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dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">2015 United States Supreme Court case</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox scotus" style="line-height: 1.4em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above fn" style="background-color: #99c0ff; padding: 0.2em; line-height: 1.4em; font-size:125%; font-style: italic">Rodriguez v. United States</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><span title="Seal of the United States Supreme Court"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/100px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/150px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/200px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="720" /></span></span><div class="infobox-caption" style="padding-top: 0.5em; font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court of the United States</a></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #99c0ff; white-space:nowrap">Argued January 21, 2015<br />Decided April 21, 2015</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Full case name</th><td class="infobox-data"><i>Dennys Rodriguez, Petitioner v. <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Docket no.</th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/docketfiles/13-9972.htm">13-9972</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Citations</th><td class="infobox-data">575 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> 348 (<i><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_575" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 575">more</a></i>)<div>135 S. Ct. 1609; 191 <a href="/wiki/L._Ed._2d" class="mw-redirect" title="L. Ed. 2d">L. Ed. 2d</a> 492; 83 U.S.L.W. 4241</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Argument</th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/2010-2019/2014/2014_13_9972">Oral argument</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Opinion announcement</th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/14pdf/13-9972_p8k0.pdf">Opinion announcement</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #99c0ff; white-space:nowrap">Case history</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Prior</th><td class="infobox-data"><i>United States v. Rodriguez</i>, 741 <a href="/wiki/F.3d" class="mw-redirect" title="F.3d">F.3d</a> 905 (<a href="/wiki/8th_Cir." class="mw-redirect" title="8th Cir.">8th Cir.</a> 2014)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #99c0ff; white-space:nowrap">Holding</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">Absent reasonable suspicion, officers may not extend the length of a traffic stop to conduct a dog sniff</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #99c0ff; white-space:nowrap">Court membership</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><dl style="margin:0; padding:0.1em 0.5em; text-align:center; line-height:1.3em;"> <dt style="margin:0;">Chief Justice</dt> <dd style="margin:0 0 0.3em;"><a href="/wiki/John_Roberts" title="John Roberts">John Roberts</a> </dd> <dt style="margin:0;">Associate Justices</dt> <dd style="margin:0;"><a href="/wiki/Antonin_Scalia" title="Antonin Scalia">Antonin Scalia</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kennedy" title="Anthony Kennedy">Anthony Kennedy</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/wiki/Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg" title="Ruth Bader Ginsburg">Ruth Bader Ginsburg</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Breyer" title="Stephen Breyer">Stephen Breyer</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Alito" title="Samuel Alito">Samuel Alito</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Sonia_Sotomayor" title="Sonia Sotomayor">Sonia Sotomayor</a> <b>·</b>  <a href="/wiki/Elena_Kagan" title="Elena Kagan">Elena Kagan</a> </dd></dl></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #99c0ff; white-space:nowrap">Case opinions</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Majority</th><td class="infobox-data">Ginsburg, joined by Roberts, Scalia, Breyer, Sotomayor, Kagan</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Dissent</th><td class="infobox-data">Kennedy</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Dissent</th><td class="infobox-data">Thomas, joined by Alito; Kennedy (all but Part III)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Dissent</th><td class="infobox-data">Alito</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #99c0ff; white-space:nowrap">Laws applied</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">U.S. Const. amend. IV</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><i><b>Rodriguez v. United States</b></i>, 575 U.S. 348 (2015), was a <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">United States Supreme Court</a> case which analyzed whether police officers may extend the length of a traffic stop to conduct a search with a trained <a href="/wiki/Detection_dog" title="Detection dog">detection dog</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a 6–3 opinion, the Court held that officers may not extend the length of a traffic stop to conduct a dog sniff unrelated to the original purpose of the stop.<sup id="cite_ref-Ginsburg1_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ginsburg1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the Court <a href="/wiki/Remand_(court_procedure)" title="Remand (court procedure)">remanded</a> the case to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Eighth_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit">United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit</a> to determine whether the officer's extension of the traffic stop was independently justified by <a href="/wiki/Reasonable_suspicion" title="Reasonable suspicion">reasonable suspicion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ginsburg9_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ginsburg9-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some analysts have suggested that the Court's decision to limit police authority was influenced by <a href="/wiki/Ferguson_unrest" title="Ferguson unrest">ongoing protests in Ferguson, Missouri</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rodriguez_v._United_States&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Constitutional_guidelines_for_traffic_stops">Constitutional guidelines for traffic stops</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rodriguez_v._United_States&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Constitutional guidelines for traffic stops"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Criminal detentions generally require <a href="/wiki/Probable_cause" title="Probable cause">probable cause</a> that the suspect is engaged in criminal activity, but an officer may conduct a traffic stop if the officer has a reasonable, articulable suspicion that the driver is engaging in criminal activity.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Supreme Court of the United States has held that investigative detentions, including traffic stops, "must be temporary and last no longer than is necessary to effectuate the purpose of the stop".<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consequently, traffic stops may become unreasonable if they are unnecessarily prolonged.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When an officer conducts a traffic stop based on reasonable suspicion that the driver has committed a traffic violation, the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Amendment_of_the_United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Fourth Amendment of the United States Constitution">Fourth Amendment</a> permits the officer to conduct a number of investigative inquiries before resolving the traffic stop.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, officers may question the vehicle's occupants about matters unrelated to the traffic violation, and officers may walk a drug detection dog around the outside of the vehicle during the stop.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Officers may briefly prolong traffic stops to conduct these inquiries so long as the officer performs his tasks in an amount of time "reasonably needed to effectuate" the law enforcement purpose of the stop.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arrest_of_Dennys_Rodriguez">Arrest of Dennys Rodriguez</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rodriguez_v._United_States&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Arrest of Dennys Rodriguez"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On the evening of March 27, 2012, Dennys Rodriguez was stopped by a police officer on a highway near <a href="/wiki/Waterloo,_Nebraska" title="Waterloo, Nebraska">Waterloo, Nebraska</a>, after the officer observed him swerve out of his lane of traffic.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the officer approached the vehicle, he reported an "overwhelming" scent of air-fresheners emanating from the car.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After questioning Rodriguez and another passenger in the car, the officer placed a call for backup and conducted a records check on the vehicle's passenger.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The officer handed a warning ticket to Rodriguez, and then proceeded to walk Floyd, his <a href="/wiki/Drug_detection_dog" class="mw-redirect" title="Drug detection dog">drug detection dog</a>, around the outside of Rodriguez's vehicle.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the dog indicated the presence of drugs, the officer searched the car and discovered <a href="/wiki/Methamphetamine" title="Methamphetamine">methamphetamine</a> inside the vehicle.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The officer reported that approximately seven or eight minutes passed between the time he issued the warning ticket to the time at which the dog indicated the presence of drugs.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Waterloo,_Nebraska_downtown_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Waterloo%2C_Nebraska_downtown_1.jpg/220px-Waterloo%2C_Nebraska_downtown_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="79" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Waterloo%2C_Nebraska_downtown_1.jpg/330px-Waterloo%2C_Nebraska_downtown_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Waterloo%2C_Nebraska_downtown_1.jpg/440px-Waterloo%2C_Nebraska_downtown_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2473" data-file-height="888" /></a><figcaption>Dennys Rodriguez was arrested on a highway near <a href="/wiki/Waterloo,_Nebraska" title="Waterloo, Nebraska">Waterloo, Nebraska</a> (pictured).</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trial_and_appeal_to_Eighth_Circuit">Trial and appeal to Eighth Circuit</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rodriguez_v._United_States&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Trial and appeal to Eighth Circuit"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On May 22, 2012, Rodriguez was indicted in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_District_of_Nebraska" title="United States District Court for the District of Nebraska">United States District Court for the District of Nebraska</a> for possession with intent to distribute methamphetamine.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rodriguez filed a motion to suppress evidence discovered by the drug detection dog, arguing that an officer may not extend an already completed traffic stop to conduct a canine sniff without reasonable suspicion or other lawful justification.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the district court denied the motion.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On January 17, 2013, Rodriguez filed an appeal in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Eighth_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit">United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit</a> to review the denial of his motion to suppress.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On January 31, 2014, the Eighth Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed the district court's decision to deny Rodriguez's motion to suppress the evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Eighth Circuit held that a seven- to eight-minute detention was <i>de minimis</i> and reasonable in order to ensure officer safety.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rodriguez appealed this decision to the Supreme Court of the United States, which granted certiorari on October 2, 2014.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Opinion_of_the_Court">Opinion of the Court</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rodriguez_v._United_States&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Opinion of the Court"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg_official_SCOTUS_portrait.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg_official_SCOTUS_portrait.jpg/170px-Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg_official_SCOTUS_portrait.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg_official_SCOTUS_portrait.jpg/255px-Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg_official_SCOTUS_portrait.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg_official_SCOTUS_portrait.jpg/340px-Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg_official_SCOTUS_portrait.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="3600" /></a><figcaption>In her majority opinion, Justice <a href="/wiki/Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg" title="Ruth Bader Ginsburg">Ruth Bader Ginsburg</a> (pictured) held that "a dog sniff is not fairly characterized as part of the officer’s traffic mission".<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Writing for a majority of the Court, Justice <a href="/wiki/Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg" title="Ruth Bader Ginsburg">Ruth Bader Ginsburg</a> held that "a police stop exceeding the time needed to handle the matter for which the stop was made violates the Constitution’s shield against unreasonable seizures".<sup id="cite_ref-Ginsburg1_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ginsburg1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consequently, a traffic stop becomes unlawful if "it is prolonged beyond the time reasonably required to complete the mission of issuing a ticket for the violation".<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Justice Ginsburg wrote that the purpose of the initial stop in this case was to investigate why Rodriguez swerved out of his lane of traffic.<sup id="cite_ref-Ginsburg5_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ginsburg5-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, the officer's authority to continue the stop ended once he completed his investigation of that infraction.<sup id="cite_ref-Ginsburg5_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ginsburg5-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because the dog sniff was unrelated to the investigation of the original traffic infraction, the officer should not have extended the stop absent "independently supported reasonable suspicion" for the dog sniff.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Court then <a href="/wiki/Remand_(court_procedure)" title="Remand (court procedure)">remanded</a> the case to the Eighth Circuit to determine whether the officer did, in fact, have an independent basis for conducting the dog sniff.<sup id="cite_ref-Ginsburg9_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ginsburg9-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dissenting_opinions">Dissenting opinions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rodriguez_v._United_States&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Dissenting opinions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Justice <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kennedy" title="Anthony Kennedy">Anthony Kennedy</a>, Justice <a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</a>, and Justice <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Alito" title="Samuel Alito">Samuel Alito</a> each wrote a dissenting opinion. Justice Thomas argued that the brief extension to conduct a dog sniff was reasonable and that "conducting a dog sniff does not change the character of a traffic stop that is lawful at its inception and otherwise executed in a reasonable manner",<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also argued that the dog sniff was independently justified by the officer's reasonable suspicion that Rodriguez and his passenger were engaged in criminal activity.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a one-paragraph dissenting opinion, Justice Kennedy wrote that he agreed with all of Justice Thomas' opinion, except his conclusion that the officer had reasonable suspicion.<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy1_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy1-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because the Eighth Circuit did not address the question of whether the officer had reasonable suspicion, he argued "the better course would be to allow that court to do so in the first instance".<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy1_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy1-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Justice Alito wrote a dissent in which he characterized the majority opinion as "unnecessary, impractical, and arbitrary".<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He argued that the dog sniff was justified because the facts of the case "easily meet our standard for reasonable suspicion".<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Justice Alito also criticized Justice Ginsburg's opinion for ignoring concerns of officer safety, and that the occupants of the car may have attacked the officer if he conducted the dog sniff before backup arrived.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, Justice Alito claimed it was "arbitrary" for the court to hold the Fourth Amendment was violated "simply because of the sequence in which Officer Struble chose to perform his tasks".<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Afterward">Afterward</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rodriguez_v._United_States&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Afterward"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On remand, the Eighth Circuit ruled that because the police could rely in good faith on binding precedent from the Eighth Circuit, which at the time of the stop held that briefly prolonging a stop was legal, Rodriguez was entitled to no relief.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The United States Supreme Court declined to hear an appeal of that decision.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Commentary_and_analysis">Commentary and analysis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rodriguez_v._United_States&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Commentary and analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:30em; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>Have you ever accidentally knocked something over and then embarrassedly just walked away rather than helping to clean it up, hoping that no one noticed? Sometimes the Supreme Court corrects its own mistakes this way – not overruling, but just quietly and slowly walking away, over years and various decisions, from a rationale that increasingly seems mistaken. </p> </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0;"><cite class="left-aligned" style="">—Rory Little, Professor of Law, suggesting that the Court attempted to distance itself from prior rulings<sup id="cite_ref-Little_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Little-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div> </div> <p>Commentators have observed that <i>Rodriguez</i> represents a significant departure from the Court's prior dog sniff cases and that the Court's "view of the canine sniff investigatory technique is evolving".<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One analyst suggested the Court "is quietly distancing itself from its decision three decades ago in <i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Place" title="United States v. Place">United States v. Place</a></i>,"<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where the Court held that a dog sniff is not a search under the Fourth Amendment.<sup id="cite_ref-Little_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Little-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other commentators praised the case for "strengthening" and "reinvigorating" constitutional protections against unreasonable searches and seizures.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, <a href="/wiki/Nina_Totenberg" title="Nina Totenberg">Nina Totenberg</a> of <a href="/wiki/National_Public_Radio" class="mw-redirect" title="National Public Radio">National Public Radio</a> observed that despite the Supreme Court's favorable ruling, Rodriguez "is not free of legal trouble yet" because the Eighth Circuit may, and ultimately did, rule the dog sniff was permissible.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some analysts have also suggested that the Court's opinion was influenced by <a href="/wiki/Ferguson_unrest" title="Ferguson unrest">ongoing protests in Ferguson, Missouri</a>. One commentator suggested the court's decision may have been shaped, in part, by recent high-profile "killings of black men by police" and that the Court's opinion was "affected by changing social attitudes" about the role of police in society.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another suggested that Chief Justice <a href="/wiki/John_Roberts" title="John Roberts">John Roberts</a> may have been influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Shooting_of_Michael_Brown" class="mw-redirect" title="Shooting of Michael Brown">shooting of Michael Brown</a> and that he "learned the lessons of Ferguson and is trading in his logical abstractions for some much-needed legal realism".<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rodriguez_v._United_States&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Balance,_by_David.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/30px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/46px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/61px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="606" data-file-height="558" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Law" title="Portal:Law">Law portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consent_search" title="Consent search">Consent search</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Driving_while_black" title="Driving while black">Driving while black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases">List of United States Supreme Court cases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_575" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 575">List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 575</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Florida_v._Harris" title="Florida v. Harris">Florida v. Harris</a></i> (2013)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Florida_v._Jardines" title="Florida v. Jardines">Florida v. Jardines</a></i> (2013)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Illinois_v._Caballes" title="Illinois v. Caballes">Illinois v. Caballes</a></i> (2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stop-and-frisk_in_New_York_City" title="Stop-and-frisk in New York City">Stop-and-frisk in New York City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terry_stop" title="Terry stop">Terry stop</a>, a phrase taken from the holding in <i><a href="/wiki/Terry_v._Ohio" title="Terry v. Ohio">Terry v. Ohio</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Virginia_v._Moore" title="Virginia v. Moore">Virginia v. Moore</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Place" title="United States v. Place">United States v. Place</a></i> (1983)</li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rodriguez_v._United_States&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Rodriguez v. United States</i>, No. 13–9972, 575 U.S. 348 (2015), slip op. at 2–4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ginsburg1-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ginsburg1_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ginsburg1_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Rodriguez v. United States</i>, slip op. at 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ginsburg9-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ginsburg9_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ginsburg9_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Rodriguez v. United States</i>, slip op. at 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Noah Feldman, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r920966791">.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps{font-variant:small-caps}.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps-smaller{font-size:85%}</style><span class="smallcaps">BloombergView</span>, April 21, 2015: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bloombergview.com/articles/2015-04-21/the-supreme-court-is-worried-about-the-police/">The Supreme Court Is Worried About the Police</a> (Accessed July 2, 2015); Mark Joseph Stern, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Slate</span>, April 21, 2015: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/jurisprudence/2015/04/rodriguez_v_united_states_a_huge_win_against_police_overreach_at_the_supreme.html/">The Ferguson Effect – Chief Justice Roberts Rules Against Police Abuse at the Supreme Court. Maybe He Finally Gets It.</a> (Accessed July 2, 2015).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Berkemer_v._McCarty" title="Berkemer v. McCarty">Berkemer v. McCarty</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_468" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 468">468</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/468/420/#439">420, 439</a> (1984); <i><a href="/wiki/Delaware_v._Prouse" title="Delaware v. Prouse">Delaware v. Prouse</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_440" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 440">440</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/440/648/#653">648, 653</a> (1979); <i><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_v._Mimms" title="Pennsylvania v. Mimms">Pennsylvania v. Mimms</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_434" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 434">434</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/434/106/#109">106, 109</a> (1977); see also <i><a href="/wiki/Terry_v._Ohio" title="Terry v. Ohio">Terry v. Ohio</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_392" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 392">392</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/392/1/#30">1, 30</a> (1968) (defining standards for investigatory stops).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Florida_v._Royer" title="Florida v. Royer">Florida v. Royer</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_460" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 460">460</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/460/491/#507">491, 507</a> (1983).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>United States v. Sharpe</i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_470" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 470">470</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/470/675/#682">675, 682</a> (1985).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, e.g., <i><a href="/wiki/Arizona_v._Johnson" title="Arizona v. Johnson">Arizona v. Johnson</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_555" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 555">555</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/555/323/#333">323, 333</a> (2009).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Johnson</i>, 555 U.S. at 333; <i><a href="/wiki/Illinois_v._Caballes" title="Illinois v. Caballes">Illinois v. Caballes</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_543" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 543">543</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/543/405/">405</a> (2005) (holding that officers may conduct a dog sniff incident to a lawful traffic stop).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>United States v. Sharpe</i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_470" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 470">470</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/470/675/#685">675, 685</a> (1985).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Joint Appendix, <i>Rodriguez v. United States</i>, 35 S.Ct. 1609 (U.S. 2015) at 16–19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Joint Appendix, <i>Rodriguez v. United States</i>, 35 S.Ct. 1609 (U.S. 2015) at 20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Joint Appendix, <i>Rodriguez v. United States</i>, 35 S.Ct. 1609 (U.S. 2015) at 23–27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Joint Appendix, <i>Rodriguez v. United States</i>, 35 S.Ct. 1609 (U.S. 2015) at 28–29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Joint Appendix, <i>Rodriguez v. United States</i>, 35 S.Ct. 1609 (U.S. 2015) at 33–34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Joint Appendix, <i>Rodriguez v. United States</i>, 35 S.Ct. 1609 (U.S. 2015) at 34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Joint Appendix, <i>Rodriguez v. United States</i>, 35 S.Ct. 1609 (U.S. 2015) at 114.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Joint Appendix, <i>Rodriguez v. United States</i>, 35 S.Ct. 1609 (U.S. 2015) at 6, 12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Joint Appendix, <i>Rodriguez v. United States</i>, 35 S.Ct. 1609 (U.S. 2015) at 112.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Joint Appendix, <i>Rodriguez v. United States</i>, 35 S.Ct. 1609 (U.S. 2015) at 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>United States v. Rodriguez</i>, 741 F.3d 905, 908 (8th Cir. 2014).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>United States v. Rodriguez</i>, 741 F.3d 905, 907–08 (8th Cir. 2014).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Rodriguez v. United States</i>, 135 S.Ct. 43 (2014) (granting certiorari).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Rodriguez v. United States</i>, slip op. at 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Rodriguez v. United States</i>, slip op. at 1 (internal quotations and citations omitted).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ginsburg5-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ginsburg5_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ginsburg5_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Rodriguez v. United States</i>, slip op. at 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Rodriguez v. United States</i>, slip op. at 7–9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Rodriguez v. United States</i>, slip op. at 1, 9–10 (Thomas, J., dissenting) (citing <i>Illinois v. Caballes</i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_543" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 543">543</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/543/405/#408">405, 408</a> (2005) (internal quotation marks omitted).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Rodriguez v. United States</i>, slip op. at 10–12 (Thomas, J., dissenting).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kennedy1-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kennedy1_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kennedy1_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Rodriguez v. United States</i>, slip op. at 1 (Kennedy, J., dissenting).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Rodriguez v. United States</i>, slip op. at 1 (Alito, J., dissenting).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Rodriguez v. United States</i>, slip op. at 1–2 (Alito, J., dissenting) (internal citations and quotations omitted).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Rodriguez v. United States</i>, slip op. at 2–3 (Alito, J., dissenting).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Rodriguez v. United States</i>, slip op. at 3 (Alito, J., dissenting).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>United States v. Rodriguez</i>, 799 F.3d 1222, 1223-24 (8th Cir. 2015).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Rodriguez v. United States</i>, 136 S.Ct. 1514 (Mem) (2016).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Little-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Little_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Little_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Rory Little, Opinion Analysis: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scotusblog.com/2015/04/opinion-analysis-traffic-stops-cant-last-too-long-or-go-too-far-and-no-extra-dog-sniffs/">Traffic stops can’t last too long or go too far, and no extra dog sniffs!</a>, SCOTUSblog (Apr. 21, 2015, 7:55 PM).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leslie Shoebotham, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Hamilton and Griffin on Rights</span>, April 22, 2015: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hamilton-griffin.com/guest-blog-leslie-shoebotham-scotus-no-post-traffic-mission-dog-sniffs-without-reasonable-suspicion/">Guest Blog: Leslie Shoebotham, SCOTUS: No Post-“Traffic Mission” Dog Sniffs Without Reasonable Suspicion</a> (Accessed July 2, 2015).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>United States v. Place</i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_462" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 462">462</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/462/696/">696</a> (1983).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBravin2015" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jess_Bravin" title="Jess Bravin">Bravin, Jess</a> (April 21, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wsj.com/article_email/supreme-court-limits-use-of-drug-sniffing-dogs-during-traffic-stops-1429645869-lMyQjAxMTA1NjI0MTQyODExWj/">"Supreme Court Curbs Drug-Sniffing Dogs During Traffic Stops"</a>. Wall Street Journal<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 2,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Supreme+Court+Curbs+Drug-Sniffing+Dogs+During+Traffic+Stops&rft.date=2015-04-21&rft.aulast=Bravin&rft.aufirst=Jess&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticle_email%2Fsupreme-court-limits-use-of-drug-sniffing-dogs-during-traffic-stops-1429645869-lMyQjAxMTA1NjI0MTQyODExWj%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARodriguez+v.+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nina Totenberg, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">National Public Radio</span>, April 21, 2015: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/2015/04/21/401282284/supreme-court-police-may-not-detain-traffic-violators-longer-than-necessary/">Supreme Court: Police May Not Detain Traffic Violators Longer Than Necessary</a> (Accessed July 2, 2015).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Rodriguez</i>, 799 F.3d 1222, 1223-24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Noah Feldman, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">BloombergView</span>, April 21, 2015: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bloombergview.com/articles/2015-04-21/the-supreme-court-is-worried-about-the-police/">The Supreme Court Is Worried About the Police</a> (Accessed July 2, 2015).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mark Joseph Stern, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Slate</span>, April 21, 2015: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/jurisprudence/2015/04/rodriguez_v_united_states_a_huge_win_against_police_overreach_at_the_supreme.html/">The Ferguson Effect – Chief Justice Roberts Rules Against Police Abuse at the Supreme Court. Maybe He Finally Gets It.</a> (Accessed July 2, 2015).</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rodriguez_v._United_States&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaclin2016" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tracey_Maclin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tracey Maclin (page does not exist)">Maclin, Tracey</a> (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.minnesotalawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/Maclin_Online.pdf">"Anthony Amsterdam's Perspectives on the Fourth Amendment, and What It Teaches About the Good and Bad in Rodriguez v. United States"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Minnesota Law Review</i>. <b>100</b> (5).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Minnesota+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Anthony+Amsterdam%27s+Perspectives+on+the+Fourth+Amendment%2C+and+What+It+Teaches+About+the+Good+and+Bad+in+Rodriguez+v.+United+States&rft.volume=100&rft.issue=5&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Maclin&rft.aufirst=Tracey&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.minnesotalawreview.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2016%2F06%2FMaclin_Online.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARodriguez+v.+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rodriguez_v._United_States&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Text of <i>Rodriguez v. United States</i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_575" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 575">575</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> ___ (2015) is available from: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/575/13-9972/">Justia</a>  <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/2014/13-9972">Oyez (oral argument audio)</a>  <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/0/https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/14pdf/13-9972_p8k0.pdf">Supreme Court (slip opinion) (archived)</a> </li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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href="/wiki/Template:US4thAmendment" title="Template:US4thAmendment"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:US4thAmendment" title="Template talk:US4thAmendment"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:US4thAmendment" title="Special:EditPage/Template:US4thAmendment"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="United_States_Fourth_Amendment_case_law" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">United States Fourth Amendment</a> case law</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Scope_of_the_Fourth_Amendment" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Scope of the Fourth Amendment</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Definition of search</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Boyd_v._United_States" title="Boyd v. United States">Boyd v. United States</a></i> (1886)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Lee_(1927)" title="United States v. Lee (1927)">United States v. Lee</a></i> (1927)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Olmstead_v._United_States" title="Olmstead v. United States">Olmstead v. United States</a></i> (1928)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Abel_v._United_States" title="Abel v. United States">Abel v. United States</a></i> (1960)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Silverman_v._United_States" title="Silverman v. United States">Silverman v. United States</a></i> (1961)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Katz_v._United_States" title="Katz v. United States">Katz v. United States</a></i> (1967)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Knotts" title="United States v. Knotts">United States v. Knotts</a></i> (1983)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Place" title="United States v. Place">United States v. Place</a></i> (1983)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Karo" title="United States v. Karo">United States v. Karo</a></i> (1984)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/California_v._Greenwood" title="California v. Greenwood">California v. Greenwood</a></i> (1988)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Skinner_v._Railway_Labor_Executives_Ass%27n" title="Skinner v. Railway Labor Executives Ass'n">Skinner v. Railway Labor Executives Ass'n</a></i> (1989)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Verdugo-Urquidez" title="United States v. Verdugo-Urquidez">United States v. Verdugo-Urquidez</a></i> (1990)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bond_v._United_States_(2000)" title="Bond v. United States (2000)">Bond v. United States</a></i> (2000)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kyllo_v._United_States" title="Kyllo v. United States">Kyllo v. United States</a></i> (2001)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Illinois_v._Caballes" title="Illinois v. Caballes">Illinois v. Caballes</a></i> (2005)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Jones_(2012)" title="United States v. Jones (2012)">United States v. Jones</a></i> (2012)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Florida_v._Jardines" title="Florida v. Jardines">Florida v. Jardines</a></i> (2013)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Klayman_v._Obama" title="Klayman v. Obama">Klayman v. Obama</a></i> (D.D.C. 2013)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/ACLU_v._Clapper" class="mw-redirect" title="ACLU v. Clapper">ACLU v. Clapper</a></i> (D.D.C. 2013)</li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Open-fields_doctrine" title="Open-fields doctrine">Open-fields doctrine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Hester_v._United_States" title="Hester v. United States">Hester v. United States</a></i> (1924)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oliver_v._United_States" title="Oliver v. United States">Oliver v. United States</a></i> (1984)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Dunn" title="United States v. Dunn">United States v. Dunn</a></i> (1987)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Aerial surveillance</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/California_v._Ciraolo" title="California v. Ciraolo">California v. Ciraolo</a></i> (1986)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dow_Chemical_Co._v._United_States" title="Dow Chemical Co. v. United States">Dow Chemical Co. v. United States</a></i> (1986)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Florida_v._Riley" title="Florida v. Riley">Florida v. Riley</a></i> (1989)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Third-party_doctrine" title="Third-party doctrine">Third-party doctrine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._White" title="United States v. White">United States v. White</a></i> (1971)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Miller_(1976)" title="United States v. Miller (1976)">United States v. Miller</a></i> (1976)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Smith_v._Maryland" title="Smith v. Maryland">Smith v. Maryland</a></i> (1979)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Carpenter_v._United_States" title="Carpenter v. United States">Carpenter v. United States</a></i> (2018)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Definition of seizure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Counselman_v._Hitchcock" title="Counselman v. Hitchcock">Counselman v. Hitchcock</a></i> (1892)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hale_v._Henkel" title="Hale v. Henkel">Hale v. Henkel</a></i> (1906)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Terry_v._Ohio" title="Terry v. Ohio">Terry v. Ohio</a></i> (1968)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Mendenhall" title="United States v. Mendenhall">United States v. Mendenhall</a></i> (1980)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Florida_v._Royer" title="Florida v. Royer">Florida v. Royer</a></i> (1983)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Immigration_and_Naturalization_Service_v._Delgado" title="Immigration and Naturalization Service v. Delgado">INS v. Delgado</a></i> (1984)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/California_v._Hodari_D." title="California v. Hodari D.">California v. Hodari D.</a></i> (1991)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Florida_v._Bostick" title="Florida v. Bostick">Florida v. Bostick</a></i> (1991)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Soldal_v._Cook_County" title="Soldal v. Cook County">Soldal v. Cook County</a></i> (1992)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Drayton" title="United States v. Drayton">United States v. Drayton</a></i> (2002)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Brendlin_v._California" title="Brendlin v. California">Brendlin v. California</a></i> (2007)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Torres_v._Madrid" title="Torres v. Madrid">Torres v. Madrid</a></i> (2021)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fourth Amendment standing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Rakas_v._Illinois" title="Rakas v. Illinois">Rakas v. Illinois</a></i> (1978)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Byrd_v._United_States" title="Byrd v. United States">Byrd v. United States</a></i> (2018)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Probable_cause" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Probable_cause" title="Probable cause">Probable cause</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Brinegar_v._United_States" title="Brinegar v. United States">Brinegar v. United States</a></i> (1949)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Aguilar_v._Texas" title="Aguilar v. Texas">Aguilar v. Texas</a></i> (1964)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Spinelli_v._United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinelli v. United States">Spinelli v. United States</a></i> (1969)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Illinois_v._Gates" title="Illinois v. Gates">Illinois v. Gates</a></i> (1983)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ornelas_v._United_States" title="Ornelas v. United States">Ornelas v. United States</a></i> (1996)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Whren_v._United_States" title="Whren v. United States">Whren v. United States</a></i> (1996)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Maryland_v._Pringle" title="Maryland v. Pringle">Maryland v. Pringle</a></i> (2003)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Devenpeck_v._Alford" title="Devenpeck v. Alford">Devenpeck v. Alford</a></i> (2004)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Florida_v._Harris" title="Florida v. Harris">Florida v. Harris</a></i> (2013)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_v._Wesby" title="District of Columbia v. Wesby">District of Columbia v. Wesby</a></i> (2018)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Reasonable_suspicion:_Investigative_detentions_and_frisks" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Reasonable_suspicion" title="Reasonable suspicion">Reasonable suspicion</a>: <a href="/wiki/Terry_stop" title="Terry stop">Investigative detentions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frisking" title="Frisking">frisks</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Terry_v._Ohio" title="Terry v. Ohio">Terry v. Ohio</a></i> (1968)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Brignoni-Ponce" title="United States v. Brignoni-Ponce">United States v. Brignoni-Ponce</a></i> (1975)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Delaware_v._Prouse" title="Delaware v. Prouse">Delaware v. Prouse</a></i> (1979)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Texas" title="Brown v. Texas">Brown v. Texas</a></i> (1979)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ybarra_v._Illinois" title="Ybarra v. Illinois">Ybarra v. Illinois</a></i> (1979)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Cortez" title="United States v. Cortez">United States v. Cortez</a></i> (1981)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Place" title="United States v. Place">United States v. Place</a></i> (1983)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Michigan_v._Long" title="Michigan v. Long">Michigan v. Long</a></i> (1983)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Minnesota_v._Dickerson" title="Minnesota v. Dickerson">Minnesota v. Dickerson</a></i> (1996)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Illinois_v._Wardlow" title="Illinois v. Wardlow">Illinois v. Wardlow</a></i> (2000)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Florida_v._J._L." title="Florida v. J. L.">Florida v. J. L.</a></i> (2000)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Arvizu" title="United States v. Arvizu">United States v. Arvizu</a></i> (2002)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hiibel_v._Sixth_Judicial_District_Court_of_Nevada" title="Hiibel v. Sixth Judicial District Court of Nevada">Hiibel v. Sixth Judicial District Court of Nevada</a></i> (2004)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Arizona_v._Johnson" title="Arizona v. Johnson">Arizona v. Johnson</a></i> (2009)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Navarette_v._California" title="Navarette v. California">Navarette v. California</a></i> (2014)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Heien_v._North_Carolina" title="Heien v. North Carolina">Heien v. North Carolina</a></i> (2014)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kansas_v._Glover" title="Kansas v. Glover">Kansas v. Glover</a></i> (2020)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Warrant_requirement" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Warrant_(law)" title="Warrant (law)">Warrant</a> requirement</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Johnson_v._United_States_(1948_Fourth_Amendment_case)" title="Johnson v. United States (1948 Fourth Amendment case)">Johnson v. United States</a></i> (1948)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Franks_v._Delaware" title="Franks v. Delaware">Franks v. Delaware</a></i> (1978)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ybarra_v._Illinois" title="Ybarra v. Illinois">Ybarra v. Illinois</a></i> (1979)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Maryland_v._Garrison" title="Maryland v. Garrison">Maryland v. Garrison</a></i> (1987)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Grubbs" title="United States v. Grubbs">United States v. Grubbs</a></i> (2006)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/2006_term_per_curiam_opinions_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States#Los_Angeles_County_v._Rettele" title="2006 term per curiam opinions of the Supreme Court of the United States">Los Angeles County v. Rettelle</a></i> (2006)</li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mere_evidence_rule" title="Mere evidence rule">Mere evidence rule</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Boyd_v._United_States" title="Boyd v. United States">Boyd v. United States</a></i> (1886)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hale_v._Henkel" title="Hale v. Henkel">Hale v. Henkel</a></i> (1906)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Warden_v._Hayden" title="Warden v. Hayden">Warden v. Hayden</a></i> (1967)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Neutral and detached magistrate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Coolidge_v._New_Hampshire" title="Coolidge v. New Hampshire">Coolidge v. New Hampshire</a></i> (1971)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Warrants directed at third parties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Zurcher_v._Stanford_Daily" title="Zurcher v. Stanford Daily">Zurcher v. Stanford Daily</a></i> (1978)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Knock-and-announce" title="Knock-and-announce">Knock-and-announce</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Wilson_v._Arkansas" title="Wilson v. Arkansas">Wilson v. Arkansas</a></i> (1995)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Exceptions_to_warrant_requirement" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Warrantless_searches_in_the_United_States" title="Warrantless searches in the United States">Exceptions to warrant requirement</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Exigent circumstances</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Warden_v._Hayden" title="Warden v. Hayden">Warden v. Hayden</a></i> (1967)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Chadwick" title="United States v. Chadwick">United States v. Chadwick</a></i> (1977)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Payton_v._New_York" title="Payton v. New York">Payton v. New York</a></i> (1980)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Welsh_v._Wisconsin" title="Welsh v. Wisconsin">Welsh v. Wisconsin</a></i> (1986)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Brigham_City_v._Stuart" title="Brigham City v. Stuart">Brigham City v. Stuart</a></i> (2006)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kentucky_v._King" title="Kentucky v. King">Kentucky v. King</a></i> (2011)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Caniglia_v._Strom" title="Caniglia v. Strom">Caniglia v. Strom</a></i> (2021)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lange_v._California" title="Lange v. California">Lange v. California</a></i> (2021)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Consent searches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Stoner_v._California" title="Stoner v. California">Stoner v. California</a></i> (1968)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Schneckloth_v._Bustamonte" title="Schneckloth v. Bustamonte">Schneckloth v. Bustamonte</a></i> (1973)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Matlock" title="United States v. Matlock">United States v. Matlock</a></i> (1974)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Illinois_v._Rodriguez" title="Illinois v. Rodriguez">Illinois v. Rodriguez</a></i> (1990)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Georgia_v._Randolph" title="Georgia v. Randolph">Georgia v. Randolph</a></i> (2006)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fernandez_v._California" title="Fernandez v. California">Fernandez v. California</a></i> (2014)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plain_view_doctrine" title="Plain view doctrine">Plain view</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Coolidge_v._New_Hampshire" title="Coolidge v. New Hampshire">Coolidge v. New Hampshire</a></i> (1971)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Arizona_v._Hicks" title="Arizona v. Hicks">Arizona v. Hicks</a></i> (1987)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Horton_v._California" title="Horton v. California">Horton v. California</a></i> (1990)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Minnesota_v._Dickerson" title="Minnesota v. Dickerson">Minnesota v. Dickerson</a></i> (1993)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Motor_vehicle_exception" title="Motor vehicle exception">Vehicle searches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Carroll_v._United_States" title="Carroll v. United States">Carroll v. United States</a></i> (1925)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chambers_v._Maroney" title="Chambers v. Maroney">Chambers v. Maroney</a></i> (1970)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Arkansas_v._Sanders" title="Arkansas v. Sanders">Arkansas v. Sanders</a></i> (1979)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Ross" title="United States v. Ross">United States v. Ross</a></i> (1982)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/California_v._Carney" title="California v. Carney">California v. Carney</a></i> (1985)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Florida_v._Jimeno" title="Florida v. Jimeno">Florida v. Jimeno</a></i> (1991)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/California_v._Acevedo" title="California v. Acevedo">California v. Acevedo</a></i> (1991)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wyoming_v._Houghton" title="Wyoming v. Houghton">Wyoming v. Houghton</a></i> (1999)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Florida_v._White" title="Florida v. White">Florida v. White</a></i> (1999)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Collins_v._Virginia" title="Collins v. Virginia">Collins v. Virginia</a></i> (2018)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Searches_incident_to_a_lawful_arrest" title="Searches incident to a lawful arrest">Searches incident to arrest</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Trupiano_v._United_States" title="Trupiano v. United States">Trupiano v. United States</a></i> (1948)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Rabinowitz" title="United States v. Rabinowitz">United States v. Rabinowitz</a></i> (1950)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chimel_v._California" title="Chimel v. California">Chimel v. California</a></i> (1969)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Robinson" title="United States v. Robinson">United States v. Robinson</a></i> (1973)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Chadwick" title="United States v. Chadwick">United States v. Chadwick</a></i> (1977)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_York_v._Belton" title="New York v. Belton">New York v. Belton</a></i> (1981)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Knowles_v._Iowa" title="Knowles v. Iowa">Knowles v. Iowa</a></i> (1998)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Thornton_v._United_States" title="Thornton v. United States">Thornton v. United States</a></i> (2004)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Arizona_v._Gant" title="Arizona v. Gant">Arizona v. Gant</a></i> (2009)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Riley_v._California" title="Riley v. California">Riley v. California</a></i> (2014)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Breathalyzers, blood samples, DNA</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Schmerber_v._California" title="Schmerber v. California">Schmerber v. California</a></i> (1966)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cupp_v._Murphy" title="Cupp v. Murphy">Cupp v. Murphy</a></i> (1973)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Missouri_v._McNeely" title="Missouri v. McNeely">Missouri v. McNeely</a></i> (2013)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Maryland_v._King" title="Maryland v. King">Maryland v. King</a></i> (2013)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Birchfield_v._North_Dakota" title="Birchfield v. North Dakota">Birchfield v. North Dakota</a></i> (2016)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mitchell_v._Wisconsin" title="Mitchell v. Wisconsin">Mitchell v. Wisconsin</a></i> (2019)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Protective sweeps</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Maryland_v._Buie" title="Maryland v. Buie">Maryland v. Buie</a></i> (1990)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Inventory searches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cady_v._Dombrowski" title="Cady v. Dombrowski">Cady v. Dombrowski</a></i> (1973)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/South_Dakota_v._Opperman" title="South Dakota v. Opperman">South Dakota v. Opperman</a></i> (1976)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Colorado_v._Bertine" title="Colorado v. Bertine">Colorado v. Bertine</a></i> (1987)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Border_search_exception" title="Border search exception">Border searches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Almeida-Sanchez_v._United_States" title="Almeida-Sanchez v. United States">Almeida-Sanchez v. United States</a></i> (1973)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Ortiz" title="United States v. Ortiz">United States v. Ortiz</a></i> (1975)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Martinez-Fuerte" title="United States v. Martinez-Fuerte">United States v. Martinez-Fuerte</a></i> (1976)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Ramsey_(1977)" title="United States v. Ramsey (1977)">United States v. Ramsey</a></i> (1977)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Montoya_De_Hernandez" title="United States v. Montoya De Hernandez">United States v. Montoya De Hernandez</a></i> (1985)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Flores-Montano" title="United States v. Flores-Montano">United States v. Flores-Montano</a></i> (2004)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Random_checkpoint" title="Random checkpoint">Checkpoints</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Michigan_Department_of_State_Police_v._Sitz" title="Michigan Department of State Police v. Sitz">Michigan Department of State Police v. Sitz</a></i> (1990)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/City_of_Indianapolis_v._Edmond" title="City of Indianapolis v. Edmond">City of Indianapolis v. Edmond</a></i> (2000)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Illinois_v._Lidster" title="Illinois v. Lidster">Illinois v. Lidster</a></i> (2004)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Students, employees, and patients</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/New_Jersey_v._T._L._O." title="New Jersey v. T. L. O.">New Jersey v. T. L. O.</a></i> (1985)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/O%27Connor_v._Ortega" title="O'Connor v. Ortega">O'Connor v. Ortega</a></i> (1987)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Skinner_v._Railway_Labor_Executives_Ass%27n" title="Skinner v. Railway Labor Executives Ass'n">Skinner v. Railway Labor Executives Ass'n</a></i> (1989)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/National_Treasury_Employees_Union_v._Von_Raab" title="National Treasury Employees Union v. Von Raab">National Treasury Employees Union v. Von Raab</a></i> (1989)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vernonia_School_District_47J_v._Acton" title="Vernonia School District 47J v. Acton">Vernonia School District 47J v. Acton</a></i> (1995)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chandler_v._Miller" title="Chandler v. Miller">Chandler v. Miller</a></i> (1997)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ferguson_v._City_of_Charleston" title="Ferguson v. City of Charleston">Ferguson v. City of Charleston</a></i> (2001)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Board_of_Education_v._Earls" title="Board of Education v. Earls">Board of Education v. Earls</a></i> (2002)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Safford_Unified_School_District_v._Redding" title="Safford Unified School District v. Redding">Safford Unified School District v. Redding</a></i> (2009)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/City_of_Ontario_v._Quon" title="City of Ontario v. Quon">City of Ontario v. Quon</a></i> (2010)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Property of probationers and parolees</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Samson_v._California" title="Samson v. California">Samson v. California</a></i> (2006)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Administrative inspections</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Frank_v._Maryland" title="Frank v. Maryland">Frank v. Maryland</a></i> (1959)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Camara_v._Municipal_Court_of_City_and_County_of_San_Francisco" title="Camara v. Municipal Court of City and County of San Francisco">Camara v. Municipal Court</a></i> (1967)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/City_of_Los_Angeles_v._Patel" title="City of Los Angeles v. Patel">City of Los Angeles v. Patel</a></i> (2015)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Searches in jails and prisons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Bell_v._Wolfish" title="Bell v. Wolfish">Bell v. Wolfish</a></i> (1979)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hudson_v._Palmer" title="Hudson v. Palmer">Hudson v. Palmer</a></i> (1984)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Florence_v._Board_of_Chosen_Freeholders" title="Florence v. Board of Chosen Freeholders">Florence v. Board of Chosen Freeholders</a></i> (2012)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Warrantless arrests</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Watson" title="United States v. Watson">United States v. Watson</a></i> (1976)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Payton_v._New_York" title="Payton v. New York">Payton v. New York</a></i> (1980)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Welsh_v._Wisconsin" title="Welsh v. Wisconsin">Welsh v. Wisconsin</a></i> (1983)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/County_of_Riverside_v._McLaughlin" title="County of Riverside v. McLaughlin">County of Riverside v. McLaughlin</a></i> (1991)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Atwater_v._City_of_Lago_Vista" title="Atwater v. City of Lago Vista">Atwater v. City of Lago Vista</a></i> (2001)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Virginia_v._Moore" title="Virginia v. Moore">Virginia v. Moore</a></i> (2008)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Seizures" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Seizures</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Distinguishing stops and arrests</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dunaway_v._New_York" title="Dunaway v. New York">Dunaway v. New York</a></i> (1979)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Florida_v._Royer" title="Florida v. Royer">Florida v. Royer</a></i> (1983)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Place" title="United States v. Place">United States v. Place</a></i> (1983)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Seizure of premises awaiting warrant</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Illinois_v._McArthur" title="Illinois v. McArthur">Illinois v. McArthur</a></i> (2001)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Detention incident to search</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Michigan_v._Summers" title="Michigan v. Summers">Michigan v. Summers</a></i> (1981)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Muehler_v._Mena" title="Muehler v. Mena">Muehler v. Mena</a></i> (2005)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bailey_v._United_States_(2013)" title="Bailey v. United States (2013)">Bailey v. United States</a></i> (2013)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Detention during vehicle stop</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_v._Mimms" title="Pennsylvania v. Mimms">Pennsylvania v. Mimms</a></i> (1977)</li> <li><i><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rodriguez v. United States</a></i> (2015)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Use_of_force#U.S._case_law" title="Use of force">Excessive force</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Tennessee_v._Garner" title="Tennessee v. Garner">Tennessee v. Garner</a></i> (1985)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Graham_v._Connor" title="Graham v. Connor">Graham v. Connor</a></i> (1989)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Scott_v._Harris" title="Scott v. Harris">Scott v. Harris</a></i> (2007)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plumhoff_v._Rickard" title="Plumhoff v. Rickard">Plumhoff v. Rickard</a></i> (2014)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mullenix_v._Luna" title="Mullenix v. Luna">Mullenix v. Luna</a></i> (2015)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Barnes_v._Felix&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Barnes v. Felix (page does not exist)">Barnes v. Felix</a></i> (2025)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Remedies" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Remedies</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Exclusionary_rule" title="Exclusionary rule">Exclusionary rule</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Origins" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Origins</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Weeks_v._United_States" title="Weeks v. United States">Weeks v. United States</a></i> (1914)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Silverthorne_Lumber_Co._v._United_States" title="Silverthorne Lumber Co. v. United States">Silverthorne Lumber Co. v. United States</a></i> (1920)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Witness_impeachment" title="Witness impeachment">Impeachment exception</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/James_v._Illinois" title="James v. Illinois">James v. Illinois</a></i> (1990)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Good-faith_exception" title="Good-faith exception">Good-faith exception</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Leon" title="United States v. Leon">United States v. Leon</a></i> (1984)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Herring_v._United_States" title="Herring v. United States">Herring v. United States</a></i> (2009)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Davis_v._United_States_(2011)" title="Davis v. United States (2011)">Davis v. United States</a></i> (2011)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Independent source</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Murray_v._United_States" title="Murray v. United States">Murray v. United States</a></i> (1988)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Inevitable_discovery" title="Inevitable discovery">Inevitable discovery</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Nix_v._Williams" title="Nix v. Williams">Nix v. Williams</a></i> (1984)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Attenuation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Wong_Sun_v._United_States" title="Wong Sun v. United States">Wong Sun v. United States</a></i> (1963)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Utah_v._Strieff" title="Utah v. Strieff">Utah v. Strieff</a></i> (2016)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">No-knock searches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Hudson_v._Michigan" title="Hudson v. Michigan">Hudson v. Michigan</a></i> (2006)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Habeas_corpus_in_the_United_States" title="Habeas corpus in the United States">Habeas corpus</a></i> review</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Stone_v._Powell" title="Stone v. Powell">Stone v. Powell</a></i> (1976)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kimmelman_v._Morrison" title="Kimmelman v. Morrison">Kimmelman v. Morrison</a></i> (1986)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Civil suit</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Federal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Bivens_v._Six_Unknown_Named_Agents" title="Bivens v. Six Unknown Named Agents">Bivens v. Six Unknown Named Agents</a></i> (1971)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Egbert_v._Boule" title="Egbert v. Boule">Egbert v. Boule</a></i> (2022)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">State</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enforcement_Act_of_1871_(third_act)#As_later_amended_and_codified_as_section_1983" class="mw-redirect" title="Enforcement Act of 1871 (third act)">42 U.S.C. § 1983</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monroe_v._Pape" title="Monroe v. Pape">Monroe v. Pape</a></i> (1961)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Incorporation_against_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Incorporation against States</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Unreasonable search and seizure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Wolf_v._Colorado" title="Wolf v. Colorado">Wolf v. Colorado</a></i> (1949)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rochin_v._California" title="Rochin v. California">Rochin v. California</a></i> (1952)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elkins_v._United_States" title="Elkins v. United States">Elkins v. United States</a></i> (1960)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mapp_v._Ohio" title="Mapp v. Ohio">Mapp v. Ohio</a></i> (1961)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Warrant requirements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ker_v._California" title="Ker v. California">Ker v. California</a></i> (1963)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Aguilar_v._Texas" title="Aguilar v. Texas">Aguilar v. Texas</a></i> (1964)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rodriguez_v._United_States&oldid=1238061931">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rodriguez_v._United_States&oldid=1238061931</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:2015_in_United_States_case_law" title="Category:2015 in United States case law">2015 in United States case law</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Searches_and_seizures" title="Category:Searches and seizures">Searches and seizures</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:United_States_Fourth_Amendment_case_law" title="Category:United States Fourth Amendment case law">United States Fourth Amendment case law</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:United_States_Supreme_Court_cases" title="Category:United States Supreme Court cases">United States Supreme Court cases</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_of_the_Roberts_Court" title="Category:United States Supreme Court cases of the Roberts Court">United States Supreme Court cases of the Roberts Court</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_mdy_dates_from_September_2023" title="Category:Use mdy dates from September 2023">Use mdy dates from September 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 1 August 2024, at 22:33<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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