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It was called and dismissed by the [[King of Portugal]] at will, at a place of his choosing.<ref name=C>O'Callaghan, J.F. (2003) "Cortes, Leon, Castile and Portugal" in E.M. Gerli,editor, 2003, Medieval Iberia: an encyclopedia, London: Routledge</ref> Cortes which brought all three estates together are sometimes distinguished as '''Cortes-Gerais''' (General Courts), in contrast to smaller assemblies which brought only one or two estates, to negotiate a specific point relevant only to them.<ref name = R>Coelho da Rocha, M.A. (1851) ''Ensaio sobre a historia do governo e da legislação de Portugal: para servir de introducção ao estudo do direito patrio'' Coimbra: Imprensa da Universidade, p.102-03.</ref> [[List of Portuguese monarchs|Portuguese monarchs]] had always called intermittent "king's courts" (''[[Curia Regis]]''), consultative assemblies of [[feudal]] nobles and landed clerics (bishops, abbots and the masters of the [[Military order (society)|Military Orders]]) to advise on major matters. This practice probably originated in the [[protofeudalism]] of the 6th-century [[Visigothic Kingdom]]. But, during the 13th century, with the growing power of [[municipalities]], and kings increasingly reliant on urban [[militia]]s, [[foral|incorporated]] towns gained the right to participate in the king's court.<ref name=C /> The Cortes assembled at [[Leiria]] in 1254 by [[Afonso III of Portugal]] was the first known Portuguese Cortes to explicitly include [[Burgess (title)|representatives]] of the municipalities. In this, Portugal was accompanying the pattern in neighboring Iberian kingdoms (e.g. the Kings of [[Kingdom of León|León]] admitted town representatives to their [[Cortes Generales|Cortes]] in 1188<ref name=C />). Medieval Kings of Portugal continued to rely on small assemblies of notables, and only summoned the full Cortes on extraordinary occasions. A Cortes would be called if the king wanted to introduce new taxes, change some fundamental laws, announce significant shifts in foreign policy (e.g. ratify treaties), or settle matters of royal succession, issues where the cooperation and assent of the towns were necessary. Changing taxation (especially requesting war subsidies), was probably the most frequent reason for convening the Cortes. As the nobles and clergy were largely tax-exempt, setting taxation involved intensive negotiations between the royal council and the burgher delegates at the Cortes. Delegates (''procuradores'') not only considered the king's proposals, but, in turn, also used the Cortes to submit [[petition]]s of their own to the [[royal council]] on a myriad of matters, e.g. extending and confirming town privileges, punishing abuses of officials, introducing new price controls, constraints on Jews, pledges on coinage, etc.<ref name=C /> The royal response to these petitions became enshrined as ordinances and statutes, thus giving the Cortes the aspect of a [[legislature]]. These petitions were originally referred to as ''aggravamentos'' (grievances) then ''artigos'' (articles) and eventually ''capitulos'' (chapters). In a Cortes-Gerais, petitions were discussed and voted upon separately by each estate and required the approval of at least two of the three estates before being passed up to the royal council.<ref name=R /> The proposal was then subject to royal [[veto]] (either accepted or rejected by the king in its entirety) before becoming law.<ref name=R /> Nonetheless, the exact extent of Cortes power was ambiguous. Kings insisted on their ancient prerogative to promulgate laws independently of the Cortes. The compromise, in theory, was that ordinances enacted in Cortes could only be modified or repealed by Cortes.<ref name=C /> But even that principle was often circumvented or ignored in practice. The Cortes probably had their heyday in the 14th and 15th centuries, reaching their apex when the usurping [[John I of Portugal]] relied almost wholly upon the bourgeoisie for his power. For a period after the [[1383–1385 Crisis]], the Cortes were convened almost annually. But as time went on, they became less important. Portuguese monarchs, tapping into the riches of the [[Portuguese empire]] overseas, grew less dependent on Cortes subsidies and convened them less frequently. [[John II of Portugal|John II]] (r.1481-1495) used them to break the high nobility, but dispensed with them otherwise. [[Manuel I of Portugal|Manuel I]] (r.1495-1521) convened them only four times in his long reign. By the time of [[Sebastian of Portugal|Sebastian]] (r.1554–1578), the Cortes was practically an irrelevance. Curiously, the Cortes gained a new importance with the [[Iberian Union]] of 1581, finding a role as the representative of Portuguese interests to the new Habsburg monarch. The Cortes played a critical role in the [[Portuguese Restoration War|1640 Restoration]], and enjoyed a brief period of resurgence during the reign of [[John IV of Portugal|John IV]] (r.1640-1656). But by the end of the 17th century, it found itself sidelined once again. It is essential, at this point, to remember the fact that there were only four occasions when the Cortes were of immense importance for the History of Portugal: with the coronation of [[John I of Portugal|D. João I]], in the Courts of Coimbra in 1385; with the appointment of D. Pedro, Duque de Coimbra, as regent of D. Afonso V, in the Cortes of Torres Novas of 1438; with the coronation of Filipe I, in Cortes de Tomar, 1581; and, finally, with the acclamation of D. João IV, in the Cortes de Lisboa of 1645-1646. All of these occasions, finally confirming the essentially legitimating role of the reigning power. The last Cortes met in 1698, for the mere formality of confirming the appointment of Infante John (future [[John V of Portugal|John V]]) as the successor of [[Peter II of Portugal]]. Thereafter, Portuguese kings ruled as [[absolute monarch]]s.<ref name="S">J.H. Saraiva, (1993) ''Historia de Portugal'' p.231</ref> No Cortes were assembled for over a century. This state of affairs came to an end with the [[Liberal Revolution of 1820]], which set in motion the introduction of a new constitution, and a permanent and proper [[parliament]], that however inherited the name of ''[[Cortes Gerais]]''. == List of Portuguese Cortes == {{History of Portugal}} '''[[Afonso I of Portugal|Afonso I]] (1139–1185)''' * 1143 – Cortes of [[Lamego Municipality|Lamego]] (legendary) – to confirm D.&nbsp;[[Afonso Henriques]]'s title as the independent [[King of Portugal]], and establish the rules of succession to the throne. Ostensibly, prevents succession by females if they are married to a foreigner. This has been since proven to be a purely legendary fabrication, invented at the time of the [[Portuguese Restoration War|Restoration]] of 1640. '''[[Sancho I of Portugal|Sancho&nbsp;I]] (1185–1211)''' '''[[Afonso II of Portugal|Afonso&nbsp;II]] (1211–1223)''' * 1211 – Cortes of [[Coimbra]] – first definitive Cortes – established the first general laws (''Leis Gerais do Reino''), protecting the king's property, stipulating measures of administering justice and the rights of his subjects to be protected from abuses by royal officials and confirming the clerical donations of his predecessor. Also, affirmed the validity of [[canon law]] for the Church in Portugal, but also introduces the prohibition of the purchase of lands by churches or monasteries (although they can be acquired by donations and legacies). '''[[Sancho II of Portugal|Sancho&nbsp;II]] (1223–1248)''' '''[[Afonso III of Portugal|Afonso&nbsp;III]] (1248–1279)''' * 1254 – Cortes of [[Leiria]] – first to include [[bourgeoisie|burgher]] delegates from the [[foral|incorporated]] [[municipalities]]<ref>Livermore (1966) p 81</ref> Introduction of the {{lang|pt|monetagio}}, a fixed sum paid by the burghers to the Crown as a substitute for the ''septennium'' (the traditional revision of the face value of coinage by the Crown every seven years); also introduced [[staple right|staple]] laws on the [[Douro River]], favoring the new royal city of [[Vila Nova de Gaia]] at the expense of the old episcopal city of [[Porto]]. * 1256 – Cortes of [[Guimarães]] * 1261 – Cortes of [[Guimarães]] – to discuss the recent debasement of the currency; allowed Afonso&nbsp;III's recent debasement, but extracted pledges forbidding future debasements. In return for a new property tax, the old "septennium" is replaced with a new rule allowing only one revision of coinage per reign.<ref>Livermore (1966} p 82</ref> * 1273 – Cortes of [[Santarém, Portugal|Santarém]] – to consider [[Pope Gregory X]]'s bull ordering the restoration of property and rights of Portuguese bishops (seven of the nine Portuguese bishops had formally protested to the pope about the heavy-handed ''Inquirições Afonsinas'', the royal investigations, launched in 1258, into the titles of episcopal lands, ostensibly to "recover" alienated royal property.) The Cortes find the king has not violated anything. '''[[Denis of Portugal|Denis]] (1279–1325)''' * 1282 – Cortes of [[Évora]] – to review a royal offer to [[Pope Martin V]] to resolve the episcopal quarrel (the terms are unacceptable to the pope and rejected; documents suggest the offer was originally crafted by the king in consultation with the clergy alone in Guarda, and so the Évora Cortes may have only been considering a reply to the papal rejection)<ref> Barros (1885) [https://books.google.com/books?id=Rz8OAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA264 p 264 note])</ref> * 1283 – Cortes of [[Coimbra]] * 1285 – Cortes of [[Lisbon]] – to consider renewal of papal demand for restoration of episcopal rights again – papal position rejected again – Cortes approves a new round of ''Inquirições'', and requests the investigations be extended to the nobility (i.e. review their titular claims to tax-exempt property). Also approves new law forbidding the sale of lands to religious corporations (and forcing them to sell all land acquired since the beginning of his reign). * 1288 – Cortes of [[Guimarães]] – Cortes reiterates request for inquisitions into noble titles * 1289 – Cortes of [[Lisbon]] – ratify [[concordat of the Forty Articles]] with [[Pope Nicholas V]], settling the episcopal question * 1323 – Cortes of [[Lisbon]] '''[[Afonso IV of Portugal|Afonso&nbsp;IV]] (1325–1357)''' * 1325 – Cortes of [[Évora]] – enacted [[sumptuary law]]s on Jews and Muslims<ref>Lindo (1848) [https://books.google.com/books?id=55g2AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA305 p 305]</ref> * 1331 – Cortes of [[Santarém, Portugal|Santarém]] * 1334 – Cortes of [[Santarém, Portugal|Santarém]] – approved marriage of heir [[Peter I of Portugal|Peter]] to Castilian noblewoman [[Constance of Peñafiel]], clearing the way for an interventionist war on behalf of her father, [[Juan Manuel, Prince of Villena|Juan Manuel de Vilhena]], against King [[Alfonso XI of Castile]]. * 1335 – Cortes of [[Coimbra]] * 1340 – Cortes of [[Santarém, Portugal|Santarém]] * 1352 – Cortes of [[Lisbon]] – protest against the introduction of ''juízes de fora'' (external judges, nominated and paid for by the crown), as a violation of local charters and customary rights '''[[Peter I of Portugal|Peter&nbsp;I]] (1357–1367)''' * 1361 – Cortes of [[Elvas Municipality|Elvas]] – negotiate ''concordata'' with the clergy; protest royal nomination of elective judges – first recorded use of ''beneplácito régio'' (requirement of royal review and assent before regulations issued by the Papal Curia could be applied to the clergy in Portugal)<ref>Almeida (1903) p 50 </ref> '''[[Ferdinand I of Portugal|Ferdinand&nbsp;I]] (1367–1383)''' * 1371 – Cortes of [[Lisbon]] * 1372 – Cortes of [[Porto]] – protest against the Fernandine wars * 1372 – Cortes of [[Leiria]] – Cortes rejects king Ferdinand's request for financing * 1373 – Cortes of [[Santarém, Portugal|Santarém]] * 1375 – Cortes of [[Atouguia da Baleia|Atouguia]] * 1376 – Cortes of [[Leiria]] – recognized [[Beatrice of Portugal]] as the heir of King Ferdinand * 1380 – Cortes of [[Torres Novas]] * 1383 – Cortes of [[Santarém, Portugal|Santarém]] '''[[John I of Portugal|John&nbsp;I]] (1385–1433)''' * 1385 – Cortes of [[Coimbra]] – to debate the pretenders to the throne, acclaim John, Master of Aviz, as King [[John I of Portugal]]; also imposed that the king must include burgher representatives in the royal council (from triple nomination lists supplied by the towns) and to impose no taxes or tributes, nor make war nor peace, without the consent of the Cortes; also the first Cortes to grant the king the ''sisas'' ([[excise tax]]es on transactions, existing locally since at least 1311, but only now definitively made a royal tax)<ref>Almeida (1903) p 99 </ref> * 1386 – Cortes of [[Braga]] – The ''sisas'', were instituted throughout the kingdom to cover the costs of war against Castile and explicitly tells how to perform the payment of said tax * 1387 – Cortes of [[Coimbra]] * 1387 – Cortes of [[Braga]] * 1389 – Cortes of [[Lisbon]] * 1390 – Cortes of [[Coimbra]] * 1391 – Cortes of [[Évora]] * 1391 – Cortes of [[Coimbra]] – introduce the [[Jewish badge]], a red star of David to be worn by Jews visibly on their clothing<ref>Lindo (1848) [https://books.google.com/books?id=55g2AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA313 p 313]</ref> * 1391 – Cortes of [[Viseu]] – to reimpose price controls and labor laws (''[[corvée]]'') suspended during the 1380s crisis * 1394–1395 – Cortes of [[Coimbra]] * 1396 – Cortes of [[Santarém, Portugal|Santarém]] * 1398 – Cortes of [[Coimbra]] – establish that all debts since 1385 must be paid in real coinage (by the metal content at time of contract), rather than nominally with debased currency * 1398 – Cortes of [[Porto]] * 1399 – Cortes of [[Lisbon]] * 1400 – Cortes of [[Coimbra]] * 1401 – Cortes of [[Guimarães]] * 1402 – Cortes of [[Santarém, Portugal|Santarém]] * 1404 – Cortes of [[Lisbon]] * 1406 – Cortes of [[Santarém, Portugal|Santarém]] * 1408 – Cortes of [[Évora]] * 1410 – Cortes of [[Lisbon]] * 1412 – Cortes of [[Lisbon]] * 1413 – Cortes of [[Lisbon]] * 1414 – Cortes of [[Lisbon]] * 1416 – Cortes of [[Estremoz]] * 1417 – Cortes of [[Lisbon]] * 1418 – Cortes of [[Santarém, Portugal|Santarém]] * 1427 – Cortes of [[Lisbon]] – to negotiate second ''concordata'' with the clergy, setting limits on [[ecclesiastical privileges]] * 1430 – Cortes of [[Santarém, Portugal|Santarém]] '''[[Edward of Portugal|Edward]] (1433–1438)''' * 1434 – Cortes of [[Santarém, Portugal|Santarém]] – wholesale review of the laws of the realm, introduction of ''capitulos gerais'' * 1435 – Cortes of [[Évora]] – ratification of the ''Lei Mental'', establishing direct male [[primogeniture]] in the inheritance of feudal grants, otherwise they revert to crown * 1436 – Cortes of [[Évora]] – to finance [[Battle of Tangier (1437)|Tangier expedition]] * 1437 – Cortes of [[Leiria]] – to ratify treaty with [[Marinid]] Morocco and deliver Portuguese [[Ceuta]] in exchange for the captive infante [[Ferdinand the Saint Prince]] – failed '''Queen [[Eleanor of Aragon, Queen of Portugal|Eleanor of Aragon]], ([[regent]] for [[Afonso V of Portugal|Afonso&nbsp;V]]), (1438–1439)''' * 1438 – Cortes of [[Torres Novas]] – reviewed the will of the late [[Edward of Portugal]], appointing [[Eleanor of Aragon, Queen of Portugal|Eleanor of Aragon]] as regent for the young king [[Afonso V of Portugal|Afonso&nbsp;V]]; passed law requiring that the Cortes must henceforth be assembled annually (not really observed) * 1439 – Cortes of [[Lisbon]] – assembled by [[Constable of Portugal|constable]] [[John of Reguengos]], elected [[Peter of Coimbra]] as [[regent]] of the realm '''Duke [[Peter of Coimbra]] ([[regent]] for [[Afonso V of Portugal|Afonso&nbsp;V]]) (1439–1448)''' * 1441 – Cortes of [[Torres Novas]] * 1442 – Cortes of [[Évora]] * 1444 – Cortes of [[Évora]] * 1446 – Cortes of [[Lisbon]] – to declare Afonso&nbsp;V's majority (declared, but Peter's regency continues at Afonso&nbsp;V's request); revealed the [[Afonsine Ordinances]] '''[[Afonso V of Portugal|Afonso&nbsp;V]] (in his own right) (1448–1481)''' * 1451 – Cortes of [[Santarém, Portugal|Santarém]] – burghers chastise king for promulgating laws outside the Cortes; assert that laws passed in Cortes, can only be modified in Cortes * 1451 – Cortes of [[Lisbon]] * 1455 – Cortes of [[Lisbon]] – to present the newborn royal heir John (future [[John II of Portugal|John&nbsp;II]], and receive oaths of loyalty; burghers used opportunity to protest use of royal letters to circumvent 1451 restrictions * 1456 – Cortes of [[Lisbon]] * 1459 – Cortes of [[Lisbon]] * 1461 – Cortes of [[Évora]] * 1465 – Cortes of [[Guarda, Portugal|Guarda]] – to consider an appeal from [[Joan of Portugal]] (consort queen of [[Henry IV of Castile]]) to intervene in Castile against the rebellion of [[Alfonso, Prince of Asturias (1453–1468)|Afonso of Asturias]] – intervention was rejected by the Cortes * 1468 – Cortes of [[Santarém, Portugal|Santarém]]  * 1471 – Cortes of [[Lisbon]] * 1472–1473 – Cortes of [[Coimbra]] * 1475 – Cortes of [[Évora]] * 1475 – Cortes of [[Arronches]] * 1476 – Cortes of [[Lisbon]] * 1477 – Cortes of [[Montemor-o-Novo Municipality|Montemor-o-Novo]] * 1477 – Cortes of [[Santarém, Portugal|Santarém]] * 1478 – Cortes of [[Lisbon]] '''[[John II of Portugal|John&nbsp;II]] (1481–1495)''' * 1481 – Cortes of [[Évora]] * 1483 – Cortes of [[Santarém, Portugal|Santarém]] * 1490 – Cortes of [[Évora]] '''[[Manuel I of Portugal|Manuel I]] (1495–1521)''' * 1495 – Cortes of [[Montemor-o-Novo Municipality|Montemor-o-Novo]] – review will of late [[John II of Portugal|John&nbsp;II]], invite political exiles to return, criticize proposed India expedition * 1498 – Cortes of [[Lisbon]] * 1499 – Cortes of [[Lisbon]] * 1502 – Cortes of [[Lisbon]] '''[[John III of Portugal|John&nbsp;III]] (1521–1557)''' * 1525 – Cortes of [[Torres Novas]] – require king to assemble the Cortes at least once every ten years. * 1535 – Cortes of [[Évora]] – to declare Prince Manuel as heir to the throne (but died 1537). * 1544 – Cortes of [[Almeirim]] '''[[Catherine of Austria, Queen of Portugal|Catherine of Austria]] ([[regent]] for [[Sebastian of Portugal|Sebastian]]) (1557–1562)''' * 1562 – Cortes of [[Lisbon]] '''[[Sebastian of Portugal|Sebastian]] (in his own right) (1562–1578)''' '''[[Henry, King of Portugal|Henry]] (1578–1580)''' * 1579 – Cortes of [[Lisbon]] – assembled by Cardinal-Regent [[Henry, King of Portugal|Henry of Portugal]] to resolve controversy on the succession to the late Sebastian * 1580 – Cortes of [[Almeirim]] – to ratify Henry's right to appoint [[Philip II of Spain]] as his successor, disputed by burghers '''[[Philip II of Spain|Philip&nbsp;I]] (II of Spain) (1581–1598)''' * 1581 – Cortes of [[Tomar]] – recognize the ascension of [[Philip II of Spain]] as king of Portugal, set out conditions of his reign (see [[Iberian Union]]) * 1583 – Cortes of [[Lisbon]] – to ratify [[Philip III of Spain|Philip, Prince of Asturias]] as heir of the Portuguese Realm '''[[Philip III of Spain|Philip&nbsp;II]] (III of Spain) (1598–1621)''' * 1619 – Cortes of [[Lisbon]] – to ratify [[Philip IV of Spain|Philip, Prince of Asturias]] as heir of the Portuguese Realm '''[[Philip IV of Spain|Philip&nbsp;III]] (IV of Spain) (1621–1640)''' '''[[John IV of Portugal|John&nbsp;IV]] (1640–1656)''' * 1641 – Cortes of [[Lisbon]] * 1642 – Cortes of [[Lisbon]] * 1645-1646 – Cortes of [[Lisbon]] * 1653 – Cortes of [[Lisbon]] '''[[Luisa of Guzman]] ([[regent]] for [[Afonso VI of Portugal|Afonso&nbsp;VI]]) (1656–1662)''' '''[[Afonso VI of Portugal|Afonso&nbsp;VI]] (in his own right) (1662–1668)''' * 1668 – Cortes of [[Lisbon]] – declare Afonso&nbsp;VI insane, install [[Peter II of Portugal|Prince Peter]] as regent '''[[Peter II of Portugal|Prince Peter]] (regent for [[Afonso VI of Portugal|Afonso&nbsp;VI]]) (1668–1683)''' * 1674 – Cortes of [[Lisbon]] – dissolved when the Cortes attempted to tie taxes to particular government expenditures * 1679-1680 – Cortes of [[Lisbon]] '''[[Peter II of Portugal|Peter&nbsp;II]] (in his own right) (1683–1706)''' * 1697-1698 – Cortes of [[Lisbon]] – the 'Last Cortes' – recognized Infante John (future [[John V of Portugal|John&nbsp;V]]) as the successor to the throne [[Absolute monarchy]] thereafter: No Cortes assembled in reigns of [[John V of Portugal|John&nbsp;V]] (1706–1750), [[Joseph I of Portugal|Joseph&nbsp;I]] (1750–1777), [[Maria I of Portugal|Maria&nbsp;I]] (1777–1816). Thereafter there were only two exceptional Cortes: [[John VI of Portugal|John&nbsp;VI]] (1816–1826) called the 1820 assembly of the ''[[Constituent Cortes of 1820|Cortes Gerais e Extraordinárias da Nação Portuguesa]]'' to draft a new constitution. The other exception was during the 1828–1834 reign of [[Miguel of Portugal]], when the constitution was suspended. An old-style Cortes was assembled by Miguel in [[Lisbon]] in 1828 to recognize Miguel as the sole legitimate heir to John&nbsp;VI. == See also == * [[List of Portuguese monarchs]] * [[Timeline of Portuguese history]] * [[Parliaments]] == References == {{Reflist}} * Almeida, Fortunato de (1903) ''História das Instituições em Portugal''. Porto: Magalhaes & Moniz. [https://books.google.com/books?id=3aQtAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA3 online] * Barros, Henrique da Gama (1885) ''Historia da administração publica em Portugal nos seculos XII a XV'', Lisbon: Imprensa Nacional. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Rz8OAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP11 v.1] * Lindo, E.H. (1848) ''The History of the Jews of Spain and Portugal,the earliest times to their final expulsion from those kingdoms, and their subsequent dispersion''. London: Longman Brown. [https://books.google.com/books?id=55g2AAAAMAAJ&pg=PR1 online] * Livermore, H.V. (1966) ''A New History of Portugal'', 1976 ed., Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. * (Midosi, P.) (1828) ''Portugal; or, who is the lawful successor to the European throne of the Braganza family?''. 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