioned him about the preparations for the invasion of the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020221–222-156">[156]</a> Paulus incriminated his former associates, pointing to Keitel, Jodl, and Göring as the defendants most responsible for the war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020223-157">[157]</a> More so than other delegations, Soviet prosecutors showed the gruesome details of German atrocities, especially the death by starvation of 3 million <a href="/wiki/German_mistreatment_of_Soviet_prisoners_of_war" class="mw-redirect" title="German mistreatment of Soviet prisoners of war">Soviet prisoners of war</a> and several hundred thousand <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Leningrad" title="Siege of Leningrad">residents of Leningrad</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016116-132">[132]</a> Although Soviet prosecutors dealt most extensively with the <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="The Holocaust in the Soviet Union">systematic murder of Jews in eastern Europe</a>, at times they blurred the fate of Jews with that of other Soviet nationalities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016116,_118-158">[158]</a> Although these aspects had already been covered by the American prosecution, Soviet prosecutors introduced new evidence from <a href="/wiki/Extraordinary_State_Commission" title="Extraordinary State Commission">Extraordinary State Commission</a> reports and interrogations of senior enemy officers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020225-159">[159]</a> <a href="/wiki/Lev_Smirnov" title="Lev Smirnov">Lev Smirnov</a> presented evidence on the <a href="/wiki/Lidice_massacre" title="Lidice massacre">Lidice massacre</a> in Czechoslovakia, adding that the German invaders had <a href="/wiki/Anti-partisan_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-partisan warfare">destroyed thousands of villages and murdered their inhabitants</a> throughout eastern Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020230-160">[160]</a> The Soviet prosecution emphasized the racist aspect of policies such as the deportation of millions of civilians to Germany for <a href="/wiki/Forced_labor_in_Nazi_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Forced labor in Nazi Germany">forced labor</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016115-149">[149]</a> the murder of children,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020230–231-161">[161]</a> systematic looting of occupied territories, and theft or destruction of <a href="/wiki/Cultural_heritage" title="Cultural heritage">cultural heritage</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020232-162">[162]</a> The Soviet prosecution also attempted to fabricate German responsibility for the <a href="/wiki/Katyn_massacre" title="Katyn massacre">Katyn massacre</a>, which had in fact been committed by the <a href="/wiki/NKVD" title="NKVD">NKVD</a>. Although Western prosecutors never publicly rejected the Katyn charge for fear of casting doubt on the entire proceedings, they were skeptical.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020225–226,_335-163">[163]</a> The defense presented evidence of Soviet responsibility,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020247,_329-164">[164]</a> and Katyn was not mentioned in the verdict.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020372-165">[165]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External videos</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://collections.ushmm.org/search/catalog/irn616417">Atrocities Committed by the German Fascist Invaders in the USSR</a>, 57 minutes; shown on 19 February 1946</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://perspectives.ushmm.org/item/nuremberg-trial-testimony-of-avrom-sutzkever/collection/the-holocaust-and-the-moving-image">Testimony of Abraham Sutzkever</a>, 27 February 1946</td></tr></tbody></table> Inspired by the films shown by the American prosecution, the Soviet Union commissioned three films for the trial: The German Fascist Destruction of the Cultural Treasures of the Peoples of the USSR, Atrocities Committed by the German Fascist Invaders in the USSR, and The German Fascist Destruction of Soviet Cities, using footage from Soviet filmmakers as well as shots from German newsreels.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020180,_202,_233-166">[166]</a> The second film included footage of the liberation of <a href="/wiki/Majdanek_concentration_camp" title="Majdanek concentration camp">Majdanek</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Liberation_of_Auschwitz" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberation of Auschwitz">liberation of Auschwitz</a> and was considered even more disturbing than the American concentration camp film.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020231–232-167">[167]</a> Soviet witnesses included several survivors of German crimes, including two civilians who lived through the siege of Leningrad, a peasant whose village was destroyed in anti-partisan warfare, a Red Army doctor who endured several prisoner-of-war camps<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020233,_236–237,_239-168">[168]</a> and two Holocaust survivors—<a href="/wiki/Samuel_Rajzman" title="Samuel Rajzman">Samuel Rajzman</a>, a survivor of <a href="/wiki/Treblinka_extermination_camp" title="Treblinka extermination camp">Treblinka extermination camp</a>, and poet <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Sutzkever" title="Abraham Sutzkever">Abraham Sutzkever</a>, who described the murder of tens of thousands of Jews from <a href="/wiki/Vilna" class="mw-redirect" title="Vilna">Vilna</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016119-144">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020237,_239-169">[169]</a> The Soviet prosecution case was generally well received and presented compelling evidence about the suffering of the Soviet people and the Soviet contributions to victory.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020240,_242-170">[170]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Defense">Defense</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuremberg_trials&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Defense">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Goering_on_trial_(color).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Goering_on_trial_%28color%29.jpg/220px-Goering_on_trial_%28color%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Goering_on_trial_%28color%29.jpg/330px-Goering_on_trial_%28color%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Goering_on_trial_%28color%29.jpg/440px-Goering_on_trial_%28color%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1364" data-file-height="950" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hermann_G%C3%B6ring" title="Hermann Göring">Hermann Göring</a> under cross-examination</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Soviet-called_witness_addresses_the_International_Military_Tribunal.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Soviet-called_witness_addresses_the_International_Military_Tribunal.jpg/220px-Soviet-called_witness_addresses_the_International_Military_Tribunal.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Soviet-called_witness_addresses_the_International_Military_Tribunal.jpg/330px-Soviet-called_witness_addresses_the_International_Military_Tribunal.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Soviet-called_witness_addresses_the_International_Military_Tribunal.jpg/440px-Soviet-called_witness_addresses_the_International_Military_Tribunal.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>A member of the Soviet delegation addresses the tribunal.</figcaption></figure> From March to July 1946, the defense presented its counterarguments.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMouralis201923-120">[120]</a> Before the prosecution finished, it was clear that their general case was proven, but it remained to determine the individual guilt of each defendant.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016121-171">[171]</a> None of the defendants tried to assert that the Nazis' crimes had not occurred.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016125-172">[172]</a> Some defendants denied involvement in certain crimes or implausibly claimed ignorance of them, especially the Final Solution.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016126-173">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDouglas200120-174">[174]</a> A few defense lawyers inverted the arguments of the prosecution to assert that the Germans' authoritarian mindset and obedience to the state exonerated them from any personal guilt.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016132-175">[175]</a> Most rejected that Germany had deviated from Western civilization, arguing that few Germans could have supported Hitler because Germany was a civilized country.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016132-175">[175]</a> The defendants tried to blame their crimes on Hitler, who was mentioned 1,200 times during the trial—more than the top five defendants combined. Other absent and dead men, including Himmler, <a href="/wiki/Reinhard_Heydrich" title="Reinhard Heydrich">Reinhard Heydrich</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Eichmann" title="Adolf Eichmann">Adolf Eichmann</a>, and Bormann, were also blamed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016127–128-176">[176]</a> To counter claims that conservative defendants had enabled the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_rise_to_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi rise to power">Nazi rise to power</a>, defense lawyers blamed the <a href="/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany" title="Social Democratic Party of Germany">Social Democratic Party of Germany</a>, trade unions, and other countries that maintained diplomatic relations with Germany.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016130–131-177">[177]</a> In contrast, most defendants avoided incriminating each other.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016135-178">[178]</a> Most defendants argued their own insignificance within the Nazi system,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016133–134-179">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020287-180">[180]</a> but Göring took the opposite approach, expecting to be executed but vindicated in the eyes of the German people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016133–134-179">[179]</a> The charter did not recognize a <a href="/wiki/Tu_quoque_defense" title="Tu quoque defense">tu quoque defense</a>—asking for exoneration on the grounds that the Allies had committed the same crimes with which the defendants were charged.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016131-181">[181]</a> Although defense lawyers repeatedly equated the <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">Nuremberg Laws</a> to legislation found in other countries, Nazi concentration camps to Allied detention facilities, and the deportation of Jews to the <a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_Germans" class="mw-redirect" title="Expulsion of Germans">expulsion of Germans</a>, the judges rejected their arguments.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016131-181">[181]</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Alfred_Seidl&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alfred Seidl (page does not exist)">Alfred Seidl</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Seidl" class="extiw" title="de:Alfred Seidl">de</a>] repeatedly tried to disclose the secret protocols of the German–Soviet pact; although he was eventually successful, it was legally irrelevant and the judges rejected his attempt to bring up the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016131-181">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013148-182">[182]</a> Six defendants were charged with the <a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Norway" class="mw-redirect" title="German invasion of Norway">German invasion of Norway</a>, and their lawyers argued that this invasion was undertaken to prevent a <a href="/wiki/Plan_R_4" title="Plan R 4">British invasion of that country</a>; a cover-up prevented the defense from capitalizing on this argument.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016148-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013149–150-183">[183]</a> Fleet Admiral <a href="/wiki/Chester_Nimitz" class="mw-redirect" title="Chester Nimitz">Chester Nimitz</a> testified that the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">United States Navy</a> had also used <a href="/wiki/Unrestricted_submarine_warfare" title="Unrestricted submarine warfare">unrestricted submarine warfare</a> against <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japan</a> <a href="/wiki/Allied_submarines_in_the_Pacific_War" title="Allied submarines in the Pacific War">in the Pacific</a>; Dönitz's counsel successfully argued that this meant that it could not be a crime.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016131–132-184">[184]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013178-185">[185]</a> The judges barred most evidence on Allied misdeeds from being heard in court.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013144-186">[186]</a> Many defense lawyers complained about various aspects of the trial procedure and attempted to discredit the entire proceedings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016126-173">[173]</a> In order to appease them, the defendants were allowed a free hand with their witnesses and a great deal of irrelevant testimony was heard.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDouglas200115-187">[187]</a> The defendants' witnesses sometimes managed to exculpate them, but other witnesses—including <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_H%C3%B6ss" title="Rudolf Höss">Rudolf Höss</a>, the former commandant of Auschwitz, and <a href="/wiki/Hans_Bernd_Gisevius" title="Hans Bernd Gisevius">Hans Bernd Gisevius</a>, a member of the <a href="/wiki/German_resistance_to_Nazism" title="German resistance to Nazism">German resistance</a>—bolstered the prosecution's case.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016129–130-188">[188]</a> Over the course of the trial, Western judges allowed the defendants additional leeway to denounce the Soviet Union, which was ultimately revealed to be a co-conspirator in the outbreak of World War II.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch202010-189">[189]</a> In the context of the brewing <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>—for example, in 1946 <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> delivered the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Curtain_speech" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron Curtain speech">Iron Curtain speech</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016148-112">[112]</a>—the trial became a means of condemning not only Germany but also the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch202014-190">[190]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Closing">Closing</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuremberg_trials&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Closing">edit</a>]</div> On 31 August, closing arguments were presented.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMouralis201923–24-191">[191]</a> Over the course of the trial, crimes against humanity and especially against Jews (who were mentioned as victims of Nazi atrocities far more than any other group) came to upstage the aggressive war charge.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013171-192">[192]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016119,_150-193">[193]</a> In contrast to the opening prosecution statements, all eight closing statements highlighted the Holocaust; and the French and British prosecutors made this the main charge, as opposed to that of aggression. All prosecutors except the Americans mentioned the concept of <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a>, which had been recently invented by the Polish-Jewish jurist <a href="/wiki/Raphael_Lemkin" title="Raphael Lemkin">Raphael Lemkin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201662,_120-194">[194]</a> British prosecutor Shawcross quoted from witness testimony about a murdered Jewish family from <a href="/wiki/Dubno" title="Dubno">Dubno</a>, Ukraine.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016120-195">[195]</a> During the closing statements, most defendants disappointed the judges by their lies and denial. Speer managed to give the impression of apologizing without assuming personal guilt or naming any victims other than the German people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016138,_141-196">[196]</a> On 2 September, the court recessed; and the judges retreated into seclusion to decide the verdict and sentences, which had been under discussion since June. The verdict was drafted by British deputy judge <a href="/wiki/Norman_Birkett" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman Birkett">Norman Birkett</a>. All eight judges participated in the deliberations, but the deputies could not cast a vote.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020370,_372-197">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013160–161-198">[198]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Verdict">Verdict</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuremberg_trials&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Verdict">edit</a>]</div> The International Military Tribunal agreed with the prosecution that aggression was the gravest charge against the accused, stating in its judgment that because "war is essentially an evil thing", "to initiate a war of aggression, therefore, is not only an international crime; it is the supreme international crime differing only from other war crimes in that it contains within itself the accumulated evil of the whole".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013165-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014150-199">[199]</a> The work of the judges was made more difficult due to the broadness of the crimes listed in the Nuremberg Charter.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMusa2016375-200">[200]</a> The judges did not attempt to define the crime of aggression<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013161-201">[201]</a> and did not mention the retroactivity of the charges in the verdict.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016142-202">[202]</a> Despite the lingering doubts of some of the judges,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020371-203">[203]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016142–143-204">[204]</a> the official interpretation of the IMT held that all of the charges had a solid basis in customary international law and that the trial was procedurally fair.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETomuschat2006840–841-205">[205]</a> The judges were aware that both the Allies and the Axis had planned or committed acts of aggression, writing the verdict carefully to avoid discrediting either the Allied governments or the tribunal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013164–165-206">[206]</a> The judges ruled that there had been a premeditated conspiracy to commit crimes against peace, whose goals were "the disruption of the European order" and "the creation of a <a href="/wiki/Greater_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Greater Germany">Greater Germany</a> beyond <a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_Germany#World_War_I" title="Territorial evolution of Germany">the frontiers of 1914</a>".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014150-199">[199]</a> Contrary to Jackson's argument that the conspiracy began with the founding of the Nazi Party in 1920, the verdict dated the planning of aggression to the 1937 <a href="/wiki/Hossbach_Memorandum" title="Hossbach Memorandum">Hossbach Memorandum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020372-165">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016109,_144-207">[207]</a> The conspiracy charge caused significant dissent on the bench; Donnedieu de Vabres wanted to scrap it. Through a compromise proposed by the British judges, the charge of conspiracy was narrowed to a conspiracy to wage aggressive war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016144-208">[208]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020371–372,_387-209">[209]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMusa2016378-210">[210]</a> Only eight defendants were convicted on that charge; all of whom were also found guilty of crimes against peace.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020387-211">[211]</a> All 22 defendants were charged with crimes against peace, and 12 were convicted.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014150–151-212">[212]</a> The war crimes and crimes against humanity charges held up the best, with only two defendants charged on those grounds being acquitted.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020386-213">[213]</a> The judges determined that crimes against humanity concerning German Jews before 1939 were not under the court's jurisdiction because the prosecution had not proven a connection to aggressive war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMouralis201925-214">[214]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020383-215">[215]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_1" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/1946-10-08_21_Nazi_Chiefs_Guilty.ogv/220px--1946-10-08_21_Nazi_Chiefs_Guilty.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="160" data-durationhint="287" data-mwtitle="1946-10-08_21_Nazi_Chiefs_Guilty.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:1946-10-08_21_Nazi_Chiefs_Guilty.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/1946-10-08_21_Nazi_Chiefs_Guilty.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="590" data-height="428" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d0/1946-10-08_21_Nazi_Chiefs_Guilty.ogv/1946-10-08_21_Nazi_Chiefs_Guilty.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="198" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d0/1946-10-08_21_Nazi_Chiefs_Guilty.ogv/1946-10-08_21_Nazi_Chiefs_Guilty.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="330" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d0/1946-10-08_21_Nazi_Chiefs_Guilty.ogv/1946-10-08_21_Nazi_Chiefs_Guilty.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="496" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d0/1946-10-08_21_Nazi_Chiefs_Guilty.ogv/1946-10-08_21_Nazi_Chiefs_Guilty.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="496" data-height="360" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3A1946-10-08_21_Nazi_Chiefs_Guilty.ogv&lang=de&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="de" label="Deutsch ‪(de)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3A1946-10-08_21_Nazi_Chiefs_Guilty.ogv&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3A1946-10-08_21_Nazi_Chiefs_Guilty.ogv&lang=es&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="es" label="español ‪(es)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3A1946-10-08_21_Nazi_Chiefs_Guilty.ogv&lang=fr&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="fr" label="français ‪(fr)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3A1946-10-08_21_Nazi_Chiefs_Guilty.ogv&lang=it&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="it" label="italiano ‪(it)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3A1946-10-08_21_Nazi_Chiefs_Guilty.ogv&lang=nl&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="nl" label="Nederlands ‪(nl)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3A1946-10-08_21_Nazi_Chiefs_Guilty.ogv&lang=pt-br&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="pt-BR" label="português do Brasil ‪(pt-br)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3A1946-10-08_21_Nazi_Chiefs_Guilty.ogv&lang=pt&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="pt" label="português ‪(pt)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3A1946-10-08_21_Nazi_Chiefs_Guilty.ogv&lang=sv&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="sv" label="svenska ‪(sv)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></video><figcaption>Newsreel of the sentencing</figcaption></figure> Four organizations were ruled to be criminal: the Leadership Corps of the Nazi Party, the SS, the Gestapo, and the SD, although some lower ranks and subgroups were excluded.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020383–384-216">[216]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016147-217">[217]</a> The verdict only allowed for individual criminal responsibility if willing membership and knowledge of the criminal purpose could be proved, complicating <a href="/wiki/Denazification" title="Denazification">denazification</a> efforts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016143–144-218">[218]</a> The SA, the Reich Cabinet, and the General Staff and High Command were not ruled to be criminal organizations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020383–384-216">[216]</a> Although the Wehrmacht leadership was not considered an organization within the meaning of the charter,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020383–384-216">[216]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrüggemann2018405-219">[219]</a> misrepresentation of the verdict as an exoneration was one of the foundations of the <a href="/wiki/Clean_Wehrmacht_myth" class="mw-redirect" title="Clean Wehrmacht myth">clean Wehrmacht myth</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrüggemann2018405–406,_447–448-220">[220]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016147–148-221">[221]</a> The trial had nevertheless resulted in the coverage of <a href="/wiki/War_crimes_of_the_Wehrmacht" title="War crimes of the Wehrmacht">its systematic criminality</a> in the German press.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEchternkamp2020163–164-222">[222]</a> Sentences were debated at length by the judges. Twelve of the defendants were sentenced to death (Göring, Ribbentrop, Keitel, Kaltenbrunner, Rosenberg, Frank, Frick, Streicher, Sauckel, Jodl, Seyss-Inquart, and Bormann).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016145-223">[223]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020387-211">[211]</a> On 16 October, <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_executions" title="Nuremberg executions">ten were hanged</a>, with Göring killing himself the day before. Seven defendants (Hess, Funk, Raeder, Dönitz, Schirach, Speer, and Neurath) were sent to <a href="/wiki/Spandau_Prison" title="Spandau Prison">Spandau Prison</a> to serve their sentences.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020387,_390–391-224">[224]</a> All three acquittals (Papen, Schacht, and Fritzsche) were based on a deadlock between the judges; these acquittals surprised observers. Despite being accused of the same crimes, Sauckel was sentenced to death, while Speer was given a prison sentence because the judges considered that he could reform.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016146-225">[225]</a> Nikichenko released a dissent approved by Moscow that rejected all the acquittals, called for a death sentence for Hess, and convicted all the organizations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016147-217">[217]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020380-226">[226]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Subsequent_Nuremberg_trials">Subsequent Nuremberg trials</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuremberg_trials&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Subsequent Nuremberg trials">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Subsequent_Nuremberg_trials" title="Subsequent Nuremberg trials">Subsequent Nuremberg trials</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Telford_Taylor_delivers_the_prosecution%27s_opening_statement_during_the_Ministries_Trial.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Telford_Taylor_delivers_the_prosecution%27s_opening_statement_during_the_Ministries_Trial.jpg/220px-Telford_Taylor_delivers_the_prosecution%27s_opening_statement_during_the_Ministries_Trial.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Telford_Taylor_delivers_the_prosecution%27s_opening_statement_during_the_Ministries_Trial.jpg/330px-Telford_Taylor_delivers_the_prosecution%27s_opening_statement_during_the_Ministries_Trial.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Telford_Taylor_delivers_the_prosecution%27s_opening_statement_during_the_Ministries_Trial.jpg/440px-Telford_Taylor_delivers_the_prosecution%27s_opening_statement_during_the_Ministries_Trial.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1562" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Telford_Taylor" title="Telford Taylor">Telford Taylor</a> opens for the prosecution in the <a href="/wiki/Ministries_trial" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministries trial">Ministries trial</a>, 6 January 1948.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Monowitz_prisoners_unload_cement_from_trains_for_IG_Farben.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Monowitz_prisoners_unload_cement_from_trains_for_IG_Farben.jpg/220px-Monowitz_prisoners_unload_cement_from_trains_for_IG_Farben.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Monowitz_prisoners_unload_cement_from_trains_for_IG_Farben.jpg/330px-Monowitz_prisoners_unload_cement_from_trains_for_IG_Farben.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Monowitz_prisoners_unload_cement_from_trains_for_IG_Farben.jpg/440px-Monowitz_prisoners_unload_cement_from_trains_for_IG_Farben.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1633" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Monowitz" class="mw-redirect" title="Monowitz">Monowitz</a> prisoners unload cement from trains for <a href="/wiki/IG_Farben" title="IG Farben">IG Farben</a>, presented as evidence at the <a href="/wiki/IG_Farben_trial" class="mw-redirect" title="IG Farben trial">IG Farben trial</a>.</figcaption></figure> Initially, it was planned to hold a second international tribunal for German industrialists, but this was never held because of differences between the Allies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020353,_400-227">[227]</a> <a href="/wiki/Subsequent_Nuremberg_trials" title="Subsequent Nuremberg trials">Twelve military trials</a> were convened solely by the United States in the same courtroom that had hosted the International Military Tribunal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeller20111-228">[228]</a> Pursuant to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_No._10&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law No. 10 (page does not exist)">Law No. 10</a> adopted by the <a href="/wiki/Allied_Control_Council" title="Allied Control Council">Allied Control Council</a>, United States forces arrested almost 100,000 Germans as war criminals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeller201111–12-229">[229]</a> The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Office_of_Chief_Counsel_for_War_Crimes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Office of Chief Counsel for War Crimes (page does not exist)">Office of Chief Counsel for War Crimes</a> identified 2,500 major war criminals, of whom 177 were tried. Many of the worst offenders were not prosecuted, for logistical or financial reasons.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeller2011370-230">[230]</a> One set of trials focused on the actions of German professionals: the <a href="/wiki/Doctors%27_trial" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctors' trial">Doctors' trial</a> focused on <a href="/wiki/Nazi_human_experimentation" title="Nazi human experimentation">human experimentation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Euthanasia_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Euthanasia in Nazi Germany">euthanasia murders</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Judges%27_trial" class="mw-redirect" title="Judges' trial">Judges' trial</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_Nazi_Germany" title="Law of Nazi Germany">role of the judiciary in Nazi crimes</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Ministries_trial" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministries trial">Ministries trial</a> on the culpability of bureaucrats of German government ministries, especially the <a href="/wiki/Reich_Foreign_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="Reich Foreign Office">Foreign Office</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016273,_308-231">[231]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeller201185,_89-232">[232]</a> <a href="/wiki/Private_sector_participation_in_Nazi_crimes" title="Private sector participation in Nazi crimes">Also on trial were industrialists</a>—in the <a href="/wiki/Flick_trial" title="Flick trial">Flick trial</a>, the <a href="/wiki/IG_Farben_trial" class="mw-redirect" title="IG Farben trial">IG Farben trial</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Krupp_trial" title="Krupp trial">Krupp trial</a>—for using forced labor, looting property from Nazi victims, and funding SS atrocities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeller20113,_4,_92–94,_100–101-233">[233]</a> Members of the SS were tried in the <a href="/wiki/Pohl_trial" title="Pohl trial">Pohl trial</a>, which focused on members of the <a href="/wiki/SS_Main_Economic_and_Administrative_Office" title="SS Main Economic and Administrative Office">SS Main Economic and Administrative Office</a> that oversaw SS economic activity, including the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps" title="Nazi concentration camps">Nazi concentration camps</a>;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeller201190-234">[234]</a> the <a href="/wiki/RuSHA_trial" title="RuSHA trial">RuSHA trial</a> of <a href="/wiki/Nazi_racial_policies" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi racial policies">Nazi racial policies</a>; and the <a href="/wiki/Einsatzgruppen_trial" title="Einsatzgruppen trial">Einsatzgruppen trial</a>, in which members of the <a href="/wiki/Einsatzgruppen" title="Einsatzgruppen">mobile killing squads</a> were tried for the murder of more than one million people behind the Eastern Front.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016294–296,_298-235">[235]</a> <a href="/wiki/Luftwaffe" title="Luftwaffe">Luftwaffe</a> general <a href="/wiki/Erhard_Milch" title="Erhard Milch">Erhard Milch</a> <a href="/wiki/Milch_trial" class="mw-redirect" title="Milch trial">was tried</a> for using slave labor and deporting civilians. In the <a href="/wiki/Hostages_case" class="mw-redirect" title="Hostages case">Hostages case</a>, several generals were tried for executing thousands of hostages and prisoners of war, looting, using forced labor, and deporting civilians in the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a>. Other generals were tried in the <a href="/wiki/High_Command_Trial" title="High Command Trial">High Command Trial</a> for plotting wars of aggression, issuing <a href="/wiki/Criminal_orders_(Nazi_Germany)" title="Criminal orders (Nazi Germany)">criminal orders</a>, deporting civilians, using slave labor, and looting in the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016247,_310,_315-236">[236]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeller201187,_96,_104-237">[237]</a> These trials emphasized the crimes committed during the Holocaust.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeller20111,_4-238">[238]</a> The trials heard 1,300 witnesses, entered more than 30,000 documents into evidence, and generated 132,855 pages of transcripts, with the judgments totaling 3,828 pages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeller20114-239">[239]</a> Of 177 defendants, 142 were convicted and 25 sentenced to death;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeller20111–2-240">[240]</a> the severity of sentencing was related to the defendant's proximity to mass murder.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016306-241">[241]</a> Legal historian <a href="/wiki/Kevin_Jon_Heller" title="Kevin Jon Heller">Kevin Jon Heller</a> argues that the trials' greatest achievement was "their inestimable contribution to the form and substance of international criminal law", which had been left underdeveloped by the IMT.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeller2011400–401-242">[242]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contemporary_reactions">Contemporary reactions</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuremberg_trials&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Contemporary reactions">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Press_at_the_International_Military_Tribunal.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Press_at_the_International_Military_Tribunal.jpg/220px-Press_at_the_International_Military_Tribunal.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Press_at_the_International_Military_Tribunal.jpg/330px-Press_at_the_International_Military_Tribunal.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Press_at_the_International_Military_Tribunal.jpg/440px-Press_at_the_International_Military_Tribunal.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1510" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Press at the International Military Tribunal</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1990-032-29A,_N%C3%BCrnberger_Prozess,_Zeitungsleser.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1990-032-29A%2C_N%C3%BCrnberger_Prozess%2C_Zeitungsleser.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1990-032-29A%2C_N%C3%BCrnberger_Prozess%2C_Zeitungsleser.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1990-032-29A%2C_N%C3%BCrnberger_Prozess%2C_Zeitungsleser.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1990-032-29A%2C_N%C3%BCrnberger_Prozess%2C_Zeitungsleser.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1990-032-29A%2C_N%C3%BCrnberger_Prozess%2C_Zeitungsleser.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1990-032-29A%2C_N%C3%BCrnberger_Prozess%2C_Zeitungsleser.jpg 2x" data-file-width="798" data-file-height="560" /></a><figcaption>Germans read <a href="/wiki/S%C3%BCddeutsche_Zeitung" title="Süddeutsche Zeitung">Süddeutsche Zeitung</a> reporting the verdict, 1 October 1946</figcaption></figure> In all, 249 journalists were accredited to cover the IMT<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMouralis201922-55">[55]</a> and 61,854 visitor tickets were issued.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016148-112">[112]</a> In France, the sentence for Rudolf Hess and acquittal of organizations were met with outrage from the media and especially from organizations for deportees and resistance fighters, as they were perceived as too lenient.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGemählich2019paragraphs_27,_34-243">[243]</a> In the United Kingdom, although a variety of responses were reported, it was difficult to sustain interest in a long trial.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharples201346–47-244">[244]</a> Where the prosecution was disappointed by some of the verdicts, the defense could take satisfaction.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016146–147-245">[245]</a> Many Germans at the time of the trials focused on finding food and shelter.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020149-246">[246]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESafferling202042-247">[247]</a> Despite this, a majority read press reports about the trial.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEchternkamp2020167-248">[248]</a> In a 1946 poll, 78 percent of Germans assessed the trial as fair, but four years later that had fallen to 38 percent, with 30 percent considering it unfair.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESafferling202042-247">[247]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinke200699-249">[249]</a> As time went on, more Germans considered the trials illegitimate <a href="/wiki/Victor%27s_justice" title="Victor's justice">victor's justice</a> and an imposition of collective guilt, which they rejected—instead considering themselves victims of the war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinke2006100-250">[250]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEchternkamp2020172–173-251">[251]</a> As the Cold War began, the rapidly changing political environment began to affect the effectiveness of the trials.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016353–354-252">[252]</a> The educational purpose of the Nuremberg Military Tribunals was a failure, in part because of the resistance to war crimes trials in German society, but also because of the United States Army's refusal to publish the trial record in German for fear it would undermine the fight against communism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeller2011372–373-253">[253]</a> The German churches, both Catholic and Protestant, were vocal proponents of amnesty.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016356–357-254">[254]</a> The pardon of convicted war criminals also had cross-party support in <a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West Germany</a>, which was established in 1949.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinke2006105–107-255">[255]</a> The Americans satisfied these wishes to bind West Germany to the <a href="/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinke2006105-256">[256]</a> beginning early releases of Nuremberg Military Tribunal convicts in 1949.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016365-257">[257]</a> In 1951, <a href="/wiki/Allied_High_Commission" title="Allied High Commission">High Commissioner</a> <a href="/wiki/John_J._McCloy" title="John J. McCloy">John J. McCloy</a> overturned most of the sentences<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016366-258">[258]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeller2011351-259">[259]</a> and the last three prisoners, all convicted at the Einsatzgruppen trial, were released in 1958.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016367-260">[260]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeller2011366–367-261">[261]</a> The German public took the early releases as confirmation of what they saw as the illegitimacy of the trials.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeller2011360-262">[262]</a> The IMT defendants required Soviet permission for release; Speer was not successful in obtaining early release, and Hess remained in prison until his death in 1987.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016368-263">[263]</a> By the late 1950s, the West German consensus on release began to erode, due to greater openness in <a href="/wiki/Political_culture" title="Political culture">political culture</a> and new revelations of Nazi criminality, including the first trials of Nazi perpetrators in West German courts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinke2006111–112-264">[264]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuremberg_trials&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Legacy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Benjamin_Ferencz_-_Chief_Prosecutor_in_1947_Einsatzgruppen_Trial_-_In_Courtroom_600_Where_Nuremberg_Trials_Were_Held_-_Palace_of_Justice_-_Nuremberg-Nurnberg_-_Germany_-_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Benjamin_Ferencz_-_Chief_Prosecutor_in_1947_Einsatzgruppen_Trial_-_In_Courtroom_600_Where_Nuremberg_Trials_Were_Held_-_Palace_of_Justice_-_Nuremberg-Nurnberg_-_Germany_-_01.jpg/170px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Benjamin_Ferencz_-_Chief_Prosecutor_in_1947_Einsatzgruppen_Trial_-_In_Courtroom_600_Where_Nuremberg_Trials_Were_Held_-_Palace_of_Justice_-_Nuremberg-Nurnberg_-_Germany_-_01.jpg/255px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Benjamin_Ferencz_-_Chief_Prosecutor_in_1947_Einsatzgruppen_Trial_-_In_Courtroom_600_Where_Nuremberg_Trials_Were_Held_-_Palace_of_Justice_-_Nuremberg-Nurnberg_-_Germany_-_01.jpg/340px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2736" data-file-height="3648" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ben_Ferencz" title="Ben Ferencz">Benjamin Ferencz</a>, chief prosecutor of the <a href="/wiki/Einsatzgruppen_trial" title="Einsatzgruppen trial">Einsatzgruppen trial</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Justice,_Nuremberg" title="Palace of Justice, Nuremberg">Palace of Justice</a> courtroom, 2012</figcaption></figure> The International Military Tribunal, and its charter, "marked the true beginning of <a href="/wiki/International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">international criminal law</a>".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014148-2">[2]</a> The trial has met a mixed reception ranging from glorification to condemnation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016vi-265">[265]</a> The reaction was initially predominantly negative, but has become more positive over time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars20101091-266">[266]</a> The selective prosecution exclusively of the defeated Axis and hypocrisy of all four Allied powers has garnered the most persistent criticism. Such actions as the German–Soviet pact<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013172-267">[267]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016148,_343,_402-268">[268]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_Germans" class="mw-redirect" title="Expulsion of Germans">expulsion of millions of Germans from central and eastern Europe</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETomuschat2006833–834-269">[269]</a> deportation of civilians for forced labor,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020205,_348-270">[270]</a> and violent suppression of anti-colonial uprisings would have been deemed illegal according to the definitions of international crimes in the Nuremberg charter.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016343-271">[271]</a> Another controversy resulted from trying defendants for acts that were not criminal at the time,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars20101089-272">[272]</a> particularly crimes against peace.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars20101089-272">[272]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETomuschat2006834-34">[34]</a> Equally novel but less controversial were crimes against humanity, the conspiracy charge, and criminal penalties on individuals for breaches of international law.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013137-273">[273]</a> Besides these criticisms, the trials have been taken to task for the distortion that comes from fitting historical events into legal categories.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016402,_417-274">[274]</a> The <a href="/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">International Military Tribunal for the Far East</a> (Tokyo Trial) borrowed many of its ideas from the IMT, including all four charges, and was intended by the <a href="/wiki/Truman_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Truman Administration">Truman Administration</a> to shore up the IMT's legal legacy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013172-267">[267]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016412-275">[275]</a> On 11 December 1946, the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly" title="United Nations General Assembly">United Nations General Assembly</a> unanimously passed a resolution affirming "the principles of international law recognized by the Charter of the Nuremberg Tribunal and the judgment of the Tribunal".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETomuschat2006837-276">[276]</a> In 1950, the <a href="/wiki/International_Law_Commission" title="International Law Commission">International Law Commission</a> drafted the <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_principles" title="Nuremberg principles">Nuremberg principles</a> to codify international criminal law, although the Cold War prevented the adoption of these principles until the 1990s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013175-277">[277]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinke2006117-278">[278]</a> The 1948 <a href="/wiki/Genocide_Convention" title="Genocide Convention">Genocide Convention</a> was much more restricted than Lemkin's original concept and its effectiveness was further limited by Cold War politics.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinke2006117-278">[278]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016411-279">[279]</a> In the 1990s, a revival of international criminal law included the establishment of <a href="/wiki/Ad_hoc_international_criminal_tribunals" title="Ad hoc international criminal tribunals">ad hoc international criminal tribunals</a> for <a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_Yugoslavia" class="mw-redirect" title="International Criminal Tribunal for Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a> (ICTY) and <a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_Rwanda" title="International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda">Rwanda</a> (ICTR), which were widely viewed as part of the legacy of the Nuremberg and Tokyo trials. A permanent <a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court" title="International Criminal Court">International Criminal Court</a> (ICC), proposed in 1953, was established in 2002.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel20167-280">[280]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMouralis2019207-281">[281]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013290-282">[282]</a> The trials were the first use of <a href="/wiki/Simultaneous_interpretation" title="Simultaneous interpretation">simultaneous interpretation</a>, which stimulated technical advances in translation methods.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAcquaviva2011896-283">[283]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020114-284">[284]</a> The Palace of Justice houses a museum on the trial and the courtroom became a tourist attraction, drawing 13,138 visitors in 2005.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharples201331-285">[285]</a> The IMT is one of the most well-studied trials in history, and it has also been the subject of an abundance of books and scholarly publications, along with motion pictures such as <a href="/wiki/Judgment_at_Nuremberg" title="Judgment at Nuremberg">Judgment at Nuremberg</a> (1961) and <a href="/wiki/The_Memory_of_Justice" title="The Memory of Justice">The Memory of Justice</a> (1976).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201616-286">[286]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharples201331–32-287">[287]</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuremberg_trials&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 19em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013165-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars2013165_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars2013165_1-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSellars2013">Sellars 2013</a>, p. 165. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014148-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014148_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014148_2-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSayapin2014">Sayapin 2014</a>, p. 148. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars20101092-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars20101092_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars20101092_3-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSellars2010">Sellars 2010</a>, p. 1092. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014151–159-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014151–159_4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSayapin2014">Sayapin 2014</a>, pp. 151–159. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch202027–28-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch202027–28_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, pp. 27–28. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch202056-6"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch202056_6-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, p. 56. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMachcewiczPaczkowski202143-7"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMachcewiczPaczkowski202143_7-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMachcewiczPaczkowski2021">Machcewicz & Paczkowski 2021</a>, p. 43. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMachcewiczPaczkowski202144-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMachcewiczPaczkowski202144_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMachcewiczPaczkowski202144_8-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMachcewiczPaczkowski2021">Machcewicz & Paczkowski 2021</a>, p. 44. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMachcewiczPaczkowski202143–44-9"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMachcewiczPaczkowski202143–44_9-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMachcewiczPaczkowski2021">Machcewicz & Paczkowski 2021</a>, p. 43–44. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch202022-10"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch202022_10-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, p. 22. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201632,_64-11"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel201632,_64_11-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, pp. 32, 64. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201664-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel201664_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel201664_12-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, p. 64. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch202030–31-13"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch202030–31_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, pp. 30–31. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeller20119-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeller20119_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeller20119_14-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHeller2011">Heller 2011</a>, p. 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGemählich2019paragraph_4-15"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGemählich2019paragraph_4_15-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGemählich2019">Gemählich 2019</a>, paragraph 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch20208-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch20208_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch20208_16-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, p. 8. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars201349–50-17"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars201349–50_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSellars2013">Sellars 2013</a>, pp. 49–50. </li> <li 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2013</a>, pp. 85–86. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars201387–88-30"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars201387–88_30-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSellars2013">Sellars 2013</a>, pp. 87–88. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETomuschat2006832–833-31"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETomuschat2006832–833_31-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTomuschat2006">Tomuschat 2006</a>, pp. 832–833. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars201384–85,_88–89-32"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars201384–85,_88–89_32-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSellars2013">Sellars 2013</a>, pp. 84–85, 88–89. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars201398–100-33"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars201398–100_33-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSellars2013">Sellars 2013</a>, pp. 98–100. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETomuschat2006834-34">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETomuschat2006834_34-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETomuschat2006834_34-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFTomuschat2006">Tomuschat 2006</a>, p. 834. </li> <li 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pp. 2, 112. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016100-57"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016100_57-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, p. 100. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201671,_90-58"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel201671,_90_58-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, pp. 71, 90. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel20163,_6-59"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel20163,_6_59-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, pp. 3, 6. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201691-60">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel201691_60-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel201691_60-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, p. 91. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201690-61">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel201690_61-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel201690_61-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel201690_61-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, p. 90. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch202053,_73–74-62"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch202053,_73–74_62-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, pp. 53, 73–74. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201688-63"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel201688_63-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, p. 88. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013115-64"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars2013115_64-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSellars2013">Sellars 2013</a>, p. 115. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGemählich2019paragraph_10-65">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGemählich2019paragraph_10_65-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGemählich2019paragraph_10_65-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGemählich2019">Gemählich 2019</a>, paragraph 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201675,_89-66"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel201675,_89_66-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, pp. 75, 89. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGemählich2019paragraphs_11–12-67"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGemählich2019paragraphs_11–12_67-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGemählich2019">Gemählich 2019</a>, paragraphs 11–12. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201687-68"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel201687_68-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, p. 87. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020204-69"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020204_69-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, p. 204. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch20209-70">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch20209_70-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch20209_70-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, p. 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch20209,_78-71"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch20209,_78_71-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, pp. 9, 78. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020217-72"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020217_72-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, p. 217. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch202088–89-73"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch202088–89_73-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, pp. 88–89. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016117-74"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016117_74-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, p. 117. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFleming2022209-75"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFleming2022209_75-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFleming2022">Fleming 2022</a>, p. 209. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFleming2022209,_220-76"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFleming2022209,_220_76-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFleming2022">Fleming 2022</a>, pp. 209, 220. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch202080-77"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch202080_77-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, p. 80. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016101-78"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016101_78-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, p. 101. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch202080–81-79"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch202080–81_79-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, pp. 80–81. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016102-80">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016102_80-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016102_80-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, p. 102. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016111-81">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016111_81-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016111_81-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016111_81-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, p. 111. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016112–113-82"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016112–113_82-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, pp. 112–113. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201618,_69,_111-83"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel201618,_69,_111_83-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, pp. 18, 69, 111. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars201369-84"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars201369_84-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSellars2013">Sellars 2013</a>, p. 69. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201699-85"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel201699_85-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, p. 99. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch202082–83-86"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch202082–83_86-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, pp. 82–83. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch202084–86-87"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch202084–86_87-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, pp. 84–86. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch202087-88"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch202087_88-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, p. 87. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016100–101-89"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016100–101_89-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, pp. 100–101. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinke200627-90"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeinke200627_90-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWeinke2006">Weinke 2006</a>, p. 27. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201681-91">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel201681_91-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel201681_91-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel201681_91-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, p. 81. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinke200628–29-92"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeinke200628–29_92-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWeinke2006">Weinke 2006</a>, pp. 28–29. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201681–82-93"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel201681–82_93-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, pp. 81–82. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch20205-94"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch20205_94-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, p. 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch202076-95"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch202076_95-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, p. 76. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201682,_139-96"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel201682,_139_96-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, pp. 82, 139. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201682-97">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel201682_97-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel201682_97-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, p. 82. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201682,_127-98"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel201682,_127_98-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, pp. 82, 127. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016121–122-99"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016121–122_99-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, pp. 121–122. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinke200629-100"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeinke200629_100-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWeinke2006">Weinke 2006</a>, p. 29. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201683–84-101"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel201683–84_101-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, pp. 83–84. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201683,_106,_133-102"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel201683,_106,_133_102-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, pp. 83, 106, 133. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201692–93-103"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel201692–93_103-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, pp. 92–93. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinke200627–28-104"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeinke200627–28_104-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWeinke2006">Weinke 2006</a>, pp. 27–28. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETomuschat2006841-105">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETomuschat2006841_105-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETomuschat2006841_105-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFTomuschat2006">Tomuschat 2006</a>, p. 841. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020205-106"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020205_106-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, p. 205. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinke200624–26-107"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeinke200624–26_107-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWeinke2006">Weinke 2006</a>, pp. 24–26. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESharples201339-108"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharples201339_108-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSharples2013">Sharples 2013</a>, p. 39. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016105-109">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016105_109-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016105_109-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016105_109-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, p. 105. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016116–117-110"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016116–117_110-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, pp. 116–117. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGemählich2019paragraph_19-111"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGemählich2019paragraph_19_111-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGemählich2019">Gemählich 2019</a>, paragraph 19. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016148-112">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016148_112-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016148_112-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016148_112-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016148_112-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, p. 148. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMouralis2016fn_82-113"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMouralis2016fn_82_113-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMouralis2016">Mouralis 2016</a>, fn 82. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDouglas200130-114"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDouglas200130_114-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDouglas2001">Douglas 2001</a>, p. 30. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016104-115"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016104_115-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, p. 104. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDouglas200118-116"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDouglas200118_116-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDouglas2001">Douglas 2001</a>, p. 18. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDouglas200116-117"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDouglas200116_117-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDouglas2001">Douglas 2001</a>, p. 16. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020138-118"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020138_118-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, p. 138. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020124-119"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020124_119-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, p. 124. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMouralis201923-120">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMouralis201923_120-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMouralis201923_120-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMouralis2019">Mouralis 2019</a>, p. 23. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinke200640-121"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeinke200640_121-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWeinke2006">Weinke 2006</a>, p. 40. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMouralis2016paragraph_3-122"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMouralis2016paragraph_3_122-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMouralis2016">Mouralis 2016</a>, paragraph 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013159-123"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars2013159_123-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSellars2013">Sellars 2013</a>, p. 159. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016133-124">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016133_124-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016133_124-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, p. 133. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016149-125"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016149_125-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, p. 149. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016150-126"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016150_126-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, p. 150. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016106-127"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016106_127-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, p. 106. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016107-128"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016107_128-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, p. 107. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016107–108-129"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016107–108_129-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, pp. 107–108. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDouglas200120–21-130"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDouglas200120–21_130-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDouglas2001">Douglas 2001</a>, pp. 20–21. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016104–105-131"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016104–105_131-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, pp. 104–105. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016116-132">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016116_132-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016116_132-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, p. 116. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDouglas200169–70-133"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDouglas200169–70_133-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDouglas2001">Douglas 2001</a>, pp. 69–70. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016118–119-134"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016118–119_134-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, pp. 118–119. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201689,_108-135"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel201689,_108_135-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, pp. 89, 108. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMusa2016384-136"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMusa2016384_136-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMusa2016">Musa 2016</a>, p. 384. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016108-137"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016108_137-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, p. 108. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013121–122-138"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars2013121–122_138-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSellars2013">Sellars 2013</a>, pp. 121–122. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMusa2016380–381-139"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMusa2016380–381_139-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMusa2016">Musa 2016</a>, pp. 380–381. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMusa2016382-140"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMusa2016382_140-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMusa2016">Musa 2016</a>, p. 382. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMusa2016383-141"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMusa2016383_141-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMusa2016">Musa 2016</a>, p. 383. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020185-142"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020185_142-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, p. 185. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020199–200-143"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020199–200_143-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, pp. 199–200. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016119-144">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016119_144-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016119_144-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016119_144-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, p. 119. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGemählich2019paragraph_15-145"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGemählich2019paragraph_15_145-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGemählich2019">Gemählich 2019</a>, paragraph 15. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016110–111-146"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016110–111_146-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, pp. 110–111. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGemählich2019paragraph_16-147"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGemählich2019paragraph_16_147-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGemählich2019">Gemählich 2019</a>, paragraph 16. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGemählich2019paragraph_17-148"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGemählich2019paragraph_17_148-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGemählich2019">Gemählich 2019</a>, paragraph 17. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016115-149">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016115_149-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016115_149-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, p. 115. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGemählich2019paragraph_18-150">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGemählich2019paragraph_18_150-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGemählich2019paragraph_18_150-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGemählich2019">Gemählich 2019</a>, paragraph 18. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGemählich2019paragraphs_20–21-151">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGemählich2019paragraphs_20–21_151-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGemählich2019paragraphs_20–21_151-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGemählich2019">Gemählich 2019</a>, paragraphs 20–21. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDouglas200170-152"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDouglas200170_152-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDouglas2001">Douglas 2001</a>, p. 70. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGemählich2019paragraphs_17–18-153"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGemählich2019paragraphs_17–18_153-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGemählich2019">Gemählich 2019</a>, paragraphs 17–18. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020216–218-154"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020216–218_154-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, pp. 216–218. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016109-155">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016109_155-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016109_155-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, p. 109. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020221–222-156"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020221–222_156-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, pp. 221–222. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020223-157"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020223_157-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, p. 223. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016116,_118-158"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016116,_118_158-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, pp. 116, 118. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020225-159"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020225_159-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, p. 225. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020230-160"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020230_160-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, p. 230. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020230–231-161"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020230–231_161-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, pp. 230–231. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020232-162"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020232_162-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, p. 232. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020225–226,_335-163"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020225–226,_335_163-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, pp. 225–226, 335. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020247,_329-164"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020247,_329_164-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, pp. 247, 329. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020372-165">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020372_165-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020372_165-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, p. 372. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020180,_202,_233-166"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020180,_202,_233_166-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, pp. 180, 202, 233. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020231–232-167"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020231–232_167-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, pp. 231–232. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020233,_236–237,_239-168"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020233,_236–237,_239_168-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, pp. 233, 236–237, 239. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020237,_239-169"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020237,_239_169-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, pp. 237, 239. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020240,_242-170"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020240,_242_170-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, pp. 240, 242. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016121-171"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016121_171-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, p. 121. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016125-172"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016125_172-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, p. 125. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016126-173">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016126_173-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016126_173-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, p. 126. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDouglas200120-174"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDouglas200120_174-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDouglas2001">Douglas 2001</a>, p. 20. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016132-175">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016132_175-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016132_175-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, p. 132. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016127–128-176"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016127–128_176-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, pp. 127–128. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016130–131-177"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016130–131_177-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, pp. 130–131. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016135-178"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016135_178-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, p. 135. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016133–134-179">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016133–134_179-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016133–134_179-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, pp. 133–134. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020287-180"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020287_180-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, p. 287. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016131-181">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016131_181-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016131_181-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016131_181-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, p. 131. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013148-182"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars2013148_182-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSellars2013">Sellars 2013</a>, p. 148. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013149–150-183"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars2013149–150_183-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSellars2013">Sellars 2013</a>, pp. 149–150. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016131–132-184"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016131–132_184-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, pp. 131–132. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013178-185"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars2013178_185-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSellars2013">Sellars 2013</a>, p. 178. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013144-186"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars2013144_186-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSellars2013">Sellars 2013</a>, p. 144. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDouglas200115-187"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDouglas200115_187-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDouglas2001">Douglas 2001</a>, p. 15. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016129–130-188"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016129–130_188-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, pp. 129–130. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch202010-189"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch202010_189-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch202014-190"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch202014_190-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, p. 14. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMouralis201923–24-191"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMouralis201923–24_191-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMouralis2019">Mouralis 2019</a>, pp. 23–24. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013171-192"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars2013171_192-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSellars2013">Sellars 2013</a>, p. 171. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016119,_150-193"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016119,_150_193-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, pp. 119, 150. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201662,_120-194"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel201662,_120_194-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, pp. 62, 120. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016120-195"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016120_195-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, p. 120. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016138,_141-196"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016138,_141_196-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, pp. 138, 141. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020370,_372-197"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020370,_372_197-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, pp. 370, 372. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013160–161-198"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars2013160–161_198-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSellars2013">Sellars 2013</a>, pp. 160–161. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014150-199">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014150_199-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014150_199-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSayapin2014">Sayapin 2014</a>, p. 150. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMusa2016375-200"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMusa2016375_200-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMusa2016">Musa 2016</a>, p. 375. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013161-201"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars2013161_201-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSellars2013">Sellars 2013</a>, p. 161. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016142-202"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016142_202-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, p. 142. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020371-203"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020371_203-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, p. 371. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016142–143-204"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016142–143_204-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, pp. 142–143. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETomuschat2006840–841-205"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETomuschat2006840–841_205-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTomuschat2006">Tomuschat 2006</a>, pp. 840–841. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013164–165-206"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars2013164–165_206-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSellars2013">Sellars 2013</a>, pp. 164–165. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016109,_144-207"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016109,_144_207-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, pp. 109, 144. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016144-208"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016144_208-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, p. 144. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020371–372,_387-209"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020371–372,_387_209-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, pp. 371–372, 387. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMusa2016378-210"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMusa2016378_210-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMusa2016">Musa 2016</a>, p. 378. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020387-211">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020387_211-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020387_211-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, p. 387. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESayapin2014150–151-212"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESayapin2014150–151_212-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSayapin2014">Sayapin 2014</a>, pp. 150–151. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020386-213"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020386_213-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, p. 386. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMouralis201925-214"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMouralis201925_214-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMouralis2019">Mouralis 2019</a>, p. 25. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020383-215"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020383_215-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, p. 383. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020383–384-216">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020383–384_216-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020383–384_216-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020383–384_216-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, pp. 383–384. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016147-217">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016147_217-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016147_217-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, p. 147. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016143–144-218"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016143–144_218-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, pp. 143–144. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrüggemann2018405-219"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrüggemann2018405_219-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrüggemann2018">Brüggemann 2018</a>, p. 405. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrüggemann2018405–406,_447–448-220"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrüggemann2018405–406,_447–448_220-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrüggemann2018">Brüggemann 2018</a>, pp. 405–406, 447–448. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016147–148-221"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016147–148_221-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, pp. 147–148. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEchternkamp2020163–164-222"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEchternkamp2020163–164_222-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEchternkamp2020">Echternkamp 2020</a>, pp. 163–164. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016145-223"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016145_223-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, p. 145. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020387,_390–391-224"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020387,_390–391_224-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, pp. 387, 390–391. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016146-225"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016146_225-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, p. 146. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020380-226"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020380_226-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, p. 380. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020353,_400-227"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020353,_400_227-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, pp. 353, 400. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeller20111-228"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeller20111_228-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHeller2011">Heller 2011</a>, p. 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeller201111–12-229"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeller201111–12_229-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHeller2011">Heller 2011</a>, pp. 11–12. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeller2011370-230"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeller2011370_230-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHeller2011">Heller 2011</a>, p. 370. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016273,_308-231"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016273,_308_231-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, pp. 273, 308. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeller201185,_89-232"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeller201185,_89_232-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHeller2011">Heller 2011</a>, pp. 85, 89. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeller20113,_4,_92–94,_100–101-233"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeller20113,_4,_92–94,_100–101_233-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHeller2011">Heller 2011</a>, pp. 3, 4, 92–94, 100–101. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeller201190-234"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeller201190_234-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHeller2011">Heller 2011</a>, p. 90. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016294–296,_298-235"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016294–296,_298_235-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, pp. 294–296, 298. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016247,_310,_315-236"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016247,_310,_315_236-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, pp. 247, 310, 315. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeller201187,_96,_104-237"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeller201187,_96,_104_237-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHeller2011">Heller 2011</a>, pp. 87, 96, 104. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeller20111,_4-238"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeller20111,_4_238-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHeller2011">Heller 2011</a>, pp. 1, 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeller20114-239"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeller20114_239-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHeller2011">Heller 2011</a>, p. 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeller20111–2-240"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeller20111–2_240-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHeller2011">Heller 2011</a>, pp. 1–2. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016306-241"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016306_241-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, p. 306. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeller2011400–401-242"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeller2011400–401_242-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHeller2011">Heller 2011</a>, pp. 400–401. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGemählich2019paragraphs_27,_34-243"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGemählich2019paragraphs_27,_34_243-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGemählich2019">Gemählich 2019</a>, paragraphs 27, 34. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESharples201346–47-244"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharples201346–47_244-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSharples2013">Sharples 2013</a>, pp. 46–47. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016146–147-245"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016146–147_245-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, pp. 146–147. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020149-246"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020149_246-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, p. 149. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESafferling202042-247">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESafferling202042_247-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESafferling202042_247-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSafferling2020">Safferling 2020</a>, p. 42. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEchternkamp2020167-248"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEchternkamp2020167_248-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEchternkamp2020">Echternkamp 2020</a>, p. 167. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinke200699-249"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeinke200699_249-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWeinke2006">Weinke 2006</a>, p. 99. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinke2006100-250"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeinke2006100_250-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWeinke2006">Weinke 2006</a>, p. 100. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEchternkamp2020172–173-251"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEchternkamp2020172–173_251-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEchternkamp2020">Echternkamp 2020</a>, pp. 172–173. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016353–354-252"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016353–354_252-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, pp. 353–354. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeller2011372–373-253"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeller2011372–373_253-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHeller2011">Heller 2011</a>, pp. 372–373. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016356–357-254"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016356–357_254-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, pp. 356–357. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinke2006105–107-255"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeinke2006105–107_255-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWeinke2006">Weinke 2006</a>, pp. 105–107. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinke2006105-256"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeinke2006105_256-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWeinke2006">Weinke 2006</a>, p. 105. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016365-257"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016365_257-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, p. 365. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016366-258"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016366_258-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, p. 366. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeller2011351-259"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeller2011351_259-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHeller2011">Heller 2011</a>, p. 351. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016367-260"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016367_260-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, p. 367. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeller2011366–367-261"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeller2011366–367_261-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHeller2011">Heller 2011</a>, pp. 366–367. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeller2011360-262"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeller2011360_262-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHeller2011">Heller 2011</a>, p. 360. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016368-263"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016368_263-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, p. 368. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinke2006111–112-264"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeinke2006111–112_264-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWeinke2006">Weinke 2006</a>, pp. 111–112. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016vi-265"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016vi_265-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, p. vi. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars20101091-266"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars20101091_266-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSellars2010">Sellars 2010</a>, p. 1091. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013172-267">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars2013172_267-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars2013172_267-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSellars2013">Sellars 2013</a>, p. 172. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016148,_343,_402-268"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016148,_343,_402_268-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, pp. 148, 343, 402. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETomuschat2006833–834-269"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETomuschat2006833–834_269-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTomuschat2006">Tomuschat 2006</a>, pp. 833–834. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020205,_348-270"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020205,_348_270-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, pp. 205, 348. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016343-271"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016343_271-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, p. 343. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars20101089-272">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars20101089_272-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars20101089_272-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSellars2010">Sellars 2010</a>, p. 1089. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013137-273"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars2013137_273-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSellars2013">Sellars 2013</a>, p. 137. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016402,_417-274"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016402,_417_274-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, pp. 402, 417. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016412-275"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016412_275-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, p. 412. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETomuschat2006837-276"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETomuschat2006837_276-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTomuschat2006">Tomuschat 2006</a>, p. 837. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013175-277"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars2013175_277-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSellars2013">Sellars 2013</a>, p. 175. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinke2006117-278">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeinke2006117_278-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeinke2006117_278-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWeinke2006">Weinke 2006</a>, p. 117. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016411-279"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel2016411_279-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, p. 411. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel20167-280"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel20167_280-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, p. 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMouralis2019207-281"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMouralis2019207_281-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMouralis2019">Mouralis 2019</a>, p. 207. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESellars2013290-282"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESellars2013290_282-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSellars2013">Sellars 2013</a>, p. 290. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAcquaviva2011896-283"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAcquaviva2011896_283-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAcquaviva2011">Acquaviva 2011</a>, p. 896. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020114-284"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirsch2020114_284-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirsch2020">Hirsch 2020</a>, p. 114. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESharples201331-285"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharples201331_285-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSharples2013">Sharples 2013</a>, p. 31. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriemel201616-286"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriemel201616_286-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriemel2016">Priemel 2016</a>, p. 16. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESharples201331–32-287"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharples201331–32_287-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSharples2013">Sharples 2013</a>, pp. 31–32. </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuremberg_trials&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Trials_bibliography" title="Nuremberg Trials bibliography">Nuremberg Trials bibliography</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAcquaviva2011" class="citation journal cs1">Acquaviva, Guido (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjicj%2Fmqr010">"At the Origins of Crimes Against Humanity: Clues to a Proper Understanding of the Nullum Crimen Principle in the Nuremberg Judgment"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_International_Criminal_Justice" title="Journal of International Criminal Justice">Journal of International Criminal Justice</a>. 9 (4): 881–903. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjicj%2Fmqr010">10.1093/jicj/mqr010</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+International+Criminal+Justice&rft.atitle=At+the+Origins+of+Crimes+Against+Humanity%3A+Clues+to+a+Proper+Understanding+of+the+Nullum+Crimen+Principle+in+the+Nuremberg+Judgment&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=881-903&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjicj%2Fmqr010&rft.aulast=Acquaviva&rft.aufirst=Guido&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fjicj%252Fmqr010&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuremberg+trials" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBassiouni2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/M._Cherif_Bassiouni" title="M. 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Crimes against Humanity: Historical Evolution and Contemporary Application. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-49893-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-49893-7"><bdi>978-1-139-49893-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crimes+against+Humanity%3A+Historical+Evolution+and+Contemporary+Application&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-139-49893-7&rft.aulast=Bassiouni&rft.aufirst=M.+Cherif&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuremberg+trials" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrüggemann2018" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Brüggemann, Jens (2018). Männer von Ehre?: die Wehrmachtgeneralität im Nürnberger Prozess 1945/46 : zur Entstehung einer Legende [Men of honor?: the Wehrmacht generals in the Nuremberg trial 1945/46: the emergence of a legend] (in German). <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Sch%C3%B6ningh" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferdinand Schöningh">Ferdinand Schöningh</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-506-79259-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-506-79259-4"><bdi>978-3-506-79259-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=M%C3%A4nner+von+Ehre%3F%3A+die+Wehrmachtgeneralit%C3%A4t+im+N%C3%BCrnberger+Prozess+1945%2F46+%3A+zur+Entstehung+einer+Legende&rft.pub=Ferdinand+Sch%C3%B6ningh&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-3-506-79259-4&rft.aulast=Br%C3%BCggemann&rft.aufirst=Jens&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuremberg+trials" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDouglas2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Douglas" title="Lawrence Douglas">Douglas, Lawrence</a> (2001). The Memory of Judgment: Making Law and History in the Trials of the Holocaust. <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-10984-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-10984-9"><bdi>978-0-300-10984-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Memory+of+Judgment%3A+Making+Law+and+History+in+the+Trials+of+the+Holocaust&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-300-10984-9&rft.aulast=Douglas&rft.aufirst=Lawrence&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuremberg+trials" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEchternkamp2020" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6rg_Echternkamp" title="Jörg Echternkamp">Echternkamp, Jörg</a> (2020). Postwar Soldiers: Historical Controversies and West German Democratization, 1945–1955. <a href="/wiki/Berghahn_Books" title="Berghahn Books">Berghahn Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78920-558-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78920-558-9"><bdi>978-1-78920-558-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Postwar+Soldiers%3A+Historical+Controversies+and+West+German+Democratization%2C+1945%E2%80%931955&rft.pub=Berghahn+Books&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-78920-558-9&rft.aulast=Echternkamp&rft.aufirst=J%C3%B6rg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuremberg+trials" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFleming2022" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Fleming_(historian)" title="Michael Fleming (historian)">Fleming, Michael</a> (2022). In the Shadow of the Holocaust: Poland, the United Nations War Crimes Commission, and the Search for Justice. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-009-11660-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-009-11660-2"><bdi>978-1-009-11660-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+the+Shadow+of+the+Holocaust%3A+Poland%2C+the+United+Nations+War+Crimes+Commission%2C+and+the+Search+for+Justice&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-1-009-11660-2&rft.aulast=Fleming&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuremberg+trials" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGemählich2019" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Gemählich, Matthias (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.openedition.org/allemagne/2053">"« Notre combat pour la paix » : la France et le procès de Nuremberg (1945–1946)"</a> ["Our fight for peace": France and the Nuremberg trial (1945–1946)]. Revue d'Allemagne et des pays de langue allemande (in French). 51 (2): 507–525. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4000%2Fallemagne.2053">10.4000/allemagne.2053</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0035-0974">0035-0974</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revue+d%27Allemagne+et+des+pays+de+langue+allemande&rft.atitle=%C2%AB+Notre+combat+pour+la+paix+%C2%BB+%3A+la+France+et+le+proc%C3%A8s+de+Nuremberg+%281945%E2%80%931946%29&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=507-525&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4000%2Fallemagne.2053&rft.issn=0035-0974&rft.aulast=Gem%C3%A4hlich&rft.aufirst=Matthias&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.openedition.org%2Fallemagne%2F2053&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuremberg+trials" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeller2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kevin_Jon_Heller" title="Kevin Jon Heller">Heller, Kevin Jon</a> (2011). The Nuremberg Military Tribunals and the Origins of International Criminal Law. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-923233-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-923233-8"><bdi>978-0-19-923233-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nuremberg+Military+Tribunals+and+the+Origins+of+International+Criminal+Law&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-19-923233-8&rft.aulast=Heller&rft.aufirst=Kevin+Jon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuremberg+trials" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHirsch2020" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Francine_Hirsch" title="Francine Hirsch">Hirsch, Francine</a> (2020). Soviet Judgment at Nuremberg: A New History of the International Military Tribunal after World War II. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-937795-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-937795-4"><bdi>978-0-19-937795-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Soviet+Judgment+at+Nuremberg%3A+A+New+History+of+the+International+Military+Tribunal+after+World+War+II&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-0-19-937795-4&rft.aulast=Hirsch&rft.aufirst=Francine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuremberg+trials" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMachcewiczPaczkowski2021" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Pawe%C5%82_Machcewicz" title="Paweł Machcewicz">Machcewicz, Paweł</a>; <a href="/wiki/Andrzej_Paczkowski" title="Andrzej Paczkowski">Paczkowski, Andrzej</a> (2021). Wina, kara, polityka. Rozliczenia ze zbrodniami II Wojny Światowej [Guilt, Punishment, Politics: Dealing with the Crimes of World War II] (in Polish). <a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w" title="Kraków">Kraków</a>: <a href="/wiki/Znak_(publisher)" title="Znak (publisher)">Znak</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788324079605" title="Special:BookSources/9788324079605"><bdi>9788324079605</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wina%2C+kara%2C+polityka.+Rozliczenia+ze+zbrodniami+II+Wojny+%C5%9Awiatowej&rft.place=Krak%C3%B3w&rft.pub=Znak&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=9788324079605&rft.aulast=Machcewicz&rft.aufirst=Pawe%C5%82&rft.au=Paczkowski%2C+Andrzej&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuremberg+trials" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMouralis2016" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-interwiki-linked-name cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guillaume_Mouralis" class="extiw" title="fr:Guillaume Mouralis">Mouralis, Guillaume</a> [in French] (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cairn.info/revue-critique-internationale-2016-4-page-159.htm">"Le procès de Nuremberg: retour sur soixante-dix ans de recherche"</a> [The Nuremberg trial: a look back at seventy years of research]. Critique Internationale (in French). 73 (4): 159. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3917%2Fcrii.073.0159">10.3917/crii.073.0159</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Critique+Internationale&rft.atitle=Le+proc%C3%A8s+de+Nuremberg%3A+retour+sur+soixante-dix+ans+de+recherche&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=159&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3917%2Fcrii.073.0159&rft.aulast=Mouralis&rft.aufirst=Guillaume&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cairn.info%2Frevue-critique-internationale-2016-4-page-159.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuremberg+trials" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMouralis2019" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Mouralis, Guillaume (2019). Le moment Nuremberg: Le procès international, les lawyers et la question raciale [The Nuremberg moment: The international trial, the lawyers and the racial question] (in French). <a href="/wiki/Presses_de_Sciences_Po" class="mw-redirect" title="Presses de Sciences Po">Presses de Sciences Po</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-7246-2422-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-7246-2422-9"><bdi>978-2-7246-2422-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Le+moment+Nuremberg%3A+Le+proc%C3%A8s+international%2C+les+lawyers+et+la+question+raciale&rft.pub=Presses+de+Sciences+Po&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-2-7246-2422-9&rft.aulast=Mouralis&rft.aufirst=Guillaume&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuremberg+trials" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMusa2016" class="citation book cs1">Musa, Shavana (2016). "The British and the Nuremberg Trial". British Influences on International Law, 1915–2015. <a href="/wiki/Brill_Nijhoff" class="mw-redirect" title="Brill Nijhoff">Brill Nijhoff</a>. pp. 367–386. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-28417-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-28417-3"><bdi>978-90-04-28417-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+British+and+the+Nuremberg+Trial&rft.btitle=British+Influences+on+International+Law%2C+1915%E2%80%932015&rft.pages=367-386&rft.pub=Brill+Nijhoff&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-90-04-28417-3&rft.aulast=Musa&rft.aufirst=Shavana&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuremberg+trials" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPriemel2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kim_Christian_Priemel" class="mw-redirect" title="Kim Christian Priemel">Priemel, Kim Christian</a> (2016). The Betrayal: The Nuremberg Trials and German Divergence. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-256374-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-256374-3"><bdi>978-0-19-256374-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Betrayal%3A+The+Nuremberg+Trials+and+German+Divergence&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-19-256374-3&rft.aulast=Priemel&rft.aufirst=Kim+Christian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuremberg+trials" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSafferling2020" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-interwiki-linked-name"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christoph_Safferling" class="extiw" title="de:Christoph Safferling">Safferling, Christoph J. M.</a> [in German] (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nomos-elibrary.de/10.5771/9783845280400-41/german-participation-in-the-nuremberg-trials-and-its-implications-for-today?l=de">"German Participation in the Nuremberg Trials and Its Implications for Today"</a>. The Nuremberg War Crimes Trial and its Policy Consequences Today. <a href="/wiki/Nomos_publishing_house" class="mw-redirect" title="Nomos publishing house">Nomos</a>. pp. 41–54. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5771%2F9783845280400-41">10.5771/9783845280400-41</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-8487-3688-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-8487-3688-1"><bdi>978-3-8487-3688-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=German+Participation+in+the+Nuremberg+Trials+and+Its+Implications+for+Today&rft.btitle=The+Nuremberg+War+Crimes+Trial+and+its+Policy+Consequences+Today&rft.pages=41-54&rft.pub=Nomos&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5771%2F9783845280400-41&rft.isbn=978-3-8487-3688-1&rft.aulast=Safferling&rft.aufirst=Christoph+J.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nomos-elibrary.de%2F10.5771%2F9783845280400-41%2Fgerman-participation-in-the-nuremberg-trials-and-its-implications-for-today%3Fl%3Dde&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuremberg+trials" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSayapin2014" class="citation book cs1">Sayapin, Sergey (2014). The Crime of Aggression in International Criminal Law: Historical Development, Comparative Analysis and Present State. <a href="/wiki/T.M.C._Asser_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="T.M.C. Asser Press">T.M.C. Asser Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-6704-927-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-6704-927-6"><bdi>978-90-6704-927-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Crime+of+Aggression+in+International+Criminal+Law%3A+Historical+Development%2C+Comparative+Analysis+and+Present+State&rft.pub=T.M.C.+Asser+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-90-6704-927-6&rft.aulast=Sayapin&rft.aufirst=Sergey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuremberg+trials" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSellars2010" class="citation journal cs1">Sellars, Kirsten (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fejil%2Fchq070">"Imperfect Justice at Nuremberg and Tokyo"</a>. <a href="/wiki/European_Journal_of_International_Law" title="European Journal of International Law">European Journal of International Law</a>. 21 (4): 1085–1102. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fejil%2Fchq070">10.1093/ejil/chq070</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+International+Law&rft.atitle=Imperfect+Justice+at+Nuremberg+and+Tokyo&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1085-1102&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fejil%2Fchq070&rft.aulast=Sellars&rft.aufirst=Kirsten&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fejil%252Fchq070&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuremberg+trials" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSellars2013" class="citation book cs1">Sellars, Kirsten (2013). 'Crimes Against Peace' and International Law. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-02884-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-02884-5"><bdi>978-1-107-02884-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%27Crimes+Against+Peace%27+and+International+Law&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-107-02884-5&rft.aulast=Sellars&rft.aufirst=Kirsten&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuremberg+trials" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharples2013" class="citation book cs1">Sharples, Caroline (2013). "Holocaust on Trial: Mass Observation and British Media Responses to the Nuremberg Tribunal, 1945–1946". Britain and the Holocaust: Remembering and Representing War and Genocide. <a href="/wiki/Palgrave_Macmillan_UK" class="mw-redirect" title="Palgrave Macmillan UK">Palgrave Macmillan UK</a>. pp. 31–50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-137-35077-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-137-35077-0"><bdi>978-1-137-35077-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Holocaust+on+Trial%3A+Mass+Observation+and+British+Media+Responses+to+the+Nuremberg+Tribunal%2C+1945%E2%80%931946&rft.btitle=Britain+and+the+Holocaust%3A+Remembering+and+Representing+War+and+Genocide&rft.pages=31-50&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan+UK&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-137-35077-0&rft.aulast=Sharples&rft.aufirst=Caroline&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuremberg+trials" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTomuschat2006" class="citation journal cs1">Tomuschat, Christian (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjicj%2Fmql051">"The Legacy of Nuremberg"</a>. Journal of International Criminal Justice. 4 (4): 830–844. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjicj%2Fmql051">10.1093/jicj/mql051</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+International+Criminal+Justice&rft.atitle=The+Legacy+of+Nuremberg&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=830-844&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjicj%2Fmql051&rft.aulast=Tomuschat&rft.aufirst=Christian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fjicj%252Fmql051&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuremberg+trials" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeinke2006" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Weinke, Annette (2006). Die Nürnberger Prozesse [The Nuremberg trials] (in German). <a href="/wiki/C.H.Beck" class="mw-redirect" title="C.H.Beck">C.H.Beck</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-406-53604-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-406-53604-5"><bdi>978-3-406-53604-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+N%C3%BCrnberger+Prozesse&rft.pub=C.H.Beck&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-3-406-53604-5&rft.aulast=Weinke&rft.aufirst=Annette&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuremberg+trials" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuremberg_trials&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 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href="/wiki/Template:International_Military_Tribunal" title="Template:International Military Tribunal"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:International_Military_Tribunal" title="Template talk:International Military Tribunal"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:International_Military_Tribunal" title="Special:EditPage/Template:International Military Tribunal"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Nuremberg_trials" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nuremberg trials</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legal basis</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Charter" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuremberg Charter">Nuremberg Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_peace" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimes against peace">Crimes against peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes" class="mw-redirect" title="War crimes">War crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">Crimes against humanity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chief prosecutors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Jackson" title="Robert H. Jackson">Robert H. Jackson</a> (United States)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hartley_Shawcross" title="Hartley Shawcross">Hartley Shawcross</a> (United Kingdom)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Rudenko" title="Roman Rudenko">Roman Rudenko</a> (Soviet Union)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_de_Menthon" title="François de Menthon">François de Menthon</a> (France)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Champetier_de_Ribes" title="Auguste Champetier de Ribes">Auguste Champetier de Ribes</a> (France)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Judges</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iona_Nikitchenko" title="Iona Nikitchenko">Iona Nikitchenko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Volchkov_(jurist)" title="Alexander Volchkov (jurist)">Alexander Volchkov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Lawrence,_1st_Baron_Oaksey" title="Geoffrey Lawrence, 1st Baron Oaksey">Geoffrey Lawrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Birkett,_1st_Baron_Birkett" title="Norman Birkett, 1st Baron Birkett">Norman Birkett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Biddle" title="Francis Biddle">Francis Biddle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_J._Parker" title="John J. Parker">John J. Parker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Donnedieu_de_Vabres" title="Henri Donnedieu de Vabres">Henri Donnedieu de Vabres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Falco" title="Robert Falco">Robert Falco</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_defendants_at_the_International_Military_Tribunal" title="List of defendants at the International Military Tribunal">Defendants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Acquitted</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Fritzsche" title="Hans Fritzsche">Hans Fritzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_von_Papen" title="Franz von Papen">Franz von Papen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hjalmar_Schacht" title="Hjalmar Schacht">Hjalmar Schacht</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sentenced</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karl_D%C3%B6nitz" title="Karl Dönitz">Karl Dönitz</a> (10 years)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_von_Neurath" title="Konstantin von Neurath">Konstantin von Neurath</a> (15 years)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baldur_von_Schirach" title="Baldur von Schirach">Baldur von Schirach</a> (20 years)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Speer" title="Albert Speer">Albert Speer</a> (20 years)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Walther_Funk" title="Walther Funk">Walther Funk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Hess" title="Rudolf Hess">Rudolf Hess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Raeder" title="Erich Raeder">Erich Raeder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_executions" title="Nuremberg executions">Death</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Frank" title="Hans Frank">Hans Frank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Frick" title="Wilhelm Frick">Wilhelm Frick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Jodl" title="Alfred Jodl">Alfred Jodl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Kaltenbrunner" title="Ernst Kaltenbrunner">Ernst Kaltenbrunner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Keitel" title="Wilhelm Keitel">Wilhelm Keitel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joachim_von_Ribbentrop" title="Joachim von Ribbentrop">Joachim von Ribbentrop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Rosenberg" title="Alfred Rosenberg">Alfred Rosenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Sauckel" title="Fritz Sauckel">Fritz Sauckel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Seyss-Inquart" title="Arthur Seyss-Inquart">Arthur Seyss-Inquart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Streicher" title="Julius Streicher">Julius Streicher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Bormann" title="Martin Bormann">Martin Bormann</a> (in absentia)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_G%C3%B6ring" title="Hermann Göring">Hermann Göring</a> (suicide)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">No decision</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Krupp_von_Bohlen_und_Halbach" title="Gustav Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach">Gustav Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Ley" title="Robert Ley">Robert Ley</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_witnesses_to_the_International_Military_Tribunal" title="List of witnesses to the International Military Tribunal">Witnesses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Prosecution" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Prosecution</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Erwin_Lahousen" class="mw-redirect" title="Erwin Lahousen">Erwin Lahousen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Ohlendorf" title="Otto Ohlendorf">Otto Ohlendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dieter_Wisliceny" title="Dieter Wisliceny">Dieter Wisliceny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Schellenberg" title="Walter Schellenberg">Walter Schellenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alois_Hollriege&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alois Hollriege (page does not exist)">Alois Hollriege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_von_dem_Bach-Zelewski" title="Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski">Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franz_Blaha&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Franz Blaha (page does not exist)">Franz Blaha</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Maurice_Lampe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Maurice Lampe (page does not exist)">Maurice Lampe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie-Claude_Vaillant-Couturier" title="Marie-Claude Vaillant-Couturier">Marie-Claude Vaillant-Couturier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Boix" title="Francisco Boix">Francisco Boix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Cappelen" title="Hans Cappelen">Hans Cappelen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_von_Paulus" class="mw-redirect" title="Friedrich von Paulus">Friedrich von Paulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Buschenhagen" title="Erich Buschenhagen">Erich Buschenhagen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Orbeli" title="Joseph Orbeli">Joseph Orbeli</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eugene_Kivelisha&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eugene Kivelisha (page does not exist)">Eugene Kivelisha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Sutzkever" title="Abraham Sutzkever">Abraham Sutzkever</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seweryna_Szmaglewska" title="Seweryna Szmaglewska">Seweryna Szmaglewska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Rajzman" title="Samuel Rajzman">Samuel Rajzman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Aftermath</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Invention of <a href="/wiki/International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">international criminal law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsequent_Nuremberg_trials" title="Subsequent Nuremberg trials">Nuremberg Military Tribunals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">International Military Tribunal for the Far East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_principles" title="Nuremberg principles">Nuremberg principles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Trials_bibliography" title="Nuremberg Trials bibliography">Bibliography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Films</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/That_Justice_Be_Done" title="That Justice Be Done">That Justice Be Done</a> (1945 film)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Nuremberg_Trials_(film)" title="The Nuremberg Trials (film)">Nuremberg Trials</a> (1947 documentary)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Judgment_at_Nuremberg_(Playhouse_90)" title="Judgment at Nuremberg (Playhouse 90)">Judgment at Nuremberg</a>" (1959 television play)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judgment_at_Nuremberg" title="Judgment at Nuremberg">Judgment at Nuremberg</a> (1961 film)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_(miniseries)" title="Nuremberg (miniseries)">Nuremberg</a> (2000 miniseries)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="International_criminal_law" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:International_criminal_law" title="Template:International criminal law"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:International_criminal_law" title="Template talk:International criminal law"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:International_criminal_law" title="Special:EditPage/Template:International criminal law"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="International_criminal_law" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">International criminal law</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sources_of_international_law" title="Sources of international law">Sources</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Customary_international_law" title="Customary international law">Customary international law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peremptory_norm" title="Peremptory norm">Peremptory norm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hague_Conventions_of_1899_and_1907" title="Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907">Hague Conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Conventions" title="Geneva Conventions">Geneva Conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Charter" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuremberg Charter">Nuremberg Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_principles" title="Nuremberg principles">Nuremberg principles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charter_of_the_United_Nations" title="Charter of the United Nations">United Nations Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_Convention" title="Genocide Convention">Genocide Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Convention_Against_Torture" title="United Nations Convention Against Torture">Convention Against Torture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome_Statute" title="Rome Statute">Rome Statute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">Crimes against international law</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">Crimes against humanity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_of_aggression" title="Crime of aggression">Crime of aggression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_of_apartheid" title="Crime of apartheid">Crime of apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">Genocide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocidal_intent" title="Genocidal intent">Genocidal intent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incitement_to_genocide" title="Incitement to genocide">Incitement to genocide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy" title="Piracy">Piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery" title="History of slavery">Slave trading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starvation_(crime)" title="Starvation (crime)">Starvation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">War crime</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/International_court" title="International court">International courts</a> (in order of foundation)</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">International Military Tribunal (Nuremberg Trials)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">International Military Tribunal for the Far East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_the_former_Yugoslavia" title="International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia">International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_Rwanda" title="International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda">International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Court_for_Sierra_Leone" title="Special Court for Sierra Leone">Special Court for Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court" title="International Criminal Court">International Criminal Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_Rouge_Tribunal" title="Khmer Rouge Tribunal">Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Panels_for_Serious_Crimes_(East_Timor)" title="Special Panels for Serious Crimes (East Timor)">Special Panels of the Dili District Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Tribunal_for_Lebanon" title="Special Tribunal for Lebanon">Special Tribunal for Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Residual_Mechanism_for_Criminal_Tribunals" title="International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals">International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Command_responsibility" title="Command responsibility">Command responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superior_orders" title="Superior orders">Superior orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_criminal_enterprise" title="Joint criminal enterprise">Joint criminal enterprise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_humanitarian_law" title="International humanitarian law">International humanitarian law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_speech_crimes" title="International speech crimes">International speech crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_jurisdiction" title="Universal jurisdiction">Universal jurisdiction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="The_Holocaust" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:The_Holocaust" title="Template:The Holocaust"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:The_Holocaust" title="Template talk:The Holocaust"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:The_Holocaust" title="Special:EditPage/Template:The Holocaust"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="The_Holocaust" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By territory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Albania" title="The Holocaust in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Austria" title="The Holocaust in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Belgium" title="The Holocaust in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Bulgaria" title="The Holocaust in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li>Czechoslovakia <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Bohemia_and_Moravia" title="The Holocaust in Bohemia and Moravia">Bohemia and Moravia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Slovakia" title="The Holocaust in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_the_Sudetenland" title="The Holocaust in the Sudetenland">Sudetenland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rescue_of_the_Danish_Jews" title="Rescue of the Danish Jews">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Estonia" title="The Holocaust in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_France" title="The Holocaust in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Germany" title="The Holocaust in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Greece" title="The Holocaust in Greece">Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Bulgarian-occupied_Greece" title="The Holocaust in Bulgarian-occupied Greece">Bulgarian-occupied Greece</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Hungary" title="The Holocaust in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Italy" title="The Holocaust in Italy">Italy</a> and colonies <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Libya" title="The Holocaust in Libya">Libya</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Latvia" title="The Holocaust in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Lithuania" title="The Holocaust in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Luxembourg" title="The Holocaust in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_the_Netherlands" title="The Holocaust in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Norway" title="The Holocaust in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Poland" title="The Holocaust in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Romania" title="The Holocaust in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="The Holocaust in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Belarus" title="The Holocaust in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Russia" title="The Holocaust in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Ukraine" title="The Holocaust in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Yugoslavia <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_the_Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="The Holocaust in the Independent State of Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_German-occupied_Serbia" title="The Holocaust in German-occupied Serbia">Serbia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_and_documentation_for_the_Holocaust" title="Evidence and documentation for the Holocaust">Evidence and documentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_of_the_Holocaust_in_Nazi_Germany_and_German-occupied_Europe" title="Knowledge of the Holocaust in Nazi Germany and German-occupied Europe">Contemporary knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hidden_children_during_the_Holocaust" title="Hidden children during the Holocaust">Hidden children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Holocaust" title="Timeline of the Holocaust">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Response</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_response_to_the_Holocaust" title="International response to the Holocaust">International response</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japan_and_the_Holocaust" title="Japan and the Holocaust">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippines_and_the_Holocaust" title="Philippines and the Holocaust">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portugal_and_the_Holocaust" title="Portugal and the Holocaust">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spain_and_the_Holocaust" title="Spain and the Holocaust">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweden_and_the_Holocaust" title="Sweden and the Holocaust">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkey_and_the_Holocaust" title="Turkey and the Holocaust">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_and_the_Holocaust" title="United States and the Holocaust">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_XII_and_the_Holocaust" title="Pope Pius XII and the Holocaust">Vatican</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rescue_of_Jews_during_the_Holocaust" title="Rescue of Jews during the Holocaust">Rescue of Jews</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rescue_of_Jews_by_Catholics_during_the_Holocaust" title="Rescue of Jews by Catholics during the Holocaust">by Catholics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rescue_of_Jews_by_Poles_during_the_Holocaust" title="Rescue of Jews by Poles during the Holocaust">by Poles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Righteous_Among_the_Nations" title="Righteous Among the Nations">Righteous Among the Nations</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Camps_and_ghettos" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps" title="Nazi concentration camps">Camps</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nazi_ghettos" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi ghettos">ghettos</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps" title="Nazi concentration camps">Concentration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_concentration_camp" title="Auschwitz concentration camp">Auschwitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bergen-Belsen_concentration_camp" title="Bergen-Belsen concentration camp">Bergen-Belsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buchenwald_concentration_camp" title="Buchenwald concentration camp">Buchenwald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dachau_concentration_camp" title="Dachau concentration camp">Dachau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flossenb%C3%BCrg_concentration_camp" title="Flossenbürg concentration camp">Flossenbürg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gross-Rosen_concentration_camp" title="Gross-Rosen concentration camp">Gross-Rosen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herzogenbusch_concentration_camp" title="Herzogenbusch concentration camp">Herzogenbusch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinzert_concentration_camp" title="Hinzert concentration camp">Hinzert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaiserwald_concentration_camp" title="Kaiserwald concentration camp">Kaiserwald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kauen_concentration_camp" title="Kauen concentration camp">Kauen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w-P%C5%82asz%C3%B3w_concentration_camp" title="Kraków-Płaszów concentration camp">Kraków-Płaszów</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majdanek_concentration_camp" title="Majdanek concentration camp">Majdanek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauthausen_concentration_camp" title="Mauthausen concentration camp">Mauthausen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gusen_concentration_camp" title="Gusen concentration camp">Gusen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mittelbau-Dora_concentration_camp" title="Mittelbau-Dora concentration camp">Mittelbau-Dora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natzweiler-Struthof_concentration_camp" title="Natzweiler-Struthof concentration camp">Natzweiler-Struthof </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuengamme_concentration_camp" title="Neuengamme concentration camp">Neuengamme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravensbr%C3%BCck_concentration_camp" title="Ravensbrück concentration camp">Ravensbrück</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sachsenhausen_concentration_camp" title="Sachsenhausen concentration camp">Sachsenhausen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stutthof_concentration_camp" title="Stutthof concentration camp">Stutthof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaivara_concentration_camp" title="Vaivara concentration camp">Vaivara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_concentration_camp" title="Warsaw concentration camp">Warsaw</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Extermination_camp" title="Extermination camp">Extermination</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_concentration_camp" title="Auschwitz concentration camp">Auschwitz II-Birkenau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belzec_extermination_camp" title="Belzec extermination camp">Belzec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Che%C5%82mno_extermination_camp" title="Chełmno extermination camp">Chełmno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majdanek_concentration_camp" title="Majdanek concentration camp">Majdanek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sobibor_extermination_camp" title="Sobibor extermination camp">Sobibor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treblinka_extermination_camp" title="Treblinka extermination camp">Treblinka</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Transit</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>be</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Breendonk" title="Fort Breendonk">Breendonk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechelen_transit_camp" title="Mechelen transit camp">Mechelen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internment_camps_in_France" title="Internment camps in France">fr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurs_internment_camp" title="Gurs internment camp">Gurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drancy_internment_camp" title="Drancy internment camp">Drancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_concentration_camps" title="List of Italian concentration camps">it</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolzano_Transit_Camp" title="Bolzano Transit Camp">Bolzano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risiera_di_San_Sabba" title="Risiera di San Sabba">Risiera di San Sabba</a></li> <li>nl</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amersfoort_concentration_camp" class="mw-redirect" title="Amersfoort concentration camp">Amersfoort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamp_Schoorl" title="Kamp Schoorl">Schoorl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westerbork_transit_camp" title="Westerbork transit camp">Westerbork</a></li> <li>sk</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sere%C4%8F_concentration_camp" title="Sereď concentration camp">Sereď</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Einsatzgruppen" title="Einsatzgruppen">Einsatzgruppen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_gas_van" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi gas van">Gas van</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_chamber" title="Gas chamber">Gas chamber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extermination_through_labour" title="Extermination through labour">Extermination through labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_human_experimentation" title="Nazi human experimentation">Human experimentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_marches_during_the_Holocaust" title="Death marches during the Holocaust">Death marches</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nazi units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/SS-Totenkopfverb%C3%A4nde" title="SS-Totenkopfverbände">SS-Totenkopfverbände</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentration_Camps_Inspectorate" title="Concentration Camps Inspectorate">Concentration Camps Inspectorate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politische_Abteilung" title="Politische Abteilung">Politische Abteilung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanit%C3%A4tswesen" title="Sanitätswesen">Sanitätswesen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nazi_ghettos" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi ghettos">Ghettos</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Nazi_ghettos" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Nazi ghettos">list</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;color: #202122;background:#eef;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ghettos_in_German-occupied_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish ghettos in German-occupied Poland">Poland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bia%C5%82ystok_Ghetto" title="Białystok Ghetto">Białystok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w_Ghetto" title="Kraków Ghetto">Kraków</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA_Ghetto" title="Łódź Ghetto">Łódź</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lublin_Ghetto" title="Lublin Ghetto">Lublin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lw%C3%B3w_Ghetto" title="Lwów Ghetto">Lwów</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radom_Ghetto" title="Radom Ghetto">Radom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto" title="Warsaw Ghetto">Warsaw</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;color: #202122;background:#eef;font-weight:normal;">Elsewhere</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Budapest_Ghetto" title="Budapest Ghetto">Budapest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kovno_Ghetto" title="Kovno Ghetto">Kovno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minsk_Ghetto" title="Minsk Ghetto">Minsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riga_Ghetto" title="Riga Ghetto">Riga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theresienstadt_Ghetto" title="Theresienstadt Ghetto">Theresienstadt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilna_Ghetto" title="Vilna Ghetto">Vilna</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;color: #202122;background:#eef;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Judenrat" title="Judenrat">Judenrat</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Ghetto_Police" title="Jewish Ghetto Police">Jewish Ghetto Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reich_Association_of_Jews_in_Germany" title="Reich Association of Jews in Germany">Reich Association of Jews in Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%9Astred%C5%88a_%C5%BDidov" title="Ústredňa Židov">Ústredňa Židov</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Victims" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_victims" title="Holocaust victims">Victims</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_during_World_War_II" title="History of the Jews during World War II">Jews</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Roundup_(police_action)" title="Roundup (police action)">Roundups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Izieu" title="Izieu">Izieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marseille_roundup" title="Marseille roundup">Marseille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vel%27_d%27Hiv_Roundup" title="Vel' d'Hiv Roundup">Vel' d'Hiv</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Pogroms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kristallnacht" title="Kristallnacht">Kristallnacht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legionnaires%27_rebellion_and_Bucharest_pogrom" title="Legionnaires' rebellion and Bucharest pogrom">Bucharest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorohoi_pogrom" title="Dorohoi pogrom">Dorohoi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ia%C8%99i_pogrom" title="Iași pogrom">Iași</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1941_pogroms_in_eastern_Poland" title="1941 pogroms in eastern Poland">1941 pogroms in eastern Poland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jedwabne_pogrom" title="Jedwabne pogrom">Jedwabne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lviv_pogroms_(1941)" title="Lviv pogroms (1941)">Lviv</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1941_pogroms_in_Lithuania" title="1941 pogroms in Lithuania">in Lithuania</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kaunas_pogrom" title="Kaunas pogrom">Kaunas</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">"<a href="/wiki/Final_Solution" title="Final Solution">Final Solution</a>"</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wannsee_Conference" title="Wannsee Conference">Wannsee Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Reinhard" title="Operation Reinhard">Operation Reinhard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_trains" title="Holocaust trains">Holocaust trains</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Mass executions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Einsatzgruppen" title="Einsatzgruppen">Einsatzgruppen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babi_Yar" title="Babi Yar">Babi Yar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Harvest_Festival" title="Operation Harvest Festival">Harvest Festival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamianets-Podilskyi_massacre" title="Kamianets-Podilskyi massacre">Kamianets-Podilskyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maly_Trostenets" title="Maly Trostenets">Maly Trostenets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ninth_Fort" title="Ninth Fort">Ninth Fort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1941_Odessa_massacre" title="1941 Odessa massacre">Odesa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacres_in_Pia%C5%9Bnica" title="Massacres in Piaśnica">Piaśnica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ponary_massacre" title="Ponary massacre">Ponary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rumbula_massacre" title="Rumbula massacre">Rumbula</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_resistance_in_German-occupied_Europe" title="Jewish resistance in German-occupied Europe">Resistance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_partisans" title="Jewish partisans">Jewish partisans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bielski_partisans" title="Bielski partisans">Bielski partisans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghetto_uprisings" title="Ghetto uprisings">Ghetto uprisings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising" title="Warsaw Ghetto Uprising">Warsaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bia%C5%82ystok_Ghetto_uprising" title="Białystok Ghetto uprising">Białystok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cz%C4%99stochowa_Ghetto_uprising" title="Częstochowa Ghetto uprising">Częstochowa</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Rescue_of_Jews_during_the_Holocaust" title="Rescue of Jews during the Holocaust">Rescue</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aid_and_Rescue_Committee" title="Aid and Rescue Committee">Aid and Rescue Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_the_twentieth_convoy" title="Attack on the twentieth convoy">Attack on the twentieth convoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kastner_train" title="Kastner train">Kastner train</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Le_Chambon-sur-Lignon" title="Le Chambon-sur-Lignon">Le Chambon-sur-Lignon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rescue_of_the_Danish_Jews" title="Rescue of the Danish Jews">Danish underground</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_Group_(resistance_organization)" title="Working Group (resistance organization)">Working Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%BBegota" title="Żegota">Żegota</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_victims" title="Holocaust victims">Others</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_atrocities_committed_against_Soviet_prisoners_of_war" title="German atrocities committed against Soviet prisoners of war">Soviet POWs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunger_Plan" title="Hunger Plan">Soviet urban residents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_security_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi security warfare">Civilians targeted during anti-partisan warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthanasia_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Euthanasia in Nazi Germany">People with disabilities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Romani genocide">Romani people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligenzaktion" title="Intelligenzaktion">Polish leaders and intellectuals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_homosexuals_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Persecution of homosexuals in Nazi Germany">Homosexuals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses in Nazi Germany">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Responsibility" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Responsibility_for_the_Holocaust" title="Responsibility for the Holocaust">Responsibility</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_major_perpetrators_of_the_Holocaust" title="List of major perpetrators of the Holocaust">List of major perpetrators of the Holocaust</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schutzstaffel" title="Schutzstaffel">Schutzstaffel (SS)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reich_Security_Main_Office" title="Reich Security Main Office">Reich Security Main Office</a> (RSHA) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reich_Security_Head_Office_Referat_IV_B4" title="Reich Security Head Office Referat IV B4">Referat IV B4</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicherheitsdienst" title="Sicherheitsdienst">Sicherheitsdienst</a> (SD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordnungspolizei" title="Ordnungspolizei">Ordnungspolizei</a> (Orpo)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waffen-SS" title="Waffen-SS">Waffen-SS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_of_the_Wehrmacht" title="War crimes of the Wehrmacht">Wehrmacht</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Einsatzgruppen" title="Einsatzgruppen">Einsatzgruppen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_Regiment_Centre" title="Police Regiment Centre">Police Regiments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_Police_battalions" title="Order Police battalions">Order Police battalions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Collaboration_with_Nazi_Germany_and_Fascist_Italy" title="Collaboration with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy">Collaborators</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arajs_Kommando" title="Arajs Kommando">Arajs Kommando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Security_Police" title="Lithuanian Security Police">Lithuanian Security Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nederlandsche_SS" class="mw-redirect" title="Nederlandsche SS">Nederlandsche SS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rollkommando_Hamann" title="Rollkommando Hamann">Rollkommando Hamann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Brigades" title="Special Brigades">Special Brigades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topf_and_Sons" title="Topf and Sons">Topf and Sons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trawniki_concentration_camp" title="Trawniki concentration camp">Trawnikis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Auxiliary_Police" title="Ukrainian Auxiliary Police">Ukrainian Auxiliary Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ypatingasis_b%C5%ABrys" title="Ypatingasis būrys">Ypatingasis būrys</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Early_elementsAftermathRemembrance" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Early elements</li><li>Aftermath</li><li>Remembrance</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Early elements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racial_policy_of_Nazi_Germany" title="Racial policy of Nazi Germany">Nazi racial policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_eugenics" title="Nazi eugenics">Nazi eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">Nuremberg Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haavara_Agreement" title="Haavara Agreement">Haavara Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hitler%27s_prophecy" title="Hitler's prophecy">Hitler's prophecy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_war_conspiracy_theory" title="Jewish war conspiracy theory">Jewish war conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_emigration_from_Nazi_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish emigration from Nazi Germany">Jewish emigration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kindertransport" title="Kindertransport">Kindertransport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madagascar_Plan" title="Madagascar Plan">Madagascar Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nisko_Plan" title="Nisko Plan">Nisko Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aktion_T4" title="Aktion T4">Forced euthanasia (Action T4)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_the_Holocaust" title="Aftermath of the Holocaust">Aftermath</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_villages_and_towns_depopulated_of_Jews_during_the_Holocaust" title="List of villages and towns depopulated of Jews during the Holocaust">Depopulated shtetls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_survivors" title="Holocaust survivors">Holocaust survivors</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sh%27erit_ha-Pletah" title="Sh'erit ha-Pletah">Sh'erit ha-Pletah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bricha" title="Bricha">Bricha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Holocaust_survivors" title="List of Holocaust survivors">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Jewish_violence_in_Central_and_Eastern_Europe,_1944%E2%80%9346" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Jewish violence in Central and Eastern Europe, 1944–46">Postwar violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazis_and_Nazi_Collaborators_(Punishment)_Law" title="Nazis and Nazi Collaborators (Punishment) Law">Nazis and Nazi Collaborators (Punishment) Law</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nuremberg trials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eichmann_trial" title="Eichmann trial">Eichmann trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_restitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust restitution">Holocaust restitution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reparations_Agreement_between_Israel_and_West_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Reparations Agreement between Israel and West Germany">Reparations Agreement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_denial" title="Holocaust denial">Holocaust denial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_trivialization" title="Holocaust trivialization">trivialization</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">History and memory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_studies" title="Holocaust studies">Academia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_The_Holocaust" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibliography of The Holocaust">Books and other resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_Memorial_Days" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust Memorial Days">Days of remembrance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_education" title="Holocaust education">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Holocaust_films" title="List of Holocaust films">Films</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lessons_of_the_Holocaust" title="Lessons of the Holocaust">Lessons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Holocaust_memorials_and_museums" title="List of Holocaust memorials and museums">Memorials and museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_uniqueness_debate" title="Holocaust uniqueness debate">Uniqueness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide_and_the_Holocaust" title="Armenian genocide and the Holocaust">Armenian genocide and the Holocaust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_humor" title="Holocaust humor">Humor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Righteous_Among_the_Nations" title="Righteous Among the Nations">Righteous Among the Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yad_Vashem" title="Yad Vashem">Yad Vashem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yizkor_books" title="Yizkor books">Yizkor books</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Never_again" title="Never again">Never again</a>"</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link 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