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<ul id="toc-Project_design-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Advantages_and_disadvantages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Advantages_and_disadvantages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Advantages and disadvantages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Advantages_and_disadvantages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sample_list_of_small_installations_worldwide" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sample_list_of_small_installations_worldwide"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Sample list of small installations worldwide</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sample_list_of_small_installations_worldwide-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 23 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-23" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">23 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AD%D8%B7%D8%A9_%D9%83%D9%87%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%B5%D8%BA%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%A9" title="محطة كهرمائية صغيرة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="محطة كهرمائية صغيرة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B3%D1%96%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%8D%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Малая гідраэлектрастанцыя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Малая гідраэлектрастанцыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B3%D1%96%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%8D%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Малая гідраэлектрастанцыя – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Малая гідраэлектрастанцыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%92%D0%95%D0%A6" title="Руслова ВЕЦ – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Руслова ВЕЦ" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_minihidr%C3%A0ulica" title="Central minihidràulica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Central minihidràulica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mal%C3%A1_vodn%C3%AD_elektr%C3%A1rna" title="Malá vodní elektrárna – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Malá vodní elektrárna" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kleinwasserkraft" title="Kleinwasserkraft – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kleinwasserkraft" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_minihidr%C3%A1ulica" title="Central minihidráulica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Central minihidráulica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%B1%D9%88%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%87_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%82%E2%80%8C%D8%A2%D8%A8%DB%8C_%DA%A9%D9%88%DA%86%DA%A9" title="نیروگاه برق‌آبی کوچک – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نیروگاه برق‌آبی کوچک" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petite_centrale_hydro%C3%A9lectrique" title="Petite centrale hydroélectrique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Petite centrale hydroélectrique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%86%8C%EC%88%98%EB%A0%A5_%EB%B0%9C%EC%A0%84" title="소수력 발전 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="소수력 발전" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%98%E0%A5%81_%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A4" title="लघु जलविद्युत – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="लघु जलविद्युत" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Male_hidroelektrane" title="Male hidroelektrane – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Male hidroelektrane" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sm%C3%A1virkjun" title="Smávirkjun – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Smávirkjun" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piccolo_idroelettrico" title="Piccolo idroelettrico – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Piccolo idroelettrico" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0_%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D1%83%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86" title="Бага оврын усан цахилгаан станц – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Бага оврын усан цахилгаан станц" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minikraftverk" title="Minikraftverk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Minikraftverk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma%C5%82a_elektrownia_wodna" title="Mała elektrownia wodna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Mała elektrownia wodna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pequena_central_hidrel%C3%A9trica" title="Pequena central hidrelétrica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Pequena central hidrelétrica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%8D%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Малая гидроэлектростанция – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Малая гидроэлектростанция" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Male_hidroelektrane" title="Male hidroelektrane – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Male hidroelektrane" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0_%D0%B3%D1%96%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Мала гідроелектростанція – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Мала гідроелектростанція" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8F%E5%9E%8B%E6%B0%B4%E5%8A%9B%E7%99%BC%E9%9B%BB" title="小型水力發電 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="小型水力發電" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet 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id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Hydroelectric project at the local level with a few MW production</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fall_in_Licq-Atherey.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Fall_in_Licq-Atherey.jpg/220px-Fall_in_Licq-Atherey.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Fall_in_Licq-Atherey.jpg/330px-Fall_in_Licq-Atherey.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Fall_in_Licq-Atherey.jpg/440px-Fall_in_Licq-Atherey.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3312" data-file-height="4416" /></a><figcaption>Small power plant of Licq-Athérey (Pyrénées-Atlantiques, France).</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AmesHydro,CO.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/AmesHydro%2CCO.jpg/220px-AmesHydro%2CCO.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/AmesHydro%2CCO.jpg/330px-AmesHydro%2CCO.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/AmesHydro%2CCO.jpg/440px-AmesHydro%2CCO.jpg 2x" data-file-width="875" data-file-height="651" /></a><figcaption>An 1895 hydroelectric plant near <a href="/wiki/Telluride,_Colorado" title="Telluride, Colorado">Telluride, Colorado</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Small hydro</b> is the development of <a href="/wiki/Hydroelectric_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydroelectric power">hydroelectric power</a> on a scale suitable for local community and industry, or to contribute to <a href="/wiki/Distributed_generation" title="Distributed generation">distributed generation</a> in a regional electricity grid.<sup id="cite_ref-Thesis_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thesis-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Exact definitions vary, but a "small hydro" project is less than 50 <a href="/wiki/Megawatt" class="mw-redirect" title="Megawatt">megawatts</a> (MW), and can be further subdivide by scale into "mini" (<1MW), "<a href="/wiki/Micro_hydro" title="Micro hydro">micro</a>" (<100 kW), "<a href="/wiki/Pico_hydro" title="Pico hydro">pico</a>" (<10 kW). In contrast many hydroelectric projects are of enormous size, such as the generating plant at the <a href="/wiki/Three_Gorges_Dam" title="Three Gorges Dam">Three Gorges Dam</a> at 22,500 megawatts or the vast multiple projects of the <a href="/wiki/Tennessee_Valley_Authority" title="Tennessee Valley Authority">Tennessee Valley Authority</a>. </p><p>Small hydro projects may be built in isolated areas that would be uneconomic to serve from a national electricity grid, or in areas where a national grid does not exist. By not requiring large dams or large water storage capabilities small hydro projects are relatively benign on the environment. <sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This makes small hydro projects an attractive compromise for renewable energy activists, environmentalists, and investors. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Description">Description</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Small_hydro&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Description"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The use of the term "small hydro" varies considerably around the world, the maximum limit is usually somewhere between 10 and 30 MW. While a minimum limit is not usually set, the US National <a href="/wiki/Hydropower" title="Hydropower">Hydropower</a> Association specifies a minimum limit of 5 MW.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a>, hydroelectric generating stations with a maximum capacity of less than 30 MW are classified as small, and are eligible for inclusion in the state's <a href="/wiki/Renewable_portfolio_standard_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Renewable portfolio standard (United States)">renewable portfolio standard</a>, while hydroelectric generating stations with a higher capacity are classified as large and are not considered renewable.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The "small hydro" description may be stretched up to <span class="nowrap">50 MW</span> in the United States, Canada and China.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In India, hydro projects up to 25 MW station capacities have been categorized as Small Hydro Power (SHP) projects.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Small hydro can be further subdivided into mini hydro, usually defined as 100 to 1,000 <a href="/wiki/Kilowatt" class="mw-redirect" title="Kilowatt">kilowatts</a> (kW), and <a href="/wiki/Micro_hydro" title="Micro hydro">micro hydro</a> which is 5 to 100 kW. Micro hydro is usually the application of hydroelectric power sized for smaller communities, single families or small enterprise. The smallest installations are <a href="/wiki/Pico_hydro" title="Pico hydro">pico hydro</a>, below 5 kW. </p><p>Since small hydro projects usually have correspondingly small civil construction work and little or no reservoir, they are seen as having a relatively low environmental impact compared to large hydro.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An additional defining feature of small hydro is known as <a href="/wiki/Run-of-the-river_hydroelectricity" title="Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity">run-of-river</a>, or that the physical impact of the project is relatively minuscule compared to major hydroelectric dams which require a water storage lake. Little water is stored behind the project, if at all, and the river is usually able to continue flowing. <sup id="cite_ref-:02_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Growth">Growth</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Small_hydro&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Growth"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to a report by REN21, during 2008 small hydro installations grew by 28% over year 2005 to raise the total world small hydro capacity to 85 <a href="/wiki/Gigawatt" class="mw-redirect" title="Gigawatt">gigawatts</a> (GW). Over 70% of this was in China (with 65 GW), followed by Japan (3.5 GW), the United States (3 GW) and India (2 GW).<sup id="cite_ref-REN21-2006_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-REN21-2006-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Global growth is expected to be 2.8% annually until the mid-2020s when capacity will be about 150 gigawatts.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>China planned to electrify a further 10,000 villages between 2005 and 2010 under their <a href="/wiki/China_Village_Electrification_Program" title="China Village Electrification Program">China Village Electrification Program</a>, including further investments in small hydro and <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaics" title="Photovoltaics">photovoltaics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-REN21-2006_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-REN21-2006-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 2010, China had 45,000 small hydro installations, especially in rural areas, producing 160 Twh annually.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over 50% of the world's potential small hydro power was found in Asia; however, the report noted, "It is possible in the future that more small hydropower potential might be identified both on the African and American continents".<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the mountains and rain forests of <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a>, Canada there are a great many sites suitable for hydro development. However environmental concerns towards large reservoirs after the 1980s halted new dam construction. The solution to coping with increased demand was to offer contracts to <a href="/wiki/Independent_power_producers_in_British_Columbia" title="Independent power producers in British Columbia">independent power producers</a>, who have built 100 <a href="/wiki/Run-of-the-river_hydroelectricity" title="Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity">run of the river</a> projects under 50 MW. Power production without reservoirs varies dramatically, but older conventional dams retain or release water to average out production though the year. In 2014 these independent producers generated 18,000 GWh from 4,500 MW of capacity.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Small_hydro&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Wood <a href="/wiki/Water_wheel" title="Water wheel">water wheels</a> along riversides may be considered the first examples of "small hydro".<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Up to the 17th century the efficiency of water wheels neared 70%. However, as the need for power generation increased small hydropower projects were phased out in favor of the large scale dams using newly designed turbines. <sup id="cite_ref-:03_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Post 20th century environmental doctrine is moving away from large-scale hydropower construction due to the increased awareness of ecological problems associated with dams. For instance, the large artificial lakes often flood habitats and communities and disrupt species reliant on consistent river flow. <sup id="cite_ref-:03_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Examples of previous projects which sought to remove dams include the <a href="/wiki/Restoration_of_the_Elwha_River" title="Restoration of the Elwha River">Restoration of the Elwha River</a> and <a href="/wiki/Un-Dam_the_Klamath" title="Un-Dam the Klamath">Un-Dam the Klamath</a> river movement. </p><p>Since the 1960's the number of new small hydro projects have declined despite the capacity far exceeding current usage. Despite this trend, some countries, including China, India, and Brazil, are significantly expanding their small hydro capacity in the 21st century. <sup id="cite_ref-:03_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Generation">Generation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Small_hydro&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Generation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hydroelectricity" title="Hydroelectricity">hydroelectricity</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HKO_Transmission_02.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/HKO_Transmission_02.JPG/220px-HKO_Transmission_02.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/HKO_Transmission_02.JPG/330px-HKO_Transmission_02.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/HKO_Transmission_02.JPG/440px-HKO_Transmission_02.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="2112" /></a><figcaption>Historic <a href="/wiki/Ottenbach_Small_Hydro" title="Ottenbach Small Hydro">Ottenbach Small Hydro</a> with original equipment of 1920 in <a href="/wiki/Ottenbach,_Switzerland" title="Ottenbach, Switzerland">Ottenbach, Switzerland</a>, still running for guided visits</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hongping-Power-Station-5425.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Hongping-Power-Station-5425.jpg/220px-Hongping-Power-Station-5425.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Hongping-Power-Station-5425.jpg/330px-Hongping-Power-Station-5425.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Hongping-Power-Station-5425.jpg/440px-Hongping-Power-Station-5425.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Hongping Power station, in Hongping Town, <a href="/wiki/Shennongjia" title="Shennongjia">Shennongjia</a>, has a design typical for small hydro stations in the western part of China's <a href="/wiki/Hubei" title="Hubei">Hubei</a> Province. Water comes from the mountain behind the station, through the black pipe seen in the photo</figcaption></figure> <p>Hydroelectric power is the generation of electric power from the movement of water. A hydroelectric facility requires a dependable flow of water and a reasonable height for the water to fall, called the <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_head" title="Hydraulic head">head</a>. In a typical installation, water is fed from a reservoir through a pipe into a <a href="/wiki/Hydro_turbine" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydro turbine">turbine</a>. The water flowing through the turbine causes an <a href="/wiki/Electrical_generator" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical generator">electrical generator</a> to rotate, converting the motion into electrical energy. </p><p>Small hydro may be developed by constructing new facilities or through re-development of existing dams whose primary purpose is flood control, or irrigation. Old hydro sites may be re-developed, sometimes salvaging substantial investment in the installation such as penstock pipe and turbines, or just re-using the water rights associated with an abandoned site. Either of these cost saving advantages can make the return on investment for a small hydro site well worth the use of existing sites. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a> is another country which is investing heavily in small hydro. Brazil itself is a leader in hydroelectric generation, the world's third most hydropower installed capacity country at 79 GW, behind the United States at 100 GW, and China in first place with 171 GW. <sup id="cite_ref-:1_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 51 new small hydro projects are, as of 2024, being constructed in Brazil. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Project_design">Project design</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Small_hydro&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Project design"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many companies offer standardized turbine generator packages in the approximate size range of 200 kW to 10 MW. These "water to wire" packages simplify the planning and development of the site since one vendor looks after most of the equipment supply. Because non-recurring engineering costs are minimized and development cost is spread over multiple units, the cost of such package systems is reduced. While synchronous generators capable of isolated plant operation are often used, small hydro plants connected to an electrical grid system can use economical <a href="/wiki/Induction_generator" title="Induction generator">induction generators</a> to further reduce installation cost and simplify control and operation. </p><p>Small <a href="/wiki/Run-of-the-river_hydroelectricity" title="Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity">"run of the river"</a> projects do not have a conventional dam with a reservoir, only a <a href="/wiki/Weir" title="Weir">weir</a> to form a headpond for diversion of inlet water to the turbine. Unused water simply flows over the weir and the headpond may only be capable of a single day's storage, not enough for dry summers or frozen winters when generation may come to a halt. A preferred scenario is to have the inlet in an existing lake. </p><p>Modular “micro hydrokinetic” systems have been developed for <a href="/wiki/Acequia" title="Acequia">irrigation canals</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "<a href="/wiki/Irrigation_district" class="mw-redirect" title="Irrigation district">Irrigation districts</a> across the U.S. have installed power plants at diversion points and in-canal drops, which are traditionally used for flow measurement, to stabilize upstream heads and to dissipate energy where there is significant elevation change throughout the canal system."<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Countries like India and China have policies in favor of small hydro, and the regulatory process allows for building dams and reservoirs. In North America and Europe the regulatory process is too long and expensive to consider having a dam and a reservoir for a small project. </p><p>Small hydro projects usually have faster environmental and licensing procedures, and since the equipment is usually in serial production, standardized and simplified, and the civil works construction is also reduced, the projects may be developed very rapidly. The physically smaller size of equipment makes it easier to transport to remote areas without good road or rail access. </p><p>One measure of decreased environmental impact with lakes and reservoirs depends on the balance between stream flow and power production. Reducing water diversions helps the river's ecosystem, but reduces the hydro system's <a href="/wiki/Return_on_Investment" class="mw-redirect" title="Return on Investment">return on Investment</a> (ROI). The hydro system design must strike a balance to maintain both the health of the stream and the economics. </p><p>Part of the balance between a small hydro project's return on investment and environmental concern is the proximity of the project to the national power grid. The more isolated a small hydro project is the more cost effective its construction will be. <sup id="cite_ref-:4_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Advantages_and_disadvantages">Advantages and disadvantages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Small_hydro&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Advantages and disadvantages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The primary advantages of small hydro development include low cost to build, <a href="/wiki/Environmental_justice" title="Environmental justice">environmental justice</a>, and ability to remain disconnected from centralized power grids. </p><p>Rural or isolated areas that are expensive to connect to national power grids are where most small hydro developments are made. For instance, rural areas in India or other countries that have flowing water regimes utilize small hydro to provide a renewable source of energy without connection to the national grid. <sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, in communities which are geographically isolated from national power grids small hydro projects provide the greatest reduction in green house gas emissions. <sup id="cite_ref-:12_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For investors, environmentalists, and policy makers small hydro projects are considered most viable when there is little ecological impact and projected profit after construction. <sup id="cite_ref-:2_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is shown to be relatively easy for stakeholders to greenlight small hydro developments if these conditions are met, even to a slight degree. <sup id="cite_ref-:2_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Small_hydro_power_plant_%22Sveta_Petka%22.IMG_0013.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Small_hydro_power_plant_%22Sveta_Petka%22.IMG_0013.jpg/220px-Small_hydro_power_plant_%22Sveta_Petka%22.IMG_0013.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Small_hydro_power_plant_%22Sveta_Petka%22.IMG_0013.jpg/330px-Small_hydro_power_plant_%22Sveta_Petka%22.IMG_0013.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Small_hydro_power_plant_%22Sveta_Petka%22.IMG_0013.jpg/440px-Small_hydro_power_plant_%22Sveta_Petka%22.IMG_0013.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>An example of a small hydro power plant, Sveta Petka. </figcaption></figure> <p>A final noted advantage of small hydro over larger hydropower developments or fossil fuel plants is an element of environmental justice. In a number of communities which lack essential electricity access small hydro offers a reliable and clean source of electricity. <sup id="cite_ref-:3_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Small hydro projects do not normally require significant government assistance. Gaps in governance allow small hydro projects to be built and which provide local power to local communities. <sup id="cite_ref-:3_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Disadvantages of small hydro do exist primarily in habitat alteration and potential cost increase. </p><p>Some of the disadvantages of small hydro come in the form of how the running water system is disturbed. Within <a href="/wiki/Run-of-the-river_hydroelectricity" title="Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity">run-of-river</a> design projects, the greatest harm for water systems are flow regime alteration, loss of river cohesion and connectivity, and habitat degradation effecting fish and macroinvertebrates primarily. <sup id="cite_ref-:42_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:42-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although the cost of small hydro projects are generally far lower than large-scale hydroelectric systems, there is a cost to construction. Considering this, if a small hydro project proves to be uneconomical it will have an outsized budget expenditure relative to large projects which run over-budget. <sup id="cite_ref-:13_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sample_list_of_small_installations_worldwide">Sample list of small installations worldwide</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Small_hydro&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Sample list of small installations worldwide"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Africa</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zengamina" title="Zengamina">Zengamina</a>, a 700 kW plant in <a href="/wiki/Kalene_Hill" title="Kalene Hill">Kalene Hill</a>, Mwinilunga District in northwestern <a href="/wiki/Zambia" title="Zambia">Zambia</a>. 2008</li></ul> <p><b>Asia</b> </p> <ul><li>Meenvallam Small Hydroelectric Project,<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Palakkad" title="Palakkad">Palakkad</a> district, <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a>, India.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Bario Asal & Arur Layun Micro-Hydro Community Project,<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Kelabit_Highlands" title="Kelabit Highlands">Kelabit Highlands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sarawak" title="Sarawak">Sarawak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>. 2009</li> <li>Ambangal Mini Hydro Electric Power Plant, <a href="/wiki/Kiangan,_Ifugao" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiangan, Ifugao">Kiangan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ifugao" title="Ifugao">Ifugao</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> (2010)<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Asiga River Mini Hydro Electric Power Plant, <a href="/wiki/Santiago,_Agusan_del_Norte" title="Santiago, Agusan del Norte">Santiago</a>, <a href="/wiki/Agusan_del_Norte" title="Agusan del Norte">Agusan del Norte</a>, Philippines (2019)<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Balongbong Mini Hydro Electric Power Plant, <a href="/wiki/Bato,_Catanduanes" title="Bato, Catanduanes">Bato</a>, <a href="/wiki/Catanduanes" title="Catanduanes">Catanduanes</a>, Philippines (1983)<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Cantingas Mini Hydro Electric Power Plant, <a href="/wiki/San_Fernando,_Romblon" title="San Fernando, Romblon">San Fernando</a>, <a href="/wiki/Romblon" title="Romblon">Romblon</a>, Philippines (2009)<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Likud Mini Hydro Electric Power Plant, <a href="/wiki/Asipulo,_Ifugao" class="mw-redirect" title="Asipulo, Ifugao">Asipulo</a> and Kiangan, Ifugao, Philippines (2015)<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>New Bataan Hydro Electric Power Plant, <a href="/wiki/New_Bataan,_Davao_de_Oro" class="mw-redirect" title="New Bataan, Davao de Oro">New Bataan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Davao_de_Oro" title="Davao de Oro">Davao de Oro</a>, Philippines (2018)<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>San Luis Mini Hydro Electric Power Plant, <a href="/wiki/San_Luis,_Aurora" title="San Luis, Aurora">San Luis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aurora_(province)" title="Aurora (province)">Aurora</a>, Philippines (2011)<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Villasiga Mini Hydro Electric Power Plant, <a href="/wiki/Bugasong,_Antique" class="mw-redirect" title="Bugasong, Antique">Bugasong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antique" title="Antique">Antique</a>, Philippines (2016)<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Pakpattan Hydro Power Project, a 2.82 MW plant on Pakpattan Canal in <a href="/wiki/Pakpattan" title="Pakpattan">Pakpattan</a> District, <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> 2015</li></ul> <p><b>Europe</b> </p> <ul><li>Green Valleys Project,<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Brecon_Beacons_National_Park" title="Brecon Beacons National Park">Brecon Beacons National Park</a>, Wales. Joint winner of £300K<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in Big Green Challenge 2009.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>St Catherine's, a <a href="/wiki/National_Trust_for_Places_of_Historic_Interest_or_Natural_Beauty" class="mw-redirect" title="National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty">National Trust</a> site near <a href="/wiki/Windermere,_Cumbria_(town)" title="Windermere, Cumbria (town)">Windermere</a>, <a href="/wiki/Westmorland" title="Westmorland">Westmorland</a>, United Kingdom.</li></ul> <p><b>North America</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ames_Hydroelectric_Generating_Plant" title="Ames Hydroelectric Generating Plant">Ames Hydroelectric Generating Plant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Colorado" title="Colorado">Colorado</a>, United States. On the <a href="/wiki/List_of_IEEE_Milestones" title="List of IEEE Milestones">List of IEEE Milestones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childs-Irving_Hydroelectric_Facilities" title="Childs-Irving Hydroelectric Facilities">Childs-Irving Hydroelectric Facilities</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arizona" title="Arizona">Arizona</a>, United States. 1916 Now decommissioned</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snoqualmie_Falls" title="Snoqualmie Falls">Snoqualmie Falls</a>, <a href="/wiki/Washington_(state)" title="Washington (state)">Washington</a>, United States. 1957</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malibu_Hydro" title="Malibu Hydro">Malibu Hydro</a>, <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a>, Canada. 2005</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menihek_Hydroelectric_Generating_Station" title="Menihek Hydroelectric Generating Station">Menihek Hydroelectric Generating Station</a>, <a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_and_Labrador" title="Newfoundland and Labrador">Newfoundland and Labrador</a>, Canada. 1954</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloudworks_Energy" title="Cloudworks Energy">Cloudworks Energy</a> is one of many <a href="/wiki/Independent_power_producers_in_British_Columbia" title="Independent power producers in British Columbia">Independent power producers</a> that have built projects in British Columbia, Canada</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Small_hydro&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output 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id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Small_hydro&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Thesis-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Thesis_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCrettenand2012" class="citation thesis cs1">Crettenand, N. 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